buildings
Article
Use of Processed Sugarcane Bagasse Ash in Concrete as Partial
Replacement of Cement: Mechanical and Durability Properties
Shazim Ali Memon 1, * , Usman Javed 2 , Muhammad Izhar Shah 3 and Asad Hanif 4,5
Citation: Memon, S.A.; Javed, U.;
Shah, M.I.; Hanif, A. Use of
Processed Sugarcane Bagasse Ash in
Concrete as Partial Replacement of
Cement: Mechanical and Durability
Properties. Buildings 2022, 12, 1769.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
buildings12101769
Academic Editor: Ahmed Senouci
Received: 3 October 2022
Accepted: 19 October 2022
Published: 21 October 2022
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4.0/).
Buildings 2022, 12, 1769. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12101769
1 Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, School of Engineering and Digital Sciences,
Nazarbayev University, Astana 010000, Kazakhstan
2 School of Civil and Mechanical Engineering, Curtin University, Perth, WA 6102, Australia
3 Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS Institute of Information and Technology,
Abbottabad 22060, Pakistan
4 Civil and Environmental Engineering Department, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM),
Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia
5 Interdisciplinary Research Center for Construction and Building Materials, KFUPM,
Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia
* Correspondence: shazim.memon@nu.edu.kz
Abstract: Using biomass waste as supplementary cementing material (SCM) in concrete has attracted
researchers’ attention for efficient waste utilization and reducing cement demand. Sugarcane bagasse
ash (SCBA) is one such example of biomass waste. It is an agricultural waste obtained when sugarcane
bagasse from the sugar industry is used for power generation and disposed of in open-air dumping
sites. Its waste disposal causes the generation of particulate matter, degrading air quality. In this
study, the effect of processed SCBA as SCM in concrete has been investigated. The processing of
the SCBA involved the removal of fibrous and carbon-containing particles by sieving followed by
grinding. The SCBA was ground for 45 min until the surface area was comparable to that of cement
and was then used for further characterization and incorporation into concrete. The 45 min grinding
time resulted in 2.92 times higher pozzolanic reactivity of the SCBA. The SCBA was incorporated by
replacing cement in different weight fractions (10%, 20%, 30%, 40%) in concrete. Test results showed
that the concrete workability increased with SCBA incorporation, whereas the resulting concrete
density was reduced. The results of the mechanical properties, including compressive sstrength and
hardened density, were enhanced upon the cement replacement by SCBA. Concrete containing 30%
SCBA can be used for structural applications as its 28 days compressive strength was 21 MPa, which
complies with ACI 318-16 specifications. Concrete resistance against scaling and leaching due to
adverse effects of sulfuric and hydrochloric acid considerably increased with SCBA addition and was
due to microstructure densification by secondary hydrates formation as lower portlandite content was
detected by thermogravimetric analysis. Hence, SCBA processing increases its reactivity, as reflected
by the improved mechanical properties and greater durability of SCBA-incorporated concrete.
Keywords: sugarcane bagasse ash; waste disposal; structural concrete; pozzolanic activity; durability
1. Introduction
Concrete is the most widely used manmade material on earth [1]. Its use has exponen-
tially increased with the rapid increase in the world population. Five percent of emissions
of the total greenhouse gases emerge from the concrete industry, which are responsible
for global climate change [2]. According to statistics, more than 4 billion tons of carbon
emission is linked to the annual production of cement which is over 4 billion tons [3,4].
Moreover, cement production has increased the concentration of carbon footprints up to
380 ppm in the atmosphere, which is expected to rise up to 800 ppm by 2100 [5]. Nowadays,
different supplementary cementing materials (SCMs), such as metakaolin, fly ash, slag, and
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/buildings
Buildings 2022, 12, 1769 2 of 18

silica fume are used in the construction industry to limit the use of cement and consequently
to reduce carbon emissions [6,7].
Sugarcane is among the most abundantly growing crops in the world [8,9]. The
annual sugarcane production in the subcontinent is 0.3 billion tons, contributing 1/5th of
its worldwide production. Ten million tons of sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA) are annually
produced by burning sugarcane bagasse for power production [10]. The SCBA thus
produced is difficult to dispose of due to the eco-hazardous nature of SCBA and the
shortage of dumping sites in the recent population boom [11]. The inappropriate disposal
of SCBA causes environmental degradation due to the dispersal of particulate matter
and other air pollutants in the atmosphere. These air pollutants cause several respiratory
diseases when inhaled into the human body [12,13]. The World Health Organization (WHO)
reported that elevated air pollution caused 6.7% of deaths worldwide in 2012 [14].
SCBA is one of the SCMs used in concrete, which is known to improve concrete
properties when used as SCM. However, very few researchers have investigated its opti-
mization by calcination and reduction in its particle size [15,16]. The crystallographic phase
transformation of SCBA was the subject of a study by Sultana and Rahman [15], in which
they investigated the effect of calcination temperature on crystallographic properties. Test
results indicated that SCBA changed from the amorphous to the crystalline state between
800 ◦ C to 1000 ◦ C. Cordeiro et al. [17] revealed that the optimum calcination temperature
of SCBA for minimum carbon content and maximum surface area was 600 ◦ C maintained
for 3 h. Rukzon and Chindaprasirt [18] produced durable concrete using bagasse ash in
high-strength concrete. A 30% incorporation of SCBA in concrete showed better dura-
bility in terms of greater chloride ion penetration resistance due to secondary hydrates.
Sabestin et al. [19] utilized SCBA in reactive powder concrete and concluded that the
maximum increase in compressive strength was observed at 17.5% cement replacement.
Xu et al. [20] investigated the effects of SCBA incorporation on resulting concrete prop-
erties and showed improved physical, mechanical, and durability attributes of modified
concretes. Bahurudeen and Santhanam optimized the processing of SCBA by grinding and
sieving the fibrous particles for optimizing the pozzolanic potential of SCBA in concrete;
however, a detailed investigation of SCBA on the mechanical and durability attributes of
the resulting concrete is yet to be conducted.
This research article provides a detailed investigation of the effect of processing SCBA
on the fresh physico-mechanical properties and the durability resistance of concrete. SCBA
processing included grinding for one hour in a ball mill followed by sieving through a
75 µm sieve to remove coarser particles containing higher carbon content and to achieve
better pozzolanic reactivity. SCBA pozzolanic activity was determined by the Chapelle test,
whereas SCBA was incorporated afterwards by replacing 10%, 20%, 30%, and 40% of cement
in concrete and testing for fresh concrete tests. The fresh and hardened-state properties of
the SCBA-incorporated concrete were evaluated. Additionally, thermogravimetric analysis
(TGA) was conducted on the SCBA-incorporated concrete to qualitatively determine the
extent of pozzolanic activity. The successful incorporation of SCBA in concrete offers an
environmentally friendly alternative to its disposal. It would limit cement use in concrete
without adversely affecting the resulting properties.

2. Materials and Experimental Methods

2.1. Raw Materials
Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) under the ‘Bestway’ brand name, complying with
ASTM C150 and having a fineness value of 2671 cm2 /g was used in this study. Lawrencepur
river sand (fineness modulus 2.93) complying with ASTM C33 was used as fine aggregate.
Coarse aggregate from Dorr River quarry, Havelian-KPK, Pakistan, was used. The physical
properties of the raw materials are given in Table 1.
Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 18
Buildings 2022, 12, 1769 3 of 18

Table 1. Raw materials characteristics.

