New Era University

No. 9 Central Avenue, New Era, Quezon City

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION

The Child and Adolescent Learners and

Learning Principles
(PEd- 1-18)

M5 - ACTIVITY 1 - Compilations of Readings for Lessons A-F

Submitted by:

Bryan V. Barboza

2CED-3

Submitted to:

Dr. Luningning B. De Castro

PEd – 1 – 18 Professor

2021

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A. WHAT IS LEARNING?
The word learning is used routinely in discussions about teaching in higher education, so it’s
important to clarify what we are referring to when we talk about learning. Educational researchers
agree that learning is much deeper than memorization and information recall. Deep and long-
lasting learning involves understanding, relating ideas and making connections between prior and
new knowledge, independent and critical thinking and ability to transfer knowledge to new and
different contexts.

• Learning is “a process that leads to change, which occurs as a result of experience and
increases the potential for improved performance and future learning” (Ambrose et al,
2010, p.3). The change in the learner may happen at the level of knowledge, attitude or
behavior. As a result of learning, learners come to see concepts, ideas, and/or the world
differently.
• Learning is not something done to students, but rather something students themselves do.
It is the direct result of how students interpret and respond to their experiences.
• While there are disciplinary differences in what students learn, it is important to keep in
mind that learning content or information constitutes only one part of learning in university
courses. Regardless of the field of study, students need to have significant opportunities to
develop and practice intellectual skills/thinking processes (e.g. problem-solving, scientific
inquiry), motor skills and attitudes/values that are important to their fields of study. In
addition, students need opportunities to develop interpersonal and social skills (often
referred to as soft skills) that are important for professional and personal success. Examples
of these skills include teamwork, effective communication, conflict resolution and creative
thinking. As teaching assistants and instructors, we need to keep in mind that there is much
more to learning than content and that we should pay attention not only to the content but
also to thinking processes and other types of learning.
Before we dive into understanding the relevant science behind the learning process, let’s ground
ourselves in a definition of learning that is drawn from research.
Learning is a process that:

1. is active - process of engaging and manipulating objects, experiences, and conversations

in order to build mental models of the world (Dewey, 1938; Piaget, 1964; Vygotsky, 1986).
Learners build knowledge as they explore the world around them, observe and interact with

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phenomena, converse and engage with others, and make connections between new ideas
and prior understandings.

2. builds on prior knowledge - and involves enriching, building on, and changing existing
understanding, where “one’s knowledge base is a scaffold that supports the construction of
all future learning” (Alexander, 1996, p. 89).
3. occurs in a complex social environment - and thus should not be limited to being
examined or perceived as something that happens on an individual level. Instead, it is
necessary to think of learning as a social activity involving people, the things they use, the
words they speak, the cultural context they’re in, and the actions they take (Bransford, et
al., 2006; Rogoff, 1998), and that knowledge is built by members in the activity
(Scardamalia & Bereiter, 2006).
4. is situated in an authentic context - provides learners with the opportunity to engage with
specific ideas and concepts on a need-to-know or want-to-know basis (Greeno, 2006;
Kolodner, 2006).
5. requires learners’ motivation and cognitive engagement to be sustained when learning
complex ideas, because considerable mental effort and persistence are necessary.
The conditions for inputs to learning are clear, but the process is incomplete without making sense
of what outputs constitute learning has taken place. At the core, learning is a process that results
in a change in knowledge or behavior as a result of experience. Understanding what it takes to get
that knowledge in and out (or promote behavioral change of a specific kind) can help optimize
learning.

References:
What is Learning? (n.d.). Teaching and Learning in Higher Education. Retrieved November 28,

2021, Retrieve from

https://www.queensu.ca/teachingandlearning/modules/students/04_what_is_learning.html

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What is Learning? | Center for Teaching & Learning. (n.d.). Berkeley Center for Teaching &

Learning. Retrieved November 28, 2021, Retrieve from

https://teaching.berkeley.edu/resources/learn/what-learning

B. Approaches to Learning 1. Behavioral 2. Social cognitive 3. Information

processing 4. Cognitive constructivist 5. Social constructivist

What is a “Learning Approach”?

