Study Guide in Teaching and Assessment of Macro Skills FM-AA-CIA-15 Rev.

0 10-July-2020

Module 2 – The Expressive Macro Skills - Speaking

Module No. 2

The Expressive Macro Skills - SPEAKING

MODULE OVERVIEW

Enumerated below are topics that you need to study in this module.
Feedbacking in Assessing Speaking
1) Nature and Purposes of Speaking
2) Mechanics and Process of Speaking
3) Speech Styles and Registers (Frozen, Formal, Consultative, Casual, Intimate, Aggressive, Passive,
Assertive)
4) Austin and Searle’s Speech Acts Locutionary, Illocutionary, and Perlocutionary)
5) Review on Segmental, Suprasegmental, Modes of Communication, Types of Speech Delivery)
6) Speaking Formats (Interaction, Transaction, Performance)
7) Lesson Design in Teaching Speaking
8) Materials and Resources in Teaching Speaking
9) Performance-Based Assessment in Teaching Speaking

MODULE LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:

a) select differentiated learning tasks in teaching speaking to suit learners’ gender, needs, strengths
interests, and experiences;
b) demonstrate how to provide timely, accurate, and constructive feedback to improve learner performance
in the different tasks in speaking through simulations;
c) craft a learning plan according to the English curricula that is developed from research-based knowledge
and principles of speaking and the theoretical bases, principles, methods, and strategies in teaching
these components; and
d) conduct a teaching demonstration of the assigned learning competencies in speaking.

LEARNING CONTENTS

Speech is the basic means of communication. Bailey and Savage (1994) said that speaking in a
second language or foreign language has often been viewed as the most demanding and challenging of
the four skills. According to Brown (1994) a number of features od spoken language or foreign language
includes reduced forms such as contractions, vowel reduction, and elision; slang and idioms; stress rhythm
and intonation. These make speaking in a second language or foreign language difficult. Students who are
not exposed to reduced speech will always retain their full forms and it will become a disadvantage as a
speaker of a second language. Speaking is an activity requiring the integration of many subsystems.

Nature and Purpose of Speaking

Oral communication is a two-way process between speaker and listener (or listeners) and involves
the productive skill of speaking and the receptive skill of understanding (or listening with understanding.)
Both speaker and listener have a positive function to perform. In simple terms, the speaker has to encode
the message he whishes to convey in appropriate language, while the listener (no less actively) has to
decode (or interpret) the message.
The goal of the teaching speaking skills is communicative efficiency. Learners should be able to
make themselves understand, using their current proficiency to the fullest. They should try to avoid

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confusion in the message due to faulty pronunciation, grammar, or vocabulary. In addition, they should
observe the social and cultural rules that apply in each communication situation.
To help learners develop communicative efficiency in speaking, instructors or teachers can use a
balanced activities approach that combines language input, structured output, and communicative output.

Teaching Speaking
Teaching speaking is a complex activity. Teacher should hold many activities into one activity.
They must have many strategies and interesting method to teach the student who have many
characteristics. The teacher teaches four skills at once indirecly in speaking class. Anjaniputra (2013: 1)
says that the teaching of speaking is having high concern in many language programs and teaching
strategies cannot be denied as a factor influencing the teaching outcome.
Teaching speaking becomes important factor in language learning. By speaking students have
chance to apply their language knowledge in their daily life. For the teacher speaking activity become
assessment media to measure student achievement. For example, the teacher holds the test by reading
aloud, conducting dialogue in pair or telling story. Khamkhien (2010: 184) says that, to 11 successfully
assess how language learners enhance their performance and achieve language learning goals, the four
macro skills of listening, speaking reading and writing are usually the most frequently assessed and
focused areas. However, speaking, as a productive skill, seems intuitively the most important of all the four
language skills because it can distinctly show the correctness and language errors that a language learner
makes.

Purpose of Speaking

When speaking, the first question you should ask 'What am I trying to achieve?' In brief, you can
seek to inform, persuade or something in between. Here are four types of speaking on this spectrum.

Informative speaking
Informative speaking seeks to inform. Its goal is that the listeners understand something in the same
way that the speaker understands that subject. In this way, the speaker is sharing meaning and ways of
understanding.