Table 1. Raw materials characteristics.
Description Fine Aggregate Bagasse Ash (SCBA) Coarse Aggregate
Description Fine Aggregate Bagasse Ash (SCBA) Coarse Aggregate
Water absorption (%) 1.9 - 0.2
Water absorption (%) 1.9 - 0.2
Specific Gravity
Specific Gravity
2.6
2.6
1.35
1.35
2.64
2.64

In Pakistan, SCBA is usually obtained by burning sugarcane bagasse as a fuel in the

sugarInindustry
Pakistan,for
SCBA is usually
powering obtained
boilers, thus by burning waste
producing sugarcane bagasse
bagasse ash. as a fuel in the
Therefore, the
sugar industry for powering boilers, thus producing waste bagasse ash. Therefore, the
SCBA used in this research was obtained from the sugar industry in Sakhakot-Malakand
SCBA used in this research was obtained from the sugar industry in Sakhakot-Malakand
division, Pakistan, for use as SCM in concrete.
division, Pakistan, for use as SCM in concrete.
2.2. Material
2.2. Material Processessing
Processessing
Removingthe
Removing thefibrous
fibrousandandunburnt
unburnt carbon
carbon particles
particles fromfromraw raw bagasse
bagasse ashash is impera-
is imperative,
tive, as it reduces its reactivity in the cementitious matrix. According
as it reduces its reactivity in the cementitious matrix. According to Bahurudeen and to Bahurudeen and
Santhanam, removing such particles by sieving and grinding to
Santhanam, removing such particles by sieving and grinding to achieve a fineness similar achieve a fineness similar
to that
to thatofofcement
cement significantly
significantly increases
increases its reactivity
its reactivity in theincementitious
the cementitious
matrix matrix [21].
[21]. Hence,
Hence,
to to increase
increase the SCBA thepozzolanic
SCBA pozzolanic
activity, activity,
it was it was sieved
sieved through through
sieve sieve #200µm)
#200 (75 (75 and
µm)
and then milled in a ball mill. The weight ratio of grinding media
then milled in a ball mill. The weight ratio of grinding media to SCBA value was kept at to SCBA value was kept
5atand
5 and operated
operated at revolution
at 66 66 revolution perper minutes
minutes (rpm)
(rpm) for for different
different grinding
grinding durations
durations of
of 15,
15, 30, 45, and 60 min to achieve a surface area comparable to that
30, 45, and 60 min to achieve a surface area comparable to that of cement. After grinding of cement. After grind-
ing SCBA
SCBA for specified
for the the specified durations,
durations, the the surface
surface areaarea of the
of the resulting
resulting ashashwaswas determined
determined in
ainBlaine
a Blaine air-permeability
air-permeability apparatus
apparatus asas perper ASTMstandard
ASTM standardC204 C204[22].
[22].The
Theresults
resultsofof the
the
specific surface
specific surface areas
areas after
after grinding
grinding SCBA
SCBA for for various
various durations
durations are are shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 1, 1,
which clearly
which clearly depicts
depicts that
that the
the specific
specific surface
surface areaarea increased
increased withwith the
the increasing
increasing duration
duration
of grinding.
of grinding. The maximum value value ofof 2862
2862 cm cm22/g/gwas
wasobserved
observed for the
for grinding
the grinding duration
duration of
60 min, whereas the specific surface area of SCBA at the grinding
of 60 min, whereas the specific surface area of SCBA at the grinding duration of 45 min duration of 45 min was
2617.8
was cm2/g
2617.8 2 /gwas
cmand and closer to that
was closer to of
thatcement. Hence,
of cement. SCBASCBA
Hence, ground for a for
ground duration of 45
a duration
min
of 45was
minused
was forusedfurther investigation
for further as a supplementary
investigation as a supplementary cementitious material
cementitious in con-
material
crete.
in concrete.

Figure 1.
Figure 1. Comparison
Comparison of
of SCBA
SCBA surface
surface area
areawith
withcement
cementfor
fordifferent
differentgrinding
grindingdurations.
durations.

2.3.
2.3. Chemical
Chemical Reactivity
Reactivity and
and Microstructural
Microstructural Characterization
CharacterizationofofSCBA
SCBA
Table
Table 2 shows the chemical composition of ground SCBA determined
2 shows the chemical composition of ground SCBA determined by by X-ray
X-ray fluo-
fluo-
rescence
rescence (XRF). The cumulative sum of silica, alumina, and iron in SCBA was found to
(XRF). The cumulative sum of silica, alumina, and iron in SCBA was found to be
be
77.47%,
77.47%, which
which meets
meets the
the ASTM
ASTM C618
C618 requirement
requirement of of pozzolanic
pozzolanic materials
materials [23].
[23]. The
The pres-
pres-
ence
ence of
of phosphorous
phosphorouspentaoxide
pentaoxide(P (P22O
O55)) was
was found
found at
at 1.98%,
1.98%, which
which might
might have
have originated
originated
from
from the use of fertilizers. Morales et al. [24] reported the presence of 2.09 and 2.15%
the use of fertilizers. Morales et al. [24] reported the presence of 2.09 and 2.15% ofof
P2O5 at calcination temperatures of 800 ◦ C and 1000 ◦ C, respectively. Similarly, Sultana and
P2O5 at calcination temperatures of 800 °C and 1000 °C, respectively. Similarly, Sultana
Rahman [25] found the presence of P2 O5 at 3.37%, 3.42%, 3.40%, and 3.46% at calcination
 and Rahman [25] found the presence of P2O5 at 3.37%, 3.42%, 3.40%, and 3.46% at calcina-
tion temperatures of 400 °C, 600 °C, 800 °C, and 1000 °C, respectively. The oxide compo-
sition of the SCBA sample is shown in Table 2 after the removal of fibrous carbon-rich
Buildings 2022, 12, 1769 particles by sieving through a 75 µm sieve. 4 of 18

Table 2. Chemical (oxide) composition of sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA) and OPC.
temperatures of 400 ◦ C, 600 ◦ C, 800 ◦ C, and 1000 ◦ C, respectively. The oxide composition
of the SCBA sample is shown in Table 2 after the
Description removal of fibrous
SCBA carbon-rich particles
OPC
by sieving through a 75 µm sieve.
SiO2 66.7 21.29
Table 2. Chemical (oxide) composition of sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA) and OPC.
Al2O3 9.24 4.82
Description
Fe2O3 SCBA1.53 3.88 OPC
SiO2 CaO 66.7 10.07 65.12 21.29
Al2 O3 9.24 4.82
Fe2 O3 MgO 1.53 4.6 2.21 3.88
CaO P2O5 10.07 1.98 - 65.12
MgO 4.6 2.21
P2 O5 K2O 1.98 2.44 0.45 -
K2 O Na2O 2.44 1.3 - 0.45
Na2 O 1.3 -
TiO2 TiO2 0.22 0.22
- -
MnO MnO 0.02 0.02 - -
LOI 1.9 2.23
LOI
Moisture content 1.1
1.9 2.23 -
Moisture content 1.1 -
The crystallographic phases in SCBA were identified using X-ray diffraction (XRD) in
MATCH Thesoftware
crystallographic
aided by phases in SCBA were
the International identified using
Crystallographic X-ray Database
Diffraction diffraction(ICDD).
(XRD)
in MATCH software aided by the International Crystallographic Diffraction
The XRD results presented in Figure 2 indicate the presence of quartz and crystabolite (PDF Database
(ICDD).
No. The XRD
46-1045, results
39-1425) presented in
at diffraction Figure
angle (2θ)2 indicate
values ofthe presence
5.85 of quartz
(d = 15.09), 20.85and
(d crystab-
= 4.25),
26.65 (d = 3.34), 29.35 (d = 3.04), 68.20 (d = 1.37), and 50.05 (d = 1.82), respectively. 20.85
olite (PDF No. 46-1045, 39-1425) at diffraction angle (2θ) values of 5.85 (d = 15.09), The
(d = 4.25),of26.65
presence (d = concentration
a higher 3.34), 29.35 (d =of3.04),
silica68.20
in the(dform
= 1.37), and 50.05
of quartz was(d = 1.82), respectively.
identified in the XRD
The presence
pattern markedofby a higher
intenseconcentration
peaks. However, of silica in the form
the intensity of quartz
of the peak iswas identified in
proportionate the
with
XRD pattern marked by intense peaks.
that of a mineral component producing it [26]. However, the intensity of the peak is proportionate
with that of a mineral component producing it [26].

Figure2.2.XRD
Figure XRDpattern
patternof
ofprocessed
processedSCBA
SCBA(sieved
(sievedand
andground
groundfor
for45
45min).
min).

Thepozzolanic
The pozzolanic potential
potential of
of ground
groundSCBA
SCBAwas wasascertained
ascertained by
bythe
theChapelle
Chapelleactivity
activity
testas
test asper
per French
French norm
norm NF
NF P 18-513 [27]. Free portlandite
portlandite (Ca(OH)
(Ca(OH)22))was
wasdetermined
determinedinina
a250
250mLmLsolution
solutioncontaining
containing2 2g gcement
cementand
and1 1g gash, which
ash, whichwas subsequently
was heated
subsequently at at
heated 90
90 ◦ C for 16 h in a drying oven. The unreacted Ca(OH)2 amount in the solution was found
by acid-base titration that yielded the equivalent volume of hydrochloric acid required to
neutralize the free Ca(OH)2 in control as well as the ash-blended sample. Fixed Ca(OH)2
was calculated by using Equation (1).
mg of Ca(OH)2 fixed/g = 2 × ((V1 −V2 ))/V1 × 74/56 × 1000 (1)
 neutralize the free Ca(OH)2 in control as well as the ash-blended sample. Fixed Ca(OH)2
was calculated by using Equation (1).
mg of Ca(OH)2 fixed/g = 2 × ((V1-V2))/V1 × 74/56 × 1000 (1)