A learning approach is a pretty self-explanatory term. Any learning method that you use to gain
knowledge is a learning approach. The difference here is that a learning approach is categorized
based on the goals that it helps to achieve. So, if a learning approach has proven to help memorize
facts, it will be defined all around this characteristic instead of the way the brain work, the
information is retained or any other scientific explanation.

Now what happens here is that a learner is expected to opt for a learning approach that suits the
learning aims. This is what ensures that the process itself will prove effective. Each learning
approach is best suited for the respective objective and works seamlessly for the learner regardless
of their learning style.

6 Types of Learning Approaches

Since learning is technically boundary-less, it is only right if there are numerous learning
approaches to match various learning goals.
It is best to be aware of all the available options so that you can choose the best one as per your
objectives.
1. Behavioristic Approach
If you have a faint idea about the behaviorism theory in learning, you’ll understand this approach
very easily.[1]

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Basically, as the name suggests, this approach is focused on behavior for the most part. Any sort
of learning that is aimed towards a change in behavior is learned best by this approach.
Several skills require a change in behavior rather than the retention of information. It is mostly
used in practical learning.
The behavioristic learning approach emphasizes repetition and reinforcement. To elaborate, you
can look at the 8 types of learnings introduced by Gagne. These include:
1. Recognition: The stage where the learner gets a signal of new knowledge or occurrence
2. Stimulus: The learner reacts to the received information
3. Multiple discrimination: In this learning, the individual reacts but the responses are
carefully chosen to be most relevant to the information received
4. Concept learning: Based on the stimulus activated by the information, the individual
understands the meaning instead of the information itself
5. Verbal chain learning: Based on whatever information is received, the learner associates
a certain verbal pattern with this new knowledge
6. Motor chain learning: In this type of learning, the individual follows a chain of actions
that they deem necessary
7. Acquisition of rules: This is an extension of concept learning where the learner behaves
as per the understanding by creating certain rules in their head
8. Problem-solving: the learner creates rules after understanding the concept and then uses
the entire information to come up with something creative
All these types technically define the types of behaviors that any new information can stimulate.

2. Social Learning
Social learning is very closely related to the behavioristic approach. In fact, it is an extension of
the same concept.
However, the social learning approach involves the observations of others’ behaviors instead of
focusing on the behavior of the learner. For example, children do what they see their parents doing.

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This approach also emphasizes the fact that students of any age and in any environment will do as
they see, not as they hear.

3. Constructivist Approach
Constructing basic knowledge is what the constructivist learning approach is all about.
Skills that require the learner to be creative should be practiced using this approach. This technique
puts a lot of focus on reflection and reevaluation. This encourages the learner to brainstorm by
creating connections and links in their minds with prior knowledge. It also puts the learner in
charge of the route that the learning takes.

4. Cognitive Approach
The cognitive learning approach is focused on memorizing and remembering. Don’t
misunderstand to be a process of cramming information. Instead, it is a deep method that allows
the brain to understand the information and then remembers it for long-term.
It is a great learning method to use for anything that involves the memorization of bigger pieces
of information. But, at the same time, you want a solid understanding of every bit of knowledge
that gets imprinted in your mind.

5. Experiential Approach
When you learn something by doing it practically, you are following the experiential learning
approach.
There are various categories of experiences that teach you something. This may be an observation
of an event, being a part of an occurrence, purposely trying out a new skill or process, or reflecting
on any of these experiences.
Whatever the case, it is generally important that the learner is an important part of the experience.
this leads to first-hand learning.

6. Humanist Approach

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The humanistic theory is based entirely on the concept of goodness for all. It aims for a united
world that is at peace, where there is an even spread of knowledge, and the learners gain skills and
knowledge that have positive effects.[2]
Now, you may have already guessed that this approach works best for group tasks. Learning that
has spiritual grounds or aimed towards a community will be done right with this learning
approach. This technique starts by encouraging the learner to focus on the right versus the wrong.
Moreover, the humanistic approach has two forms:
Pedagogy is the mere transmission of knowledge which is basic learning. However, andragogy
makes things interesting by putting all the learning control in the hands of the learner.
Hence, this method is well-suited for leaners that are highly motivated and do not like to be
controlled.

