Soil Mechanics &

Foundation Engineering
(Course Code – DCE-501)
Unit 3 B
16th September 2020
Mohammad Shahid Akhtar
Associate Professor
University Polytechnic
Jamia Millia Islamia
 Consolidation of Soils

• Definition – “Consolidation of Soil is defined as the

reduction in the volume of saturated soil under static loading
due to expulsion of water from the voids. It is time
dependent phenomenon and it is a typical characteristics of
clayey soil.”
 Consolidation of Soils
The process of consolidation can be explained by spring analogy
 One-Dimensional Laboratory Consolidation Test
The compressibility of saturated clay soil is determined as
proposed by Dr. Karl Terzaghi (1925) through his theory of
one-dimensional consolidation using an apparatus
Consolidometer ( or Oedometer), based on the following
assumptions:
a) Compression and flow are one-dimensional (vertical)

b) Darcy’s law is valid

c) Soil is homogenous and completely saturated

d) Soil grains and water are both incompressible Diameter = 5-10 cm

height = 2-4 cm
e) Flow occurs on account of access pore-water pressure
Consolidometer (Oedometer)
f) Volume of soil solids is constant

g) Consolidation is occurring under small changes in

effective stresses
 One-Dimensional Laboratory Consolidation Test
The main purpose of this test is to obtain necessary information about the compressibility characteristics -
mv and Cc of saturated clayey soil, so as to determine the magnitude and rate of settlement

Test Procedure:
1. A soil sample is contained a brass ring between two porous stone plates, the diameter of ring is 5-10
cm and height is about 2-4 cm
2. After necessary setup of the apparatus, the saturated soil sample is subjected to successive,
compressive loads through a piston or either by means of hanger and dead weights or by means of
levers
3. The successive load intensities which are applied on the soil sample are 25, 50, 100, 200, 400, 800 and
1600 kN/m2.
4. Each load is allowed to stand for sufficient time until compression ceases under that particular load
5. Change in volume (compression) is measured with the help of a dial gauge at times 15 sec, 30 sec, 1, 2,
4, 8, 15, 30, 60, 120, 240 480 and 1440 minutes
6. The soil sample is kept submerged in a saturated condition throughout the test
7. The data obtained from the consolidation test is thus a record of the reduction in the soil sample
thickness with time under each increment of stress
 One-Dimensional Laboratory Consolidation Test
From the outcome of the test data, the following curves are plotted:
1. Void Ratio (e) versus Effective Stress (𝜎)
2. Void Ratio (e) versus Log of Effective Stress (log𝜎) Δe ΔV

Δ𝐻 𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 Δ𝑒 eo e
= =
𝐻 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 1 + 𝑒0
V

Δ𝐻 Δ𝑉 Δ𝑒 1 1
= = Soil Solids Soil Solids
𝐻 𝑉 1 + 𝑒0

Δ𝐻 Δ𝑒 1 + 𝑒0 Δ𝐻
= Δ𝑒 = a) Initial state of sample b) After Compression
𝐻 1 + 𝑒0 𝐻

Thus change in Void Ratio (Δ𝑒) under each pressure increment is calculated from the above equation
• From e vs. 𝜎 plot, the coefficient of compressibility (av) can be determined
• From e vs. log𝜎 plot, the Compression Index (Cc) can be determined
 One-Dimensional Laboratory Consolidation Test
Thus change in Void Ratio (Δ𝑒) under each pressure increment is calculated from the above equation
• From e vs. 𝜎 plot, the coefficient of compressibility (av) can be determined
• From e vs. log𝜎 plot, the Compression Index (Cc) can be determined

e
Δ𝑒
𝑎𝑣 = − e1 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒 𝑣𝑠. 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝜎 = 𝐶𝑐
Δe Δ𝜎
e e2
Δ𝜎

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝜎 1 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝜎 2
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝜎
𝜎