Buildings 2022, 12, 1769

V1 = volume of 0.1N HCL (ml) consumed to titrate 25 mL of solution from the control 5 of 18
sample.
V2 = volume of 0.1N HCL (ml) consumed to titrate 25 mL of solution from the blended
sample.
The results of theV1 Chapelle
= volumeactivity
of 0.1Ntest
HCL (ml) consumed
presented in Tableto3 titrate 25 mL
show that theofChapelle
solution from the con-
trol sample.
activity of the SCBA was 1293.9 CaO(mg/g), and the pozzolanic potential of the SCBA was
V2 = volume of 0.1N HCL (ml) consumed to titrate 25 mL of solution from the
2.92 times higher than that of the standard sample (330 CaO mg/g). A higher Chapelle
blended sample.
activity value is indicative of the improved pozzolanic potential of the SCBA due to a
The results of the Chapelle activity test presented in Table 3 show that the Chapelle
reduced concentration of friable particles that may hinder its reactivity [28,29].
activity of the SCBA was 1293.9 CaO(mg/g), and the pozzolanic potential of the SCBA was
2.92 times higher than that of the standard sample (330 CaO mg/g). A higher Chapelle
Table 3. Chapelle test results.
activity value is indicative of the improved pozzolanic potential of the SCBA due to a
reduced concentration of friable particles that may hinder its reactivity [28,29].
Titration Volume
Titration Volume of HCL Chapelle Activity =
of HCL for Ash % Increase w.r.t
for Control Table 3. Chapelle test results.
Mixture CaO(mg/g) = ((V1 −
Mixture Standard (330 mg/g)
(V1) * V2)/V1) * 2642.86
Titration Volume of HCL for Titration Volume of HCL
(V2) * for Chapelle Activity =
% Increase w.r.t Standard
Control Mixture Ash Mixture CaO(mg/g) = ((V1 − V2)/V1)
(V1) * 19.2 (V2) * 9.8 1293.9
* 2642.86 + 292 (330 mg/g)

19.2 9.8 of three trials.

* Chapelle activity results are average 1293.9 + 292
* Chapelle activity results are average of three trials.

The microstructure of the ground of

The microstructure SCBA sample was
the ground SCBA studied
samplebywas scanning
studiedelectron
by scanning electron
microscopy (SEM) imaging(SEM)
microscopy using imaging
model JSM-5910 JEOL,JSM-5910
using model Japan. The micrographs
JEOL, Japan. Theofmicrographs
the of the
SCBA are presented
SCBA in areFigure 3. Iningeneral,
presented Figure 3. SCBA has a heterogeneous
In general, nature as it nature
SCBA has a heterogeneous con- as it contains
tains a variety aofvariety
particleofshapes,
particleincluding prismatic,prismatic,
shapes, including elongated,elongated,
rounded, rounded,
needle, flat,
needle, flat, oval,
and irregular
oval, and irregular shapes. The shapes. Theshapes
particle particlealso
shapes
varyalso varyrange.
in size in sizeNeedle
range. and
Needle and oval-shaped
oval-
shaped particlesparticles
were up were upµm
to 50 to 50
inµm
size,inwhile
size, while irregular-shaped
irregular-shaped particles
particles werewere around 20 µm and,
around
according
20 µm and, according to to
thethe literature,are
literature, aremainly
mainlyrich
richininreactive
reactive silica
silica [21,30]. Perforations
Perfora- with a size
ofof
tions with a size a few
a few hundred
hundred nanometers
nanometers onon
thethe
surface
surfaceof SCBA
of SCBA particles induce
particles its adsorptive
induce its nature,
thusthus
adsorptive nature, increasing the water
increasing retaining
the water capacity
retaining of the
capacity ofash.
the ash.

Figure 3. SEM micrographs of ground SCBA. (a) Irregular Particles and Needle Shape Particles; (b)
Figure 3. SEM micrographs of ground SCBA. (a) Irregular Particles and Needle Shape Particles;
Elongated Particle and Angular Particles; (c) Nano-Perforations.
(b) Elongated Particle and Angular Particles; (c) Nano-Perforations.

2.4. Mixture Proportioning

2.4. Mixtureand Specimens Preparation
Proportioning and Specimens Preparation
The target designThestrength of the strength
target design concrete ofwastheset as 21 MPa
concrete was with
set asa 21
cement content
MPa with a cement content
of 366 kg/m3. The mixkg/m
of 366 3 . The mix
proportions areproportions
shown in Table 4. In the
are shown concrete
in Table mixes,
4. In cement mixes, cement
the concrete
was replaced with
was SCBA
replaced by with
0%, 10%,
SCBA 20%, 30%,10%,
by 0%, and 20%,
40% 30%,
by weight of cement
and 40% and of
by weight arecement and are
represented byrepresented
CM, 10BC, 20BC, 30BC, and 40BC, respectively. A fixed water-to-binder
by CM, 10BC, 20BC, 30BC, and 40BC, respectively. A fixed water-to-binder
ratio of 0.5 wasratio
adopted
of 0.5for
wasa fair comparison.
adopted for a fair comparison.

Table 4. Concrete mix proportions (Kg/m3 ).

Mix Designation Cement Bagasse Ash W/C Fine Aggregate Coarse Aggregate Water
0BC(CM) 366 0 0.5 742.3 1013.5 183
10BC 329.4 36.6 0.5 742.3 1013.5 183
20BC 292.8 73.2 0.5 742.3 1013.5 183
30BC 256.2 109.8 0.5 742.3 1013.5 183
40BC 219.6 146.4 0.5 742.3 1013.5 183
Buildings 2022, 12, 1769 6 of 18

2.5. Casting and Curing of Specimens

The 150 mm × 150 mm × 150 mm concrete cube specimens were fabricated at room
temperature, as per ASTM standard C 511 [31]. After demolding, the specimens were mist
cured at 24 ± 1 ◦ C for subsequent testing for mechanical and durability properties at a
specified age.

2.6. Testing Program

The effect of SCBA incorporation in concrete as SCM was evaluated by investigating
various fresh and hardened concrete properties. Fresh concrete properties including slump,
fresh state density, and compaction factor tests were performed confirming ASTM C
143 [32], ASTM C138M-01 [33], and BS 1881-103:1993 [34], respectively. Hardened concrete
properties, including compressive strength, hardened density, water absorption, sorptivity,
UPV, and acid attack tests were performed to investigate the physico-mechanical properties
and durability aspects of the SCBA-incorporated concrete. The compressive strength of the
concrete specimens was determined as per BS 1881: Part 116: 1983, hardened density and
water absorption were determined complying with ASTM C642 [35], and ultrasonic pulse
velocity was determined with ASTM C597 [36], respectively. Sorptivity in terms of capillary
suction of water through the cross-section of the SCBA-incorporated concrete intact with
water was determined by dipping a 2 mm depth of the oven-dried concrete cubes into
water [37]. The water tends to rise through capillary suction, thus increasing the weight of
the concrete sample. The specimens were weighed at various time intervals. Sorptivity was
determined by plotting the volume of water absorbed per unit cross-sectional area against
the square root of time and is expressed in mm/minˆ0.5.
In order to determine the durability of the SCBA-incorporated concrete, the samples
were immersed in a 5% concentrated sulfuric and hydrochloric acid solution separately for
28 days after completing 28 days of curing. Later, the weight loss and strength loss were
recorded after oven drying the samples for 24 h to assess their degree of deterioration. In
order to determine the pozzolanic activity of concrete, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA)
was conducted on cement mortar extracted from the control and 10BC concrete specimens
at a curing age of 90 days. The extracted cement paste chunks (10 mm × 10 mm) of the
mentioned mixes were placed in acetone for 24 h to stop hydration [38]. Then, the cement
mortar chunks were oven dried at 100 ± 5 ◦ C for 4 h followed by grinding. The decrease
in weight of the specimen was recorded up to 900 ◦ C with an incremental temperature of
10 ◦ C/min.

