群表示论 by 丘维声

现代数学基础
26 群表示论
■ 丘维声著
hh群众示论32711内封.indd 1 2018/6/22 下午4:01

内容简介
　　本书是作者在北京国际数学研究中心给数学基础强化班授课讲稿的
基础上 , 结合在北京大学数学科学学院多次讲授群表示论课的心得体会编
写而成 , 主要内容包括 : 有限群在特征不能整除群的阶的域上的线性表示、
无限群在复 ( 实 ) 数域上的有限维和无限维线性表示等。
　　本书紧紧抓住群表示论的主线——研究群的不可约表示 , 首先提出要
研究的问题 , 探索如何解决问题 , 把深奥的群表示论知识讲得自然、清晰、
易懂。在阐述无限群的线性表示理论时 , 本书介绍了数学上处理无限问题
的典型方法 , 并且对于需要的拓扑学、实 ( 复 ) 分析以及泛函分析的知识
作了详尽介绍。本书在绝大多数章节中都配有习题 , 并且在书末附有习题
解答。
　　本书可作为高等院校数学系和物理系的研究生以及高年级本科生的
群表示论课的教学用书 , 也可供数学系和物理系教师、科研工作者以及学
过高等代数和抽象代数的读者使用参考。
图书在版编目（CIP）数据
群表示论 / 丘维声编著 . —北京 : 高等教育出版

社 , 2011. 12（2017. 8 重印）
ISBN 978-7-04-032711-3
Ⅰ. ①群…　Ⅱ. ①丘…　Ⅲ. ①群表示 - 研究　Ⅳ.

① O152. 6
中国版本图书馆 CIP 数据核字（2011）第 221487 号
策划编辑赵天夫　　　　责任编辑　李华英　　　　封面设计　赵　阳　　　　版式设计　杜微言
责任校对　胡美萍　　　　责任印制　朱学忠

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· viii · Só
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n=0
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§z:Ñk´;) "~X, lÑ+ (=lÑÿÀ?¿+),
( R, +), ( Rn , +), GL n ( R), SLn ( R) Ñ´ÛÜ;+"ÄkïÄÛÜ;+E5
L«"31Ù §4 ®y²:Abel +kØEL«Ñ´ 1 g, l §Jø
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Ä G ù 1 gEL«JøAI χ, ¦é?¿ g k χ(g) ´ 1
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¦{¤+, ¡ G jAI+"G jAI χ Ò´+ G + S 1 (
1 Eê|¤8ÜéuEê¦{¤¤+) Ó"ÿÀ+ G jAI
χ Ò´ÿÀ+ G ÿÀ+ S 1 (= 1 ¥¡) Ó"éuÃÿÀ+ G, §
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Ó, ( Z, +) w, S 1 ØÓ ( Z ´ê8, S 1 ´Øê8) "lù~fßÿ:
lÑ+ G jAI+ G∗ ´;+"±y²ùßÿ´é"S 1 jA
I+Óu ( Z, +) "ddßÿ¿±y²: ;+jAI+lÑ
+"?Úy²: ÛÜ;+ G jAI+ G∗ ´ÛÜ;+"G∗ jA
I+ (G∗ )∗ P G∗∗ , ¡ G VjAI+"lþ¡~fw: ( Z, +) V
jAI+Óu ( Z, +) g, S 1 VjAI+Óu S 1 g"u´ßÿ: Û
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I+"y²ùßÿý, 1ÚIy²ÛÜ;) G û+ G/H jA
I+ (G/H)∗ Óu H ⊥ , Ù¥ H ⊥ = {χ ∈ G∗ |χ(h) = 1, ∀h ∈ H}, Iy²ÛÜ
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únÚ8BE{n; 1Ú, y² S 1 , ÃÌ+ C, ( R, +) VjAI
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´ G ;f8, G þ¤kù«EëY¼ê|¤8Ü Cc (G) Éêþ
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Hausdorff m, ν ´ X þÿÝ, K3 X f8|¤ σ-ê A , §
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Z Z
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8¹
Úó · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 1
1Ù +L«ØÄVg · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 6
§1 ÓN · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 6
§2 +5L«½ÂÚ~ · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 13
§3 +5L«( · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 25
3.1 fL« · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 26
3.2 L«Ú · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 26
3.3 ØL«, L«, L« · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 28
3.4 +5L«( · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 29
§4 Abel +ØL« · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 33
§5 Abel +ØL«
E{ · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 35
5.1 L«J,©) · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 36
5.2 ÏL+gÓLL« · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 38
5.3 _ÚL« · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 39
1Ù k+ØL« · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 41
§1 + G 5L«+ê K[G] þ · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 41
1.1 + G 5L«+ê K[G] 5L« · · · · · · · · · · · 43
1.2 þ, êþ · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 44
1.3 + G 5L«+ê K[G] þ · · · · · · · · · · · · 45
· ii · 8¹
§2 küêØ · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 50
2.1 A nÚ©), A V>nÚ©) · · · · · 50
2.2 küêØ · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 54
§3 küêØÓØê · · · · · · · · · · · · · 57
§4 küê(, ê4þküêØ
ê · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 63
§5 k+ØdØL«êÚgê · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 70
1nÙ +AI · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 74
§1 +AI½ÂÚÄ5 · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 74
§2 ØAI'X9ÙA^ · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 79
§3 ØEL«gê÷v^ · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 92
§4 ØL«3+Ø¥A^ · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 102
1oÙ +L«ÜþÈ, +ÈL« · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 108

§1 ÜþÈ · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 108
§2 +L«ÜþÈ · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 124
§3 +ÈL« · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 127
§4 ØEL«gê÷vq^ · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 131
1ÊÙ pL«ÚpAI · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 133

§1 pL« · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 133
§2 pAI · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 137
§3 Frobenius pÆ · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 139
§4 pAIØ½ · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 141
§5 +©, M -+ · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 146
5.1 5mÄ*Ü, +© · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 146
5.2 M -+ · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 148
§6 pAI Brauer ½n · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 152
§7 knAI Artin ½n · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 161
§8 Frobenius +3ý5f+y² · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 164
18Ù Ã+5L« · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 168

§1 +Ã5L« · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 168
§2 ÿÀm · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 175
8¹ · iii ·
§3 ÿÀ+, ;+ · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 186
3.1 ÿÀ+ · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 186
3.2 ÿÀ+Ó!Ó · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 188
3.3 ;+ · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 190
§4 ÿÀ+5L« · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 194
§5 ;+þØCÈ© · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 197
§6 ;+5L« · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 207
6.1 ;+L«5 · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 207
6.2 'X · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 209
6.3 ØL«|5, Peter-Weyl ½n · · · · · · · · · · · · · 213
6.4 SU(2) Ú SO(3) ØEL« · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 214
§7 ÛÜ;+jAI+ · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 225
7.1 ÛÜ;+ · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 225
7.2 +jAI+Vg · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 227
7.3 + G ÿÀ¤ÿÀ+{ · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 227
7.4 ÛÜ;+jAI+ · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 230
7.5 ÛÜ;+VjAI+ · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 234
7.6 ÛÜ;+û+f+jAI+ · · · · · · · · · · · · · 235
7.7 Ð+jAI+ÚVjAI+ · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 240
7.8 ;+ÚlÑ+VjAI+ · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 249
7.9 ÛÜ;+VjAI+ · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 252
§8 ÛÜ; Hausdorff ÿÀ+þ Haar ÿÝ · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 255
8.1 ÿÝ, ÿ¼ê, È© · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 255
8.2 ÛÜ; Hausdorff ÿÀ+þ Haar ÿÝ · · · · · · · · · · · · 282
§9 ÛÜ; Hausdorff ÿÀ+jL« (½L«) · · · · · · · · · · · 301
9.1 Hilbert m©)ÚëY5¼ê · · · · · · · · · · · · · 301
9.2 D5mÚ Banach mk.5N · · · · · · · · · · 304
9.3 ÛÜ; Hausdorff ÿÀ+jL« (½L«) · · · · · · · · 313
9.4 D5m X VëYéóm X ∗∗ · · · · · · · · · · · · 315
9.5 ÿÀm · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 319
9.6 Hilbert m;5N5 · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 322
9.7 Hilbert mþk.5CC · · · · · · · · · · · · · 325
9.8 Hilbert mþ;5CÌÚ:Ì · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 328
9.9 Hilbert mþ;gCÌ½n · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 335
· iv · 8¹
9.10 Schur Ún, ÿÀ+jL«, ;+jL« · · · · · · · · · · · 344

9.11 à¼êÚ L2 -m · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 350
9.12 ÛÜ; Hausdorff ÿÀ+ G þ L2 (G) · · · · · · · · · · · · 357
9.13 Peter-weyl ½ny² · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 361
SK)½J« · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 367
ë©z · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 410
ÎÒ`² · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 412
¶c¢Ú (Ç=éì) · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 417

Úó
2
/ Z. ddÄ
ê8 Z k\{Ú¦{$, ´vkØ{$, Ï 2 ÷ 3 =
∈
3
Ñ8Ü S þê$Vg. Äd S /¤kSé|¤8Ü:
S × S := {(a, b)|a, b ∈ S},
¡ S × S ´ S g(kÈ. l S × S S N¡ S þê
$.
yêÆm²A´ïÄäkê$8Ü, ¡§êXÚ.
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n Ý
(¡ n ?Ý
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÷v 6 ^${K: \{Æ!(ÜÆ, k" ({¡"), zkK
({¡K); ¦{(ÜÆ, ¦{éu\{©Æ. ddÄÑVg:
8Ü R XJ½Â
ü«ê$, «\{, ,«¦{, ¿
÷vþã 6 ^${K, @o¡ R ´ (ring).
du R zkK, Ïd±ÏL\{5½Â~{$:
a − b := a + (−b), ∀a, b ∈ R.
XJ R ¦{÷vÆ, @o¡ R ´.
XJ R k e äkeã5:
ea = ae = a, ∀a ∈ R,
@o¡ e ´ R ü .
Ný²: R ", z a K. XJ R kü , @o
R ü .
3kü e(6= 0) R ¥, éu a ∈ R, XJ3 b ∈ R, ¦ ab = ba = e,
@o¡ a ´_(½ü ), b ¡ a _, a _´, P a−1 .
R ¥, éu a ∈ R, XJ3 c ∈ R c 6= 0, ¦ ac = 0 (½ ca = 0), @o¡
a ´ (m) "Ïf. !m"ÏfÚ¡"Ïf.
· 2 · Úó
±y²: R ¥, ∀a ∈ R, k a0 = 0a = 0. Ïd 0 ´ R(R kü)

"Ïf.
kü e(6= 0) R XJvk""Ïf, @o¡ R ´.
Ný²: 3kü e(6= 0) R ¥, "ÏfØ´_.
Z, 2 Z, R[x] Ñ´, Ù¥ Z, R[x] ´, 2 Z vkü . Mn ( R) ´kü
, §k""Ïf.
2009 c 6 1 F´(Ï, rùUéAê 1, K±Fü mà
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F´ 7 Øê|¤f8, P 0. u´ {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} Ñ
ê8 Z
y©. ê a b XJ 7 Ø{êÓ, @o¡ a b 7 Ó{, P
a ≡ b(mod 7). 0, 1, · · · , 6 Ñ¡ 7 {a. dù~fí2: éu?u 1
ê m, eê a b m Ø{êÓ, K¡ a b m Ó{, P a ≡ b(mod m).
éu i ∈ {0, 1, · · · , m − 1},
i := {km + i|k ∈ Z}
¡ m {a. ¤k m {a ( m ) |¤8Ü {0, 1, 2, · · · , m − 1}
Ñ
ê8 Z y©, P Zm . 3 Zm ¥5½\{Ú¦{$Xe:
a + b := a + b, a b := ab.
±yù
5½´Ün. Ný Zm ¤kü 1 , ¡§ m
{a.
Z7 ¥z"Ñ´_. knê8 Q, ¢ê8 R, Eê8 C, §Ñ´k
ü , z"Ñ´_. ddÄÑVg:
F ´kü e(6= 0) , XJ F ¥z"Ñ´_, @
o¡ F ´ (field).
¹kõ¡k; ÄK, ¡Ã.
ê¡ê. ê´knê Q. êÉê C.
3 F ¥, ±½ÂØ{$: éu a, b ∈ F , b 6= 0, 5½ a ÷ b := ab−1 .
·K 1 m {a Zm ´= m ´ê.
y² ë [28] 1 167 .
p ´ê, Zp ¡ p {a.
Zm ¥¤k_|¤8ÜP Z∗m . ~X, Z∗8 = {1, 3, 5, 7}. du 1 + 3 =
/ Z∗8 , Ïd 8 {a\{Ø´ Z∗8 $. du
4∈
3 5 = 7, 3 7 = 5, 5 7 = 3,
3 3 = 1, 5 5 = 1, 7 7 = 1,
Ïd 8 {a¦{´ Z∗8 $. u´ Z∗8 k«ê$.
F þ¤k n _Ý
|¤8ÜP GL n (F ). w,, Ý
\{Ø´
GL n (F ) $. duü n _Ý
¦ÈE´_Ý
, ÏdÝ
¦{´
GL n (F ) $. u´ GL n (F ) k«$.
Úó ·3·
Z∗8 Ú GL n (F ) Ñk«$, ùr¦·ïÄk«$êXÚ.

l Z∗8
Ú GL n (F ) ¦{÷vÓ${KÄÑ+Vg:
½Â 1 8Ü G XJ½Â
«ê$, Ï~¦{, ¿÷v
e${K:
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(2) G ¥k e äkeã5:
ea = ae = a, ∀a ∈ G,
¡ e ´ G ü ;
(3) éu G ¥z a, 3 b ∈ G, ¦
ab = ba = e,
r b ¡ a _, P a−1 , @o¡ G ´+ (group).
Ný²: + G ü , z a _.
±y²: Z∗m ´+, ¡§ Zm ü +.
GL n (F ) ´+, ¡§ F þ n ?5+.
V ´ F þ5m, V þ¤k_5C|¤8ÜP GL (V ),
§éuN¦{¤+, ¡§ V þ_5C+.
XJ+ G $÷vÆ, @o¡ G ´+ (½ Abel +).
XJ+ G ¹kõ, @o¡ G ´k+; ÄK¡ G ´Ã+. k+
G ¤¹ê¡ G , P |G|.
G ´+, n ´?ê, éu?¿ a ∈ G, 5½:
an := a · · · a}, a0 = e, a−n = (a−1 )n .
| a{z
n
Ný²:
an am = an+m , (an )m = anm , ∀n, m ∈ Z.
e G ´ Abel +, Ké?¿ a, b ∈ G, k (ab)n = an bn , n ∈ Z.