Informative speaking uses facts, data, logic, evidence and other solid information and structured
presentations to help the listeners understand and remember the information presented. It may well
ask Kipling questions, such as 'Who', 'When', 'How' and 'Where' and then answer with the relevant
information.
Three types of informative speaking are:
Description speeches: That describe objects or events.
Exploration speeches: That clarify ideas.
Demonstration speeches: That teach a process.

Once the hurdles of interest and attention have been surmounted, the biggest question that many
informative speakers face is the cognitive ability of their audience to grasp what can be difficult concepts.
This is a problem that academic speakers (and writers) face every day.

Invitational speaking
Invitational speaking is often similar to informative speaking but adds judgment into the mix. The
'invitational' element is hence an invitation to listeners in agreement or evaluation of some sort. This
evaluation may be of an idea, another person, an event, an object of some kind, an event or anything else
who which judgment may be applied.

Invitational speaking uses evaluative and judgmental language and rational logic to present the case.
As with informative speaking, it may well appear cool and factual and use
classical argumentation principles.

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Invitational speaking is more difficult than informational speaking as you are asking your listeners to
accept particular evaluation criteria and processes of assessment with which they may not agree.
Academics perform invitational speaking when they criticize others' research.

Dispositional speaking
Dispositional speaking is more persuasive in intent than invitational speaking in that it seeks to gain
agreement on an attitude, value or belief.

This can be a very difficult thing to do as to change such deep drivers can often be, in effect, to
change the person and who they are, recreating their identity. It is not surprising, then, that many
will resist such attempts, even if clear and logical reason is used.

Whilst academic speakers should not really use dispositional speaking, it can be argued that
everything is a belief and that there are unquestioned canons and paradigms that many academics accept
without question, and to challenge these can be particularly perilous.

Actuation speaking
Actuation speaking seeks to get people to act, to perform in some way. In practice this can be easy
for simple actions and hardest of all for actions that the person may not normally undertake. In this way,
actuation speaking can be considered to be the ultimate in persuasive speaking.

In its more difficult form, actuation may well be preceded by other forms of speaking, as you ay
need people to understand, agree with a judgment and even change what they believe before they will take
the actions you propose.

To conclude our example, academics engage in actuation speaking when they persuade those
holding the purse strings to provide the precious cash that is needed to pursue their research.

The Speaking Process

As students actively engage in the speaking process, their perceptions can change from moment
to moment and from week to week. As individuals acquire new information, the language they use to make
meaning changes. As they reflect upon information shared or received, they revise their understanding,
further developing their schemas about language and the world.
The speaking process includes activities that occur prior to, during, and after the actual speaking
event. For example, before speaking, the speaker might determine the actual content of the message, how
it should be presented, and what kind of audience will be hearing the message. While speaking, the
speaker must attend to such things as presenting a clear message, tone of voice, suitable vocabulary,
possible responses, the environment, and nonverbal gestures. Following speaking, the speaker might
accept comments, answer questions, explain concepts not understood, and/or assess the process.

Pre-speaking: Planning and Organizing

Just as pre-writing precedes drafting, pre-speaking begins before students actually speak. Students'
experiences, observations, and interactions inside and outside of the classroom have an impact upon what
they say and how they say it. Pre-speaking activities involve thought and reflection, and provide
opportunities for students to plan and organize for speaking. Some purposes for pre-speaking are listed
below.

To choose a speaking topic:

Students generate and explore ideas for speaking topics through a variety of pre-speaking activities such
as the following:

- constructing thought webs and graphic organizers

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- reading and researching

- listening to music
- viewing a video
- listening to a speaker
- jotting down ideas
- reflecting upon personal experience.

To determine purpose:
Speakers talk to express ideas, emotions, and opinions, and to share information. Students must ask
themselves "What is my purpose for speaking?"

To determine audience:
Speakers must ask themselves "Who is my intended audience?" Some possible audiences are:

- familiar, known audiences (self, friends, peers, family, teachers)

- extended, known audiences (community, student body)
- extended, unknown audiences (local media).

