GEOPHYSICS, VOL. XXVII, NO. 4 (AUGUST, IYhZ), PP. 470479. 5 FIGS.
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VARIATION OF ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY
AND QUARTZ POWDERS WITH WATER
V. V. JAGANNADH.4 SARiblAt AND
Electrical resistivity variations of samples of graded river sands,calcite, and quartz powdersare studied for
different moisturecontentsof varying salinities.The variations exhibit a generalhyperbolic trend. For the same
grain size,the critical saturationindex of a sampleis constantand independentof the salinity of moisturecontent.
The smaller the grain size, the larger the saturation index. The critical saturation index of a sample is correlated
with its retentive capacity, and it is shown, from studies of the quartz samples, that, for grain sizes of the order of
clay particles, the critical moisture would reach 100 percent.
introduction
The electrical resistivity of a geological forma-
tion is a function of three important intercon-
nected factors, namely: (1) the amount of mois-
ture and consequently of porosity; (2) salinity of
the moisture; and (3) grain size of the formation.
Systematic studies on variation of resistivity
of a wet sand with the amount of mater have been
made, among others, hy Sundberg, Lundberg,
and Eklund (1023), Jakosky and Hopper (1937),
Archic (1912)) Guyod (1 YU), Ryder (1949))
Patnode and Wyllie (1950), Dewitte (19.50), Berg
(lY.52), Licastro (1953), Howell (lY53), and
Holmes (19.51). Most of these studies were in con-
nection with the analysis of electrical well-logging
data for inferring the oil content of an oil forma-
tion.
The possible usefulness of such studies for the
analysis of electrical resistivity data prompted
the laboratory investigations to be presented here.
Variation of resistivity with moisture content has
been studied for graded river sand samples, cal-
cite samples, and quartz powder samples in the
laboratory.
METHOD OF MEASUREMENT
C‘omfucti?‘ity Bridge and resistatzce measuremelat
For resistance measurement, a Philips conduc-
tivity bridge type G.M. 1249/01 was used
throughout Ihe laboratory investigations. The
instrument, in principle, is a Wheatstone bridge
fed by a .iO-cycle or a 1 ,000.cycle voltage supplied
* Manuscript receivedby the Editor October 17, 1961.
t Geophysics Department, Andhra University, Waltair, India.
470
OF RIVER SANDS, CALCITE,
CONTENT*
1’. HHASKARA RAOt
by a transformer or by a built-in l,OOO-cycleoscil-
lator, respectively. The maximum absolute meas-
uring error for the megohm range (0.1 megohm to
10 megohms) was 5.5 percent, while for the lower
range it was 3.0 percent.
h
‘o platinum foils of 0.01 mm thickness
backed by copper plates formed the electrodes of
the soil cell of inner dimensions 5X4X-1 cm which
was used for electrical resistivity measurements
of the unconsolidated formations.
The resistivity, p, of a regular rectangular paral-
lelopiped can be expressed in terms of its resist-
ance, K, between the opposite faces, the thickness,
1, between the two faces, and the surface area, n,
of either face according to the formula
P=Ra. (1)
t
For a given cell, n/‘t is constant and is known
as the cell constant, k. For the soil cell just de-
scribed, fi was 5.0 and was confirmed by two
other standard methods.
-4 Philips standard measuring cell G.&l. 4221
with two platinum electrodes coated with a thin
layer of platinum black and mounted vertically
in the cell was employed in determining resistivi-
ties of water samples.
Preparatio?t oJ the samples and measurements
River sands, collected from the nearby Gosthani
river, were mainly employed in these studies. The
 Electrical Resistivity of River Sands 471