½Â 2 + G f8 H XJéu G $¤+, @o¡ H
´ G f+, P H < G.
·K 2 + G f8 H ´ G f+=
a, b ∈ H =⇒ ab−1 ∈ H.
y² ë [24] 1 26 .
ïÄ+(«å»´|^§«f+.
~X, H ´+ G f+, ·±|^f+ H Ñ8Ü G y©,
{´3 G þïá'X, ¦§´d'X, Kda|¤8ÜÒ´8
Ü G y©. 'u8Üy©Vg±9ïád'XÑ8Üy©n
±ëw [26] 1 158 — 160 .
éu a, b ∈ G, 5½
a∼b :⇐⇒ b−1 a ∈ H.
· 4 · Úó
du H ´f+, Ïdù'Xäk5, é¡5ÚD45, l §´ G þ

d'X. a (½da a
a = {x ∈ G|a−1 x ∈ H}
= {x ∈ G|a−1 x = h, h ∈ H},
= {x ∈ G|x = ah, h ∈ H}
= {ah|h ∈ H},
rùf8P¤ aH. ¡ aH ´ H 8, a ¡ aH L.
w,, eH = H, Ïdf+ H ´ H 8.
âda5á=Ñ±e·K.
·K 3 H ´+ G f+, K
(1) aH = bH ⇐⇒ b−1 a ∈ H;
(2) ?¿ aH bH ½ö, ½öØ (=§8´8).
l·K 3 1 (2) ^á=: + G f+ H ¤k8|¤8Ü
´ G y©, P (G/H)l , ¡§´ G 'u H û8. û8 (G/H)l Ä
ê¡f+ H 3 G ¥ê, P [G : H].
XJ [G : H] = r, @o
S S S
G=H a1 H · · · ar−1 H, (1)
Ù¥ H, a1 H, · · · , ar−1 H üüØ. (1) ª¡+ G 'uf+ H 8©)ª.
{e, a1 , · · · , ar−1 } ¡ H 3 G ¥8LX.
w,, f+ H §?8 aH mkV:
h 7→ ah,
Ïd, H aH ÄêÓ.
G ´k+, |^ G 'uf+ H 8©)ª (1) á=eãÍ¶
½n.
½n 1 (Lagrange) G ´k+, H ´ G ?f+, K
|G| = |H|[G : H]. (2)
l G ?f+´ G Ïê.
l Lagrange ½n±ÑXeíØ.
íØ 1 G ´ n +, Kéu?¿ a ∈ G, k
an = e,
Ù¥ e ´ G ü .
y² ë [24] 1 34 .
íØ 2 ê+½´Ì+.
y² ë [24] 1 34 .
Lagrange ½nÚíØ 2 Ñ, ¦ÖöÐÚ+Ñ
|^f+ïÄ+(
ºm.
aq/, |^+ G f+ H, ±ïá G þ,'X:
a ∼ b :⇐⇒ ab−1 ∈ H.
Úó ·5·
ý ∼ ´d'X, a (½d´ a
a = {x ∈ G|xa−1 ∈ H}
= {x ∈ G|xa−1 = h, h ∈ H}
= {ha|h ∈ H}
= : Ha,
¡ Ha ´ H m8. H ¤km8|¤8Ü, P (G/H)r , ¡§´ G
'u H mû8.
Ný²: aH 7→ Ha−1 ´û8 (G/H)l mû8 (G/H)r V. l
(G/H)l (G/H)r ÄêÓ. u´ H 3 G ¥ê [G : H] umû8Ä
ê.
ïÄ+(,«å»´ïÄ+ G ,+ G′ ±$N,
¡ùNÓN.
ïÄêXÚm±$N (=ÓN) ¿±dïÄêXÚ
(, ùýêÆqm²A.
rkå{´ïÄ+ G 8Ü Ω þC+ S(Ω ) (§d Ω g
¤kV|¤) ÓN, §duïÄ+ G 38Ü Ω þ^. ~X, |^
ù{Í¶; – ½f½n, ±9 Sylow 1!1!1n½n. k'
SN±ëw [24] 1 66 — 87 .
AO/, r Ω ¤ F þ5m, Ä S(V ) f+ —— V þ
_5C+ GL (V ), ïÄ+ G GL (V ) ÓN. +L«ØÒ´ïÄ+ G
5m_5C+«ÓN, l¥±¼+ G (´
L&E, ±)û+k'Nõ¯K.
+L«Ø´ïÄ+(rkåóä.
3(¬Æ!þfåÆ!þfzÆ¥, +L«Ø´rkåóä. 3¼êØ
ÄNÚ©Û¥, +L«ØåX'^. 3|ÜêÆ!VÇÚO!Å?èÚè
Æ¥, +L«Ø5õ/$^å5. ±ý, +L«ØA^¬5
2.
1Ù
+L«ØÄVg
§1 ÓN
+L«ØïÄ+5m_5C+ÓN. d·k£
eÓN5, ¿NeÓN^.
lF~)¹ÚêÆ¥äN~fg, ,/ÄÑNVg.
½Â 1 A Ú B Ñ´8Ü. XJ A B kéA{K f , ¦ A ¥z
a Ñk B ¥(½ b §éA, @o¡ f ´ A B N.
d b ¡ a 3 f e, a ¡ b 3 f e; A ¡N f ½Â, B
¡.
f ´ A B N, B f8
f (A) := {f (a)|a ∈ A}
¡ f (½8). f (A) P¤ Im f .
f ´ A B N, XJ f (A) = B, @o¡ f ´÷; XJ A ¥ØÓ
3 f eØÓ, @o¡ f ´ü; XJ f Q´÷, q´ü, @o¡ f ´ A
B V (½ A B méA).
·K 1 A Ú B Ñ´k8Ü. XJ3 A B V f , @o |A| =
|B|.
·K 2 A Ú B Ñ´k8Ü, |A| = |B|.
(1) e f ´ A B ÷, K f ´ü;
(2) e f ´ A B ü, K f ´÷.
f ´ A B N, XJ3 B A N g, ¦ f g = 1B ,
gf = 1A , Ù¥ 1B ´ B B ðN, 1A ´ A A ðN, @o¡ f ´
§1 ÓN ·7·
_N, r g ¡ f _N.
½n 1 N f : A → B ´_= f ´V.
·K 1 !·K 2 !½n 1 y²±ëw [30] 1 3 — 4 .
üN f g ¡, XJ§½Â!ÚéA{KÑÓ.
5NÒ´5mÓN. 5Néï
Ä5m(±9)û5mp«¯KåX
©^. e¡·òÞ~f5N¬ù:.
AÛm±w¤´±½: O å:¤k
½ þ|¤¢êþ 3 5m. ²L: O
?²¡ U ´ V fm. ?L: O
^Ø3²¡ U þ W , KN´wÑk
V = U ⊕ W.
Xã 1–1 ¤«. ddÉéu, ßÿkeã(Ø. ã 1–1
½n 2 V ´ F þ5m, U ´ V ?fm, K3 V
fm W , ¦
V = U ⊕ W.
d¡ W ´ U Öm.
y² e V ´k, K U Ä α1 , α2 , · · · , αs , r§*¿¤ V
Ä α1 , α2 , · · · , αs , αs+1 , · · · , αn , - W = hαs+1 , · · · , αn i, K V = U ⊕ W .
e V ´Ã. ½n 2 (ØE,¤á. w [28] 1 307 ·K 1 y².
U ÖmØ. Xã 1–1, ?L: O Ñ´²¡ U Öm.
3AÛm V ¥, Xã 1–1, V = U ⊕ W . éu? α ∈ V , k©)ª
α = α1 + α2 , Ù¥ α1 ∈ U, α2 ∈ W . r α éA α1 N P U ¡ V 3 U þ
²1u W ÝK. AO/, XJ W ²¡ U R, @o¡ P U ´ V 3 U þ
ÝK.
/, V ´ F þ5m, U ´ V ?fm, W ´ U Ö
m, K V = U ⊕ W . -
PU : V → V
α 7→ α1 ,
Ù¥ α = α1 + α2 , α1 ∈ U, α2 ∈ W . ¡ P U ´ V 3 U þ²1u W ÝK.
Ný: ÝK P U ´ V þ5C, = P U ´ V g
ÓN.
V ´¢SÈm, S ´ V f8, -
S ⊥ := {α ∈ V |(α, β) = 0, ∀β ∈ S},
¡ S ´ S Ö. ý S ⊥ ´¢SÈm V fm.
⊥
½n 3 V ´¢SÈm, U ´ V kfm, K
V = U ⊕ U ⊥.
y² [28] 1 642 .
· 8 · 1Ù +L«ØÄVg
U ´¢SÈmfm, XJ V = U ⊕ U ⊥ , @ok V 3 U þ²1

u U ⊥ ÝK P U , ¡§´ V 3 U þÝK, ½ÝK. r α 3 P U e¡
α 3 U þÝK.
3AÛm V ¥, ÝK (§´ V gÓN) 3ïÄmã/åX
^. ·5c[©Ûe.
mIX Oxyz. ?: M 3 xOy
¡! yOz ¡! xOz ¡þÝK©O M1 , M2 , M3 .

M1 , M2 , M3 ¥?¿ü:Ò±û½: M .
X, e
: M1 Ú: M3 , KxÑL: M1 ²1
u z ¶, L: M3 ²1u y ¶, ùü^
:Ò´: M , Xã 1–2 ¤«. ùL²

mã/3üI¡þÝK, Ò±(½ùã/.
e¡·5wäN~f.
Γ 3IX ã 1–2
( Oxyz ¥§
x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 4, (1)
2 2
x + y − 2x = 0. (2)
xÑ Γ .
) § (1) L«± O ¥%, » 2 ¥¡. § (2) ±¤
(x − 1)2 + y 2 = 1. (3)
ù´1²1u z ¶Î¡. Γ Ò´ùÎ¡þã¥¡.
ÄAÛm V 3 xOy ¡þÝK P 1 Ú3 xOz ¡þÝK P 3 .
Γ 3 P 1 e´þãÎ¡ ( xOy ¡:
(x − 1)2 + y 2 = 1,
z = 0.
ù´3 xOy ¡þ, % (1,0), » 1.

Γ 3 P 3 e, Ik¦Ñ Γ 3= y ¶²1Î¡þ. du
y ¶²1Î¡§Ø¹ y, Ïdr§ (1) ~§ (2) ÒØ¹ y
§:
z 2 + 2x = 4. (4)
u´ Γ 3§ (4) L«Î¡þ  . l Γ 3 P 3 e

 z 2 = −2(x − 2),

y = 0,


 |z| 6 2.
ù´3 xOz ¡Ôã (l§ (1) wÑ, z 2 6 4), ù^Ôº:´ xOz
¡þ: (2,0), é¡¶ x ¶, mX x ¶K¶.
l Γ §wÑ, Γ 'u xOy ¡é¡. ÏdxÑ Γ 3 xOy ¡9Ùþ
Ü©, Ò±|^é¡5Ñ^ Γ .
x Γ þÜ©, kxÑ§
3 xOy ¡þÝK (ù´þã) Ú3 xOz ¡þÝK (ù´þãÔ
§1 ÓN ·9·
ã), , |^c¡¤ùn, ÒxÑ

Γ þÜ©, Xã 1–3 ¤«.
lx Γ ~fw, 3ïÄmã/
, ïÄ§©O3üI¡þÝK
ÒU(½ùmã//G. mã/3
I¡þÝK´²¡ã/, §'N´
ïÄ. rù«g$^ïÄ+(±9
+k'¯Kþ, Ò´ïÄ+·Ó
N. ùÒÚÑ
+L«Ø.
¦ÖöU
'^|/ÆS+L«Ø, e¡r+ÓN
½ÂÚ5£. ã 1–3
½Â 2 G Ú G′ Ñ´+, XJ G G′ kN σ, ¦
σ(ab) = σ(a)σ(b), ∀a, b ∈ G,
′
@o¡ σ ´ G G ÓN, {¡Ó.
σ : G → G′ ´+Ó.
e σ ´ü, K σ ¡üÓ.
e σ ´÷, K σ ¡÷Ó.
e σ ´V, K σ ¡Ó. d¡+ G G′ ´Ó, P G ∼ = G′ .
du+Ó σ ±$, Ïd³úßÿ§ke5:
·K 3 σ : G → G′ ´+Ó, K
(1) σ(e) = e′ , Ù¥ e Ú e′ ©O´ G Ú G′ ü ;
(2) σ(a−1 ) = σ(a)−1 , ∀a ∈ G;
(3) e H < G, K σ(H) < G′ ; AO/, σ(G) < G′ .
y² ÖögCy².
′ ′
l÷½Âá=, +Ó σ : G → G ´÷= Im σ = G .
+Ó σ : G → G′ ´üAó? dk G ü e ´ e′ .
ddÉéu, ÚÑeãVg.
½Â 3 σ : G → G′ ´+Ó, -
Ker σ := {a ∈ G|σ(a) = e′ }, (5)
¡ Ker σ ´ σ Ø.
Ný, Ker σ ´ G f+.
·K 4 σ : G → G′ ´+Ó, K σ ´ü= Ker σ = {e}.
y² 75´w,. y35y¿©5. a, b ∈ G ¦ σ(a) = σ(b), K
σ(a)σ(b)−1 = e′ . l σ(ab−1 ) = e′ . Ïd ab−1 ∈ Ker σ. du Ker σ = {e}, Ïd
ab−1 = e. l a = b. ùL² σ ´ü.

?ÚïÄ Ker σ 5, ·ÄkÚÑ+f8¦{ùVg.
H, L Ñ´+ G f8, -
HL := {hl|h ∈ H, l ∈ L}. (6)
· 10 · 1Ù +L«ØÄVg
AO/, éu a ∈ G, k
aH = {ah|h ∈ H} = {a}H.
y, H, L, M Ñ´+ G f8, K

(HL)M = H(LM ), (7)
=+ G f8¦{÷v(ÜÆ.
σ : G → G′ ´+Ó. P K = Ker σ. ? k ∈ K, du σ(k) = e′ , Ïdé?
¿ g ∈ G, k
σ(gkg −1 ) = σ(g)σ(k)σ(g −1 ) = σ(g)e′ σ(g)−1 = e′ .
l gkg −1 ∈ K, ∀g ∈ G. u´
gKg −1 ⊆ K, ∀g ∈ G. (8)
d (8) ªá=
g −1 K(g −1 )−1 ⊆ K, ∀g ∈ G.
u´k
K ⊆ gKg −1 , ∀g ∈ G. (9)
l (8) Ú (9) ª, gKg −1 = K. u´·y²

Xe(Ø.
·K 5 σ : G → G′ ´+Ó, K
g( Ker σ)g −1 = Ker σ, ∀g ∈ G. (10)

l·K 5 Ééu, ÚÑeãVg.
½Â 4 H ´+ G f+, XJ
gHg −1 = H, ∀g ∈ G,
@o¡ H ´ G 5f+, P H ⊳ G.
Ný²: H < G, Ké?¿ g ∈ G, gHg −1 ´ G f+. gHg −1 ¡ H
Ýf+. u´l½Â 4 á=ÑXe(Ø.
·K 6 + G f+ H ´5f+= H Ýf+Ñu H g.
l·K 5 y²L§wÑ, H < G, XJé?¿ h ∈ H, g ∈ G, k ghg −1 ∈ H,
@o H ⊳ G.
·K 5 L², σ : G → G′ ´+Ó, K Ker σ ⊳ G.
{e} Ú G Ñ´+ G 5f+, ¡§´²5f+.
Abel +?f+Ñ´5f+.
$^+f8¦{(ÜÆá=Xe(Ø.
·K 7 + G f+ H ´5f+=
aH = Ha, ∀a ∈ G.
−1
y² H ⊳ G ⇐⇒ aHa = H, ∀a ∈ H
⇐⇒ (aHa−1 )a = Ha, ∀a ∈ H
⇐⇒ aH = Ha, ∀a ∈ H.
§1 ÓN · 11 ·
N ´+ G 5f+, d·K 7 , G 'u N û8 (G/N )l mû

8 (G/N )r . l ÒP¤ G/N , ¡§´ G 'u5f+ N û8. du
(aN )(bN ) = a(N b)N = a(bN )N = ab(N N ) = abN,
Ïdû8 G/N ¥±½Â¦{$:
(aN )(bN ) = abN,
¡§8¦{. Ný, §÷v(ÜÆ, N ´ü , aN _´ a−1 N , Ï
d G/N éu8¦{¤+, ¡§ G éu5f+ N û+.
d Lagrange ½ná=Xe(Ø.
·K 8 G ´k+, N ⊳ G, K
|G|
|G/N | = .
|N |
y² l |G| = |N |[G : N ] = |N ||G/N | á=.
+ G û+ G/N mko'XQ? ïáN:
π : G → G/N
a 7→ aN. (11)
w,ù´÷. du
π(ab) = abN = (aN )(bN ) = π(a)π(b),
Ïd π ´ G G/N Ó. ·k
a ∈ Ker π ⇐⇒ π(a) = N ⇐⇒ aN = N ⇐⇒ a ∈ N.
Ïd Ker π = N . u´·y²
eã·K.
·K 9 N ´+ G 5f+, -
π(a) = aN, ∀a ∈ G,
K π ´+ G û+ G/N ÷Ó, Ker π = N.π ¡g,Ó.
·K 9 L²: û+ G/N ´+ G Ó Im π. , + G ?Ó Im σ
û+ G/ Ker σ ko'X?
½n 4 (+ÓÄ½n) σ : G → G′ ´+Ó, K Ker σ ⊳ G,
G/ Ker σ ∼
= Im σ. (12)
y² d·K 5 Ker σ ⊳ G. P N = Ker σ. -
ψ : G/ Ker σ → Im σ
aN 7→ σ(a). (13)
du
aN = bN ⇐⇒ b−1 a ∈ N
⇐⇒ σ(b−1 a) = e′
⇐⇒ σ(a) = σ(b),
Ïd ψ Ń, ψ ´ü. w, ψ ´÷. l ψ ´V. é?¿ aN, bN ∈ G/N ,
k
ψ[(aN )(bN )] = ψ(abN ) = σ(ab) = σ(a)σ(b)
= ψ(aN )ψ(bN ).
· 12 · 1Ù +L«ØÄVg
Ïd ψ ´ G/ Ker σ Im σ Ó. l
G/ Ker σ ∼
= Im σ.
·K 9 L²: + G 'u5f+ N û+ G/N ´ G 3g,Ó π eÓ
. ½n 4 L²: + G ?+ G′ Ó Im σ Óuû+ G/ Ker σ. Ïd+ G
Ó+ G û+3þ´. c¡®Ñ: AÛm¥m Γ '
E,, Γ 3I¡þÝK´²¡, U'{ü, r Γ 3üI¡
þÝKxÑ5
, ÒUxÑ Γ . aq/, + G (U'E,, + G
3·Óe (þ´+ G û+) kU'{ü, BuïÄ. ·ï
ÄÙ
+ G ·õÓ, ÒkU(½+ G (. ùÒ´ïÄ+ G
(,«å»: ïÄ+ G Ó (þ´ïÄ+ G û+). ïÄ+
Ó±)û+k'Nõ¯K. e¡ÞF~)¹¥~f.
8U´(Ïo, L
369 U´(ÏA?
rù±(ÏéAê 1, 4mà Z ïáV. K8U´(Ï
o±¤ 4. u´
4 + 369 = 373,
373 7 Ø {ê´ 2, ÏdL