To determine format:
Speakers must consider how their ideas and information can be presented most effectively. Some possible
formats include the following:

- conversation
- discussion
- formal speech
- dramatic presentation
- monologue
- Readers Theatre.

Speaking: Going Public

Speaking actively engages students in interactions with peers and other audiences. Students who have
been provided with supportive, collaborative environments and opportunities to prepare for their informal
and formal speaking experiences are more likely to have the confidence needed to "go public" with their
ideas and information.

In order to communicate and interact with others, students need to engage in a variety of formal and
informal speaking situations, depending upon their purpose for speaking. Some purposes for speaking
include the following:

- to express personal feelings, ideas, or viewpoints

- to tell a story
- to entertain or amuse
- to describe
- to inform or explain
- to request
- to inquire or question
- to clarify thinking
- to explore and experiment with a variety of ideas and formats
- to converse and discuss.

Some scaffolds to support speaking include the following:

- Discussing or developing with students criteria for a variety of formal and informal speaking formats (e.g.,
conversation, group discussion, role play), and posting these on a bulletin board or having students record
them in their notebooks for reference.

- Modelling a variety of formal and informal speaking formats for students.

- If possible, making available to students audio and video equipment so that they can practise prior to

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formal speaking situations.

Post-speaking: A Time for Reflection and Setting Goals

Following speaking experiences, both formal and informal, it is important to have students reflect upon their
performance. Their reflection, whether it is oral or written, should include the teacher, who can help them
set personal goals for improving their speaking abilities. This type of reflective assessment and goal setting
encourages critical thought. Some purposes for post-speaking activities are listed below.

To reflect upon performance:

Students who have opportunities to reflect upon their speaking experiences, in light of pre-determined
criteria, grow in their abilities to speak effectively.

To set goals for improvement:

When students reflect upon their performance, they begin to recognize what they have done well and
where they require improvement.

Some post-speaking scaffolds include:

- Discussing or developing criteria for assessing a variety of speaking experiences.
- Providing opportunities for students to talk, write, or represent in various ways their personal speaking
strengths and needs (e.g., learning logs, teacher/peer conferences).

When students have reflected upon their own speaking performance, peers may be invited to comment.
Peers may comment through a structure similar to a writing conference and may give oral feedback, written
feedback, or a combination of the two. Conferences may be guided by specific questions determined by the
teacher or may take the form of conversation between peers.

Speech Styles and Registers

SPEECH STYLE
According to Martin Joos (1976:156), speech style means the form of language that the speaker uses
which characterized by the degree of formality. He identified the styles, which he called ‘clocks,’ in five
classes such as frozen style, formal style, consultative style, casual style, and intimate style. These five
clocks are levels of formality in language use, which are determined by the situational context and degree
of familiarity or intimacy between the interlocutors. Each level determines what kind of language is
appropriate to use in a specific context.

a) Frozen Style is the most formal style used in formal situations and ceremonies. Examples are written
form (historical documents, and formal documents.)
Used generally in very formal setting.
Most formal communicative style for respectful situation
Does not require any feedback from the audience
Usually uses long sentences with good grammar and vocabulary
The use of language is fixed and relatively static

Examples:
national pledge, anthem, school creeds,
marriage ceremonies, speech for a state ceremony

b) Formal Style is used in formal speech, formal meeting, office correspondence, lesson books for school,
etc.
Used in speaking to medium to large groups
May also be used in single hearers- strangers, older persons, professional
Speaker must frame whole sentences ahead before they are delivered
Avoids using slang terminologies

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Language is comparatively rigid and has a set, agreed upon vocabulary that is well documented; is
often of a standard variety.

Examples:
meetings, speeches, school lessons, court, a corporate meeting, at a swearing in ceremony, in an
interview or in a classroom

c) Consultative Style refers to ordinary conversation held at school, in meeting or conversation that leads
to result and production. It is the most operational one between casual and formal.
Used in semi-formal communication
Happens in two-way participation
Most operational among other styles
Speaker does not usually plan what he wants to say
Sentences end to be shorter and spontaneous

Examples:
regular conversation at schools, companies, group discussion,
teacher-student, doctor-patient, expert-apprentice

d) Casual Style is used to speak with friends, family or relatives, during the leisure time, while break or
recreation, etc.
Language used between friends
Often very relaxed and focused on just getting the information out
Slangs are quite often used in these instances
This style is used in informal situations and language
Relationship between speaker and hearer is closed.