Note: For further information kindly see the attached article in this lesson.
Reference:
Ho, L. (2020, April 6). Which Learning Approach is the Best for You? Here’s How to Know.

Lifehack. Retrieved November 28, 2021, from

https://www.lifehack.org/870271/learning-approach

C. Connectionism

WHAT IS CONNECTIONISM?

Connectionism is an approach to the study of human cognition that utilizes mathematical models,
known as connectionist networks or artificial neural networks. Often, these come in the form of
highly interconnected, neuron-like processing units. There is no sharp dividing line between
connectionism and computational neuroscience, but connectionists tend more often to abstract
away from the specific details of neural functioning to focus on high-level cognitive processes (for
example, recognition, memory, comprehension, grammatical competence and reasoning). During
connectionism’s ideological heyday in the late twentieth century, its proponents aimed to replace

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theoretical appeals to formal rules of inference and sentence-like cognitive representations with
appeals to the parallel processing of diffuse patterns of neural activity.

Connectionism was pioneered in the 1940s and had attracted a great deal of attention by the 1960s.
However, major flaws in the connectionist modeling techniques were soon revealed, and this led
to reduced interest in connectionist research and reduced funding. But in the 1980s connectionism
underwent a potent, permanent revival. During the later part of the twentieth century,
connectionism would be touted by many as the brain-inspired replacement for the computational
artifact-inspired ‘classical’ approach to the study of cognition. Like classicism, connectionism
attracted and inspired a major cohort of naturalistic philosophers, and the two broad camps clashed
over whether or not connectionism had the wherewithal to resolve central quandaries concerning
minds, language, rationality and knowledge. More recently, connectionist techniques and concepts
have helped inspire philosophers and scientists who maintain that human and non-human cognition
is best explained without positing inner representations of the world. Indeed, connectionist
techniques are now very widely embraced, even if few label themselves connectionists anymore.
This is an indication of connectionism’s success.

Note: For further information kindly refer to the attached link below.

Reference:

Connectionism | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. (n.d.). Internet Encyclopedia of

Philosophy. Retrieved November 28, 2021, from https://iep.utm.edu/connect/

D. Conditioning 1. Classical 2. Contiguous 3. Operant

WHAT IS CONDITIONING?
Conditioning, in physiology, a behavioral process whereby a response becomes more frequent or
more predictable in a given environment as a result of reinforcement, with reinforcement typically
being a stimulus or reward for a desired response. Early in the 20th century, through the study
of reflexes, physiologists in Russia, England, and the United States developed the procedures,

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observations, and definitions of conditioning. After the 1920s, psychologists turned their research
to the nature and prerequisites of conditioning.
Conditioning is a form of learning in which either (1) a given stimulus (or signal) becomes
increasingly effective in evoking a response or (2) a response occurs with increasing regularity in
a well-specified and stable environment. The type of reinforcement used will determine the
outcome. When two stimuli are presented in an appropriate time and intensity relationship, one of
them will eventually induce a response resembling that of the other.

WHAT IS CLASSICAL CONDITIONING?

Classical conditioning is a learning technique associated with the relation between a stimulus and
its response. In other words, it is a method that involves stimulating a subject’s mind to get a
particular response from it.
This psychological theory was first introduced by Ivan Pavlov. The theory states that a subject can
be conditioned to respond differently to a previously neutral stimulus if the neutral stimulus is
paired up with any other stimulus that creates the required response. By presenting both stimulus
simultaneously, the subject will unconsciously associate its current response to the neutral stimulus
too.
This technique is widely used to train animals. By creating a positive stimulus and then matching
it to the neutral stimulus that needs to be taught, the trainer can modify the animal’s behavior and
get the response he is looking for after repeating the process for a given period of time. This method
is also called Pavlovian conditioning.