369 U´(Ï.
(ÏF!(Ï! · · · · · · !(Ï8éAf8|¤8Ü´ Z y©:
Z7 = {0, 1, 2, · · · , 6}.
Z7 éu 7 {a\{¤+. lê8 Z \{+ Z7 \{+k
N:
σ : Z → Z7
a 7→ a.
du
σ(a + b) = a + b = a + b = σ(a) + σ(b),
Ïd σ ´\{+ Z \{+ Z7 Ó. |^ùÓ, þãF~)¹¥¯

K±ùo):
4 + 369 = 4 + 5 = 2,
l L
369 U´(Ï.
/, m ú 1 ê, Zm éu m {a\{¤+, l Z
\{+ Zm \{+kÓ σ : a 7→ a. w, σ ´÷Ó, Ïd Im σ = Zm .
du
a ∈ Ker σ ⇔ σ(a) = 0 ⇔ a = 0 ⇔ a = lm, l ∈ Z,
Ïd Ker σ = m Z. l â+ÓÄ½n
Z/m Z ∼
= Zm .
§2 +5L«½ÂÚ~ · 13 ·
SK 1.1
1. f ´¢ê\{+ R "Eê¦{+ C∗ N: f (x) = e2π ix ,

∀x ∈ R.
(1) y² f ´Ó;
(2) ¦ Ker f Ú Im f ;
(3) ^ C L«E²¡þü , §éuEê¦{¤+. y²: R/ Z ∼ = C.
∗ z ∗
2. ψ ´¦{+ C gN: ψ(z) = , ∀z ∈ C .
|z|
(1) y² ψ ´Ó;
(2) ¦ Ker ψ Ú Im ψ;
(3) y²: C∗ / R+ ∼
= C, Ù¥ R+ ´¢ê8, C É²¡þü .
3. F ´, ü P 1. ^ SLn (F ) L«1ª 1 ¤k n Ý
|¤8Ü, y²: SLn (F ) ⊳ GL n (F ),

GL n (F )/ SLn (F ) ∼
= F ∗,
Ù¥ F ∗ ´ F "|¤¦{+.
§2 +5L«½ÂÚ~
V ´ K þ5m, V þ¤k_5C|¤¦{+P GL (V ).
½Â 1 G ´+, V 6= {0} ´ K þ5m. G GL (V )
+Ó ϕ ¡ G 3 K þ5L« ({¡ K-L«½öL«). V ¡
L«m. e V ´k, K V ê dimK V ¡L«gê (½ê), P
deg ϕ; e V ´Ã, K¡ ϕ ´ G ÃL«.
l½Â 1 wÑ, + G 5L«´dL«m V Ú+Ó ϕ |¤
| (ϕ, V ), §¦
ϕ(g) ∈ GL (V ), ∀g ∈ G;
ϕ(gh) = ϕ(g)ϕ(h), ∀g, h ∈ G;
ϕ(e) = 1V ,
Ù¥ e ´ G ü , 1V ´ V þðC.
|^+ G ·õ5L«±¼+ G (&E±9)û+k'
¯K. + G 35L« ϕ e´ GL (V ) f+, §'N´ïÄ. + G
5L« ϕ Ø´ G 5f+, l |^ ϕ Ø5ïÄ+ G (.
(ϕ, V ) ´+ G 5L«.
e Ker ϕ = {e} (= ϕ ´ü), K¡L« ϕ ´§¢.
e Ker ϕ = G, K¡L« ϕ ´².
+ G 1 g²L«¡ G ÌL«½ü L«, P 1G ½ ϕ0 .
V ´ K þ n 5m, K GL (V ) ∼= GL n (K). u´l+ G GL (V )
Ó ϕ G GL n (K) Ó, P Φ. ddÚÑeãVg.
· 14 · 1Ù +L«ØÄVg
½Â 2 + G GL n (K) +Ó Φ ¡ G 3 K þ n gÝ
L«.
3 V ¥½Ä , V þz_5CéAu n _Ý
.e

+ G n g5L« (ϕ, V ), r ϕ(g) 3 V ùÄeÝ
P Φ(g),
K
Φ : G → GL n (K)
g 7→ Φ(g)
´ G n gÝ
L«, ¡ Φ ´d ϕ Jø.
Ö¥^F1i1 ϕ, ψ, · · · 5L«ÎÒ,^F1i1 Φ, Ψ , · · ·
AÝ
L«ÎÒ(éu V ¥½Ä).
+ G ±kNõ5L«, o5L«3þ´Ó?ÄkL«
mAT´Ó, ÙgL« (=+Ó) mAkéX. ddÚÑeãVg.
½Â 3 + G 3 K þü5L« (ϕ, V ) Ú (ψ, W ) ¡´d (½
Ó), XJ35mÓ σ : V → W , ¦é?¿ g ∈ G, eã:
σ
V −−−→ W 
 
ϕ(g)  ψ(g)
 
y y
σ
V −−−→ W
=
ψ(g)σ = σϕ(g), ∀g ∈ G. (1)
dP ϕ ≈ ψ. e ϕ ψ Ød, KP ϕ 6≈ ψ.
Ný, 5L«däk5, é¡5, D45. l 5L«d
´+ G 3 K þ¤k5L«|¤8Üþd'X.
d½Â 3 g, ,/ÚÑ
+ G üÝ
L«dVg.
½Â 4 + G 3 K þüÝ
L« Φ Ú Ψ ¡´d (P Φ ≈ Ψ ),
XJ§kÓgê¿3 K þ_Ý
S, ¦
Ψ (g) = SΦ(g)S −1 , ∀g ∈ G. (2)
·K 1 + G ük5L« (ϕ, V ) Ú (ψ, W ) d=§Jø
Ý
L« Φ Ú Ψ d.
y² 75. 3 V ¥Ä α1 , α2 , · · · , αn , 3 W ¥Ä η1 , η2 , · · · , ηn .
du ϕ ≈ ψ, Ïd35mÓ σ : V → W , ¦
ψ(g)σ = σϕ(g), ∀g ∈ G.
σ(α1 , α2 , · · · , αn ) = (η1 , η2 , · · · , ηn )S,
ϕ(g)(α1 , α2 , · · · , αn ) = (α1 , α2 , · · · , αn )Φ(g),
ψ(g)(η1 , η2 , · · · , ηn ) = (η1 , η2 , · · · , ηn )Ψ (g).
â [28] 1 376 ~ 27 Ψ (g)S = SΦ(g). Ïd
Ψ (g) = SΦ(g)S −1 , ∀g ∈ G.
l Φ ≈ Ψ.
§2 +5L«½ÂÚ~ · 15 ·
¿©5. ïá V W 5N σ, ¦
σ(α1 , α2 , · · · , αn ) = (η1 , η2 , · · · , ηn )S.
du S ´_Ý
, Ïd σ ´ V W Ó. du Ψ (g)S = SΦ(g), Ïd
ψ(g)σ = σϕ(g), ∀g ∈ G.
l ϕ ≈ ψ.
+ G k5L« (ϕ, V ) §JøÝ
L« Φ ¢þ´, ´
cö^5Có, ö^Ý
ó. 5CóäkAÛy, Ý
óBuO. 8 ·ògd/æ^5Có½Ý
ó.
æ^Ý
ó, + G 1 g K-L« Φ ´ G K "|¤¦{+
K Ó, u´+ G 1 g K-L« Φ ´½Â G ! K ∗ N
∗
, = G þ K ∗ ¼ê, §÷v:
Φ(gh) = Φ(g)Φ(h), ∀g, h ∈ G,
Φ(e) = 1,
Ù¥ e ´+ G ü , 1 ´ K ü .
AO/, + G ÌL« 1G ´ G þ K ∗ ¼ê, §¦
1G (g) = 1, ∀g ∈ G.
Φ Ψ ´+ G ü 1 g K-L«, K
Φ ≈ Ψ ⇐⇒ 3 s ∈ K ∗ , ¦ Ψ (g) = sΦ(g)s−1 , ∀g ∈ G
⇐⇒ Ψ (g) = Φ(g), ∀g ∈ G
⇐⇒ Ψ = Φ,
=+ G ü 1 g K-L«d=§N´.
~ 1 éÑ¢ê\{+ ( R, +) 1 g¢L«.
) ( R, +) 1 g¢L« f ´ ( R, +) ¦{+ R∗ N, ÷v
f (t + u) = f (t)f (u), ∀t, u ∈ R.
ddéê¼ê y = ex äkù
5. ?Ú/, éu?¿½ a ∈ R, -
fa (x) = eax , ∀x ∈ R.
K fa ´ R R∗ N, ¦é?¿ t, u ∈ R, k
fa (t + u) = ea(t+u) = eat eau = fa (t)fa (u).
Ïd fa ´ ( R, +) 1 g¢L«. dd ( R, +) Ã¡õ 1 g¢L« (é
z¢ê a, Ñk ( R, t) 1 g¢L« fa ).
k=
¼ê´ ( R, +) 1 g¢L«? f ´ ( R, +) 1 g¢L«, K
∀t, u ∈ R, k
f (t + u) = f (t)f (u).
ü>é u ¦ê,
f ′ (t + u) = f (t)f ′ (u), ∀t, u ∈ R.
- u = 0,
f ′ (t) = f (t)f ′ (0), ∀t ∈ R.
· 16 · 1Ù +L«ØÄVg
P f ′ (0) = a. K
f ′ (t) = af (t), ∀t ∈ R.
þã©§)´
f (t) = C eat , ∀t ∈ R.
- t = 0, C = f (0). du f ´ ( R, t) ¦{+ R∗ Ó, Ïd f (0) = 1. l

C = 1. Ïd
f (t) = eat , ∀t ∈ R.
ùL² ( R, +) ¦{+ R∗ +Ó7½´ê.¼ê f (x) = eax , Ù¥ a ∈ R.

~ 2 éÑ ( R, +) 1 gEL«.
) a'~ 1, ?¿½Eê a, Ä ( R, +) ¦{+ C∗ N:
fa (x) = e iax , ∀x ∈ R.
dué?¿ t, u ∈ R, k
fa (t + u) = e ia(t+u) = e iat e iau = fa (t)fa (u),
Ïd fa ´ ( R, +) 1 gEL«.
a = a1 + a2 i, a1 , a2 ∈ R, a1 6= 0, K
e iax = e i(a1 +a2 i)x = e−a2 x e ia1 x .
u´ | e iax | = e−a2 x . l
é?¿ x ∈ R, |fa (x)| = 1
⇐⇒ é?¿ x ∈ R, e−a2 x = 1
⇐⇒ a2 = 0
⇐⇒ a ∈ R.
ddÑ, Im fa É²¡þü = a ´"¢ê.
l~ 2 ¦Ñ ( R, +) Ã¡õ 1 gEL«kA^.
- L2 (0, 2π) L«3«m [0, 2π] þ½Â¤kÿ÷v
Z 2π
|f (x)|2 dx < +∞
0
E¼ê|¤8Ü, b½ L2 (0, 2π) ¥¼ê±±Ï/òÿ¢ê8 R þ. u
´ L2 (0, 2π) ¥¼ê½Â R. ØJy² L2 (0, 2π) Éêþ5
m, ¡§ 2π ±Ï²È¼êm. 3 L2 (0, 2π) ¥5½
Z 2π
1
(f, g) := f (x)g(x) dx. (3)
2π 0
±y² (f, g) É5m L2 (0, 2π) þSÈ (y²±ëw [28] 1 700
~ 1). l L2 (0, 2π) ¤jm. 3~ 2 ¦Ñ ( R, +) 1 gEL«¥,
a ê n, K
Z 2π
1
(fn , fn ) = e inx e− inx dx = 1.
2π 0
§2 +5L«½ÂÚ~ · 17 ·
O, n 6= m , k
Z 2π
1
(fn , fm ) = e inx e− imx dx
2π 0
Z 2π Z 2π
1
= cos(n − m)x dx + i sin(n − m)x dx
2π 0 0
= 0.
Ïd ( R, +) eã 1 gEL«
· · · , f−2 , f−1 , f0 , f1 , f2 , · · ·
´jm L (0, 2π) 58. ±y²: L2 (0, 2π) ¥?Û¼ê f Ñ
2
±L«¤ù58pÃõ¼ê5|Ü:
+∞
X
f (x) = cn e inx , (4)
n=−∞
Ù¥~ê cn Z 2π
1
cn = f (x) e− inx dx. (5)
2π 0
3úª (4) ¥, ?êÂñ´

Z 2π N
X
2

lim f (x) − cn e inx dx = 0. (6)
M,N →∞ 0
n=−M
(4) ª¥mà?ê¡ Fourier ?ê, cn ¡ f Fourier Xê. (4) ª¡ L2 (0, 2π)
¥¼ê f Fourier Ðm. dd (â18Ù §9 ·K 26) ( R, +) 1 gE
L«
· · · , f−2 , f−1 , f0 , f1 , f2 , · · ·
´ L2 (0, 2π) IOÄ. lùpw: ( R, +) þãÃ¡õ 1 gEL«3

Fourier ©Û¥åX'^. Fourier ©Û3&Ò©Û!ã?n!ÔnÆÆ
Eâ¯õ+¥åXÄ^.
~ 3 ¦ ( R, +) 2 g¢Ý
L«.
) - !
cos t − sin t
Φ(t) = , ∀t ∈ R.
sin t cos t
O ! !
cos t − sin t cos u − sin u
Φ(t)Φ(u) =
sin t cos t sin u cos u
!
cos(t + u) − sin(t + u)
=
sin(t + u) cos(t + u)
= Φ(t + u).
Ïd Φ ´ ( R, +) 2 g¢Ý
L«.
~ 4 ¦ ( R, +) n g¢L«.
· 18 · 1Ù +L«ØÄVg
) Äké n ¢5m V . V = Rn [x], §´d¢êþgê

u n ¤kõª|¤8Ü, §éuõª\{êþ¦{¤ n
¢5m. Ùgé R GL (V ) N, ¦§±$. ?¿½¢ê
a, 4§éAu V þ_5C T a , ù T a óf? du T a r
gêu n õªN¤gêu n õª, Ïdßÿ±- T a
T a : Rn [x] → Rn [x]
f (x) 7→ f (x + a).
w,, T a Ń. T a ¢´rØ½ x ^ x + a \. â [28] ¥ 7.1 !ù
õªÏ^5 (1 5 — 7 ), T a ±\{$, ¿±¦{$ (l
±êþ¦{$), Ïd T a ´ Rn [x] þ5C. N´wÑ, T −a ´ T a
_C. Ïd T a ∈ GL (V ). u´-
ϕ : ( R, +) → GL (V )
a 7→ T a .
dué?¿ a, b ∈ R, ?¿ f (x) ∈ Rn [x], k
ϕ(a + b)(f (x)) = T a+b (f (x)) = f (x + (a + b))
= f ((x + b) + a) = T a (f (x + b)) = T a ( T b (f (x)))
= ( T a T b )(f (x)) = [ϕ(a)ϕ(b)](f (x)),
Ïd ϕ(a + b) = ϕ(a)ϕ(b).
l ϕ ´ ( R, +) n g¢L«.
kvk{E?¿+?¿ n g K-L«?
+Vg gïÄã/é¡5. ~X, n/kn^é¡¶ (§©Oń
^>þR²©), §u: O, ¡: O ń/¥%. 7: O ^=
120◦ ½ 240◦ , n/C¤§gCÜã/, {¡n/ (:8) ±
ØC. 'ué¡¶ li , n/±ØC (i = 1, 2, 3). ^ σ L«²¡þ
7: O = 120◦ ^=, τi L«'u li ¶, I L«²¡ðC,
-
G = {I, σ, σ 2 , τ1 , τ2 , τ3 },
K G ¥zÑ±n/ØC, Xã 1–4 ¤«. ,

²¡þC γ ±n/ØC, K γ ±²¡þ¡:
ålØC. l γ ´²¡þ (:) C. â [29]
1 205 ½n 6.4, (:) ½ö´²£, ½ö´^=,
½ö´, ½ö´§m¦È. du γ 4: O ±Ø
Ä, Ïd γ ØU´²£. γ U´7: O ^=, ½ö´
'uL: O , ½ö´§¦È. ã 1–4 ¥
n/º:kS| A1 A2 A3 ¤_. 7: O ^=¦
A1 A2 A3 E¤_; 'uL: O , ½ö
^=¦È φ, ¦ A1 A2 A3 ¤^. ddy ã 1–4
§2 +5L«½ÂÚ~ · 19 ·
γ ∈ G. Ný² G 'uN¦{µ4, ? y² G ´+, ¡ G ń/

é¡ (5) +.
/, ²¡þ (½m¥) CXJr²¡ (½m) ã/ Γ C¤§gC
Üã/, @o¡ùC´ã/ Γ é¡ (5) C: Γ ¤ké¡ (5) C
|¤8Ü G, éuN¦{¤+, ¡ G ´ã/ Γ é¡ (5) +.
ln/é¡ (5) + G w, Ω ń/ A1 A2 A3 ¤k:|¤
8Ü, Kéu?¿: P ∈ Ω , ?¿ a ∈ G, k a(P ) ∈ Ω ; éu?¿ a, b ∈ G, k
(ab)(P ) = a(b(P ));
k I(P ) = P . ég,/, ¡+ G 38Ü Ω þk^. ddÉéu, ÚÑe
ãVg.
½Â 5 G ´+, G ü P e; Ω ´8Ü. XJ G × Ω
Ω kN: (a, x) 7→ a ◦ x, ÷v
(ab) ◦ x = a ◦ (b ◦ x), ∀a, b ∈ G, ∀x ∈ Ω ;
e ◦ x = x, ∀x ∈ Ω ,
@o¡+ G 38Ü Ω þk^ (action).
XJ+ G 3 n 8Ü Ω = {x1 , x2 , · · · , xn } þk^, @o·±
Ueã{EÑ G n g K-L«
ÄkE K þ n 5m V . - V ´¤k/ªÚ
a1 x1 + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn , ai ∈ K(i = 1, 2, · · · , n)
Xn X n
|¤8Ü. V ¥ü ai xi bi xi ¡´, XJ ai = bi , i =
i=1 i=1
1, 2, · · · , n. 3 V ¥5½
Xn n
X n
X
ai xi + bi xi := (ai + bi )xi ,
i=1 i=1 i=1
n
! n
X X
k ai xi := (kai )xi , ∀k ∈ K.
i=1 i=1
u´ V k
\{$Xþ¦{$. Ný V ¤ K þ5m.
·r
0x1 + · · · + 0xi−1 + 1xi + 0xi+1 + · · · + 0xn
xi Ó, KNý x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ¤ V Ä. l dimK V = n.