Examples:
casual conversations with friends, family members, chats, phone calls and messages

e) Intimate Style is used with people who have close relationships with the speaker. By using this style
those people do not need to use complete sentences with clear articulation, they just simply use short
words.
Completely private language used within family of very close friends or group
Uses personal language codes
Grammar is unnecessary
Does not need complete language
Certain terms of endearment, slangs or expressions whose meaning is shared with a small subset of
persons to person

TYPES OF LINGUISTIC REGISTER

Some linguists say there are just two types of register: formal and informal. This isn't incorrect, but it is an
oversimplification. Instead, most who study language say there are five distinct registers.

Frozen: This form is sometimes called the static register because it refers to historic language or
communication that is intended to remain unchanged, like a constitution or prayer. Examples: The Bible,
the United States Constitution, the Bhagavad Gita, "Romeo and Juliet."

Formal: Less rigid but still constrained, the formal register is used in professional, academic, or legal
settings where communication is expected to be respectful, uninterrupted, and restrained. Slang is never
used, and contractions are rare. Examples: a TED talk, a business presentation, the Encyclopaedia
Brittanica, "Gray's Anatomy," by Henry Gray.

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Consultative: People use this register often in conversation when they're speaking with someone who has
specialized knowledge or who is offering advice. Tone is often respectful (use of courtesy titles) but may be
more casual if the relationship is longstanding or friendly (a family doctor.) Slang is sometimes used,
people may pause or interrupt one another. Examples: the local TV news broadcast, an annual physical, a
service provider like a plumber.

Casual: This is the register people use when they're with friends, close acquaintances and co-workers, and
family. It's probably the one you think of when you consider how you talk with other people, often in a group
setting. Use of slang, contractions, and vernacular grammar is all common, and people may also use
expletives or off-color language in some settings. Examples: a birthday party, a backyard barbecue.

Intimate: Linguists say this register is reserved for special occasions, usually between only two people and
often in private. Intimate language may be something as simple as an inside joke between two college
friends or a word whispered in a lover's ear.

AUSTIN AND SEARLE’S SPEECH ACTS

Locutionary act – This is the act of saying something. It has a meaning, and it creates an understandable
utterly to convey or express

Illocutionary act – It is performed as an act of saying something or as an act of opposed to saying

something. The illocutionary utterance has a certain force of it. It well well-versed with certain tones,
attitudes, feelings, or emotions. There will be an intention of the speaker or others in illocutionary utterance.
It is often used as a tone of warning in day today life

Perlocutionary act – It normally creates a sense of consequential effects on the audiences. The effects
may be in the form of thoughts, imaginations, feelings, or emotions. The effect upon the addressee is the
main character ship of perlocutionary utterances.

Three Forces:
Locutionary Force: linguistics form of the utterances
Illocutionary Force: the meaning of the utterances
Perlocutionary Force: the effect of a given illocutionary act on the hearer.

Segmentals and Suprasegmentals

So far, we have mainly been looking at features concerning individual sounds or phonemes. If we
investigate phonetic or phonological detail in this way, we are working on the segmental level since each
phoneme is usually assumed to be one segment of speech. Once we move on to look at larger chunks of
speech that span a number of segments, such as whole words or phrases, etc., we are dealing with
features on the suprasegmental level. As suprasegmental phonetics & phonology represent fairly
complex areas of research, we can only explore them very superficially here by taking a brief look at the
two phenomena of word stress and intonation.

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Modes of Communication

Types of Speech Delivery

Manuscript speaking, like it sounds, involves reading your speech word-for-word from it’s written form. The
advantage to delivering a speech this way is that you can perfectly plan and control the wording of your
speech. This sounds like it is ideal, but really it is not. For one thing, as discussed in the section of this
website on writing the speech body, in most speeches you should be striving for an informal,
conversational delivery style. Reading prevents that, as well as eye contact. Also, with set wording, you
can’t adapt the speech if the audience isn’t following or interested in your speech.