EXAMPLE:
Mr. Banks wants like to train his dog so he can jump when he says the word “Up”. He has been
doing some research on Classical Conditioning and he bought some cookies to reward the dog
whenever he does what he intends. How can Mr. Banks use classical conditioning properly to train
his dog to jump at command?
In this case, the word “up” is the neutral stimulus, since the dog doesn’t react to it. What Mr. Banks
should aim is to tie the word “up” to the reaction of jumping. What he needs to do is to get the dog
to jump and then give the dog a cookie to create a positive stimulus for jumping. After he achieves

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that, he must match the jump to the word “up”. So he will get the dog jumping and regularly repeat
the word “up” to him, and keep rewarding the dog when this gets done properly. After a while the
dog will be conditioned to jump every time he hears the command “up” because he is conditioned
to think on the reward. So, the previously neutral stimulus is finally attached to the positive one
and the positive one will not be needed later.

CONTIGUOUS CONDITIONING
Contiguous conditioning is also a part of the behaviorist school. This approach, developed by
Edwin Guthrie, states that a stimulus that causes a response will cause the same response if the
stimulus is experienced again. In other words, a behavior (response) will be repeated if the same
situation (stimulus) is experienced again.
For example, if a teacher provides a stimulus of “be quiet in the classroom” and the students’
response is silence every single time they are in the classroom this is considered contiguous
conditioning. Every time they hear “be quite in the classroom” the student develops an association
between silence and the classroom.
Habits
One influential aspect of Guthrie’s work was in habits. Habits are learned behaviors in response
to various cues. Continuing with the be quiet example, if the teacher tells the students to be quiet
in the classroom, library, and hallway. Students develop the habit of being quiet in many different
settings. The stimulus is now leading to responses in various context developing an overall habit.
Habit Breaking
Guthrie not only study habit formation but also habit breaking. He devised three methods of
breaking habits
• Threshold
• Fatigue
• Incompatible response
Threshold
In order to break a habit, a person introduces a weak stimulus and gradually increasing the strength
right to the point of the person’s tolerance. For example, if students cannot sit still to study (bad
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habit). The teacher might gradually increase the amount of time students have to sit still and study
(weak to strong stimulus) from five minutes to eventually 30 minutes. By moving incrementally,
the students slowly break the bad habit of restlessness and replace it with the habit of diligent
study.
Fatigue
This approach works by forcing an individual to repeat an unwanted response in the presence of a
stimulus. Continuing with our restless student example, if students cannot sit still (bad habit), the
teacher would make them run around nonstop until they are exhausted (stimulus until fatigue).
Even though students love to play, the possibility of fatigue from over exposure changes their
behavior.
Incompatible Response
This method involves the presence of a stimulus but having the person make a response that is
incompatible with the unwanted response. Using the same example of restless students (bad
habit/response), a teacher might have students write a story (incompatible response). Since it is
difficult to write and talk at the same time, it helps to encourage the desired behavior of silence
(desired response). The response of writing and talking are incompatible with each other. This
friction leads to the silence that the teacher desires.

Conclusion
Guthrie’s work seems to have been forgotten in education. It is common to speak of classical and
operant but rarely of contiguous conditioning. Guthrie work discourages punishment while
encouraging the replacement of bad habits with good. This is advice that many teachers struggling
with classroom management should consider.

OPERANT CONDITIONING
Operant conditioning, sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning, is a method of learning
that employs rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an association
is made between a behavior and a consequence (whether negative or positive) for that behavior.1

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For example, when lab rats press a lever when a green light is on, they receive a food pellet as a
reward. When they press the lever when a red light is on, they receive a mild electric shock. As a
result, they learn to press the lever when the green light is on and avoid the red light.
But operant conditioning is not just something that takes place in experimental settings while
training lab animals. It also plays a powerful role in everyday learning. Reinforcement and
punishment take place in natural settings all the time, as well as in more structured settings such
as classrooms or therapy sessions.

The History of Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning was first described by behaviorist B.F. Skinner, which is why you may
occasionally hear it referred to as Skinnerian conditioning.1 As a behaviorist, Skinner believed
that it was not really necessary to look at internal thoughts and motivations in order to explain
behavior. Instead, he suggested, we should look only at the external, observable causes of human
behavior.
Through the first part of the 20th century, behaviorism became a major force within psychology.
The ideas of John B. Watson dominated this school of thought early on. Watson focused on the
principles of classical conditioning, once famously suggesting that he could take any person
regardless of their background and train them to be anything he chose.
Early behaviorists focused their interests on associative learning. Skinner was more interested in
how the consequences of people's actions influenced their behavior.