Coefficient of Compressibility (𝒂𝒗 ) – it is defined as the decrease in void ratio per unit increase in effective stress
Δⅇ
𝑎𝑣 = − (𝑚2/𝑘𝑁)
Δ𝜎
Compression Index (𝑪𝒄 ) – it is defined as the slope of linear portion of void ratio (𝑒) 𝑣𝑠. 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝜎 curve
ⅇ1 −ⅇ2 Δⅇ
𝐶𝑐 = = 𝜎
log 𝜎2 −log 𝜎1 Δ log 𝜎2
1
 One-Dimensional Laboratory Consolidation Test
Compression Index (𝑪𝒄 )

The compression index (𝐶𝑐 ) can also be determined from the liquid limit value for the clayey soil using
an empirical relation as given by Terzaghi and Peck for undisturbed and remoulded clayey soil having
sensitivity ≤ 4

𝐶𝑐 = 0.009(LL − 10) For undisturbed soil

𝐶𝑐 = 0.007(LL − 10) For remoulded soil

 One-Dimensional Laboratory Consolidation Test

Coefficient of Volume Change or Volume Compressibility (𝐦𝐯) - It is defined as the volumetric strain per unit
increase in effective stress

− Δ𝑉 𝑉
𝑚𝑣 =
Δ𝜎

Δ𝑒
−( )
1 + 𝑒0
𝑚𝑣 =
Δ𝜎

𝑎𝑣
𝑚𝑣 = ( ) 𝑚2/𝑘𝑁
1 + 𝑒0
 One-Dimensional Laboratory Consolidation Test

With the help of the data obtained from the one-dimensional Consolidation Laboratory Test, we can obtain
the three important parameters mv, Cc and Cv, which are required for determining primary consolidation
settlement and time rate of settlement.

For determining Primary Consolidation Settlement, we prepare two graphs from the consolidation test data:
I. Void Ratio versus Effective Stress => 𝑎𝑣 and mv
II. Void Ratio versus Log of Effective Stress => Cc

For determining time rate of settlement, we prepare two graphs from the consolidation test data to
determine Cv (Coefficient of Consolidation)
I. Dial Reading versus log t curve (as proposed by Casagrande)
II. Dial Reading versus 𝑡 curve (as proposed by Taylor)
 One-Dimensional Laboratory Consolidation Test

𝐶𝑐 𝜎o + Δ𝜎
Primary Consolidation Settlement 𝑆𝑐 = 𝐻𝑜 log10
1 + 𝑒o 𝜎𝑜

Or, 𝑆𝑐 = mv Ho Δ𝜎

Where,
𝑒o = initial void ratio
𝐻𝑜 = thickness of clay layer
Δ𝜎 = stress increment at the middle of the clay layer due to construction of structure
 One-Dimensional Laboratory Consolidation Test
Question :
In a laboratory consolidation test, when the stress was increased from 25kN/m2 to 50kN/m2 the void
ratio decreases from 1.20 to 1.10. Determine 𝑎𝑣, mv and Cc.
If the total thickness of clay layer from which soil sample was taken if 4 m, determine the magnitude of
primary consolidation settlement resulting from the given stress increment
Solution:
Δⅇ 1.20 −1.10
𝒂𝒗 : 𝑎𝑣 = = = 4.0 × 10−3 (𝑚2/𝑘𝑁)
Δ𝜎 50−25

𝑎𝑣 4.0 × 10−3
𝑚𝑣 : 𝑚𝑣 = = = 1.818 × 10−3 (𝑚2/𝑘𝑁)
1 + 𝑒0 1 + 1.20

ⅇ1 −ⅇ2 1.20 − 1.10

𝐶𝑐 : 𝐶𝑐 = = = 0.332
log 𝜎2 −log 𝜎1 log 50−log 25

𝐶𝑐 𝜎o + Δ𝜎 0.332 25 + 25
𝑆𝑐 : 𝑆𝑐 = 𝐻𝑜 log10 = 4 log10 = 0.182𝑚
1 + 𝑒o 𝜎𝑜 1 + 1.20 25
𝑆𝑐 = mv Ho Δ𝜎 = 1.818 × 10−3 × 4 × 25 = 0.182𝑚
 Coefficient of Consolidation (Cv)
I. Dial Reading versus log t curve II. Dial Reading versus 𝑡 curve
(as proposed by Casagrande) (as proposed by Taylor)