3. Discussions of Results
3.1. Fresh-State Properties of Concrete
The results of the fresh concrete properties are shown in Figures 4–6. The slump
values for the CM, 10BC, 20BC, 30BC, and 40BC mixes were found as 29, 30, 47.5, 52.5, and
58 mm, respectively. A 3.4–10.47% increase in slump was observed with the SCBA addition.
The maximum value of slump was observed for the 40BC mix, whereas the minimum
value was recorded for the CM mix. The water demand of the concrete increased with the
incorporation of SCBA, owing to the presence of carbon content in it. Similar behavior of
increased water demand was observed upon the addition of SCBA as SCM in concrete [39].
Increased workability as depicted by higher slump values was attained, which is attributed
to the increased water demand with the SCBA addition [40].
 58 mm, respectively. A 3.4–10.47% increase in slump was observed with the SCBA addi-
tion. The maximum value of slump was observed for the 40BC mix, whereas the minimum
58 mm,was
value respectively. A 3.4–10.47%
recorded for the CM mix. increase in slump
The water was observed
demand with the
of the concrete SCBA addi-
increased with the
58 mm,
tion. Therespectively.
maximum valueA 3.4–10.47%
of slump wasincrease in slump
observed was
for the observed
40BC with the
mix, whereas SCBA
the addi-
minimum
incorporation
tion. of SCBA, owing to the presence of carbon content in it. Similar behavior of
valueThe
wasmaximum
recorded value
for theofCM
slump
mix.was
Theobserved for
water demand theof
40BC
the mix, whereas
concrete the minimum
increased with the
increased
value water
was recorded demand
for the was
CM to observed
mix. upon the addition of SCBA as SCM in concrete
Buildings 2022, 12, 1769 incorporation of SCBA, owing theThe water of
presence demand
carbonofcontent
the concrete increased
in it. Similar with
behavior the
of
7 of 18
[39]. Increasedofworkability
incorporation SCBA, owing astodepicted
the by higher
presence of slump
carbon values
content in was
it. attained,
Similar which
behavior of is at-
increased water demand was observed upon the addition of SCBA as SCM in concrete
tributed
increased to the
water increased
demand water
was demand
observed with
upon the
the SCBA
addition addition
of SCBA [40].
as SCM
[39]. Increased workability as depicted by higher slump values was attained, which is at- in concrete
[39]. Increased
tributed workability
to the increased as depicted
water demandby higher
with slumpaddition
the SCBA values was
[40].attained, which is at-
tributed to the increased water demand with the SCBA addition [40].

Figure4.4.Comparison
Figure Comparisonofof slump
slump values
values among
among several
several concrete
concrete mixes.
mixes.
Figure 4. Comparison of slump values among several concrete mixes.
Figure 4. Comparison of slump values among several concrete mixes.

Figure5.5.
Figure
Figure Compaction
5.Compaction
Compaction factor
factor values
values
factor ofdifferent
of
values different concrete
concrete mixes.
mixes.
Figure 5. Compaction factor values of of different
different concrete
concrete mixes.
mixes.

Figure 6. Fresh concrete density of concrete mixes.

Figure6.6.Fresh
Figure Freshconcrete
concretedensity
densityof
ofconcrete
concretemixes.
mixes.
Figure 6. Fresh concrete density of concrete mixes.
Compaction factor is another measure for fresh concrete workability that can be
estimated as the ratio of partially compacted specimen weight to completely compacted
specimen weight. The results of the compaction factor revealed that the workability of
the SCBA-additive concrete increased with SCBA content, depicting that it can flow more
easily. The percentage increase in the compaction factor compared to that of the control
concrete at the highest replacement level (40BC) was 6.59. The reason for the increase in
workability with SCBA content in concrete has been discussed earlier.
 Compaction factor is another measure for fresh concrete workability that can be esti-
mated as the ratio of partially compacted specimen weight to completely compacted spec-
imen weight. The results of the compaction factor revealed that the workability of the
SCBA-additive concrete increased with SCBA content, depicting that it can flow more eas-
ily. The percentage increase in the compaction factor compared to that of the control con-
Buildings 2022, 12, 1769 8 of 18
crete at the highest replacement level (40BC) was 6.59. The reason for the increase in work-
ability with SCBA content in concrete has been discussed earlier.
The maximum fresh density (Figure 6) was found for the control mix (CM) as 2308.4
The
kg/m3. The maximum fresh density
fresh density (Figure
decreased 6) was
with found forSCBA
increasing the control
weightmixfraction.
(CM) as 2308.4 kg/m3 .
The decrease
The freshconcrete
in fresh density decreased
density forwith the increasing SCBA weight
SCBA-incorporated fraction.
concretes wasThe founddecrease in fresh
as 0.85–2.62%
concrete density for the SCBA-incorporated concretes was found
compared to CM, which is attributed to the lower specific gravity of SCBA than of cement.as 0.85–2.62% compared
to CM, which
Various is attributed
published studies to thereported
also lower specific
similargravity
trends of of SCBA than of cement.
fresh density. Zareei etVarious
al. [41]
published studies also reported similar trends of fresh density. Zareei
and Le et al. [42] reported the reduction in the fresh density of concrete with increasing et al. [41] and Le
et al. [42] reported the reduction in the fresh density of concrete with increasing SCBA
SCBA content, which was attributed to its lower specific weight than cement.
content, which was attributed to its lower specific weight than cement.
3.2. Water Absorption
3.2. Water
Water Absorption
absorption is the concrete permeability indicator since it represents the
amountWaterof absorption
water penetrating from the
is the concrete surfaces of
permeability concrete,
indicator imitating
since the exposure
it represents the amount of a
marine
of waterenvironment
penetrating from or saturated soil toofthe
the surfaces concrete.
concrete, Higher the
imitating permeability,
exposure of typically,
a marineis
associated with
environment higher exposure
or saturated to drying
soil to the concrete. andHigher
wetting cycles and may
permeability, causeisthe
typically, leaching
associated
of portlandite
with upon several
higher exposure to drying cycles
and of exposure
wetting cyclesto and
water,may thus
causeinducing the porosity
the leaching in con-
of portlandite
crete.several cycles of exposure to water, thus inducing the porosity in concrete.
upon
Figure
Figure 77 shows
shows the thewater
waterabsorption
absorptionof ofhardened
hardenedconcretes.
concretes. The The results
results depict
depict the the
decreasing
decreasing trend
trend of water absorption
absorption with withincreasing
increasingash ashcontent
contentand andcuring
curing age.
age. TheThe re-
reduction
duction ininwater
waterabsorption
absorptionatat77days days was
was observed
observed comparative to the control control concrete
concrete
for
for 10BC,
10BC, 20BC,
20BC, 30BC, and 40BC 40BC as as 11.42,
11.42,22.1,
22.1,33.8,
33.8,andand46.9%,
46.9%,whereas
whereasthe the reduction
reduction in
in water absorption of the concrete mixes at 90 days for 10BC,
water absorption of the concrete mixes at 90 days for 10BC, 20BC, 30BC, and 40BC was 20BC, 30BC, and 40BC
was
7.9, 7.9,
17.2,17.2,
26.5,26.5,
and and
33.1%.33.1%. The reduction
The reduction in water
in water absorption
absorption in theincontrol
the control
concreteconcrete
com-
compared
pared to the to 40BC
the 40BC
mix is mix is higher
higher at 7 than
at 7 days days90 than
days90ofdayscuring of which
curing might
whichbemight due to bea
due to arate
higher higher rate of hydration
of hydration in theconcrete.
in the control control concrete.
However, However,
at higheratcuring
higherages,
curingtheages,
den-
the densification
sification of the concrete
of the concrete microstructure
microstructure by filling
by filling capillary
capillary voids voids [43] to
[43] due due thetopoz-
the
pozzolanic potential of SCBA improves concrete performance
zolanic potential of SCBA improves concrete performance against capillary suction and against capillary suction
and
waterwater ingress
ingress [1,44].
[1,44]. TheThe reduction
reduction in water
in water absorption
absorption at higher
at higher curing
curing agesages is due
is due to
to the
the replacement of portlandite (having a lower density) with secondary
replacement of portlandite (having a lower density) with secondary calcium silicate hy- calcium silicate
hydrate (C–S–H)
drate (C–S–H) gelgel (having
(having a higher
a higher density)
density) due
due totothethe pozzolanic
pozzolanic reactivityofofSCBA.
reactivity SCBA.

Figure7.7.Water
Figure Waterabsorption
absorption(%).
(%).

The trend in water absorption for all concrete mixes containing SCBA was determined
by polynomial regression equations at varying curing ages, as shown in Figure 8. The trend
lines having a negative slope indicate decreasing water absorption with the increasing
SCBA amount. The correlation coefficients at all ages were found to be ≥0.98, signifying
high data reliability. Hence, it is deduced that SCBA incorporation in concrete causes a
decrease in water absorption.
 The trend in water absorption for all concrete mixes containing SCBA was deter-
minedThebytrend
polynomial
in waterregression
absorptionequations at varying
for all concrete mixescuring ages, as
containing shown
SCBA wasindeter-
Figure 8.
The
minedtrend lines having
by polynomial a negative
regression slope at
equations indicate
varyingdecreasing
curing ages, water absorption
as shown in Figurewith
8. the
increasing SCBAhaving
The trend lines amount. The correlation
a negative coefficients
slope indicate at allwater
decreasing ages absorption
were foundwith
to bethe≥0.98,
Buildings 2022, 12, 1769 9 of 18
signifying high data
increasing SCBA reliability.
amount. Hence, itcoefficients
The correlation is deducedatthat SCBA
all ages incorporation
were found to bein concrete
≥0.98,
signifying
causes high data
a decrease inreliability. Hence, it is deduced that SCBA incorporation in concrete
water absorption.
causes a decrease in water absorption.