Memorized, like it sounds, involves committing your entire speech to memory. Once again, this sounds
great. But, practically speaking, who has time to memorize even a short speech? And like a manuscript

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speech, you can’t adapt to feedback from the audience.

An Impromptu speech is one that you are asked to deliver with little or no preparation. Chances are, that if
you’re on this site, impromptu speeches aren’t what you are expected to deliver.

Finally, the Extemporaneous speech is a speech delivered with some prepared structure, such as notes
or an outline, but is otherwise delivered off-the-cuff. In most cases, this is going to be your best choice. The
notes allow you to structure your speech, without handcuffing you in the event that your audience needs
you to adapt. Also, you will sound more natural and conversational, and this will help hold audience
attention.

Speech Formats

TALK AS INTERACTION
Talk as interaction refers to what we normally mean by “conversation” and describes interaction that serves
a primarily social function. When people meet, they exchange greetings, engage in small talk, recount
recent experiences, and so, on because they wish to be friendly and to establish a comfortable zone of
interaction with others. The focus is more on the speakers and how they wish to present themselves to
each other than on the message. Such exchanges may be either casual or more formal, depending on the
circumstances, and their nature has been well described by Brown and Yule (1983). The main features of
talk as interaction can be summarized as follows:
• Has a primarily social function
• Reflects role relationships
• Reflects speaker’s identity
• May be formal or casual
• Uses conversational conventions
• Reflects degrees of politeness
• Employs many generic words
• Uses conversational register
• Is jointly constructed

TALK AS TRANSACTION
Talk as transaction refers to situations where the focus is on what is said or done. The message and
making oneself understood clearly and accurately is the central focus, rather than the participants and how
they interact socially with each other. In such transactions, Jones suggests, “talk is associated with other
activities. For example, students may be engaged in hands-on activities (e.g., in a science lesson) to
explore concepts associated with floating and sinking. In this type of spoken language students and
teachers usually focus on meaning or on talking their way to understanding.” (Jones 1996:14)

The following example from a literature lesson, taken from my 1994 book with Charles Lockhart,
illustrates this kind of talk in a classroom setting (T = Teacher, S = Student):
T: The other day we were talking about figures of speech. And we have already in the past talked about
three kinds of figures of speech. Does anybody remember those three types? Mary?
S: Personification, simile, and metaphor.
T: Good. Let me write those on the board. – Now can anybody tell me what personification is all about
again? Juan?
S: Making a nonliving thing act like a person.
T: Yes. OK. Good enough. Now what about simile? … OK. – Cecelia?
S: Comparing two things by making use of the words “like” or “as.”
T: OK. Good. I’ll write that on the board. The other one – metaphor. Paul?
S: It’s when we make a comparison between two things, but we compare them without using the words
“like” or “as.”

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T: All right. Good. So it’s more direct than simile. Now we had a poem a few weeks ago about
personification. Do you remember? Can you recall one line from that poem where a nonliving thing acts
like a human person?
S: “The moon walks the night.”
T: Good. “The moon walks the night.” Does the moon have feet to walk?
S: No.
T: No. So this is a figure of speech. All right. Now our lesson today has something to do with metaphor.
Now we’re going to see what they have in common . . .
(Richards and Lockhart 1994: 116–117)

Examples of talk as transaction are:

• Classroom group discussions and problem-solving activities
• A class activity during which students design a poster
• Discussing needed computer repairs with a technician
• Discussing sightseeing plans with a hotel clerk or tour guide
• Making a telephone call to obtain flight information
• Asking someone for directions on the street
• Buying something in a shop
• Ordering food from a menu in a restaurant

The main features of talk as transaction are:

• It has a primarily information focus.
• The main focus is on the message and not the participants.
• Participants employ communication strategies to make themselves understood.
• There may be frequent questions, repetitions, and comprehension checks, as in the example from
the preceding classroom lesson.
• There may be negotiation and digression.
• Linguistic accuracy is not always important.