magnetite and ilmenite particles of the sand were Table 1. Resistivity of water (pW)in ohm-
meters employed with river sand samples.
separated out by mechanical means of panning.
Four samples (numbers 1, 2, 3, and 4 with grain
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Sample no.
sizes of over 2.0, 1.5, 0.75, and 0.375 mm, respec-
tively) were used in the experiments. Each sample 1 2 3 4
was treated with dilute hydrochloric acid, washed 544.10 21.49 2,176.OO 2,176.OO
in distilled water, dried, and bottled separately. 2.36 12.24 44.20 44.20
6.53 21.76 21.76
Similarly, two samples of pure calcite powder .40
2.99 .40
(numbers 5 and 6 of grain sizes 1.5 and 0.75 mm, 1.22 .22 .22
respectively) and two samples of pure quartz
(numbers 7 and 8 of grain sizes 0.149 and 0.325
to employing them in the investigation, so that
mm, respectively) were prepared. The soil cell was
no temperature corrections were required on rela-
first filled to the brim with the dry sample under
investigation. This dry sample was then removed tive measurements.
to a large, clean, dry watch glass.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS OF RIVER SAND SAMPLES
A known volume of water, the electrical re-
sistivity of which was previously determined at The resistivities of water samples employed
room temperature, was added to the sample in with each sample of river sands are tabulated in
the watch glass. The water was made to trickle Table 1.
down all over the sample to get uniform distribu- In the case of sample 1, two samples of water
tion of water in the sample. After the addition of representing two extremes of salinities were em-
water, the whole sample with water was mixed ployed, while in the case of sample 2, five waters
thoroughly with a glass rod to obtain complete starting with fresh tap water to salt water were
uniform distribution. The sample was then employed. For the remaining two samples (3 and
quickly transferred to the soil cell. 4), five samples of identical waters representing a
While packing, the soil cell had to be constantly wide range of salinity were employed. The main
tapped to avoid sample clogging, which was pro- aim of such a distribution of waters was to obtain
nounced at low percentages of water, especially fairly representative values for all samples with
with iine-grained samples. all waters.
The resistance of the sample was then measured The observed resistivity variations lend them-
with the conductivity bridge and the correspond- selves to better and easier interpretation by
ing resistivity calculated. After the resistance double logarithmic representation. Figures 1 to 3
measurement, the sample was again taken out on show the results so represented. For each sample
to the watch glass and a further known amount of studied, the data have yielded, consistently, two
water added. Thus, measurements of resistances intersecting straight line segments with different
were made for different known amounts of water gradients.
till the sample was saturated. Tables 2 to 5 show the two gradients, nl and
The removal of the sample on to the watch glass 122,where nt is the larger of the two, the moisture
to add and mix water was stopped when it was percentage at which the straight lines intersect
observed that some of the water added was left on (called the critical saturation index, Se), and the
the watch glass after filling in the cell. Water, corresponding resistivity at that point (called
thus left, was added back to the sample in the
cell. It was also observed that from this stage the Table 2. Results of Sample 1.

resistance practically remained constant irrespec-

Resistiv- Critical
tive of u-hethcr the water was added directly to ity of Critical
the sample in the cell or in the watch glass. The water, Gradi- Gradi- $$?~ resistivity,
ent ent Pr, In %l%
process of mixing of water and sample on the pW,in nr ties, S,,
ohm- n1 in per- ohm-
watch glass was dispensed with at this stage and meters cent meters
water was directly trickled down on to the sample
in the cell. 544.10 3.3 1.2 ;9” 107.50 2.7
2.36 3.3 1.2 28.00 2.7
The water resistivities were measured just prior
 472 W. V. Jagannadha Sarma and V. Bhaskara Rao

2000 - RIVER SAND SAMPLE I RIVER SAND SAMPLE 2

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GRAIN SIZE 2.0 MMS GRAIN SIZE 1.5 MMS

I

I 544.10
Pw OHM-METRE! s
\
I 21.49
Al
OHM-METRES
1000 - II 2.36 OHM-METR E!3 II 12.24 OHM-METRES

IV 2.99 OHM-METRE!
V 1.22 OHM-METRE!

500-

30 -

300- II\

200-

too-

50-

30-

20-

10 -

SATURATION INDEX SATURATION INDEX

0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.0 1.0 02 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

FIG. 1. Resistivity-moisturecurvesof river sand samples1 and 2.

the critical resistivity, pC),for each sample for dif-
ferent resistivities of water, pa.
Figures 1 to 3 show that, for a sand sample of
the same grain size, its resistivity for a given
moisture content decreases with decreasing re-
sistivity or increasing salinity d the moisture
content. Also, the resistivity of the sample oi a
given grain size decreases with increasing mois-
ture content of a given salinity, showing clearly
the dependence of resistivity of a sample both on
 Electrical Resistivity of River Sands 473

iO0
3OOC IV
Pw
I 2176 PWOHM-METRES h IV A0 OHM-METRES
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2000 I II 44.2 OHM-METRES OHM-METRES

IO00

500

300

200

100

50

30

20
t,
RIVER SAND SAMPLE 3
GRAIN SIZE 0.7Smm
SATURATION INDEX SATURATION INDEX
IO 1 I I I I 1 I I I I

0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.6 1.0

FIG. 2. Resistivily-moisturecurves of river sand sample3.