Figure
Figure 8.Regression
Figure8.8. Regressionequations
Regression equations
equations for
for
for water
water
water absorption
absorption
absorption for different
fordifferent
for different concrete
concrete
concrete mixes.
mixes.
mixes.

3.3.
3.3.Compressive
3.3. CompressiveStrength
Compressive Strength
Strength
The
The results
The results
resultsof ofofthe
thecompressive
the compressive
compressive strength
strength
strength of
ofthe SCBA-incorporated
thethe
of SCBA-incorporated
SCBA-incorporated concrete
concrete are
concreteareshown
shown
are shown
in
inFigure
Figure 9.
9.It
It is
isseen
seen that
that the
the strength
strength increases
increases with
with age.
age. Although
Although the
the 7-day
7-day strength
strength of
of of
in Figure 9. It is seen that the strength increases with age. Although the 7-day strength
the
the SCBA-modified
SCBA-modified concretes
concretes waswasfound
found to to
be be
lower
lower than thethe
than control mix,mix,
control afterafter
28 days,
28 the
days,
the SCBA-modified concretes was found to be lower than the control mix, after 28 days,
concretes withwith
the concretes
concretes 10% SCBA showed increased strength. Compressive strength (in MPa) of
the with10% 10%SCBA
SCBAshowedshowed increased
increased strength.
strength. Compressive
Compressive strength (in MPa)
strength (in MPa)
the CMCM
of the andandthethe 10BC10BCat 7,
at 28, 56,56,
7, 28, andand 9090days
days ofofcuring
curingwas wasfound
foundasas19.40,
19.40,23.14,
23.14,24.97,
24.97,
of theand
27.21 CM and the 10BC at 7,29.64,
28, 56,respectively.
and 90 daysThe of curing was found as 19.40, 23.14, 24.97,
27.21 and 14.96, 23.94,
14.96, 23.94, 25.77,
25.77, 29.64, respectively. compressive
The compressive strength
strength of the
of the 10BC 10BC
mix
27.21
mix and 14.96, 23.94, 25.77, 29.64, respectively. The compressive strength of the 10BC mix
waswas higher
higher than than
thatthat
of of
thetheCM CM mixmix byby3.34%,
3.34%,3.10%,
3.10%,and and8.2%
8.2%at at 28,
28, 56,
56, and
and 90 90 days,
days,
was higher The
respectively. than that of among the CMthemix by 3.34%, 3.10%, and 8.2% at 28, 56,was and 90 days,
respectively. Thedisparity disparity among results
the obtained
results obtained fromfrom
different specimens
different specimenssmall was
respectively.
small (less than 5%). Although the compressive strength increased with curing age, the was
(less than 5%). The
Althoughdisparity
the among
compressive the results
strength obtained
increased from
with different
curing age, specimens
the strength
small
strength(less
development than
development 5%). Although
of concrete mixes
of themixes
compressive
incorporating
concrete strength
SCBA showed
incorporating increased
lower
SCBA concrete
showed with curing
strength
lower age, the
than
concrete
the control
strength
strength concrete
development
than at 7 days,
the control which
ofconcrete
concrete at is attributed
7mixes
days, to isthe
incorporating
which dilution
SCBA
attributed effect
to of
showed
the cement
dilution lower in the
effectconcrete
of
concrete
strength mixes
than and
the low pozzolanic
control concrete activity
at 7 at
days,early
whichages
cement in the concrete mixes and low pozzolanic activity at early ages [21]. [21].
is attributed to the dilution effect of
cement in the concrete mixes and low pozzolanic activity at early ages [21].

Figure9.9.Compressive
Figure Compressivestrengths
strengthsatatdifferent
differentages.
ages.

Figure
The9.28-d
Compressive strengths
compressive at different
strength ages.was determined as 21 MPa, which qualifies
of the 30BC
it for use in structural applications conforming to ACI 318, whereas it remained 9.24%
lower than that of the control concrete. Moreover, the compressive strength of the 10BC
mix was tested as 23.94 MPa which was 3.29% higher than that of the control concrete.
On 28 days and onward, the compressive strength of the 10BC mix remained higher than
the control concrete at all curing ages indicating optimal strength development. The
 The 28-d compressive strength of the 30BC was determined as 21 MPa, which quali-
fies it for use in structural applications conforming to ACI 318, whereas it remained 9.24%
lower than that of the control concrete. Moreover, the compressive strength of the 10BC
Buildings 2022, 12, 1769 mix was tested as 23.94 MPa which was 3.29% higher than that of the control concrete. 10 ofOn
18
28 days and onward, the compressive strength of the 10BC mix remained higher than the
control concrete at all curing ages indicating optimal strength development. The compres-
sive strength dropped upon further replacement of SCBA due to the dilution effect of ce-
compressive strength dropped upon further replacement of SCBA due to the dilution effect
ment in the mix. Other than the optimum mix (10BC), the strength development of the
of cement in the mix. Other than the optimum mix (10BC), the strength development of
SCBA-added concrete for the 20BC, 30BC, and 40BC at 28 days was 92.62%, 90.76%, and
the SCBA-added concrete for the 20BC, 30BC, and 40BC at 28 days was 92.62%, 90.76%,
66.12%; at 56 days it was 99.84%, 88.11%, and 66.69%; and at 90 days it was 101.50%,
and 66.12%; at 56 days it was 99.84%, 88.11%, and 66.69%; and at 90 days it was 101.50%,
86.77%, and 65.79%, respectively. The highest values of strength development compared
86.77%, and 65.79%, respectively. The highest values of strength development compared
to the control concrete for the 20BC, 30BC, and 40BC mixes were 101.50%, 90.76%, and
to the control concrete for the 20BC, 30BC, and 40BC mixes were 101.50%, 90.76%, and
65.79%,respectively.
65.79%, respectively.
Theincreased
The increasedcompressive
compressive strength
strength of the
of the 10%10% SCBA-incorporated
SCBA-incorporated concrete
concrete at 28
at 28 days
days was prominent owing to secondary hydrates formation with
was prominent owing to secondary hydrates formation with reduced portlandite contentreduced portlandite
content
due due to reactive
to reactive SCBA particles
SCBA particles [41,45,46].
[41,45,46]. In the In the concrete
concrete mixesmixes with SCBA
with SCBA > 10%,> 10%,
the
the amount of bagasse ash was higher than the amount needed for the reaction
amount of bagasse ash was higher than the amount needed for the reaction with portlandite; with port-
landite;
thus, thethus,
excesstheofexcess of unreacted
unreacted silica disturbed
silica disturbed the balancethebetween
balance the
between
silica the silica to
to alumina
alumina
ratios ratios
[20]. [20]. Conclusively,
Conclusively, the lineartheincrease
linear increase in the strength
in the strength of theof the SCBA-incorpo-
SCBA-incorporated
rated concrete was due to the pozzolanic
concrete was due to the pozzolanic activity of SCBA.activity of SCBA.

3.4. Sorptivity
3.4. Sorptivity Test
Test
The “index of
The of the
themoisture
moisturetransport
transport into
intounsaturated
unsaturated specimens
specimens andandit has
it also
has been
also
accepted
been as anas
accepted important
an important guideguide
for concrete durability”
for concrete is sorptivity
durability” [47–49].
is sorptivity During
[47–49]. sorp-
During
sorption, water
tion, water risesrises
intointo
the the connected
connected capillary
capillary pores
pores as time
as time increases
increases when when concrete
concrete is
is ex-
exposed to moisture. Therefore, concrete is susceptible
posed to moisture. Therefore, concrete is susceptible to the capillaryto the capillary rise of water through
water through
permeable
permeableconnected
connectedpores poreswhenwhenexposed
exposedto tosaturated
saturatedsoil,
soil,which
whichisisnormally
normallymimicked
mimicked
by
byconcrete
concretefoundations.
foundations. The The sorptivity
sorptivity values
values at at different
different ages
ages forforall
allthe
theconcrete
concretemixes
mixes
are
aregraphically
graphicallydepicted
depictedin inFigure
Figure10.
10. The
The percentage
percentagereduction
reductionin insorptivity
sorptivitycompared
comparedto to
the
thecontrol
controlconcrete
concretefor forthe
theSCBA-incorporated
SCBA-incorporated concretesconcretes was was 8.32–45.16%,
8.32–45.16%, 13.30–41.48%,
13.30–41.48%,
15.32–46.77%,
15.32–46.77%, and
and 9.35–25.89% after 7, 7, 28,
28,56,56,and
and90 90days,
days,respectively.
respectively.The The sorptivity
sorptivity of
of concrete decreases upon the incorporation of SCBA as well
concrete decreases upon the incorporation of SCBA as well as along curing ages. as along curing ages.
TheTheex-
experimental
perimental datadata show
show a significant
a significant decrease
decrease inin sorptivity
sorptivity values
values with
with thethe incorporation
incorporation of
of SCBA
SCBA even
even atat7 7days
daysofofcuring,
curing,which
whichisisattributed
attributedto to the
the clogging
clogging of of pores
pores by by the
the filler
filler
effect
effectof
ofground
groundSCBA SCBAin inconcrete.
concrete.The
Thefiner
finerparticle
particlesize,
size,asaswell
wellas asthe
theamorphous
amorphoussilica silica
in
in SCBA, enhances its pozzolanic activity in the cementitious matrix, thus, densifyingthe
SCBA, enhances its pozzolanic activity in the cementitious matrix, thus, densifying the
microstructure
microstructureby bygreater
greatercalcium
calciumsilicate
silicatehydrate
hydrategel gelformation
formation[50]. [50].