Types of Behaviors
Skinner distinguished between two different types of behaviors:
Respondent behaviors are those that occur automatically and reflexively, such as pulling your
hand back from a hot stove or jerking your leg when the doctor taps on your knee. You don't have
to learn these behaviors. They simply occur automatically and involuntarily.
Operant behaviors, on the other hand, are those under our conscious control. Some may occur
spontaneously and others purposely, but it is the consequences of these actions that then influence
whether or not they occur again in the future. Our actions on the environment and the consequences
of that action make up an important part of the learning process.
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While classical conditioning could account for respondent behaviors, Skinner realized that it could
not account for a great deal of learning. Instead, Skinner suggested that operant conditioning held
far greater importance.
Skinner invented different devices during his boyhood and he put these skills to work during his
studies on operant conditioning. He created a device known as an operant conditioning chamber,
often referred to today as a Skinner box. The chamber could hold a small animal, such as a rat or
pigeon. The box also contained a bar or key that the animal could press in order to receive a reward.
In order to track responses, Skinner also developed a device known as a cumulative recorder. The
device recorded responses as an upward movement of a line so that response rates could be read
by looking at the slope of the line.

Components of Operant Conditioning

There are several key concepts in operant conditioning.
Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning
Reinforcement is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows. There are two
kinds of reinforcers. In both of these cases of reinforcement, the behavior increases.
Positive reinforcers are favorable events or outcomes that are presented after the behavior. In
positive reinforcement situations, a response or behavior is strengthened by the addition of praise
or a direct reward. If you do a good job at work and your manager gives you a bonus, that bonus
is a positive reinforcer.
Negative reinforcers involve the removal of an unfavorable events or outcomes after the display
of a behavior. In these situations, a response is strengthened by the removal of something
considered unpleasant. For example, if your child starts to scream in the middle of a restaurant,
but stops once you hand them a treat, your action led to the removal of the unpleasant condition,
negatively reinforcing your behavior (not your child's).

Punishment in Operant Conditioning

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Punishment is the presentation of an adverse event or outcome that causes a decrease in the
behavior it follows. There are two kinds of punishment. In both of these cases, the behavior
decreases.
Positive punishment, sometimes referred to as punishment by application, presents an
unfavorable event or outcome in order to weaken the response it follows. Spanking for misbehavior
is an example of punishment by application.
Negative punishment, also known as punishment by removal, occurs when a favorable event or
outcome is removed after a behavior occurs. Taking away a child's video game following
misbehavior is an example of negative punishment.

Note: For further information kindly refer to the attached links below.

References:
conditioning | Definition, Examples, Pavlov, & Facts. (n.d.). Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved

November 28, 2021, from https://www.britannica.com/science/conditioning

Darrin. (2017, July 24). Contiguous Conditioning. Educational Research Techniques. Retrieved

November 28, 2021, from

https://educationalresearchtechniques.com/2015/02/10/contiguous-conditioning/

What is Classical Conditioning? (n.d.). My Accounting Course. Retrieved November 28, 2021,

from https://www.myaccountingcourse.com/accounting-dictionary/classical-conditioning

What Is Operant Conditioning and How Does It Work? (2020, June 4). Verywell Mind.

Retrieved November 28, 2021, from https://www.verywellmind.com/operant-

conditioning-a2-2794863

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E. BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS IN EDUCATION

What is Applied Behavior Analysis?
Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) is a scientific approach to understanding behavior. ABA refers
to a set of principles that focus on how behaviors change, or are affected by the environment, as
well as how learning takes place. The term behavior refers to skills and actions needed to talk,
play, and live. While these principles impact everyone each day, they can be applied systematically
through interventions to help individuals learn and apply new skills in their daily lives.
ABA requires the implementation of established principles of learning, behavioral strategies, and
environmental modifications to improve and teach new behaviors. In practice, implementation
must be systematic so teachers can identify how behavior can be changed and understand how
learning occurred. The ultimate goal of ABA is to establish and enhance socially important
behaviors. Such behaviors can include academic, social, communication, and daily living skills;
essentially, any skill that will enhance the independence and/or quality of life for the individual.