ÙgE+ G GL (V ) ÓN
!
ϕ. -
n
X n
X
ϕ(g) ai xi := ai (g ◦ xi ), ∀g ∈ G,
i=1 i=1
K ϕ(g) ´ V gN. ! du
n
X n
X n
X
ϕ(g) ai xi + bi xi = ϕ(g) (ai + bi )xi
i=1 i=1 i=1
· 20 · 1Ù +L«ØÄVg
n
X
= (ai + bi )(g ◦ xi )
i=1
n
! n
!
X X
= ϕ(g) ai xi + ϕ(g) bi xi ,
i=1 i=1
n
! n
!
X X
ϕ(g) k ai xi = ϕ(g) (kai )xi
i=1 i=1
n
X
= (kai )(g ◦ xi )
i=1
n
!
X
= kϕ(g) ai xi ,
i=1
Ïd ϕ(g) ´ V þ5C. duéu i = 1, 2, · · · , n, k
[ϕ(g)ϕ(g −1 )]xi = g ◦ (g −1 ◦ xi ) = (gg −1 ) ◦ xi = e ◦ xi = xi ,
Ïd g(g)ϕ(g −1 ) = 1V , ∀g ∈ G. l ϕ(g −1 ) ´ ϕ(g) _C. Ïd ϕ(g) ∈ GL (V ).
dué?¿ g, h ∈ G, k
ϕ(gh)xi = (gh) ◦ xi = g ◦ (h ◦ xi ) = ϕ(g)ϕ(h)xi , i = 1, 2, · · · , n.
Ïd ϕ(gh) = ϕ(g)ϕ(h), ∀g, h ∈ G. l ϕ ´ G GL (V ) Ó. u´ ϕ ´
+ G n g K-L«.
|^+ G 3 n 8Ü Ω þ^, ^þã{E G n g K-L
« ϕ ¡ G 3 K þ n gL«. éu V þãÄ x1 , x2 , · · · , xn , ϕ J
øÝ
L« Φ ¦éuz g ∈ G Ñk Φ(g) ´ n Ý
, =z1zTk
´ 1, Ù{ 0 Ý
.
|^+ G 3k8þ^5E G L«É+5L«
{.
G ´+, -
G×G → G
(g, x) 7→ gx,
Nýù´+ G 38Ü G þ^, ¡§+ G 38Ü G þ²£.
G ´k+. |^+ G 38Ü G þ²£, EÑ G 3 K þ
 ({¡
L«¡ G K K-L«

G KL«
 ), P ρ. ρ L«m´
X 

ag g ag ∈ K =: K[G],
 
g∈G
ρ gêu+ G |G|. du
g ∈ Ker ρ ⇐⇒ ρ(g) = 1K[G]
=⇒ ρ(g)e = e =⇒ ge = e =⇒ g = e,
Ïd Ker ρ = {e}, = G KL« ρ ´§¢.
k+KL«3ïÄk+L«(¥åXÄ^.
§2 +5L«½ÂÚ~ · 21 ·
k8 Ω gV Ω . Ω ¹k n , Ø

Ω = {1, 2, · · · , n}, ù Ω ¡ n . Ω ¤k n |¤8
ÜéuN¦{¤+, ¡ n é¡+, P Sn . n σ Ï~¤e
ã/ª: !
1 2 ··· n
σ= ,
a1 a2 · · · an
Ù¥a1 a2 · · · an ´ 1, 2, · · · , n ü (¡ n ü). du n üoê

n!, Ïd |Sn | = n!.
?Ûü n σ ÑUL«¤
üüØÓ¦È, ¿
Ø
ÓügS , L«{´ (y²w [24] 1 20 ½n 1). ~X, 4
!
1 2 3 4
σ= = (14)(23).
4 3 2 1
~ 5 ¦ 3 é¡+ S3 3ê K þ 3 gÝ
L«.
) S3 38Ü Ω = {1, 2, 3} þkg,^:
(σ, i) 7→ σ(i), ∀σ ∈ S3 , i = 1, 2, 3.
dùÊ S3 3 gL«P ϕ. S3 6
(1), (12), (13), (23), (123), (132).
±y² S3 ±d (12), (123) )¤ (±|^ [24] 1 38 SK 1.2 1 5 K(
Ø, ±O ), Ïdk5¦ Φ((12)) Ú Φ((123)). du
ϕ((12))(1) = 2, ϕ((12))(2) = 1, ϕ((12))(3) = 3;
ϕ((123))(1) = 2, ϕ((123))(2) = 3, ϕ((123))(3) = 1,
Ïd    
0 1 0 0 0 1
   
Φ((12)) = 
1 0 0
, Φ((123)) = 
1 0 0
.
0 0 1 0 1 0
−1
du (13) = (123)(12), (23) = (12)(123), (132) = (123)
 , Ïd 
0 0 1
 
Φ((13)) = Φ((123))Φ((12)) =  0 1 0,

1 0 0
 
1 0 0
 
Φ((23)) = Φ((12))Φ((123)) =  0 0 1,

0 1 0
 
0 1 0
 
Φ((132)) = Φ((123))−1 =  0 0 1.

1 0 0
· 22 · 1Ù +L«ØÄVg
Φ((1)) = I,
Ù¥ I ´ 3 ü Ý
.
~ 6 ¦ n é¡+ Sn 3ê K þ n gÝ
L«.
) Sn 38Ü Ω = {1, 2, · · · , n} þkg,^:
(σ, i) 7→ σ(i), i = 1, 2, · · · , n.
dùÊ Sn n gL« ϕ ¦
ϕ(σ)(1) = σ(1), ϕ(σ)(2) = σ(2), · · · , ϕ(σ)(n) = σ(n).
l
Φ(σ) = Eσ(1),1 + Eσ(2),2 + · · · + Eσ(n),n , ∀σ ∈ Sn ,
Ù¥ Eij ´ (i, j) 1, Ù{ 0 n Ý

.
knêþ n gõª xn − 1 E¡ n gü , TÐk n n gü
, §üüØ, ©O
1, ξ, ξ 2 , · · · , ξ n−1 ,
2π
Ù¥ ξ = e i n . -
Un = {1, ξ, ξ 2 , · · · , ξ n−1 },
w,, Un éuEê¦{¤+, ¡ Un Éêþ n gü +. Un

Ñ±¤ ξ i /ª, ξ ¡ n gü .
ê8 Z éu\{¤+. zê k Ñ±¤ 1 ê k1 /ª.
dþãü~fÚÑeãVg.
½Â 6 XJ+ G ¥k a, ¦ G zÑU¤ a ai
/ª ( G $P¤¦{), ½ö¤ a “ê” ka /ª ( G $P
¤\{), @o¡ G ´Ì+, a ¡ G )¤, d±r G P¤ hai.
2π
Eêþ n gü + Un ´ n Ì+, §)¤´ ξ = e i n .
ê\+ ( Z, +) ´ÃÌ+, 1 ´§)¤.
Ì+½´ Abel +.
3 Un ¥, ξ n = 1, 0 < l < n , ξ l 6= 1. 3 ( Z, +) ¥, 1 ?¿êÑ
Øu 0. ddÚÑeãVg.
½Â 7 + G a, XJ3ê n ¦ an = e ( G $P¤
¦{, ü e), ½ na = 0 ( G $P¤\{, ü 0), @o¡ a ´k
, d¦ an = e (½ na = 0) ¤áê n ¡ a , P |a|; X
Jéu?¿ê n Ñk an 6= e (½ na 6= 0), @o¡ a ´Ã.
l½Â 6 Ú½Â 7 á=eã(Ø:
(1) G ´k+, XJ G ¥k a, ¦ a |G|, @o G ´Ì
+, a ´ G )¤;
(2) G ´kÌ+, K a ´ G )¤= a u |G|.
'u+ke(Ø.
§2 +5L«½ÂÚ~ · 23 ·
·K 2 G ´+. XJ a n, @o

(1) am = e ⇐⇒ n|m;
(2) é?¿ê k, k
n
|ak | = .
(n, k)
·K 3 + G ¥ a, b ©O n, m, XJ ab = ba, (n, m) = 1, @
o ab u nm.
·K 2 Ú·K 3 y²±ëw [24] 1 29 — 30 .
Ì+½´ Abel +. Øé. e¡Ñk Abel +Ì+^.
·K 4 G k Abel +, K G ¥k´Ù¦¤k
ê.
·K 5 G k Abel +, XJéu?¿ê m, § xm = e 3 G ¥
)êØL m, @o G ´Ì+.
d·K 5 ±ÑXe(Ø.
·K 6 k F ¤k"|¤¦{+ F ∗ 7Ì+.
·K 4 !·K 5 Ú·K 6 y²±w [24] 1 36 — 37 .
~ 7 ¦ 3 Ì+ G = hai KL« ρ JøÝ
L«.
) ρ L«m K[G] Ä´ e, a, a2 . du
ρ(a)e = ae = a, ρ(a)a = aa = a2 , ρ(a)a2 = aa2 = e.
Ïd ρ(a) 3Ä e, a, a2 eÝ
P (a)  
0 0 1
 
P (a) = 
 1 0 0 .

0 1 0
l  
0 1 0
 
P (a2 ) = P (a)2 = 
0 0 1
.
1 0 0
w,, P (e) = I.
c¡ùn/ A1 A2 A3 é¡ (5) + G
G = {I, σ, σ 2 , τ1 , τ2 , τ3 },
Ù¥ σ ´7¥% O = 120◦ ^=, τi ´'ué¡¶ li . (Üã 1–4
wÑ
(στ1 )(A1 ) = σ(A1 ) = A2 , (στ1 )(A2 ) = σ(A3 ) = A1 ,
(στ1 )(A3 ) = σ(A2 ) = A3 ,
Ïd στ1 = τ3 . Ón, σ2 τ1 = τ2 . Ïd
G = {I, σ, σ 2 , τ1 , στ1 , σ 2 τ1 }.
w,, σ3 = I, τi2 = I, i = 1, 2, 3.
· 24 · 1Ù +L«ØÄVg
du στ1 = τ3 , Ïd (στ1 )2 = τ32 = I, = (στ1 )(στ1 ) = I. l τ1 στ1 = σ−1 . u

´ G ±¤
G = hσ, τ |σ 3 = τ 2 = I, τ στ = σ −1 i,
Ù¥ σ ´'u¥% O = 120◦ ^=, τ ´'u,^é¡¶. ¡ σ, τ ´
G )¤, §÷vþãn^.
þãïÄn/é¡ (5) +{, ·û?Û n >/ (n > 3).
Ïd±Ñeã(Ø:
2π
n >/¥% O, ^ σ L«7¥% O = ^=, ^ τ L«'u
n
,^é¡¶, K n >/é¡ (5) + G
G = {I, σ, σ 2 , · · · , σ n−1 , τ, στ, · · · , σ n−1 τ }.
G ±¤
G = hσ, τ |σ n = τ 2 = I, τ στ = σ −1 i.
n >/é¡ (5) +¡¡N+, P Dn . w,, Dn 2n. du τ στ =
σ −1 , Ïd
στ = τ −1 σ −1 = τ σ n−1 6= τ σ,
l Dn ´+.
~ 8 ¦n/é¡ (5) + D3 2 g¢L«9ÙJøÝ
L«.
)
D3 = hσ, τ |σ 3 = τ 2 = I, τ στ = σ −1 i,
2π
Ù¥ σ ´7n/¥% O = ^=, τ ´'u
3
n/^é¡¶ l1 . Xã 1–5, ± O :, l1
y ¶ïá²¡IX Oxy. x ¶! y ¶ü þ©O
e1 , e2 . ^ V L«n/¤3²¡, §´ 2 ¢5m.
e1 , e2 ´ V Ä. D3 z (§´:C) éA§
pþCÒ´ D3 2 g¢L« ϕ, σ pþ
CEP σ. Ù{aq. du √
1 3
σ( e1 ) = − e1 + e2 ,
2√ 2
3 1 ã 1–5
σ( e2 ) = − e1 − e2 ,
2 2
Ïd  √ 
1 3
 −2 − 2 
Φ(σ) =  √
.

3 1
−
2 2
du τ ( e1 ) = − e1 , τ ( e2 ) = e2 , Ïd !
−1 0
Φ(τ ) = .
0 1
§3 +5L«( · 25 ·
Φ(σ 2 ) = Φ(σ)2 , Φ(στ ) = Φ(σ)Φ(τ ), Φ(σ 2 τ ) = Φ(σ 2 )Φ(τ ), Φ(I) = I.