the amount of moisture content and also on the On the basis of the two gradients, nl and ~2, for
salinity of the moisture. The variation in resis- any sample, it can be seen that the total variation
tivity becomes much smaller ior large percentages of resistivity may be expressed by a general hy-
of moisture contents. The rates oi variation, how- perbolic function:
ever, are different for different sizes of the sand
p. = AS-“1 (0 5 s I SC>
samples as shown in Figures 1 to 3, and by the
values of nr and ?z2in Tables 2 to 5. zzzA&Q (SC I S I 1) , (2)
 V. V. Jagannadha Sarma and V. Bhaskara Rao
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IV .4b OHM-METRES
200 V .22 OHM-METRES

50

30

20

10 :
L
t;
I

i
0

= z

I
RIVER SAND SAMPLE 4
GRAIN SIZE 0.375mm
SATURATION INDEX I SATURATION INDEX

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 06 1.0

FIG. 3. Resistivity-moisture curves of river sand sample 4.

 Electrical Resistivity of River Sands 475

Table 3. Results of sample 2. Jakosky and Hopper (1937) first observed a

gradient change in their resistivity studies on oil
liesistiv- Critical
(‘rilical sands and rocks. They obtained a critical mois-
ily of satura-
Gratli- Gratli- lion in- resistivity,
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water, . ture percentage value 01’ IO ior their rock speci-

ent en1 tlex,s,.. PC,111 12,/x2
PaI,111 nl N:! ohm- mens.
ohm- in per-
metcrs In his nettability studies on Bradford sands,
meters cent
Holmes (10.54) also observed similar changes of
21.49 4.0 1.4 41 170.00 2.85
gradient. Uneven fluid and salt distributions
12.24 2.75 1.3 41 107.50 2.1
6.53 1.7 1.24 64.00 1.3 within the core and surface conduction effects
2.99 1.9 1.2 :: 25.50 1.6 were thought to he possible causes for the gradi-
1.22 1.9 1.5 39 16.50 1.2
ent change, the latter being of primary impor-
tance. It should be noted that the surface conduc-
Table 4. Results of sample 3. tion discussed by Holmes is conduction through
a layer of water on the outside of the sample. This
Resistiv- Critical
Critical should be distinguished from the surface conduc-
ity of Gratli- Gradi- S,adnu~~~resistivity,
water, tion of the double-layer type which takes place
ent ent PC,m n,lnZ
pU.,in des, S,, within a sample. However, no satisfactory ex-
fll ?zy in per- ohm-
ohm- meters
meters cent planation could be offered for this surface con-
ductance effect.
2,176.OO 1.7 1.1 47 170.00 1.5
In the present studies, unconsolidated samples
44.20 1.7 1.2 :z
- 130.00 1.4
21.76 1.7 1.1 106.00 1.4 were mainly chosen to ensure a uniform distribu-
.40 2.7 1.7 46 7.50 1.6 tion of moisture throughout the sample. Further-
.22 2.5 1.8 47 4.25 1.3
more, no evaporation was allowed to take place
in the soil cell filled with the sample. The top of
Table 5. Results of Sample 4. the soil cell was always covered with a tight-fitting
ebonite lid. The time taken for the measurements
Resistiv- Critical Critical
ity of Gradi- Gradi- ,siab~~~resistivity, was kept down to the minimum to ensure that no
water, evaporational and temperature effects vitiated
ent ent dex, S,, PC,In n,ln,
pm, in n, ohm- the results. Notwithstanding all these possible
ohm- n2 in per-
meters precautions, the gradient change persisted.
meters cent
Despite the efforts to remove conducting min-
2,176.OO 1.8 1.15 57 164.00 1.5 erals like magnetite and ilmenite, the sample
44.20 1.8 1.15 57.5 105.60 1.5
21.76 1.9 1.0 56 92.00 1.9 still contains appreciable quantities of minerals
.40 2.75 1.7 zi
- 10.00 1.6 like quartz, feldspar, garnet, etc. At this stage of
.22 2.75 1.9 4.56 1.5
the experiments, it was not clear whether the
double-gradient was an inherent property of the
where formation or was due to the polymineralic nature
of the sands. To clear up this ambiguity, re-
PI2 is tLe resistivity of the sample,
sistivity work on pure calcite and quartz powder
s is the saturation index,
samples was undertaken.
SC is the critical saturation index,
nl and ?cZare the two gradients, CALCITE AND QUARTZ POWDER SAMPLES
and
Samples 5 and 6 of a pure crystalline specimen
A1 and Al are the constants corresponding to
of calcite, supplied through the courtesy of the
the intercepts on the axis of pa in the
Geology Department of Andhra University, were
double logarithmic representation.
studied using a water sample with a resistivity of
It is interesting to note that the critical satura- 17 ohm-meters.
tion index value of a sample is practically con- The results are shown in Figure IA and the var-
stant for moisture of varying salinity. However, ious parameters PZ~ and Q, S, and peare given in
this factor increases with decreasing grain size of Table 6. It can be seen from these data that the
the sample. abrupt change in gradient persists even for the
 476 V. V. Jagannadha Sarma and V. Bhaskara Rao