Figure10.
Figure 10.Sorptivity
Sorptivityvalues
valuesat
atdifferent
differentreplacement
replacementlevels
levelsofofSBA.
SBA.

The published literature has reported the reduction in sorptivity upon the incorpo-
ration of pozzolan-based ashes in concrete. Amin [51] reported that the ground SCBA
particles cause the clogging of pores in concrete by the filler effect, thus reducing the
penetration of water. However, the maximum reduction of 46.77% in sorptivity compared
to the control concrete was recorded at 56 days of curing, demonstrating the maximum
 The published literature has reported the reduction in sorptivity upon the incorpo-
ration of pozzolan-based ashes in concrete. Amin [51] reported that the ground SCBA par-
Buildings 2022, 12, 1769 11 of 18
ticles cause the clogging of pores in concrete by the filler effect, thus reducing the pene-
tration of water. However, the maximum reduction of 46.77% in sorptivity compared to
the control concrete was recorded at 56 days of curing, demonstrating the maximum level
level of pozzolanic
of pozzolanic activity
activity which which corresponds
corresponds to thetoclogging
the clogging of interconnected
of interconnected capillary
capillary pores
pores
by thebygeneration
the generation of pozzolanic
of pozzolanic hydrates.
hydrates. Similarly,
Similarly, Rajasekar
Rajasekar et[52]
et al. al. [52]
alsoalso reported
reported the
the
maximum decrease in SCBA-incorporated concrete’s sorptivity at 56 days of curing, in
maximum decrease in SCBA-incorporated concrete’s sorptivity at 56 days of curing, in
which
whichthethemaximum
maximumdecrease
decreasein insorptivity
sorptivitywas
wasrecorded
recordedas as 42%
42% from
from thethe control
control concrete.
concrete.
The
Theratios
ratiosof
ofcumulative
cumulativeabsorption
absorption toto the
thesquare
squareroot
rootof
oftime
timeof ofthe
thecorresponding
corresponding
concrete
concrete mixes are shown in Figure 11. The trends of sorptivity can be interpolatedfrom
mixes are shown in Figure 11. The trends of sorptivity can be interpolated from
polynomial
polynomialregression
regressionequations
equationswhich
whichare
areplotted
plottedininFigure
Figure11.11.
All
Allthe trend
the lines
trend have
lines havea
negative slope, indicating the decreasing trends of sorptivity along with
a negative slope, indicating the decreasing trends of sorptivity along with increasing increasing SCBA
content at varying
SCBA content curing ages.
at varying curingThe correlation
ages. coefficients
The correlation were found
coefficients weretofoundbe ≥0.92.
to be ≥0.92.

Figure11.
Figure 11.Regression
Regressionequations
equationsfor
forsorptivity.
sorptivity.

3.5.
3.5.Ultrasonic
UltrasonicPulse
PulseVelocity
Velocity(UPV)
(UPV)
Concrete
Concretequality
qualitybased
basedon onits
itsunit
unitweight
weightandandthetheuniformity
uniformityof ofthe
thecompactness
compactnessof of
concrete microstructure can be assessed by ultrasonic pulse velocity
concrete microstructure can be assessed by ultrasonic pulse velocity [51]. The UPV values[51]. The UPV values
of
of the
thecontrol
controland andbagasse
bagasseash ashconcrete
concretemixtures
mixturesare areshown
shownin inTable
Table5.5. The
Theincrease
increase inin
UPV
UPVvalues
values forfor the
theCM,
CM,10BC,
10BC, 20BC,
20BC, 30BC,
30BC, andand 40BC
40BC between
between 77 andand 2828 days
days waswas 13.35,
13.35,
16.43,
16.43,15.00,
15.00,15.31,
15.31,and
and15.20%;
15.20%;between
between28 28and
and56 56days
daysititwas
was13.22,
13.22,17.22,
17.22,14.49,
14.49,9.52,
9.52,and
and
2.28%;
2.28%;andandbetween
between 5656andand90 days it was
90 days it recorded
was recordedas 14.86,
as 20.62,
14.86, 18.98,
20.62,24.71,
18.98,and 19.60%,
24.71, and
respectively. The quality
19.60%, respectively. Theofquality
concreteofcontaining various percentages
concrete containing of SCBA onofand
various percentages SCBAabove
on
28 days of curing is graded as good quality concrete as per BIS 13311-92-Part-I
and above 28 days of curing is graded as good quality concrete as per BIS 13311-92-Part-I as shown
in
asTable
shown 5. in
Based
Tableon 5. this
Basedclassification, the CM, 10BC,
on this classification, the CM,20BC, and20BC,
10BC, 30BC,and40BC concrete
30BC, 40BC
mixes can be classified as of excellent and good quality at 28 days of
concrete mixes can be classified as of excellent and good quality at 28 days of curing, re-curing, respectively.
Moreover,
spectively.the 10BC andthe
Moreover, 20BC10BCmixes
andhad20BCachieved goodachieved
mixes had quality atgood
7 days of curing
quality at 7 similar
days of
to that of the control concrete. The increase in UPV value of the
curing similar to that of the control concrete. The increase in UPV value of the 10BC mix10BC mix compared
to the CM was
compared to the0.5%
CMat was28 0.5%
days,atwhich
28 days,significantly increasedincreased
which significantly to 3.8 andto8.4% at 56
3.8 and and
8.4% at
90 days of curing. The UPV values increased with the increasing
56 and 90 days of curing. The UPV values increased with the increasing curing age due curing age due to the
to
higher percentage
the higher percentageof strength development
of strength development attributed to cement
attributed hydration.
to cement The prominent
hydration. The prom-
increase in UPV values at higher curing ages was due to the dense
inent increase in UPV values at higher curing ages was due to the dense microstructure microstructure of
the concrete mixes containing SCBA attributed to the formation of
of the concrete mixes containing SCBA attributed to the formation of pozzolanic hydrates.pozzolanic hydrates.
Hence, it can be concluded that, despite the lower strength development rate at 7 days of
Hence, it can be concluded that, despite the lower strength development rate at 7 days of
the concrete mixes containing 10% SCBA, the mentioned mixes ultimately gained higher
the concrete mixes containing 10% SCBA, the mentioned mixes ultimately gained higher
strength development than the control concrete at 28 days and onward.
strength development than the control concrete at 28 days and onward.
Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 18

Buildings 2022, 12, 1769 12 of 18

Table 5. Ultrasonic pulse velocity and concrete quality grading as per BIS 13311-92-Part-I.