Note: For further information kindly refer to the attached link below.
Hendrick, D. (n.d.). Autism Q & A: What is Applied Behavior Analysis? Vcuautismcenter.Org.

Retrieved November 28, 2021, from

https://vcuautismcenter.org/resources/factsheets/printView.cfm/982

F. Gestalt-Insight Learning

Meaning of Gestalt Theory

The Gestalt theorists were the first group of psychologists to systematically study perceptual
organisation around the 1920’s, in Germany. They were Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Ernst
Mach, and particularly of Christian von Ehrenfels and the research work of Max Wertheimer,
Wolfgang Köhler, Kurt Koffka, and Kurt Lewin According to the Gestalt psychologists certain
features in visual perception are universal. In semiotic terms, these universal features can be
thought of as a perceptual code.

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Gestalt is a sensual theory, what we see is a result of light and dark objects, edges and contours
that we form into a whole image. Sensual theories are of a lower order of thinking than perceptual
theories, such as semiotics, that are concerned with the meaning we attach to what we see.

Dissatisfied with the behaviourist approach of learning, the psychologists tried to see learning as
a more deliberate and conscious effort of the individual rather than a mere product of habit
formation or a machine-like stimulus-response connection. According to them the learner does not
merely respond to a stimulus, but mentally processes what he receives or perceives. Thus learning
is a purposive, explorative and creative activity instead of trial and error.Things cannot be
understood by the study of its constituent parts only ,bu actually it is understood only by perceiving
it as a totality or whole.

Gestalt theory focused on the mind’s perceptive. The word ‘Gestalt’ has no direct translation in
English, but refers to “a way a thing has been gestalt; i.e., placed, or put together”; common
translations include ‘form’ and ‘shape’. Gaetano Kanizca refers to it as ‘organized structure’.
Gestalt theorists followed the basic principle that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. In
other words, the whole (a picture, a car) carried a different and altogether greater meaning than its
individual components (paint,canvas,brush;or tire, paint, metal, respectively). In viewing the
“whole,” a cognitive process takes place –the mind makes a leap from understanding the parts to
realizing the whole.

Insightful learning is also known as Gestalt learning which means that learning is concerned with
the whole individual and arises from the interaction of an individual with his situations or
environment. Through this interaction emerge new forms of perception, imagination and ideas
which altogether constitute insight.

Insight operates when an individual tries to find solutions to problems. A gestalt means the pattern,
configuration or a form of perceiving the whole. In this situation stimuli and responses are
combined in an organized and unified pattern.

It is a theory regarding ‘perception’. Gestalt considers learning as the development of insight,

which is primarily concerned with the nature of perception. Perception is a process by which an
organism interprets and organizes sensation to produce a meaningful experience of the world. It
is the ultimate experience of the world and typically involves further processing of sensory input.

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Steps in Insight Learning

1. Identification of the problem: The learner identify the presence of a block as an intervening
obstacles on his way to the goal.

2. Analysis of the Problem situation: The learner observes the problematic situation, analyse the
different components in the problematic situation and perceive the relation between the
goal and the block.

3. Establishing mental association in between similar previously acquired ideas : After

analyzing the total situation he selects probable solutions in conclusions by means of
hesitation, pause, concentrated attention etc.

4. Trail of Mode of Response: The learner makes initial efforts in the form of a simple trial and
error mechanism.

5. Sustained Attention: The learner maintains frequently recurrent attention to the goal and
motivation.

6. Establishing cause-effect relationship: In a certain moment there is a sudden perception of

the relationship in the total situation and the organism directly performs the required acts.
This is Insight development.

7. Steady Repetition of Adaptive Behaviour: After getting an insightful solution, the individual
tries to implement it in another situation.

F. Experiential Learning Theory

Learning by doing. This is the basis for the experiential learning theory. Experiential learning
focuses on the idea that the best ways to learn things is by actually having experiences. Those
experiences then stick out in your mind and help you retain information and remember facts.
For teachers, creating opportunities for students to have experiences based on the things they are
learning about is key. Teachers can help create environments where students can learn and have
experiences at the same time.