ÖöäNÑÝ
Φ(σ2 ), Φ(στ ), Φ(σ2 τ ).
SK 1.2
1. ¦ ( R, +) 2 g¢L«.
2. ¦ ( R, +) n g¢Ý
L«.
3. ¦ ( R, +) Ã¢L«.
4. 3~ 1 ~ 4 ±9þ¡1 1,2,3 K¥, =
L«´§¢?
5. ?¿½ λ ∈ C∗ , -
ϕλ : ( Z, +) → C∗
n 7→ λn .
`² ϕλ ´ ( Z, +) 1 gEL«. ?Ø ϕλ Û´§¢.
6. V = R[x]. ?¿½ a ∈ R, -
La (f (x)) := f (ax), ∀f (x) ∈ R[x],
Sa (f (x)) := f ( ea x), ∀f (x) ∈ R[x].
¿-
ϕ(a) = La , ∀a ∈ R,
ψ(a) = Sa , ∀a ∈ R.
¯: ϕ Ú ψ ´ ( R, +) Ã¢L«í?
7. ~ 3 E ( R, +) 2 g¢Ý
L« Φ, þ¡1 2 KE ( R, +) 2
g¢Ý
L« ψ dí?
8. Ñ 4 Ì+ G = hai 3 K þKL« ρ JøÝ
L«.
9. Ñ 3 é¡+ S3 3 K þKL« ρ JøÝ
L«.
10. ¦/é¡ (5) + D4 2 g¢L«9ÙJøÝ
L«.
11. Φ ´~ 6 E n é¡+ Sn n gÝ
L«. éu σ ∈ Sn , `² σ
ØÄ:êu tr (Φ(σ)).
§3 +5L«(

ïÄ+(±9)û+k'¯K, I+ G õ5L«
Q? ,Ú+ G ¤k5L«, 7Ur+ G (tÙ. ´ý
Ik¦Ñ+ G ¤k5L«í? kvkU¦Ñ
Ä5L«
Ò±û½+ G ¤k5L«Q? ùr¦·ïÄ+5L«(, åã
^+ G êþÄ5L«5)û+ G (±9k'¯K.
· 26 · 1Ù +L«ØÄVg
3.1 fL«
(ϕ, V ) ´+ G K-L«. Äk¯: kvkU+ G 3 V f

mþk K-L«Q? w,ùfm7L÷v½^. g,ÚÑ
eãV
g.
½Â 1 (ϕ, V ) ´+ G K-L«. V fm U XJ´5C
ϕ(g) ØCfm, ∀g ∈ G, @o¡ U ´L« ϕ ØCfm½ G ØCfm.
XJ U 6= {0} ´ G ØCfm, @o ∀g ∈ G, ϕ(g)|U ´ U þ5C, E
´_. u´-
ϕU (g) := ϕ(g)|U, ∀g ∈ G,
B G K-L« (ϕU , U ), ¡ ϕU ´ ϕ fL«.

e V ´ K þ n 5m, K3 G ØCfm U ¥Ä α1 , α2 , · · · ,
αm , r§*¿¤ V Ä α1 , α2 , · · · , αm , αm+1 , · · · , αn . ϕ éu V ùÄJø
Ý
L« Φ !
ΦU (g) C(g)
Φ(g) = , ∀g ∈ G, (1)
0 B(g)
Ù¥ ΦU ´fL« ΦU éu U þãÄJøÝ
L«.
w,, {0} V gÑ´ V G ØCfm, ¡§´² G ØCfm.
w,, V G ØCfmÚE´ G ØCfm.
3.2 L«Ú
½Â 2 (ϕ, V ) ´+ G K-L«, U ´ V G ØCfm, XJ

3 V G ØCfm W , ¦ V = U ⊕ W , @o¡ W ´ U 3 V ¥
G ØCÖm.
(ϕ, V ) ´+ G K-L«, XJ U ´ V G ØCfm, U 3
V ¥k G ØCÖm, @o
V = U ⊕ W; (2)
¿ ϕU , ϕW Ñ´ ϕ fL«. u´ V ¥?þ α ±/L«¤ α = u + w,

Ù¥ u ∈ U, w ∈ W , ¿
ϕ(g)α = ϕ(g)u + ϕ(g)w = ϕU (g)u + ϕW (g)w, ∀g ∈ G. (3)
·¡ ϕ ´§fL« ϕU ϕW Ú, P ϕ = ϕU ⊕ ϕW . ù·y²
e
ã·K.
·K 1 (ϕ, V ) ´+ G K-L«. XJ U Ú W Ñ´ V G ØCf
m, V = U ⊕ W , @o
ϕ = ϕU ⊕ ϕW . (4)
·K 1 L², XJ V ´ G ØCfm U Ú W Ú, @oL« ϕ ´§f

L« ϕU ϕW Ú. l (3) ªw, fL« ϕU ϕW û½
L« ϕ.
§3 +5L«( · 27 ·
y3 V ´ n . 3 G ØCfm U Ú W ¥©OÄ α1 , α2 , · · · , αm ;

β1 , β2 , · · · , βn−m , r§Üå5´ V Ä. ϕU , ϕW ©Oéu U, W þã
ÄJøÝ
L« ΦU , ΦW , K ϕU ⊕ ϕW éu V þãÄJøÝ
L«P
ΦU ⊕ ΦW . w,k !
ΦU (g) 0
(ΦU ⊕ ΦW )(g) = , ∀g ∈ G. (5)
0 ΦW (g)
·K 1 ±í2 V ´õ G ØCfmÚ/, AÝ
L«´
fÝ
L«|¤©¬éÝ
.
, e®+ G ü K-L« (ϕ1 , V1 ) Ú (ϕ2 , V2 ), K±EÑ G äk
L«m K-L«.
Äkl V1 Ú V2 ÑuE5m. g, V1 V2 (k
È V1 × V2 = {(α1 , α2 )|α1 ∈ V1 , α2 ∈ V2 }. 5½
(α1 , α2 ) + (β1 , β2 ) := (α1 + β1 , α2 + β2 ),
k(α1 , α2 ) := (kα1 , kα2 ).
ý V1 ×V2 ¤ K þ5m, ¡§´ V1 V2 Ú, P V1 +̇V2 .
ÙgE+ G GL (V1 +̇V2 ) Ó ϕ. -
ϕ(g)(α1 , α2 ) := (ϕ1 (g)α1 , ϕ2 (g)α2 ), ∀g ∈ G. (6)
−1
ý ϕ(g) ´ V1 +̇V2 þ5C, ϕ(g ) ´ ϕ(g) _C. u´ ϕ(g) ∈
GL (V1 +̇V2 ). OÑ, ϕ ±$, Ïd ϕ ´+ G äkL«m V1 +̇V2
K-L«. ¡ ϕ ´L« ϕ1 ϕ2 Ú, P
ϕ = ϕ1 +̇ϕ2 . (7)
e V1 Ú V2 Ñ´k, V1 Ä α1 , α2 , · · · , αm , V2 Ä
β1 , β2 , · · · , βr , K (α1 , 0), · · · , (αm , 0), (0, β1 ), · · · , (0, βr ) ´ V1 +̇V2 Ä.
ϕ1 , ϕV ©O3 V1 , V2 þãÄeJøÝ
L« Φ1 , Φ2 , K ϕ1 +̇ϕ2 3 V1 +̇V2
þãÄeJøÝ
L«P Φ1 +̇Φ2 , OÑ !
Φ1 (g) 0
(Φ1 +̇Φ2 )(g) = , ∀g ∈ G. (8)
0 Φ2 (g)
k'5m ÚVgÚ(Ø±w [28] 1 290 — 291 . ·k
V1 +̇V2 = (V1 +̇{0}) ⊕ ({0}+̇V2 ), (9)
∼ ∼
V1 +̇{0} = V1 , {0}+̇V2 = V2 . -
ϕe1 (g)(α1 , 0) := (ϕ1 (g), 0), ϕ e2 (g)(0, α2 ) = (0, ϕ2 (g)α2 ), (10)
K ϕe1 (g), ϕe2 (g) ©O´ V1 +̇0, 0+̇V2 þ_5C. l ϕe1 , ϕe2 ©O´ ϕ1 +̇ϕ2 3
G ØCfm V1 +̇0, 0+̇V2 þfL«. â (9) ªÚ·K 1
ϕ1 +̇ϕ2 = ϕ e1 ⊕ ϕ e2 . (11)
(11) ªL²: + G ü K-L« (ϕ1 , V1 ) (ϕ2 , V2 ) Ú ϕ1 +̇ϕ2 ±w¤´
(ϕ1 +̇ϕ2 , V1 +̇V2 ) fL« (ϕ e1 , V1 +̇0) (ϕ e2 , 0+̇V2 ) Ú, Ù¥ ϕ e2 d (10) ª
e1 , ϕ
½Â.
aq/±?Ø+ G eZ K-L«Ú.
· 28 · 1Ù +L«ØÄVg
3.3 ØL«, L«, L«

3ïÄê Z (, ê (§Ïêk 1 Ú§g) åXÄïÓ
¬^. 3ïÄ K þõª K[x] (, Øõª (§Ïª
k"gõªÚ§) åXÄïÓ¬^. a'ù
, ßÿ3ïÄ+ G
K-L«(, V G ØCfmk {0} Ú V K-L«kUåXÄ
ïÓ¬^. ddÚÑeãVg.
½Â 3 (ϕ, V ) ´+ G K-L«. XJ V G ØCfmk {0}
Ú V (=vk² G ØCfm), @o¡ (ϕ, V ) ´Ø; ÄK¡ (ϕ, V ) ´
.
w,, 1 gL«Ñ´Ø.
V ´k. XJ (ϕ, V ) ´, @o V k² G ØCf
m U , l ϕ kfL« ϕU , ¿ ϕ 3 V ·ÄeJøÝ
L«
! Φ äk/ª
ΦU (g) C(g)
Φ(g) = , ∀g ∈ G. (12)
0 B(g)
, e ϕ JøÝ
L« Φ äkþã/ª (= Φ(g) ek"Ý
, ∀g ∈
G), K V k² G ØCfm, l ϕ .
?Ú/, XJ (12) ªC¤©¬éÝ
, @oL«m V ´§ü G Ø
CfmÚ, l L« ϕ ±©)¤§üfL«Ú. ddÉéuÚ
ÑeãVg.
½Â 4 (ϕ, V ) ´+ G K-L«. XJéu V z G ØCf
m, Ñk§3 V ¥ G ØCÖm, @o¡ (ϕ, V ) ´.
e (ϕ, V ) ´+ G ØL«, K V kü G ØCfm: {0} Ú V . du
V = {0} ⊕ V , ÏdØL« (ϕ, V ) ´.
3L«½Â¥k “éu V z G ØCfm” ùé{, ù´
UÑeã(Ø.
·K 2 + G L«?¿fL«´.
y² (ϕ, V ) ´+ G L«, ϕU ´ ϕ ?¿fL«. K
U ´ V G ØCfm. ? U G ØCfm U1 , w, U1 ´ V
G ØCfm. du (ϕ, V ) , Ïd U1 3 V ¥k G ØCÖm W . l
V = U1 ⊕ W . â [28] 1 275 ~ 31
T
U = U1 ⊕ (W U ).
T
du G ØCfmE´ G ØCfm, Ïd W U ´ V G ØCfm.
T T T
qdu W U ⊆ U , Ïd W U ´ U G ØCfm. l W U ´ U1 3 U
¥ G ØCÖm. Ïd ϕU ´.
d·K 2 ±Ñ: (ϕ, V ) ´+ G L«. XJ (ϕ, V ) ´,
@o3 V ² G ØCfm V1 . du (ϕ, V ) , Ïd V1 3 V
¥k G ØCÖm V2 . u´ V = V1 ⊕ V2 . l ϕ = ϕ1 ⊕ ϕ2 , Ù¥ ϕi ´ ϕ fL
« ϕVi {'PÒ, i = 1, 2. â·K 2 , ϕi ´, i = 1, 2. e ϕi
§3 +5L«( · 29 ·
, K3 Vi ² G ØCfm Vi1 . du ϕi , Ïd Vi1 3 Vi ¥k

G ØCÖm Vi2 , l ϕi = ϕi1 ⊕ ϕi2 . ge, e V ´k, K3kÚ
7,ª, =d¤kfL«Ñ´Ø. u´·
eã½n.
½n 1 + G kL«½±©)¤kõØfL«
Ú.
3.4 +5L«(
l½n 1 w, + G kL«(é{ü: §´kõØ
fL«Ú. g,¯: + G K-L«´ÄÑL«Q? e¡·5
&¢ù¯K.
(ϕ, V ) ´+ G 3 K þ5L«. e ϕ Ø, K§´. e
¡ ϕ . ? V ² G ØCfm U . â [28] 1 307 Ú·K 1
, U 3 V ¥kÖm U ′ , =
V = U ⊕ U ′. (13)
´ U ′ Ø½´ G ØCfm. dl U ′ ÑuE G ØCfm,

¦§¤ U 3 V ¥Öm. â [28] 1 338 íØ 2
U = Ker P U ′ , U ′ = Im P U ′ , (14)
′
Ù¥ P U ′ ´ V 3 U þ²1u U ÝK. · V þ5C A B XJ
, @o B ´ A ØCfm. u´·l P U ′ ÑuE5C
B, ¦ Bϕ(g) = ϕ(g) B, = B = ϕ(g) Bϕ(g)−1 , ∀g ∈ G, d B ´z
ϕ(g) ØCfm, l B Im B ´ G ØCfm. G ´k+, -
X
B= ϕ(h) P U ′ ϕ(h)−1 , (15)
h∈G
w, B ´ V þ5C. éu? g ∈ G, k
X
ϕ(g) Bϕ(g)−1 = ϕ(g)ϕ(h) P U ′ ϕ(h)−1 ϕ(g)−1
h∈G
X
= ϕ(gh) P U ′ ϕ(gh)−1
h∈G
X
= ϕ(y) P U ′ ϕ(y)−1
y∈G
= B.
u´^ (15) ª½Â B Im B ´ G ØCfm.
Im B ´Ä U 3 V ¥Öm? â [28] 1 337 ·K 3, e B 2 = B,
Ker B = U , K
V = U ⊕ Im B.
? u ∈ U , du U ´ G ØCfm, U = Ker P U ′ , Ïd
X X
B(u) = ϕ(h) P U ′ ϕ(h)−1 u = ϕ(h)0 = 0.
h∈G h∈G
u´ u ∈ Ker B. l U ⊆ Ker B.
· 30 · 1Ù +L«ØÄVg
? α ∈ Ker B, Á¯: ´Äk α ∈ U ? ? v ∈ V , ´Äk Bv = B 2 v, =

B(v − Bv) ´Äu 0? du®y U ⊆ Ker B, Ïdùü¯KÑ8(´Äk
v − Bv ∈ U, ∀v ∈ V .
X
v − Bv = v − ϕ(h) P U ′ ϕ(h)−1 v. (16)
h∈G
d (13) ªÚ (14) ª
ϕ(h)−1 v − P U ′ ϕ(h)−1 v ∈ U. (17)
l (17) ªÉéu, XJ (16) ªmà1 v U1ë\Òp¡, @
odu v u ϕ(h)ϕ(h)−1 v, l ë\Òp¤
X
ϕ(h)[ϕ(h)−1 v − P U ′ ϕ(h)−1 v] ∈ U. (18)
h∈G
du
X
{z· · · + v}) = (1v
v = |G|v = (v| + v + | + 1v +
{z · · · + 1v})
h∈G
|G| |G|
= (1
|+1+
{z· · · + 1})v = (|G|1)v,
|G|
X
Ù¥ 1 ´ K ü , Ïde |G|1 6= 0, K v = (|G|1)−1 v. ù v âkU
h∈G
1ë\Òp, ddwÑ: K 7L÷v |G|1 6= 0 ^, = K A
ØUØ |G|. 'uAVg±ëw [28] 1 168 — 169 . Ów7L
^ (|G|1)−1 B O B. u´-
B ′ = (|G|1)−1 B. (19)
′
Im B E´ G ØCfm, §ékU¤ U 3 V ¥Öm. l U ⊆ Ker B
á=Ñ U ⊆ Ker B ′ . éu?¿ v ∈ V , k
X
v − B ′ v = (|G|1)−1 (|G|1)v − (|G|1)−1 ϕ(h) P U ′ ϕ(h)−1 v
h∈G
X
−1
= (|G|1) v − ϕ(h) P U ′ ϕ(h)−1 v
h∈G
X
−1
= (|G|1) ϕ(h) ϕ(h)−1 v − P U ′ ϕ(h)−1 v ∈ U. (20)
h∈G
u´éu? α ∈ Ker B ′ , k α − B ′ α ∈ U , l α ∈ U . Ïd Ker B ′ ⊆ U , u´
U = Ker B ′ .
? v ∈ V , du v − B ′ v ∈ U , U = Ker B ′ , Ïd
B ′ v − B ′2 v = B ′ (v − B ′ v) = 0.
l B ′2 = B ′ . Ïd
V = Ker B ′ ⊕ Im B ′ = U ⊕ Im B ′ .
u´ U 3 V ¥k G ØCÖm Im B ′ . l ϕ ´. ù·y²
e
ã½n.
½n 2 (Maschke) k+ G 3AØUØ |G| K þ?5L«
Ñ´.
§3 +5L«( · 31 ·
r½n 1 Ú½n 2 (Üå5B: k+ G 3AØUØ |G| K þ

k5L«±©)¤kõØfL«Ú. ÏdéuAØU
Ø |G| K, ·é
+ G ¤kØdØL«, @o·Òû½
+ G 3 K þÜk5L«.
3½n 2 y²L§¥, K AØUØ |G| ù^´"Ø
.
´·ØUddäóù^½´7I. ´Äý7I, ·5wUØUÞ
~f: eKù^, K+ G 35L«Ø´.
~ 1 G = hai ´ê p Ì+, Zp ´ p {a, -
Φ : G → GL 2 ( Zp )
!
i 1 i
a 7→ , i = 0, 1, · · · , p − 1.
0 1
y²: Φ ´ G 3 Zp þ 2 gÝ
L«, ¿ Φ Ø´.
y² ! ! !
1 i + j 1 i 1 j
Φ(ai aj ) = Φ̇(ai+j ) = =
0 1 0 1 0 1
= Φ(ai )Φ(aj ),
Ïd Φ ´ G 3 Zp þ 2 gÝ
L«.
du Φ(ai ) e´"Ý
(i = 0, 1, · · · , p − 1), Ïd Φ ´.
Φ(a) Aõª f (λ) = (λ − 1)2 . du Φ(a) 6= I, Ïd Φ(a) õª
m(λ) = (λ − 1)2 . l Φ(a) Øéz, Ïd Φ Ø´.
~ 1 ¥, Zp A p Ø |G|, G 2 gÝ
L« Φ Ø´. ù
~fL²3½n 2 ¥ “AØUØ |G|” ù^´7I.
·3y²½n 2 , y²
“k+ G 3AØUØ |G| K þ?
5L«Ñ´”, Ø=k5L«, Ã5L«´
. U
yÑù(Ø´du·3 [28] 1 307 ·K 1 ¥, y²
: “ F
þ?5m V ?fmÑkÖm”.
31Ù §2 ·òy²k+ G 3AØUØ |G| K þzØ
L«Ñ´k.
SK 1.3
1. + G 38Ü Ω = {x1 , x2 , · · · , xn } þk^, dù^Úå G 3