Some of the skills involved in using talk for transactions are:

• Explaining a need or intention
• Describing something
• Asking questions
• Asking for clarification
• Confirming information
• Justifying an opinion
• Making suggestions
• Clarifying understanding
• Making comparisons
• Agreeing and disagreeing

TALK AS PERFORMANCE
This refers to public talk, that is, talk that transmits information before an audience, such as classroom
presentations, public announcements, and speeches. For example, here is the opening of a fall welcome
speech given by a university president:

“Good morning. It’s not my intention to deliver the customary state of the university address. There’s good
reason for that. It would seem to me to be presumptuous for someone who has been here not quite seven
weeks to tell you what he thinks the state of the university is. You would all be better prepared for that kind
of address than I am. However, I would like to offer you, based on my experience – which has been pretty
intensive these almost seven weeks – some impressions that I have of this institution, strengths, or some of

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them, and the challenges and opportunities that we face here… I also want to talk about how I see my role
during the short time that I will be with you …”
Spoken texts of this kind, according to Jones (1996:14),
… often have identifiable generic structures and the language used is more predictable. … Because of less
contextual support, the speaker must include all necessary information in the text – hence the importance
of topic as well as textual knowledge. And while meaning is still important, there will be more emphasis on
form and accuracy.

Talk as performance tends to be in the form of monolog rather than dialog, often follows a recognizable
format (e.g., a speech of welcome), and is closer to written language than conversational language.
Similarly, it is often evaluated according to its effectiveness or impact on the listener, something that is
unlikely to happen with talk as interaction or transaction.

Examples of talk as performance are:

• Giving a class report about a school trip
• Conducting a class debate
• Giving a speech of welcome
• Making a sales presentation
• Giving a lecture

The main features of talk as performance are:

• A focus on both message and audience
• Predictable organization and sequencing
• Importance of both form and accuracy
• Language is more like written language
• Often monologic

Some of the skills involved in using talk as performance are:

• Using an appropriate format
• Presenting information in an appropriate sequence
• Maintaining audience engagement
• Using correct pronunciation and grammar
• Creating an effect on the audience
• Using appropriate vocabulary
• Using an appropriate opening and closing

LEARNING ACTIVITY 1

Name: ___________________________________________ Student No. _______________________

(Surname, Given Name, MI)

Note: Upon submitting your activity, follow this name format: SG2_Learning Activity 1

Learning Activity: Pair Making Learning Plan in Teaching Speaking (focusing on Completeness, Appropriate
Approach Used, and Facilitative Process).

Instructions: You will be paired with one of your classmates to be provided by the instructor. Most Essential
Learning Competencies (MELCs) is provided for your guide/reference. A talk will be conducted to discuss how
to create Learning Plan. Rubric (as provided below) will be used to evaluate your final output.

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REFERENCES

Nature of Speaking. Retrieved at http://eprints.umpo.ac.id/4281/4/CHAPTER%20II.pdf

The Purpose of Speaking. Retrieved at

http://changingminds.org/techniques/speaking/preparing_presentation/purpose_speaking.htm

The Speaking Process. Retrieved at http://mydearbaby-babylove.blogspot.com/2009/04/speaking-

process.html

Types of Speech Styles. Retrieved at https://oralcom.wordpress.com/2016/10/14/types-of-speech-styles/ and

https://www.elcomblus.com/speech-styles-definition-types-and-examples/

What is Register in Linguistics? Retrieved at https://www.thoughtco.com/register-language-style-1692038

Speech Act Theory. Retrieved at https://www.communicationtheory.org/speech-act-theory/

Segmental vs. Suprasegmental. Retrieved at http://martinweisser.org/courses/intro/segVsupra.html

Three Modes of Communication. Retrieved at

http://www.longwood.edu/staff/goetzla/TeachingLanguages/THREE%20MODES%20OF%20COMMUNI
CATION.pdf

Types of Speech Delivery. Retrieved at https://www.myspeechclass.com/delivery.html

https://www.cambridge.org/elt/blog/2016/02/02/teaching-speaking-2-styles-functions-speaking-talk-
interaction/

https://www.cambridge.org/elt/blog/2016/02/08/teaching-speaking-4-talk-transaction/

https://www.cambridge.org/elt/blog/2016/02/09/teaching-speaking-5-talk-performance/

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