1000 O-
5
A B
CALCITE POWDERS QUARTZ POWDERS
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SAMPLE 5 GRAIN SIZE 1.5mm SAMPLE 7 GRAIN SIZE 0.149mm

500 o- SAMPLE 6 GRAIN SIZE 0.75mm SAMPLE 8 GRAIN SIZE 0.125mm

\

300 10 -

200 O-

100 o-

5cn-

3c IO -

20 lo-

SATURATION INDEX SATURATION INDEX

IOIO- I I I I I I 1 1

0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.6 I , 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.0

FOG.4. Resistivity-moisture curves of calcite samples 5 and 6 and quartz samples 7 and 8

pure calcite samples. The increase in the critical the resistivity variation up to the saturation
moisture percentage at which the gradient level, the soil cell was invertecl on a very fine
changes with decreasing grain size was also noted. mesh sieve, below which was kept a measuring
This dependence of the critical saturation index flask into which the water that the sample yielded
on grain size alone led to attempts to correlate was collected and measured. Out of a total satura-
this phenomenon with the retentive capacity of tion volume oi 32.0 cc of water, the two samples,
the sample. 5 and 6, yielded 20.0 and 11.5 cc, respectively.
After each of the two samples was studied for When the difference between the saturation vol-
ume and the volume drawn off was expressed as a
Table 6. Results of calcite samples.
percentage of the saturation volume, the value
Critical Critical coincided very well with the critical saturation
Sam- Gradi- Gradi-
saturation resistivity, index, S,.
P’e ent ent XI/?12
intiex, S,, PC,rn
No. nl It2 Similar water removal tests were also con-
in percent ohm-meters
ducted on the river sand samples to verify this
5 1.7 1.2 z: 1,730.oo 1.4
conclusion and the results are given in Table 7.
6 1.4 1.0 280.00 1.4
It can be seen that there is good correspond-
 Electrical Resistivity of River Sands 477

Table 7.
600-
Percentof Percent of
Value ol S,
water water
in percent
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removed retained
400-
; 58.0
69.5 42.05
30 41.6
28.5

3 49.0 51.0 48.0

4 43.0 57.0 56.0
5 62.5 37.5 38.0
6 36.0 6‘b.O 60.0 200 -

ence between the percent of water retained and

the critical moisture percentage. This seems to
indicate that the resistivity oi a sample of a given IOO-