𝑇𝑉 90 𝐻2
𝑇𝑉 50 𝐻2 𝐶𝑉 =
𝐶𝑉 = 𝑡90
𝑡50
 Coefficient of Consolidation (Cv)
Coefficient of Consolidation (Cv) : It is basically the ratio between the coefficient of permeability and the
product of coefficient of volume change with unit weight of water. It is denoted as :
𝐾
𝐶𝑉 = Where,
𝑚𝑉 𝛾𝑤 K = Coefficient of Permeability
𝑚𝑉 = Coefficient of volume change
𝛾𝑤 = unit weight of water

The coefficient of consolidation is the indicative of the combined effect of compressibility and permeability
of soil on the rate of volume change
Coefficient of consolidation may also be calculated from the relationship given below

Where,
𝐶𝑉𝑡 𝑇𝑉 = Time Factor which is a function of degree
𝑇𝑉 = 2
𝐻 of consolidation
𝑡 = time taken for consolidation
H = Drainage path
 Coefficient of Consolidation (Cv)
Degree of Consolidation (U) : It is defined as the ratio of consolidation settlement at any instant of time ‘t’
to the final consolidation settlement. It is expressed in percentage

𝑆𝑡
𝑈 = × 100
𝑆𝑓

2
𝜋 𝑈 For U ≤ 60 %
𝑇𝑉 =
4 100

𝑇𝑉 = 1.781 − 0.933log(100 − 𝑈) For U > 60 %

 One-Dimensional Laboratory Consolidation Test
Question :
In a laboratory consolidation test, a 2.5cm thick sample of clay reaches 50% consolidation in 20
minutes under double drainage condition. Determine, the time required for 90% consolidation of a
layer of this soil in the field under the following conditions
I. When a 4m thick layer of same clay soil is sandwitched between two sand layers
II. When a 4m thick layer of the soil is overlain by a sand layer and underlain by a deep layer of intact
𝜋 𝑈 2
shale 2
𝜋 50
Solution: 𝑇𝑉 = For U = 50 % 𝑇𝑉 = = 0.197
4 100
4 100
2
2.5
𝐶𝑉𝑡 𝑇𝑉 50 𝐻 2 0.197 × 2
Using equation 𝑇𝑉 = 2 ⇒ 𝐶𝑉 = = = 0.01539 𝑐𝑚2/𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐻 𝑡50 20

1. Case of double Drainage: 𝑇𝑉 = 1.781 − 0.933 log 100 − 𝑈 For U = 90 %

𝑇𝑉 = 1.781 − 0.933 log 100 − 90 = 1.781 − 0.933 = 0.848
2
400
𝑇𝑉𝐻2 0.848 × 2
𝑡= = = 2204028 min = 4.19 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
𝐶𝑉 0.01539
 One-Dimensional Laboratory Consolidation Test
Question :
In a laboratory consolidation test, a 2.5cm thick sample of clay reaches 50% consolidation in 20
minutes under double drainage condition. Determine, the time required for 90% consolidation of a
layer of this soil in the field under the following conditions
I. When a 4m thick layer of same clay soil is sandwitched between two sand layers
II. When a 4m thick layer of the soil is overlain by a sand layer and underlain by a deep layer of intact
𝜋 𝑈 2
shale 2
𝜋 50
Solution: 𝑇𝑉 = For U = 50 % 𝑇𝑉 = = 0.197
4 100
4 100
2
2.5
𝐶𝑉𝑡 𝑇𝑉 50 𝐻 2 0.197 × 2
Using equation 𝑇𝑉 = 2 ⇒ 𝐶𝑉 = = = 0.01539 𝑐𝑚2/𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐻 𝑡50 20