Concrete Quality Grading as per BIS

Table
Mix5. Ultrasonic pulse velocity
Ultrasonic Pulseand concrete quality grading as per BIS 13311-92-Part-I.
Velocity(m/s)
13311-92-Part-I
Concrete Quality Grading as per
Mix Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity(m/s)
Pulse BIS 13311-92-Part-I
Concrete quality
7d 28 d 56 d 90 d
Pulse Concrete
7d 28 d 56 d 90 d Velocity(m/s) grading
Velocity(m/s) quality grading
CM 3670 4160 4710 5410 Above 4500 Excellent
CM 3670 4160 4710 5410 Above 4500 Excellent
10BC
10BC 35903590 4180
4180 4900
4900 59105910 3500-4500
3500–4500 GoodGood
20BC
20BC 36003600 4140
4140 4740
4740 5640 5640 3000–3500
3000-3500 Medium
Medium
30BC 3460 3990 4370 5450 Less than 3000 Doubtful
30BC
40BC 34203460 3990
3940 4370
4030 54504820 Less than 3000 Doubtful
40BC 3420 3940 4030 4820
Published research
Published researchfindings
findingshave haveassessed
assessedthetheSCBA-incorporated
SCBA-incorporated concreteconcrete on on UPV
UPV
based on
based on the
the densification
densification of of concrete
concrete microstructure
microstructure on on its
its strength
strength development
development rate.
Arenas-Piedrahitaetetal.al.
Arenas-Piedrahita [52]
[52] utilized
utilized untreated
untreated SCBASCBA in cement
in cement mortarmortar
as SCM as and
SCMreported
and re-
that its 10%
ported that incorporation resultedresulted
its 10% incorporation in no increase in UPV values
in no increase in UPVcompared to the control
values compared to the
concrete until 180until
control concrete days180
of curing.
days ofAnother research research
curing. Another study [53] reported
study that the thermal
[53] reported that the
treatment of raw SCBA
thermal treatment of raw 250 ◦ Catfor
atSCBA 25012
°Ch,for
followed by sieving
12 h, followed through
by sieving a 75 µm
through sieve,
a 75 µm
produced better UPV values along with curing ages. However, the UPV
sieve, produced better UPV values along with curing ages. However, the UPV values re- values remained
lower
mained than thatthan
lower of the control
that of theconcrete
control until 56 days.
concrete untilTherefore, the current
56 days. Therefore, thestudy reported
current study
that the reactivity
reported of SCBA enhanced
that the reactivity and produced
of SCBA enhanced better results
and produced at 28
better days at
results of 28
curing
daysby
of
grinding
curing bythe SCBA after
grinding sieving
the SCBA through
after sievinga 75 µm sieve.
through a 75 µm sieve.
As
As shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 12,
12, the
the correlation
correlation between
between compressive
compressive strength
strength and and UPV
UPV de-
de-
picts
picts that the UPV values are directly proportionate with the compressive strength. The
that the UPV values are directly proportionate with the compressive strength. The
data
data points
points and
and regression
regression trendline
trendline depict
depict aa good
good relationship
relationship with
with the
the regression
regression coef-
coef-
ficient
ficient value (R) of 0.82, which can be used for interpolating compressive strength
value (R) of 0.82, which can be used for interpolating compressive strength with
with
considerable
considerableaccuracy.
accuracy.

Figure12.
Figure 12.Regression
Regressionequations
equationsfor
forcompressive
compressivestrength
strengthcorresponding
correspondingtotoUPV.
UPV.

3.6.
3.6. Thermo-Gravimetric
Thermo-GravimetricAnalysis
Analysis(TGA)
(TGA)
In
In order to assess the formationof
order to assess the formation ofpozzolanic
pozzolanichydrates
hydratesin inthe
thecontrol
controland
andoptimum
optimum
mix (10BC), thermogravimetric analysis was performed. The optimum SCBA
mix (10BC), thermogravimetric analysis was performed. The optimum SCBA incorpora- incorporation
amount of 10%
tion amount ofwas
10%determined from the
was determined 28-day
from strengthstrength
the 28-day results. results.
The percentage weight
The percentage
loss of the
weight mentioned
loss of the mentioned until 900 ◦until
specimensspecimens C are900
shown in Figure
°C are shown13, in along
Figurewith
13, the weight
along with
loss values shown in Table 6. The thermogravimetric analysis includes the
the weight loss values shown in Table 6. The thermogravimetric analysis includes the three temper-
ature
three ranges associated
temperature with
ranges the weight
associated loss
with regions
the weightofloss
concrete
regionsas per the literature
of concrete as per[50].
the
The first temperature zone between the temperature range of 110 and 300 ◦ C corresponds
to the physically absorbed water in hydrates such as C-S-H gel and ettringite. The second
Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 18

Buildings 2022, 12, 1769 13 of 18

literature [450. The first temperature zone between the temperature range of 110 and 300
°C corresponds to the physically absorbed water in hydrates such as C-S-H gel and
ettringite. The second temperature zone between the temperature range of 400 and 600 °C
temperature ◦ C is associated with the
is associated zone
with between the temperature
the dihydroxylation range of 400
of portlandite, and 600decarbonation
whereas of calcium
dihydroxylation of portlandite, whereas decarbonation of calcium carbonate occurred
carbonate occurred at the third temperature zone between the temperature range of 750 at
the third temperature zone between the temperature range of 750 and 900 ◦ C.
and 900 °C.

Figure
Figure 13.
13. TGA
TGA results
results of
of control
control and
and bagasse
bagasse mix.

Table 6.
Table Thermogravimetric weight
6. Thermogravimetric weight loss
loss of
of cement
cement paste
paste containing
containing SCBA
SCBA at
at 90
90 days
days of
of curing.
curing.
Concrete Weight Loss with Respect to Total
Weight Loss (%)
Specimens
Concrete Weight
Weight Loss with Loss to
Respect (%)Total
Weight Loss (%)
Specimens Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 1
Weight Stage
Loss (%)2 Stage 3
CM 1.56 1.11 3.72 9.73 6.92 23.22
10BC Stage 1.97
1 Stage 0.84
2 Stage 33.10 16.41
Stage 1 Stage5.79
2 Stage21.33
3
CM 1.56 1.11 3.72 9.73 6.92 23.22
10BC
The weight loss 1.97
in the first
0.84
region of3.10the 10BC mix (1.97%) was
16.41 5.79
higher 21.33
than that of
the control concrete (1.76%), depicting the higher concentration of hydrates in the control
concrete. The weight loss of the 10BC mix (0.84%) in the second temperature zone was
The weight loss in the first region of the 10BC mix (1.97%) was higher than that of the
found to be lower than that of the control concrete (1.11%), marked by lower concentration
control concrete (1.76%), depicting the higher concentration of hydrates in the control con-
of portlandite in the 10BC mix that is attributed to the formation of pozzolanic hydrates
crete. The weight loss of the 10BC mix (0.84%) in the second temperature zone was found
with the consumption of portlandite in the mentioned mix. Similar results were reported in
to
thebeliterature
lower than thatinofwhich
[54,55] the control
a lowerconcrete (1.11%),
concentration of marked by lower
portlandite concentration
corresponded of
to higher
portlandite in the 10BC mix that is attributed to the formation of pozzolanic
pozzolanic activity. The lower percentage of weight loss in the third temperature zone of hydrates with
the
the consumption of portlandite
10BC mix is associated within the
the higher
mentioned mix.ofSimilar
degree hydrationresults were reported
in terms in the
of cumulative
literature [54,55] in which a lower concentration of portlandite corresponded
concentration of C-S-H and portlandite, which might be due to the nucleation effect of to higher
pozzolanic activity.
SCBA particles. The lower
Hence, percentage ofofweight
the incorporation loss in
processed the third
SCBA temperature
produced zone of
the pozzolanic
the 10BC that
hydrates mix contributed
is associatedtoward
with the thehigher
higherdegree of hydration
compressive strengthin(after
terms28-day
of cumulative
age) and
concentration of C-S-H and portlandite, which
densified microstructure compared to the control concrete. might be due to the nucleation effect of
SCBA particles. Hence, the incorporation of processed SCBA produced the pozzolanic hy-
drates
3.7. Acidthat contributed toward the higher compressive strength (after 28-day age) and
Attack
densified microstructure
Concrete is susceptible compared to the control
to deterioration whenconcrete.
exposed to acidic media such as indus-
trial waste waters. Acidic media containing hydrochloric acid and sulfuric acid penetrate
3.7.
intoAcid Attack
pores and micro-cracks within concrete to cause porosity by accelerated leaching
Concrete isand
of portlandite susceptible
crackingto
bydeterioration
expansion duewhen exposed
to the to acidic
formation media such
of delayed as indus-
ettringite for-
mations
trial [1].
waste The weight
waters. Acidicloss andcontaining
media strength loss of concrete
hydrochloric containing
acid SCBA
and sulfuric is penetrate
acid shown in
Figures 14 and 15, respectively. The effect of sulfuric acid on all concrete specimens was
more pronounced than that of hydrochloric acid. It was marked by extensive scaling due
 into pores and micro-cracks within concrete to cause porosity by accelerated leaching of
portlandite and cracking by expansion due to the formation of delayed ettringite for-
mations [1]. The weight loss and strength loss of concrete containing SCBA is shown in
Buildings 2022, 12, 1769 Figures 14 and 15, respectively. The effect of sulfuric acid on all concrete specimens 14 of 18
was
more pronounced than that of hydrochloric acid. It was marked by extensive scaling due
to the reaction of free lime and sulfates which can be visually seen in Figures 16 and 17.
The
to theconcrete
reactionsurface immersed
of free lime in hydrochloric
and sulfates which can acid showed aseen
be visually rusty brown appearance
in Figures 16 and 17.
on the
The exposed
concrete surface
surface that might
immersed be due to theacid
in hydrochloric formation
showed ofaferric
rustychloride by the reaction
brown appearance on
of iron
the in cement
exposed surfaceand thatchloride
might beindue hydrochloric
to the formationacid. of
The control
ferric concrete
chloride by theexhibited
reaction theof
highest
iron percentage
in cement of weight
and chloride loss and strength
in hydrochloric acid.loss
The(9.4%
controland 47.06%,exhibited
concrete respectively). How-
the highest
ever, the percentage
percentage of weightof weight
loss loss and strength
and strength loss (9.4% loss
and decreased
47.06%, with the incorporation
respectively). However, of
SCBA
the in concrete.
percentage Thus,loss
of weight the and
minimumstrengthweight and strength
loss decreased withlosses were recorded
the incorporation of for
SCBA the
in concrete.
40BC Thus, thein
mix immersed minimum
hydrochloric weightacid and strength
solution withlosses
the were
valuesrecorded
of 3.13%for andthe13.59%,
40BC
mix immersedThe
respectively. in hydrochloric
poor performance acid solution with the
of the control values of
concrete in 3.13% and 13.59%,
acid solution is duerespec-
to the
tively.
higherThe poor performance
portlandite content in it, of which
the control concrete
contrarily in acid solution
got consumed in theisSCBA-incorporated
due to the higher
portlandite
mixes due content in it, which
to secondary hydratescontrarily
formation got as
consumed
evidenced in by
thethermogravimetric
SCBA-incorporatedanalysis mixes
due
andto secondary
the Chapellehydrates
test. It is formation
well-known as that
evidenced
duringby thethermogravimetric
pozzolanic reaction, analysis and the
lower-density
Chapelle
portlandite test. It is well-known
formed during cement thathydration
during the pozzolanictoreaction,
is consumed form thelower-density
higher-densityport- sec-
landite formed during cement hydration is consumed to form
ondary calcium silicate hydrate gel, thus densifying the concrete microstructure. the higher-density secondary
The den-
calcium
sificationsilicate
of thehydrate
concrete gel, thus densifying
microstructure the concrete
enhances microstructure.
the resistance to acidThe densification
penetration into
of the concrete
pores and reducesmicrostructure
the degreeenhances the resistance
of deterioration caused to by
acid penetration
acidic media. intoArif pores
et al. and
[56] re-
in-
duces the degree
vestigated SCBAofuse deterioration
as SCM incaused cement bymortar
acidic media.
and found Arif that
et al.SCBA
[56] investigated
incorporation SCBA re-
use as SCM in cement mortar and found that SCBA incorporation
duced the weight loss and strength loss of mortar upon acid exposure, which might be reduced the weight loss
and
duestrength loss of mortar upon acid exposure, which might be due to pore refinement.
to pore refinement.

Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 18

Figure14.
Figure 14.Weight
Weightloss
lossofofconcrete
concretemixes
mixessubjected
subjectedtotoacid
acidattack.
attack.

Figure15.
Figure 15.Strength
Strengthloss
lossof
ofconcrete
concretemixes
mixessubjected
subjectedtotoacid
acidattack.
attack.
Buildings 2022, 12, 1769 15 of 18

Figure 15. Strength loss of concrete mixes subjected to acid attack.

Figure 15. Strength loss of concrete mixes subjected to acid attack.

Figure16.
Figure 16.Specimens
Specimensafter
afterimmersion
immersionininhydrochloric
hydrochloricacid.
acid.
Figure 16. Specimens after immersion in hydrochloric acid.

Figure 17. Specimens after immersion in sulfuric acid.

Figure17.
Figure 17.Specimens
Specimensafter
afterimmersion
immersionin
insulfuric
sulfuricacid.
acid.
4. Conclusions and Recommendations
4.4.Conclusions
Conclusionsand andRecommendations
Recommendations
The incorporation of processed SCBA as a supplementary cementing material has
beenThe
The incorporation
incorporation
corroborated of
in thisof processed
processedThe
research. SCBA
SCBA as
asaasupplementary
following supplementary
conclusions have cementing
cementing
been drawn material
fromhas
material has
the
been
been corroborated
corroborated in
in this
this research.
research. The
The following
following conclusions
conclusions have
have been
been drawn
drawn from
from the
the
analysis of obtained results.
analysis
analysisofofobtained
obtainedresults.
results.
(a) Most of the SCBA properties comply with that of pozzolan specified in ASTM stand-
(a) Most
(a) Most of the SCBA C618-19.
ard specifications properties comply
comply
SCBA with
with that
exhibited that of
ofpozzolan
pozzolan
pozzolanic specified
specified
reactivity ininASTM
as indicatedASTM bystand-
stan-
ther-
dard
ard specifications
specifications C618-19.
C618-19. SCBA
SCBA exhibited
exhibited
mogravimetric analyses and microstructural investigations. pozzolanic
pozzolanic reactivity
reactivity as as indicated
indicated by by
ther-
thermogravimetric
mogravimetric analyses
analyses and and microstructural
microstructural investigations.
investigations.
(b) Fresh concrete properties improved with the SCBA addition which was probably due
(b)
(b) Fresh
to theconcrete
Fresh removalproperties
concrete of fibrousimproved
properties improved
and unburnt with
with the
theSCBA
SCBA
particles. addition which
additionthe
However, which was
freshwas probably
probably
concrete due
due
density
to
to the removal
the removal
decreased along of fibrous
ofwith
fibrous and unburnt
and unburnt
replacing particles. However,
particles.attributed
SCBA content, the
However,tothe fresh
itsfresh concrete
lowerconcrete density
specific density
weight.
decreased
decreased along
along with
with replacing
replacing SCBA
SCBA content,
content, attributed
attributed to
to its
its lower specific
specific weight.
weight.
(c) The mechanical strength increased with SCBA incorporation and with the increasing
(c)
(c) The
The mechanical
mechanical strength increased with
withSCBA incorporation and with
withtothe increasing
testing age. Thestrength
increaseincreased
in compressive SCBA
strengthincorporation
appears toand be due thetheincreasing
reactivity
testing
testing age.
age. The increase in in compressive
compressive strength
strength appears
appears to
to be
be due
due to
to the
the reactivity
reactivity
of SCBA. At 28 days, the maximum compressive strength with 30% substitution of
of
of SCBA.
SCBA.byAtAt 28
28 days,
days, the
themaximum
maximum compressive strength with 30%
30%substitution of
cement SCBA resulted in 21 MPa;compressive
hence, it can strength with
be used for structural substitution
applications of
cement
cement by
by SCBA
SCBA resulted in in 21
21 MPa; hence, itit can be used for structural applications
when used up to resulted
30% replacement MPa; ofhence,
cement. can be used for structural applications
when used up to 30% replacement
when used up to 30% replacement of cement. of cement.
(d) The water absorption and sorptivity of concrete decreased with increasing SCBA
incorporation due to the filler effect and clogging of pores by the formation of poz-
zolanic hydrates.
(e) The quality of most of the concrete mixes containing SCBA has been classified as
excellent based on UPV values as per BIS:13311-92 which corresponds to the densi-
fied microstructure.
(f) SCBA-incorporated concrete offered better resistance to sulfuric acid and hydrochloric
acid than that of the control concrete. However, the sulfuric acid had more pronounced
deterioration in terms of scaling than the damage caused by the hydrochloric acid,
which was due to delayed ettringite formation in the case of the former.
(g) Thermogravimetric analysis results depicted the extent of higher pozzolanic reac-
tion upon the incorporation of SCBA by consumption of portlandite in the cement
paste matrix.
In conclusion, the successful utilization of treated SCBA as supplementary cementi-
tious material shall enhance its pozzolanic reactivity in concrete and may reduce the waste
disposal carbon emission due to cement production. For future research, the durability per-
Buildings 2022, 12, 1769 16 of 18

formance, including frost resistance and resistance to cyclic loading, must be investigated
in detail.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, S.A.M.; data curation, M.I.S.; formal analysis, S.A.M.,
U.J., and A.H.; methodology, S.A.M.; investigation, M.I.S.; writing—original draft, S.A.M. and U.J.;
supervision, S.A.M.; visualization, U.J.; writing—reviFew and editing, S.A.M., U.J., and A.H.; funding
acquisition, S.A.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: The article processing charges will be funded by Nazarbayev University faculty-development
competitive research grants (021220FD0651).
Data Availability Statement: The data used to support the findings of this study are included within
the article.
Acknowledgments: The authors acknowledge the support provided by the lab staff in the concrete
lab at COMSATS University Islamabad (Abbottabad Campus).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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