K þ n gL« (ϕ, V ) L«m V
( n )
X

V = ai xi ai ∈ K, i = 1, 2, · · · , n .

i=1
· 32 · 1Ù +L«ØÄVg
* n
+
X
- V1 = xi ,
( i=1 n )
X n X

V2 = ai xi ai = 0, ai ∈ K .

i=1 i=1
y²: (1) V1 V2 Ñ´ G ØCfm;
(2) eAØUØ n, K ϕ = ϕV1 ⊕ ϕV2 .
2. |^1 1 K, ¦Ñé¡+ S3 2 gEL«9ÙJøÝ
L«.
3. K þ¤k n Ý
|¤8ÜP Mn (K), §´ K þ n2 5m.
-
ϕ : GL n (K) → GL (Mn (K))
A 7→ ϕ(A),
Ù¥ ϕ(A)X := AXA−1 , ∀X ∈ Mn (K).
2
(1) `² ϕ ´+ GL n (K) n g K-L«;
(2) ^ Mn0 (K) L« K þ, 0 n Ý
|¤8Ü, §´ Mn (K)
fm. `² Mn0 (K) Ú hIi Ñ´ ϕ ØCfm;
(3) y²: e K AØUØ n, K
ϕ = ϕhIi ⊕ ϕMn0 (K) .
4. ¢êþ¤k n Ý
|¤8ÜéuÝ
¦{¤+¡ n
+, P O(n). -
ϕ : O(n) → GL (Mn ( R))
A 7→ ϕ(A),
Ù¥ ϕ(A)X := AXA−1 , ∀X ∈ Mn ( R).
w, ϕ ´ O(n) n2 g¢L«., 0 n é¡Ý
|¤8ÜP Mn+ ( R), n
é¡Ý
(¡é¡Ý
) |¤8ÜP Mn− ( R).
(1) y²: Mn+ ( R) Mn− ( R) Ñ´ ϕ ØCfm;
(2) r ϕ 3 hIi, Mn+ ( R), Mn− ( R) þfL«©OP ϕ0 , ϕ1 , ϕ2 . y²:
ϕ = ϕ0 + ϕ1 + ϕ2 .
1
(3) ¦ O(n) n(n − 1) g¢L«.
2
5. ϕ ´5+ GL n (K) 35m K n þXe½ÂL«: ϕ(A)α :=
Aα, ∀α ∈ K n , A ∈ GL n (K). y²: ϕ ´ GL n (K) §¢ n gØL«.
6. ? A ∈ GL n (K), 5½
ψ(A)X = AX, ∀X ∈ Mn (K).
(1) `² ψ ´ GL n (K) n2 g K-L«;
(j)
(2) éu 1 6 j 6 n, Mn (K) ´Ø1 j Ù{ 0 n Ý
|
¤8Ü, `² Mn(j) (K) ´ GL n (K) ØCfm. ψj ´ ψ 3 Mn(j) (K) þf
L«. y²: ψj Ø (j = 1, 2, · · · , n),
ψ = ψ1 ⊕ ψ2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ ψn .
§4 Abel +ØL« · 33 ·
(3) y²: ψj 1 5 KEL« ϕ d, j = 1, 2, · · · , n.

7. 31 3 K¥ K = C, n = 2. y²: + GL 2 ( C) 3fm M20 ( C) þfL
«´Ø.
8. y²: Sn (n > 3) 3AØUØ n K þ n gL« ϕ ±©)
¤ÌL« n − 1 gØfL«Ú.
§4 Abel +ØL«
ù!·5û½ Abel +¤kkØEL«.

(ϕ, V ) ´ Abel + G kØEL«, du V Éêþk
5m, Ïdéu? g ∈ G, 5C ϕ(g) kA λg . duéu?¿ h ∈ G,
k hg = gh, Ïd ϕ(h)ϕ(g) = ϕ(g)ϕ(h). l ϕ(g) áu λg Afm Vλg ´
ϕ(h) ØCfm. u´ Vλg ´ G ØCfm. du (ϕ, V ) Ø, Ïd Vλg = V .
l ϕ(g) ´ V þê¦C λg 1V . bX dimV > 1, K ϕ(g) 3 V ÄeÝ
 
λg 0
 
 λg 
 
Φ(g) =  ..  , ∀g ∈ G.
 . 
 
0 λg
ùL² ϕ , gñ. Ïd dimV = 1. u´·y²

eã½n.
½n 1 Abel +kØEL«Ñ´ 1 g.
½n 1 y²'´: ∀g ∈ G, ϕ(g) kA, ±9 ∀h ∈ G, ϕ(h)ϕ(g) = ϕ(g)ϕ(h).
öd Abel +g,±íÑ. cöL²rEê¤ê4 F (= F [x] ¥?
gêu 0 õªÑ3 F ¥k), ½n 1 (ØE,¤á. éuk Abel + G,
G ¤kúê m (¡ m ´+ G ê), XJ K ¹k
m gü ξ (= ξ m = 1, 0 < l < m , ξ l 6= 1), @o ϕ(g) kA (n
d: du g m = e, Ïd ϕ(g)m = 1. l xm − 1 ´ ϕ(g) "zõª. du
K ¹k m gü ξ, Ïd xm − 1 3 K ¥Tk m ØÓ. du ϕ(g)
õª m(x) ´ xm − 1 Ïª, Ïd m(x) 3 K ¥k. l ϕ(g) Aõ
ª f (x) 3 K ¥k. u´ ϕ(g) kA). Ïdk Abel + G 3¹k m g
ü K þkØL«Ñ´ 1 g.
~ 1 ¦ n Ì+ G = hai ¤k 1 gEL«.
) ϕ ´ G 1 gEL«. du an = e, Ïd ϕ(a)n = 1. l ϕ(a) Éê
2π
þ n gü . P ξn = e i n , Kéu, r ∈ {0, 1, 2, · · · , n − 1}, ϕ(a) = ξnr .
, ? r ∈ {0, 1, 2, · · · , n − 1}, -
ϕr : G → C∗
aj 7→ ξnrj . (1)
· 34 · 1Ù +L«ØÄVg
ý ϕr ±$, l ϕr ´ G 1 gEL«.

nþ¤ã, n Ì+ G = hai TÐk n 1 gEL«, §d (1) ª½Â.
e¡5û½k Abel +¤k 1 gEL«.
G ´k Abel +, K G ±©)¤kõÌf+È:
G = ha1 i × ha2 i × · · · × has i, (2)
n
Ù¥ |haj i| = = 1, 2, · · · , s; p1 , p2 , · · · , ps Ñ´ê (UkÓ). (pn1 1 ,
pj j , j
n2 ns
p2 , · · · , ps ) ¡ G ÐÏf½..
G ´f+ ha1 i, ha2 i, · · · , has i È, ¿g´ G ¥? g ±/L«
¤
n
g = at11 at22 · · · atss , 0 6 tj < p j j , j = 1, 2, · · · , s.
k'+ÈVg±ëw [24] 1 44 Ú1 48 . k'k Abel +(

±ëw [24] 1 92 — 99 .
2π
i nj
P εj = e p
j , j = 1, 2, · · · , s.
ϕ ´ G 1 gEL«, Kéu G ¥? g = at11 at22 · · · atss , k
ϕ(g) = ϕ(a1 )t1 ϕ(a2 )t2 · · · ϕ(as )ts .
nj nj
n p
du |haj i| = pj j , Ïd aj j = e. l [ϕ(aj )]pj = 1. u´éu, rj ∈ {0, 1, · · · ,
n r
pj j − 1}, ϕ(aj ) = εj j . Ïd
ϕ(g) = εr11 t1 εr22 t2 · · · εrss ts . (3)
ù`² G ?¿ 1 gEL« ϕ äk/ª (3), §éAu s ê| (r1 , r2 , · · · ,
rs ), ù s ê|qéAu G ¥ h = ar11 ar22 · · · arss .
n
, ?¿½ G ¥ h = ar11 ar22 · · · arss , Ù¥ 0 6 rj < pj j , j =
1, 2, · · · , s. -
ϕh (at11 at22 · · · atss ) = εr11 t1 εr22 t2 · · · εrss ts , (4)
ý ϕh ±$. l ϕh ´ G 1 gEL«.

G ¤k 1 gEL«|¤8ÜP G. b -
b
σ:G→G
h 7→ ϕh , (5)
Ù¥ ϕh d (4) ª½Â. w, σ Ń. lþã?Ø1Ü©, σ ´÷; e
¡5y σ ´ü.
r′ r′ r′ n
h′ = a11 a22 · · · ass , 0 6 rj′ < pj j , j = 1, 2, · · · , s.
r r′
XJ ϕh = ϕh′ , @o ϕh (aj ) = ϕh′ (aj ), j = 1, 2, · · · , s. l εj j = εj j . ddíÑ
rj = rj′ , j = 1, 2, · · · , s. Ïd h = h′ . ùy²
σ ´ü. l σ ´V.
b ´½Â G "E¼ê. ·5w G
G b éu¼ê¦{$´
§5 Abel +ØL«
E{ · 35 ·
Äµ4? éu?¿ g ∈ G, g = at11 at22 · · · atss , k

(ϕh ϕh′ )(g) = ϕh (g)ϕh′ (g)
r′ t r′ t r′ t
= (εr11 t1 εr22 t2 · · · εrss ts )(ε11 1 ε22 2 · · · εss s )
(r +r1′ )t1 (r2 +r2′ )t2 (rs +rs′ )ts
= ε1 1 ε2 · · · εs
= ϕhh′ (g),
Ïd
ϕh ϕh′ = ϕhh′ . (6)
ùL² G b éu¼ê¦{$µ4. w,¼ê¦{÷v(ÜÆ, G ÌL« ϕe

b b éu¼ê¦{¤+. (6) ªL²
´ G ü , ϕh _´ ϕh−1 . Ïd G
GG b V σ ±$. Ïd σ ´+Ó. u´·y²
eã½n.
½n 2 G ´k Abel +, K G ¤k 1 gEL«|¤8Ü Gb éu¼
ê¦{¤+, ¿
G∼ b
= G,
l G Tk |G| 1 gEL«, §d (4) ª½Â.

½n 2 éu¹k m gü K ¤á, Ù¥ m ´+ G ê.
SK 1.4
1. ¦e Abel +¤k 1 gEL«:

(1) (2, 2) . 4 Abel +;
(2) (2, 4) . 8 Abel +;
(3) 8 Ð Abel + (. (2, 2, 2));
(4) 9 Ð Abel + (. (3, 3)).
(5) Znp \{+, Ù¥ p ´ê.
2. G ´ pn Ð Abel +, Ù¥ p ´ê. y²: XJ ϕ ´ G ²
1 gEL«, @o Ker ϕ pn−1 .
3. G ´k Abel +, XJ G k§¢ 1 gEL«, @o G ´Ì+.
§5 Abel +ØL«
E{
Abel +ØEL«kgêu 1 . ~X, SK 1.3 1 8 K, n é

¡+ Sn (n > 3) 3AØUØ n K þ n gL«±©)¤ÌL«Ú
n − 1 gØfL«Ú.
!0E Abel +ØL«
~^{.
(ϕ, V ) ´+ G K-L«, l+ H + G kÓ T , K ϕT ´ H
K-L«. L«mE V .
· 36 · 1Ù +L«ØÄVg
(ϕ, V ) ´+ G L«, K V k² G ØCfm U . ?

h ∈ H, du T (h) ∈ G, Ïd
[(ϕT )(h)]u = [ϕ(T (h))]u ∈ U, ∀u ∈ U.
l U ´ (ϕT )(h) ØCfm. u´ U ´ H ØCfm. Ïd ϕT .
, (ϕT, V ) ´+ H L«, K V k² H ØCfm W . ?
g ∈ G, XJ T ´ H G ÷, @o3 h ∈ H, ¦ g = T (h). l
ϕ(g)w = ϕ(T (h))w = [(ϕT )(h)]w ∈ W, ∀w ∈ W.
u´ W ´ ϕ(g) ØCfm. Ïd W ´ G ØCfm. l ϕ .
nþ¤ã, ·y²
eã(Ø.
·K 1 (ϕ, V ) ´+ G K-L«, + H + G kÓ T , K ϕT
´ H K-L«.
(1) e ϕT Ø, K ϕ Ø;
(2) e ϕ Ø, T ´÷, K ϕT Ø.
þãE+L«{¡5L«+ÓÜ¤, y3rù«{A^

äN/.
5.1 L«J,©)
N ´+ G 5f+, K+ G û+ G/N kN:

π : G → G/N
g 7→ gN,
w,, π ´÷, π ±$, Ïd π ´ G G/N ÷Ó, ¡ π ´ G
G/N g,Ó.
(ϕ, V ) ´û+ G/N K-L«, K ϕπ ´+ G K-L«, P ϕ,
¡ ϕ ´ ϕ J,, =
ϕ(g) = ϕ(gN ), ∀g ∈ G. (1)
@o5f+ N Ker ϕ ko'XQ? du

a ∈ N ⇒ ϕ(a) = ϕ(aN ) = ϕ(N ) = 1V
⇒ a ∈ Ker ϕ,
Ïd N ⊆ Ker ϕ.
, (ϕ, V ) ´+ G K-L«, N ⊳ G, N ⊆ Ker ϕ. -
ϕ(gN ) = ϕ(g), ∀gN ∈ G/N. (2)
gN = hN , K h = ga éu, a ∈ N . u´
ϕ(h) = ϕ(ga) = ϕ(g)ϕ(a) = ϕ(g)1V = ϕ(g).
Ïd ϕ ´ G/N GL(V ) N. w, ϕ ±$, Ïd ϕ ´ G/N
K-L«, ¡ ϕ ´ ϕ éu5f+ N ©).
û+ G/N ¤k K-L«|¤8ÜP ΩG/N , + G ÙØ¹ N ¤k
§5 Abel +ØL«
E{ · 37 ·
K-L«|¤8ÜP ΩG . -
σ : ΩG/N → ΩG
ϕ 7→ ϕ, (3)
Ù¥ ϕ ´ ϕ J,, K σ ´ ΩG/N ΩG N. d ϕ é N ©), σ ´
÷. w, σ ´ü. Ïd σ ´V. du G G/N g,Ó π ´÷Ó. Ï
d·
eã(Ø.
·K 2 N ´+ G 5f+, K ΩG/N ΩG kV σ : ϕ 7→ ϕ, Ù
¥ ϕ ´ ϕ J,; ¿ ϕ Ø= ϕ Ø.
·K 2 L²: lû+ G/N ¤kØ K-L«²LJ,, B+ G ÙØ
¹ N ¤kØ K-L«.
AO/, lû+ G/N ¤k 1 g K-L«²LJ,, B+ G ÙØ¹ N
¤k 1 g K-L«. XJû+ G/N ´k Abel +, @o G/N ¤k 1 gEL«
ÑU¦Ñ5, r§J,B G ÙØ¹ N ¤k 1 gEL«. g,F"À
Ü·5f+ N , ¦û+ G/N Abel +, G ?¿ 1 g K-L«
ØÑ¹ N , ù5f+3í?