grain size decreases rapidly up to the critical 60 -

moisture percentage, which is independent of the
salinity of the moisture; and that when this criti- 60-
cal moisture percentage is exceeded, the variation
of the resistivity is much slower until the total
saturation is reached. 40 -
Tn this connection it is of interest to represent
logarithmically the resistivity-moisture results
obtained by Sundberg, Lundberg, and Eklund SATURATION INDEX (BY WT.)
(1923) on Yellow Kivcr Sand in order to deter- I I I I
20’
mine whether a similar change in gradient exists. 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 08 1.0
These data, taken from Birch et al (1942), are
FIG. 5. Resistivity-moisture curve of yellow
shown in Figure 5.
river sand (after Suntlberg et al).
A distinct change in gradient can be seen from
the curve, the 11, and 16~values being 1.15 and sand or calcite samples.
0.67, respectively, and the value of c,/~L:! being From the experiments on the river sands, cal-
1.6. Hence, these results are in coniormity with cite, and quartz powders, the following salient
those obtained in the present investigation. features emerge:
Further, since it had been observed from both The resistivity index curves exhibit a
the river sand samples and the calcite samples double-gradient for grain sizes larger than
that the critical moisture percentage increased the clay particles;
with decreasing grain size, it was to be expected the rate of decrease in resistivity is always
that, for grain sizes of the order of clay particles, large at lower percentages of moisture con-
the critical moisture would reach 100 percent. tent ;
To verify this expectation, resistivity studies on this rate becomes smaller as the percent
very fine quartz polvtlers were undertaken. Two moisture increases;
graded pure quartz powder samples (numbers 7 the critical saturation index, S,, is constant
and 8 of grain sizes 0. t-19 anal 0.125 mm, respec- for the same grain size and is independent
tively) were employed for this purpose. of the salinit!, or the resistivity of the mois-
The log-log plot of the observed resistivity ture content;
versus saturation index ior these samples are the critical saturation index, .C,, increases
shown in Figure 4B. It can be seen that only one with decreasing grain size and reaches the
straight line segment for each sample was ob maximum value of I .O for grain sizes com-
tained. Only one water, namely, laboratory clis- parable to clay particles.
tilled water was employed, so that no impurities The explanation for the change in the resis-
were added to the sample. Hence, this case pre- tivity index curves might be sought in a cor-
sents a contrast to the lines obtained ior the river responding change in the physical property of
 478 V. W. Jagannadha Sarma
the material or formation. The resistivity varia-
tions indicate that the formation behaves like
a double-layer. Although the actual mechanism
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which produces the observed changes might be
quite complicated, it could, at least qualitatively
be visualized as follows.
.As water is added to the material, most of it,
in the initial stages, is adsorbed by the material.
With increasing quantities of water, the amount
of free water in the pore spaces of the material in-
creases, diminishing the preponderance of the
viscous forces. The initial high resistivity with its
steep fall and change in gradient may, therefore,
be explained in terms of the surface effects of
viscosity in the small percentage range of moisture
content.
It may also be pointed out that the change in
gradient of the resistivity index curves arises
only as a characteristic feature of the double-layer
behavior of the formation and not because of im-
purities or the polymineralic nature of the river
sands. This has been borne out by the results of
experiments on calcite powders. The experiments
on quartz powders serve to emphasize the absence
of the double gradient due to the lack of any free
water content. The interfacial tension between
water and other materials is expected to be dif-
ferent. This might be brought out more clearly if
comparative studies on materials of the same
grain size with waters of the same salinities were
conducted.
Throughout the investigations, sodium chloride
(NaCl) was used to control the resistivity of
water. It is conceivable that use of other salts,
especially of high-valency, would yield quite dif-
ferent results due to alteration of the character-
istics of the double-layer. The effect, if any, of the
shape of the grains of the material on the gross
properties of the double-layer is still another in-
teresting possibility for further work.
It is, significant, however, that the critical
saturation index increased to a value of 1.0 as the
grain size decreased. This result suggested the
possibility of correlating the critical saturation
index with the retentive capacity of a sample. A
discussion of this possibility follows.
FORMATION RETENTIVITY
Two distinct zones of \\ater are recognized in
ground-water hydrology. These two are the zone
of aeration and the zone of saturation. In the
and W. Bhaskara Rao
former, the formation is partially filled with water
which is held partly by adsorption or viscous
forces (not by hydrostatic pressure) and partly
by atmospheric gases. This zone gradually merges
into the zone of saturation lvherein the interstices
are totally filled only with water. Part of it is held
under the control of gravity and can be drawn
into wells by. gravity flow, while the rest, which
is not held by gravity, but by molecular forces,
is not free and constitutes the amount that cannot
be drawn off.
This capacity of a formation to retain water,
expressed as a percentage of the total volume in
the formation, is called its specific retention or
retentivity. The specific retention is a function
of the grain size of the formation and increases
with decreasing grain size, since in a given vol-
ume, the specific grain surface increases with de-
creasing grain size.
It is reasonable to associate the two gradients
of resistivity variation with the two conditions
under which water is held by the grains. Thus, the
initial steep fall in resistivity possibly represents
the stage when water is held under molecular
forces; the mixing of water with the material in
this stage may be called molecular mixing. For
moisture percentages above the critical satura-
tion index, the rate of fall is less rapid, indicating
that further addition of water represents only a
mechanical mixing nith the material. Therefore,
all water added after the critical saturation index
for the material is exceeded may be drawn out
again or will be yielded by the material.
Under these circumstances, therefore, the criti-
cal saturation index may be identified with the
specific retention of the material.
The correlation between the percentage of
water retained by the material and the critical
saturation index as shown in Table VII provides
interesting possibilities for the application of
electrical resistivity to water prospecting. Rea-
sonable estimates of the expected water yield
from an aquifer of known average grain size could
possibly be made.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors express their grateful thanks to
Prof. B. Sundara Rama Rao for his active guid-
ance; to Prof. M. S. Krishnan and Prof. C. Mahad-
evan for their keen interest in the work; and to
Dr. I. 1’. V. Raghavachary for his assistance.
 Electrical Resistivity
REFERENCES
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termining s&e reservoir chiracteristics: American
Institute of Mining & Metallurgical Engineers, Tech.
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Berg, J. W., Jr., 1952, Conductivity study of aqueous
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Birch, F., Schairer, J. F., and Spicer, H. Cecil, 1942,
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