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If you’re a current teacher, or studying to become one, it’s important to get a degree that will give
you qualifications and knowledge for your career, and help prepare you to be licensed.
Additionally, it’s key to understand how different students learn and understand how
different learning theories impact education. Teachers who understand learning theories can better
optimize their classroom and help more students learn in ways that work for them. Being a
successful teacher means focusing on how best to help students succeed.

Kolb’s experiential learning theory

David Kolb is best known for his work on the experiential learning theory or ELT. Kolb published
this model in 1984, getting his influence from other great theorists including John Dewey, Kurt
Lewin, and Jean Piaget. The experiential learning theory works in four stages—concrete learning,
reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation. The first two stages
of the cycle involve grasping an experience, the second two focus on transforming an experience.
Kolb argues that effective learning is seen as the learner goes through the cycle, and that they can
enter into the cycle at any time.
Concrete learning is when a learner gets a new experience, or interprets a past experience in a new
way.
Reflective observation comes next, where the learner reflects on their experience personally. They
use the lens of their experience and understanding to reflect on what this experience means.
Abstract conceptualization happens as the learner forms new ideas or adjusts their thinking based
on the experience and their reflection about it.
Active experimentation is where the learner applies the new ideas to the world around them, to see
if there are any modifications to be made. This process can happen over a short period of time, or
over a long span of time.
Kolb went on to explain that learners will have their own preferences for how they enter the cycle
of experiential learning, and that these preferences boil down to a learning cycle.

Kolb's experiential learning cycle model.

The experiential learning cycle rests on the idea that each person has a specific type of learning
tendencies, and they are thus dominant in certain stages of experiential learning. For example,
some learners will be more dominant in concrete learning and reflective observation, while others
will be dominant in abstract conceptualization and active experimentation.

The four learning styles are:

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Diverging. The diverging learning style is full of learners who look at things with a unique
perspective. They want to watch instead of do, and they also have a strong capacity to imagine.
These learners usually prefer to work in groups, have broad interests in cultures and people, and
more. They usually focus on concrete learning and reflective observation, wanting to observe and
see the situation before diving in.

Assimilating. This learning style involves learners getting clear information. These learners prefer
concepts and abstracts to people, and explore using analytic models. These learners focus on
abstract conceptualization and reflective observation in the experiential learning style.

Converging. Converging learners solve problems. They apply what they’ve learned to practical
issues, and prefer technical tasks. They are also known to experiment with new ideas, and their
learning focuses on abstract conceptualization and active experimentation.

Accommodating: These learners prefer practicality. They enjoy new challenges and use intuition
to help solve problems. These learners utilize concrete learning and active experimentation when
they learn.

H. Current Research and Pedagogical Applications

ABSTRACT

This paper takes the concept of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), which is well known in
teacher education, and applies it in research methods education where it has not been previously
used. It asks how experienced social science research methods teachers, who know their subject
(method) well, teach advanced social research methods to others. Drawing on a wider, multi-
method qualitative study conducted in the UK, the paper shows the participating teachers’
orientation to teaching methods and how they combine knowledge of content and pedagogy in
generic and distinctive PCK. It shows specifically their use of data for translating methods to
become readily knowable for students. The case is made for identifying PCK through dialogic
means as a vehicle for stimulating attention to the pedagogical dimension within policy-critical
efforts to build research capacity.

Note: For further information kindly refer to the attached link below.

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COLLEGE OF EDUCATION

References:
Maheshwari, V. K. (2015, January 27). Gestalt Theory- The Insight Learning | Dr. V.K.

Maheshwari, Ph.D. Vkmaheshwari. Retrieved November 28, 2021, from

http://www.vkmaheshwari.com/WP/?p=1841

Western Governors University. (2020, June 8). Experiential Learning Theory. Retrieved

November 28, 2021, from https://www.wgu.edu/blog/experiential-learning-

theory2006.html#close

Nind, M. (2019, August 9). A new application for the concept of pedagogical content knowledge:

teaching advanced social science research methods. Taylor & Francis. Retrieved

November 28, 2021, from

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03054985.2019.1644996

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