¦û+ G/N ¤ Abel +, ÒAr G ¥5K. duéu
a, b ∈ G,
ab = ba ⇔ aba−1 b−1 = e,
Ïd “aba−1 b−1 6= e” Òx

a b 5. r aba−1 b−1 ¡ a b
f. G ¥¤k f)¤f+¡ G f+ (½+), P G′ . éu?¿
a ∈ G′ , g ∈ G, k
gag −1 = (gag −1 a−1 )a ∈ G′ ,
Ïd G′ ⊳ G. du G′ 8¥
G päk5¤k, Ïdßÿ G/G′ ´ Abel
+. y²Xe:
? gG′ , hG′ ∈ G/G′ , k
(gG′ )(hG′ ) = (gh)G′ , (hG′ )(gG′ ) = (hg)G′ ,
(hg)−1 (gh) = g −1 h−1 gh ∈ G′ ,
Ïd (gh)G′ = (hg)G′ , l (gG′ )(hG′ ) = (hG′ )(gG′ ), u´ G/G′ ´ Abel +.
±y²: G/N Abel += N ⊇ G′ . y²w [24] 1 62 ½n
12.
(ϕ, V ) ´+ G 1 g K-L«, éu?¿ g, h ∈ G, k
ϕ(ghg −1 h−1 ) = ϕ(g)ϕ(h)ϕ(g)−1 ϕ(h)−1 = 1,
Ïd ghg −1 h−1 ∈ Ker ϕ. l G′ ⊆ Ker ϕ.
nþ¤ã, + G f+ G′ Ò´·F"À5f+: u´d·K 2
á=eã(Ø.
·K 3 + G ¤k 1 g K-L«|¤8Üû+ G/G′ ¤k 1 g K-L
«|¤8Üm3éA; ¦ G/N ¤k 1 g K-L«²LJ,B
· 38 · 1Ù +L«ØÄVg
G ¤k 1 g K-L«.
â·K 3,
¦k+ G ¤k 1 gEL«, Òk¦û+ G/G′ ¤
k 1 gEL«, , r§J,B+ G ¤k 1 gEL«. ùp'´¦ G
f+ G′ .
~ 1 ¦ n é¡+ Sn (n > 3) ¤k 1 gEL«.
) Sn ¥¤kó (§±L«¤óêé¦È) |¤8ÜéuN
1
¦{¤+, ¡ n +, P An . w, |An | = n!. l [Sn : An ] = 2.
2
Ïd An ´ Sn 5f+, Sn /An ´ 2 Ì+. Ïd An ⊇ Sn′ . ,¡,
â [24] 1 39 1 6 K, An d¤k 3-Ó)¤. du
(ijk) = (ik)(ij) = [(jk)(ij)(jk)−1 ](ij)−1 ∈ Sn′ ,
Ïd An ⊆ Sn′ . l An = Sn′ .
Sn /An Tkü 1 gEL«: ϕ0 , ϕ1 , Ù¥ ϕ0 ´ÌL«; ϕ1 ((12)An ) = −1. r§
J,B Sn Ü 1 gEL«: ϕ0 , ϕ1 , Ù¥ ϕ0 ´ÌL«. σ ´ó,
ϕ1 (σ) = ϕ1 (σAn ) = ϕ1 (An ) = 1;
τ ´Û,
ϕ1 (τ ) = ϕ1 (τ An ) = ϕ1 ((12)An ) = −1.
5.2 ÏL+gÓLL«
ÏLrû+ G/G′ ¤k 1 g K-L«J,, B G ¤k 1 g K-L«. ù

k Abel + 1 gEL«ÒÑ±¦Ñ
. e¡?ÖÒ´ïÄ Abel +
gêu 1 ØL«XÛ¦? XJ®²+ G Ø K-L«, @
oUìeã{±EÑ G qØ K-L«.
(ϕ, V ) ´+ G K-L«, σ ´+ G gÓ, K ϕσ ´+ G
K-L«, ¡ ϕσ ´ ϕ ÏLgÓ σ LL«, P ϕσ . l·K 1 á=Xe
(Ø.
·K 4 (ϕ, V ) ´+ G K-L«, σ ´ G gÓ, K ϕσ = ϕσ
´ G K-L«, ¿ ϕσ Ø= ϕ Ø.
σ
·K 4 L²: l+ G Ø K-L« ϕ ±E G Ø K-L« ϕ ,
Ù¥ σ ´+ G gÓ. I5¿´: ϕσ ϕ UØd, Ud,
äN¯KäN©Û.
e¡´LL«üAÏ/.
1. ÏL+SgÓLL«
?¿½ a ∈ G, - σa (g) = aga−1 , ∀g ∈ G. ý σa ´+ G gÓ,
¡ σa ´ G SgÓ.
(ϕ, V ) ´+ G K-L«, K ϕσa = ϕσa ´ G K-L«. éu?
¿ g ∈ G, k
ϕσa (g) = (ϕσa )(g) = ϕ(σa (g)) = ϕ(aga−1 ) = ϕ(a)ϕ(g)ϕ(a)−1 .
Ïd ϕσa ϕ d.
§5 Abel +ØL«
E{ · 39 ·
2. ÝL«
N ´+ G 5f+. ?¿½ g ∈ G, -
τg (x) = gxg −1 , ∀x ∈ N.
ý τg ´ N gN, ´V, ±$, Ïd τg ´ N gÓ
.
(ψ, V ) ´ N K-L«, K ψ τg ´ N K-L«, ¡ ψ τg ´ ψ
ÝL«, {P ψ g .
ψ ÝL« ψ g ψ Ud, UØd. -
I(ψ) := {g ∈ G|ψ g ≈ ψ},
ý I(ψ) ´ G f+, ¡ I(ψ) ´ ψ 3 G ¥.5+. a ∈ N , ψ a ´ ψ Ï
L N SgÓ σa LL«, Ïd ψ a ≈ ψ. l N ⊆ I(ψ).
5.3 _ÚL«
V ´ K þ n 5m, V ∗ ´ V éóm. (ϕ, V ) ´+ G

K-L«. UØUE+ G ± V ∗ L«m5L«Q? =E+ G
GL (V ∗ ) ÓNQ?
? g ∈ G, k ϕ(g) ∈ GL (V ). E V ∗ þ_5C ϕ∗ (g). â
[28] 1 554 ~ 13, - ϕ∗ (g)f := f ϕ(g), K ϕ∗ (g) ´ V ∗ þ5C. du
∀f ∈ V ∗ , k
[ϕ∗ (g −1 )ϕ∗ (g)]f = ϕ∗ (g −1 )[f ϕ(g)]
= [f ϕ(g)]ϕ(g −1 ) = f ϕ(gg −1 )
= f 1V = f,
Ïd ϕ (g −1 )ϕ∗ (g) = 1V ∗ .
∗
l ϕ∗ (g) _, = ϕ∗ (g) ∈ GL (V ∗ ). Ïd ϕ∗ : g 7→ ϕ∗ (g) ´+ G GL (V ∗ )

N.
¦ ϕ∗ ±¦{$, Iò ϕ∗ (g) ½Â?U¤
ϕ∗ (g)f := f ϕ(g −1 ), ∀f ∈ V ∗ .
w,ù½Â ϕ∗ (g) Eáu GL (V ∗ ), ¿ ∀g, h ∈ G, k
ϕ∗ (gh)f = f ϕ[(gh)−1 ] = f ϕ(h−1 g −1 ) = f ϕ(h−1 )ϕ(g −1 )
= [ϕ∗ (h)f ]ϕ(g −1 ) = ϕ∗ (g)[ϕ∗ (h)f ]
= [ϕ∗ (g)ϕ∗ (h)]f, ∀f ∈ V ∗ .
Ïd ϕ∗ (gh) = ϕ∗ (g)ϕ∗ (h), ∀g, h ∈ G.
l ϕ∗ ´+ G GL (V ∗ ) Ó. u´ (ϕ∗ , V ∗ ) ´+ G 5L«, ¡
§ (ϕ, V ) _ÚL«.
dimV = n. du dimV ∗ = dimV = n, Ïd ϕ∗ ϕ kÓgê. 3 V ¥
Ä α1 , α2 , · · · , αn , V ∗ ¥AéóÄ f1 , f2 , · · · , fn . ϕ 3Ä α1 , α2 , · · · , αn
eJøÝ
L« Φ, Kâ [28] 1 554 ~ 13 , ϕ∗ (g) 3Ä f1 , f2 , · · · , fn
eÝ
Φ ∗ (g) = Φ(g −1 )′ .
· 40 · 1Ù +L«ØÄVg
SK 1.5
1. ¦+ A4 ¤k 1 gEL« (J«: A4 f+ A′4 = {(1), (12)(34),

(13)(24), (14)(23)}).
2. é¡+ S4 k5f+ N = {(1), (12)(34), (13)(24), (14)(23)}.
(1) y²: S4 /N ∼ = S3 ;
(2) ¦ S4 2 gØEÝ
L«.
3. K ´. ? m ∈ N∗ , - ϕm (t) = tm , ∀t ∈ K ∗ , K ϕm ´¦{+ K ∗
1 g K-L«. |^ ϕm ¦ GL n (K) 1 g K-L«.
4. y²: XJ ϕ ´k+ G 1 gEL«, @o G/ Ker ϕ ´Ì+.
5. y²: Ìk+vk§¢ 1 gEL«.
6. y²: k Abel +3AØUØ+þ?§¢ 2 gL«
´Ø.
7. (ϕ, V ) Ú (ψ, W ) ´+ G ü K-L«, y²:
(ϕ+̇ψ)∗ ≈ ϕ∗ +̇ψ ∗ .
1Ù
k+ØL«
·®², k Abel +¤kkØEL«Ñ´ 1 g, ¿¬¦

Ñ§. ·q, k Abel + G ¤k 1 g K-L«±ÏLû+ G/G′
¤k 1 g K-L«J,. u´·I?ÚïÄ´k Abel +¤kg
êu 1 Ø K-L«, Ù¥ K ÁØUØ+.
ÙïÄ´: k Abel + G 3AØUØ |G| K þ¤kØ
L«;õ3=p? + G kõØdØ K-L«? + G Ø K-L
«gê÷vo^?
§1 + G 5L«+ê K[G] þ
G ´k+, K ´. + G 3 K þ5L« (ϕ, V ) ´dL«

m V Ú G GL (V ) +Ó ϕ |¤.
ïÄ G ¤kØ K-L«;
õ3=p, AÏé¹k+ G &EõL«m. ùL«mg,´ G
KL« ρ L«m K[G]:  

X 

K[G] = ag g ag ∈ K .
 
g∈G
K[G] K þ5mÄ´ G Ü, l dimK K[G] = |G|.

±3 K[G]
 ¥5½¦{$ :  
!
X X XX X X
 ag g  bh h := (ag bh )(gh) =  ag bg−1 t  t.
g∈G h∈G g∈G h∈G t∈G g∈G
Ný K[G] éu\{Ú¦{¤kü , G ü ´ K[G] ü

· 42 · 1Ù k+ØL«
, ¡ K[G] ´+ G 3 K þ+.

K[G] k\{Ú¦{$, K kXþ¦{$, \{¦{ÏL©Æ
éX, \{Xþ¦{ÏL5m'uXþ¦{1 4 ^${K (k(α + β) =
kα + kβ) éX, @o¦{Xþ¦{ÏLo{KéXQ? ±y: é?
α, β ∈ K[G], k ∈ K, k
k(αβ) = (kα)β = α(kβ). (1)
K[x], Mn (K), HomK (V, V ) Q´, q´ K þ5m, ¿¦{Xþ
¦{÷vaqu (1) ª'X. u´·ÄÑeãVg.
½Â 1 A ´8Ü, K ´. XJ A þ½Â
\{¦{$
, K A ½Â
Xþ¦{$, A éu\{¦{¤, A éu\{
Xþ¦{¤ K þ5m, A ¦{Xþ¦{÷v: é?
a, b ∈ A, k ∈ K, k
k(ab) = (ka)b = a(kb), (2)
@o¡ A ´ K þê. A K þ5mê¡ê A
ê. e A kü , K¡§´ê A ü .
8 ·?ØêÑ¬kü , rü P 1, Ø2zg(².
K[G] ´ K þê, ¡§+ G 3 K þ+ê.
éuÃ+ G Ú?+ê K[G] Vg, -
 )
X

K[G] := ag g ag ∈ K , kkõ ag 6= 0 .

g∈G
X X
K[G] ¥ü ag g bg g ¡´, XJ ag = bg , ∀g ∈ G. aqu G
g∈G g∈G
´k+/, 5½ K[G] ¥\{!Xþ¦{Ú¦{$, K K[G] ¤ K þ

X
ê. XJr 1g + 0h g Ó, @o+ G N´ K[G] Ä,
h6=g
l K[G] ´ K þÃê.
K[x], Mn (K), HomK (V, V ) Ñ´ K þê. ¡ K[x] ´ K þ
õªê. ¡ Mn (K) ´ K þ n Ý
ê; ¡ HomK (V, V ) ´ K þ
5m V þ5Cê.

|^ K[G] 5ïÄ+ G Ø K-L«;õ3=p, ·a'+ G
5L«VgÚÑê5L«Vg, ùÒ±ÏL+ê K[G] 5L
«5ïÄ+ G 5L«.
ÚÑê5L«, IÚ?êmêÓ
Vg.
½Â 2 A Ú B Ñ´ K þê, A B N f XJ÷vé?
¿ a1 , a2 , a ∈ A, k ∈ K, k
f (a1 + a2 ) = f (a1 ) + f (a2 ),
§1 + G 5L«+ê K[G] þ · 43 ·
f (ka) = kf (a),
f (a1 a2 ) = f (a1 )f (a2 ),
f (1) = 1′ ,
Ù¥ 1′ ´ B ü , @o¡ f ´ A B êÓ. e f ´V, K¡ f
´ A B êÓ.
½Â 3 A ´ K þê, V ´ K þ5m. A V þ
¤k5C|¤ê HomK (V, V ) êÓ T ¡ê A 3 K þ
5L«, V ¡L«m. V ´k, r V ê¡L« T g
ê (½ê), P deg T .
½Â 4 K þê A ü K-L« (T, V ) (T ′ , V ′ ) ¡´d, X
J35m V V ′ Ó σ, ¦
T ′ (a)σ = σT (a), ∀a ∈ A. (3)
1.1 + G 5L«+ê K[G] 5L«
(ϕ, V ) ´+ G (G ±´k+, ±´Ã+) 3 K þ5L

«. ϕ ± “5/” *¿+ê K[G] þ, =-
 
X X
ϕ∗  ag g  := ag ϕ(g), (4)
g∈G g∈G
ý ϕ ´ K[G] HomK (V, V ) êÓ, l ϕ∗ ´+ê K[G] 3

∗
K þ5L«, L«mE V .
, (ϕ∗ , V ) ´+ê K[G] þ5L«, r ϕ∗ G þ, =-
ϕ(g) := ϕ∗ (g), ∀g ∈ G,
K ϕ ´+ G 3 K þ5L«.
w,, ϕ 7→ ϕ∗ ´+ G K-L«|¤8Ü+ê K[G] K-L«|¤
8ÜV. u´ïÄ+ G 5L«¯K±=zïÄ+ê K[G]
5L«. ùÐ?´: +ê K[G] 5L«%¹&E´Lõ!
(ϕ∗ , V ) ´+ê K[G] 3 K þ5L«. ? a ∈ K[G], k V
þ5C ϕ∗ (a). éu v ∈ V , r v 3 ϕ∗ (a) e{P¤ av, =-
av := ϕ∗ (a)v, ∀v ∈ V, (5)
∗
r “av” Ö “a ^3 v þ”. du ϕ (a) ´ V þ5C, Ïdéu?¿
v1 , v2 , v ∈ V, k ∈ K k
a(v1 + v2 ) = ϕ∗ (a)(v1 + v2 ) = ϕ∗ (a)v1 + ϕ∗ (a)v2 = av1 + av2 , (6)
∗ ∗
a(kv) = ϕ (a)(kv) = k[ϕ (a)v] = k(av), (7)
du ϕ∗ ´ K[G] HomK (V, V ) êÓ, Ïdéu?¿ a1 , a2 , a ∈ K[G], k ∈
· 44 · 1Ù k+ØL«
K, v ∈ V , k
(a1 + a2 )v = ϕ∗ (a1 + a2 )v = [ϕ∗ (a1 ) + ϕ∗ (a2 )]v
= ϕ∗ (a1 )v + ϕ∗ (a2 )v = a1 v + a2 v, (8)
∗ ∗ ∗
(ka)v = ϕ (ka)v = [kϕ (a)]v = k[ϕ (a)v] = k(av), (9)
(a1 a2 )v = ϕ∗ (a1 a2 )v = [ϕ∗ (a1 )ϕ∗ (a2 )]v
= ϕ∗ (a1 )[ϕ∗ (a2 )v] = ϕ∗ (a1 )(a2 v) = a1 (a2 v), (10)
1v = ϕ∗ (1)v = 1V v = v, (11)
Ù¥ 1 ´ K[G] ü . r ϕ∗ (a)v P¤ av , Ø=¦ (6)—(11) ªÖ{'
(z|ªàumà), (11) !(10) !(8) !(6) ªéþ5m'u
Xþ¦{ 4 ^${K. þ5méu\{¤ Abel +, éuXþ¦
{÷v 4 ^${K. a'þ5mVg, ÚÑþVg.
1.2 þ, êþ
½Â 5 M ´ Abel \{+, R ´kü 1(6= 0) . XJ R × M M

kN: (r, m) 7→ rm, ¿÷ve 4 ^{K: ∀m1 , m2 , m ∈ M, r, r1 , r2 ∈ R, k
(1) r(m1 + m2 ) = rm1 + rm2 ;
(2) (r1 + r2 )m = r1 m + r2 m;
(3) (r1 r2 )m = r1 (r2 m);
(4) 1m = m,
@o¡ M ´ R þ½ R-.
aq/, ±½Â R þm (¡m R-).
M ´ R þ (½m) ¡ R 3 Abel \{+ M þk^.
þã (6) !(8) !(10) !(11) ªL²: e (ϕ∗ , V ) ´+ê K[G] 5L«,
KL«m V ´ K[G] þ. þã (7) !(9) ªL²: K[G] þ V
÷v:
a(kv) = k(av) = (ka)v, ∀a ∈ K[G], v ∈ V, k ∈ K.
ù'þ½Âõ
üª, ÙÏ3u K[G] ´ K þê. u
´ÚÑeãVg.
½Â 6 A ´ K þê, M ´ Abel \{+. XJ M ´ A þ
, @o¡ M ´ê A þ½ A-.
êþ'þäk´LSN. Äk, éu K þê A
M , ±½Â K M Xþ¦{Xe:
km := (k1)m, ∀k ∈ K, m ∈ M, (12)
Ù¥ 1 ´ê A ü . NýùXþ¦{÷v K þ5m'uX
þ¦{ 4 ^{K, Ïd M ¤ K þ5m. M K þ5
m´k, ¡ M ´k A-.
§1 + G 5L«+ê K[G] þ · 45 ·
Ùg, éu K þê A M , Xþ¦{ A 3 M þ^÷ve