2. Case of Single Drainage: 𝑇𝑉 = 1.781 − 0.933 log 100 − 𝑈 For U = 90 %

𝑇𝑉 = 1.781 − 0.933 log 100 − 90 = 1.781 − 0.933 = 0.848

𝑇𝑉𝐻2 0.848 × 4002

𝑡= = = 8816114 min = 16.81 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
𝐶𝑉 0.01539
 Normally Consolidated and Over-Consolidated Clay Soil
• It must be noted that normally consolidated clay soil and over-consolidated soil are not any types of the
clay, rather they are the loading conditions under which behavior of a soil is observed.
• In certain stress range, a soil may behave as normally consolidated while in other range, the same soil will
behave as over consolidated
• Over Consolidated (Pre-consolidated clay soil) – the clay layer which had already been subjected to more
stress in the past than the present stress is called over consolidated clay soil
• Normally Consolidated Clay Soil – the clay layer, which has never been subjected in the past to an effective
stress greater than the present one is called normally consolidated soil
• Over-Consolidation Ratio (O.C.R) – The ratio of maximum stress to which the soil has been subjected in
the past to the present stress is known as Over-Consolidation Ratio.
𝑃𝑟𝑒 − 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑂𝐶𝑅 =
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒

𝑂𝐶𝑅 > 1 , 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 − 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑦

𝑂𝐶𝑅 ≤ 1 , 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 − 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑦
Creep:
• The slow gradual, lateral movement of the soil is termed as creep
• It indicates unstable slope
• It tends to move the structure outwardly
• It occurs more in clayey soil

Heaving:
• In some soils, the trapped capillary water gets frozen when atmospheric temperature falls to sub-zero
• As a result, volume of water, increases approximately by 9%, when it gets frozen, thus causes an
increase in volume of trapped water, lifting the soil particle surrounding the water up.
• This phenomenon is called heaving
• Silt and fine sand are the soils which are prone to frost heave action

Plastic Flow:
• The continuous deformation of plastic soils subjected to constant shearing stress is termed as plastic
flow
• It occurs in highly plastic soil
 Settlement
• Downward vertical movement of the structure is called ‘Settlement’

Uniform Settlement
Settlement
Differential Settlement

Uniform Settlement:
• If the settlement of the entire structure is even i.e. same for all footings and all walls, it is know as Uniform
Settlement

Differential Settlement:
• If the settlement of the entire structure is not even i.e. not same for all footings and all walls, it is know as
Differential Settlement
 Differential Settlement
• It is undesirable factor for civil structures.
• Differential settlement often lead to cracking or even collapse of buildings

Causes of Differential Settlement :

I. Soil beneath different parts of foundation
structure has different compressibility
II. Expansion and contraction of soil
III. Excavation near the structure
IV. Proximity of trees with large roots
V. Piping leaks, sewer drainage etc
VI. Different dimension and depth of structures
VII. Vibration caused by impact piling, blasting and
heavy machinery

• To reduce the chances of differential settlement, proper site investigation is required

and corrective measures are needed
Differential Settlement

GL
L

Δmax

Δmax = maximum settlement

Δ = maximum differential settlement
Δ/L = maximum angular distortion
 Allowable Δmax and Δ of Buildings as per IS Code : 1904 - 1986
Isolated Foundation Steel Structures RCC Structures
Δmax (mm) 50 50
a) Sand and Hard Clay Δ (mm) 0.0033L 0.0015L
Angular Distortion 1/300 1/666
Δmax (mm) 50 75
b) Plastic Clay Δ (mm) 0.0033L 0.0015L
Angular Distortion 1/300 1/666

Raft Foundation Steel Structures RCC Structures

Δmax (mm) 75 75
a) Sand and Hard Clay Δ (mm) 0.0033L 0.002L
Angular Distortion 1/300 1/500
Δmax (mm) 100 100
b) Plastic Clay Δ (mm) 0.0033L 0.002L
Angular Distortion 1/300 1/500