{K: ∀k ∈ K, a ∈ A, m ∈ M , k
a(km) = k(am) = (ka)m. (13)
·5y² (13) ª
a(km) = a[(k1)m] = [a(k1)]m = [k(a1)]m
= (ka)m;
k(am) = (k1)(am) = [(k1)a]m = [k(1a)]m = (ka)m.
1.3 + G 5L«+ê K[G] þ
(ϕ, V ) ´+ G 3 K þ5L«, K ϕ ± “5/” *¿¤+ê

K[G] 5L« (ϕ∗ , V ), ? a ∈ K[G], -
av := ϕ∗ (a)v, ∀v ∈ V.
â (6) !(8) !(10) !(11) ª, V ´ K[G] þ. l V ´ K þ5
m±9 (7) !(9) ªL²: V äkê K[G] þAÏ5.
, V ´+ê K[G] þ?¿, K V ´ K þ5
m. ? a ∈ K[G], -
ϕ∗ (a)v := av, ∀v ∈ V, (14)
lþ½Â1ªÚêþ÷v (13) ª1ª, ϕ∗ (a)

´ V þ5C. lþ½Â1!n!oªÚêþ÷v
(13) ª1ª, ϕ∗ ´ K[G] HomK (V, V ) êÓ. Ïd (ϕ∗ , V )
´+ê K[G] 5L«, ¡§ K[G]- V JøL«. r ϕ∗ +
G þ, B+ G 3 K þ5L« (ϕ, V ), ¡§ K[G]- V Jø+
G L«.
nþ¤ã, ïÄ+ G 3 K þ5L«±ÏLïÄ+ê K[G] þ
5?1. ùkNõÐ?. +ê K[G] 5L« (ϕ∗ , V ) )L«m V
Ú K[G] HomK (V, V ) êÓ ϕ∗ , “V ´+ê K[G] þ” ùé
{rL«m V ÚêÓ ϕ∗ K¤
N. ïÄ+ê K[G] þ±¿©
|^+ê K[G] (5 (§Q´, ´ K þ5m), ±9êþ
(5, l ïÄ+5L«Jø
rkåóä.
ÏLïÄ+ê K[G] þ5ïÄ+5L«, Ir+5L«
ó+êþó5£=. e¡·50.
1. k+ G KL«+ê K[G] þK
k+ G KL« ρ L«m´ K[G]. Uìþ¡¤ù(Ø
X
, K[G] ´+
ê K[G] þ. g,¯: +ê K[G] ? ag g XÛ^3
g∈G
X
5m K[G] ?þ bh h þ?
h∈G
· 46 · 1Ù k+ØL«
r ρ “5/” *¿¤+ê K[G] 5L« ρ∗ , K

  !   !
X X X X
 ag g  ◦ bh h = ρ 
∗
ag g  bh h
g∈G h∈G g∈G h∈G
   !
X X X X
= ag ρ(g)  b h h = ag bh (gh)
g∈G g∈G g∈G h∈G
  !
X X
= ag g  bh h . (15)
g∈G h∈G
(15) ªL²+ê K[G] ?^35m K[G] ?þþÒ´3

ê K[G] p¦{$. ddÚÑeãVg.
½Â 7 R ´kü 1(6= 0) , -
R×R→R
(r, a) 7→ ra,
Ù¥ ra ´3 R ¥¦{$, K\{+ R ¤ R þ, ¡§ R
þK½K R-.
A ´ K þê, A þK A ¡ê A þK
½K A-.
lþãÆØw: k+ G KL« ρ L«m K[G] ´+ê K[G] þ
K. , +ê K[G] þK K[G] Jø+ G L«Ò´ G
KL«. ÏdïÄK K[G]- K[G] Ò±tÙk+ G KL«.
2. + G K-L«fL«+ê K[G] þf

(ϕ, V ) ´+ G 3 K þ5L«, §fL« (ϕU , U ) L«
m U ´ V G ØCfm, = ϕ(g) ØCfm, ∀g ∈ G, l ´ ϕ∗ (a)
ØCfm, ∀a ∈ K[G], Ïdé?¿ a ∈ K[G], k
au ∈ U, ∀u ∈ U.
ddÚÑeãVg.
½Â 8 H ´ R þ M f8, XJ H ´ M f+, é?¿
r ∈ R, y ∈ H, k ry ∈ H, @o¡ H ´ M f.
w,, {0} Ú M ´ M f, ¡§²f. w,, M fE´
M f.
lf½Âá=Ñ: I ´K R- R f= I ´ R n
('un½V>n, ±9 (½m) n½Âëw [24] 1 118 ½Â 1).
H ´ K þê A þ M f, du
ky = (k1)y ∈ H, ∀k ∈ K, y ∈ H,
Ïd H ´ K þ5m M fm.
§1 + G 5L«+ê K[G] þ · 47 ·
(ϕ, V ) ´+ G 3 K þ5L«, K
V fm U ´ G ØCfm
⇐⇒ ϕ(g)u ∈ U, ∀g ∈ G, u∈U
 
X X
⇐⇒ ϕ∗  ag g  u ∈ U, ∀ ag g ∈ K[G], u∈U
g∈G g∈G
⇐⇒ au ∈ U, ∀a ∈ K[G], u∈U
⇐⇒ U ´ K[G]- V f.
u´
ïÄ+ G K þ5L« (ϕ, V ) fL«, ÒIïÄ K[G]-
V f.
3. + G K-L«©)¤fL«Ú K[G]-©)¤fÚ
H1 Ú H2 Ñ´ R þ M f, -
H1 + H2 := {h1 + h2 |h1 ∈ H1 , h2 ∈ H2 },
ý H1 + H2 ´ M f, ¡§ H1 H2 Ú. XJ H1 + H2 ¥? y
L«¤
y = y1 + y2 , y 1 ∈ H1 , y 2 ∈ H2
ª, @o¡ H1 + H2 ´Ú, P H1 ⊕ H2 .

(ϕ, V ) ´+ G K-L«, K
ϕ = ϕU ⊕ ϕW
⇐⇒ 3 V G ØCfm U Ú W , ¦ V = U ⊕ W
⇐⇒ 3 K[G]- V f U Ú W , ¦ V = U ⊕ W.
aq/, ±Ñ R þ M eZfÚÚ½Â. þãÆØ
éu (ϕ, V ) éZfL«Ú/¤á.
u´
ïÄ+ G K-L« (ϕ, V ) UÄ©)¤§fL«Ú, ÒI
ïÄ K[G]- V UÄ©)¤§fÚ.
4. + G 3 K þØL«+ê K[G] þØ
+ G 3 K þ5L« (ϕ, V ) ¡Ø, XJ V vk² G Ø
Cfm. ddÚÑeãVg.
½Â 9 R þ M 6= {0} XJvk²f, @o¡ M ´Ø
(½ü); ÄK¡ M ´ (½ü).
ïÄ+ G Ø K-L«, ÒIïÄ+ê K[G] þØ.
5. + G K-L« K[G]-
l+ G K-L«½ÂÉéu, ÚÑeãVg.
½Â 10 R þ M ¡, XJéu M zf H,
Ñ3 M f L, ¦
M = H ⊕ L.
· 48 · 1Ù k+ØL«
(ϕ, V ) ´+ G 3 K þ5L«, K
(ϕ, V )
⇐⇒ éu V z G ØCfm U , 3 V G ØCfm W , ¦
V =U ⊕W
⇐⇒ éu K[G]- V zf U , 3 V f W , ¦
V =U ⊕W
⇐⇒ K[G]- V .
a'+ G L«fL«´, ·ßÿkeã·K.
·K 1 K þê A V f´.
y² H ´ V ?f. K H ´ K þ5m V fm. ?
H f H1 , K H1 ´ V f. du V ´, Ïd3
V f L, ¦ V = H1 ⊕ L. du H1 Ú L Ñ´5m V fm, Ïd
T T T
H = H1 ⊕ (L H). L H E´ M f, l L H ´ H f. Ïd H ´
.
1Ù §3 ½n 1 y²{aqyXe·K.
·K 2 A ´ K þê, Kk A-½±©)
¤kõØfÚ.
6. + G K-L«d K[G]-Ó
(ϕ, V ) Ú (ψ, W ) ´+ G 3 K þü5L«, r§ “5/” *¿
¤+ê K[G] 5L« (ϕ∗ , V ) Ú (ψ ∗ , W ). ? a ∈ K[G], -
av := ϕ∗ (a)v, ∀v ∈ V,
∗
aw := ψ (a)w, ∀w ∈ W,
K V Ú W Ñ¤+ê K[G] þ, XJ (ϕ∗ , V ) (ψ ∗ , W ) d, @o3
5m V W Ó σ, ¦éu?¿ a ∈ K[G], k
σ[ϕ∗ (a)v] = ψ ∗ (a)[σ(v)], ∀v ∈ V,
=
σ(av) = a[σ(v)], ∀v ∈ V. (16)
(16) ªL²: σ K[G] ^. ddÚÑeãVg.
½Â 11 M Ú M ′ Ñ´ R þ, XJ3 M M ′ +Ó
η, ¿ η R ^, =
η(rx) = r[η(x)], ∀r ∈ R, x ∈ M, (17)
′
@o¡ η ´ M M Ó (½ R-Ó). +Ó η Ø Ker η ¡Ó
η Ø. XJ η ´V, @o¡ η ´Ó (½ R-Ó), d¡ M M ′ Ó.
w,, R- M M ′ Ó η Ø Ker η ´ M f, Ó η
Im η ´ M ′ f.
(ϕ, V ) Ú (ψ, W ) ´+ G 3 K þü5L«, r§ “5/” *¿
§1 + G 5L«+ê K[G] þ · 49 ·
¤+ê K[G] ü5L« (ϕ∗ , V ) Ú (ψ ∗ , W ), K

(ϕ, V ) (ψ, W ) d
⇐⇒ 35m V W Ó σ, ¦
σ[ϕ(g)v] = ψ(g)[σ(v)], ∀g ∈ G, v∈V
⇐⇒ 35m V W Ó σ, ¦
σ[ϕ∗ (a)v] = ψ ∗ (a)[σ(v)], ∀a ∈ K[G], v∈V
⇐⇒ 3 V W +Ó σ, ¦
σ(av) = a[σ(v)], ∀a ∈ K[G], v∈V
⇐⇒ K[G]- V W Ó.
u´·y²
eã·K.
·K 3 + G K-L« (ϕ, V ) (ψ, W ) d= K[G]- V W
Ó.
nþ¤ã,
Ïék+ G ¤kØdØ K-L«, Òé¤k
ØÓØ K[G]-.
H ´ R þ M f, éu Abel û+ M/H Ú R, -
r(x + H) := rx + H, ∀r ∈ R, x + H ∈ M/H. (18)
ýù½Â8LÀJÃ', ¿ M/H ¤ R þ. ¡§
´ M éuf H û.
½n 1 (ÓÄ½n) M Ú M ′ Ñ´ R þ, e η ´ M M ′
Ó, KkÓ:
M/ Ker η ∼
= Im η. (19)
â+ÓÄ½n, k+Ó:
y²
M/ Ker η ∼= Im η,
Ù¥+Ó τ
τ (x + Ker η) = η(x), ∀x ∈ M. (20)
du η ´Ó, Ïdéu?¿ r ∈ R,
τ [r(x + Ker η)] = τ (rx + Ker η) = η(rx) = r(η(x)) = r[τ (x + Ker η)].
l τ ´Ó. ¤± M/ Ker η Im η Ó.
SK 2.1
1. K þê A f8 A1 ¡ A fê, XJ A1 ´ A ¹ A

ü f, A1 q´ K þ5m A fm. -
Z(A) = {c ∈ A|ca = ac, ∀a ∈ A},
y²: Z(A) ´ A fê, ¡ Z(A) ´ê A ¥%.
· 50 · 1Ù k+ØL«
2. G ´k+, K ´.
X
(1) y²: g ∈ Z(K[G]);
g∈G
(2) éu a ∈ G, G f8 {gag −1 |g ∈ g} ¡ a Ýa, P Ca , y²:
X
x ∈ Z(K[G]).
x∈Ca
§2 küêØ
â Maschke ½n, K AØUØk+ G , G z

K-L«´. l z K[G]-´. !·?Øäk
ù«5 K þê A (, ±9§¤kØÓØ;õ3=p?
l=é¤kØÓØ K[G]-Q? úäK K[G]- K[G]
¹k´L&E. Ïd·lK K[G]- K[G] XÃïÄ. K AØU
Ø+ G , K K[G]- K[G] ´. l K[G] ±©)¤k
õØfÚ. u´·ïÄK K[G]- K[G] Ú©).
¦
·ïÄØ1´)û K[G] ©)¯K, Uä5, ·5ïÄ A þ
K A ©)¤fÚ¯K. A ´ K þê, K A ´ K þ
5m; K A f´ A ØCfm, ´ A n. Äkl5
mÝw, â [28] 1 331 ~ 16 Ú~ 17, V ´ K þ5m, X
J V §fmk«Ú©):
V = V1 ⊕ V2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Vs ,
X
^ P i L« V 3 Vi þ²1u Vj ÝK, @o
j6=i
I = P 1 + P 2 + · · · + P s,
P 1 , P 2 , · · · , P s ´|üüC. , XJ A1 , A2 , · · · , As ´ V
þ|üüC, I = A1 + A2 + · · · + As , @o
V = Im A1 ⊕ Im A2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Im As ,
X
Ai ´ V 3 Im Ai þ²1u Im Aj ÝK, i = 1, 2, · · · , s. ùL²: 5
j6=i
m V ©)¤§fmÚdu V þðC I ©)¤ V þ|
üüCÚ. , lÝw, 5m V Ú©)a',
r A ©)¤
nÚ (=rK A- A ©)¤§fÚ),
Ik|üü e1 , e2 , · · · , es , §Úu A ü 1, =
1 = e1 + e2 + · · · + es . e¡Ñù
Vg½Â, ¿ïÄ A Ú©).
2.1 A nÚ©), A V>nÚ©)
½Â 1 A e ¡, XJ
e2 = e 6= 0;
§2 küêØ · 51 ·
ü e1 , e2 ¡, XJ e1 e2 = e2 e1 = 0. e ¡, XJ§

ØUL«¤ A üÚ.
½Â 2 éu A, -
Z(A) := {c ∈ A|cx = xc, ∀x ∈ A},
K Z(A) ¡ A ¥%.
w,, Z(A) ´ A f, §¹k A ü 1.
½Â 3 e ´ A , XJ e ∈ Z(A), @o¡ e ´¥%; A
¥% e ¡, XJ§ØUL«¤ A ü¥%Ú.
a'5mÚ©), ·ßÿkeã·K.
·K 1 A ´kü 1(6= 0) . XJ A U©)¤kõ"n
V1 , V2 , · · · , Vs Ú:
A = V1 ⊕ V2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Vs , (1)
1 = e1 + e2 + · · · + es , Ù¥ ei ∈ Vi (i = 1, 2, · · · , s), @o e1 , e2 , · · · , es ´ A |
üü, ¿ Vi = Aei , i = 1, 2, · · · , s. , XJ e1 , e2 , · · · , em ´ A
|üü, P e = e1 + e2 + · · · + em , @o
Ae = Ae1 ⊕ Ae2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Aem , (2)
Ù¥ Ae, Ae1 , Ae2 , · · · , Aem Ñ´ A n.
y² éu i ∈ {1, 2, · · · , s}, d®^
ei = ei 1 = ei e1 + · · · + ei ei−1 + e2i + ei ei+1 + · · · + ei es .
du Vj ń, ej ∈ Vj , Ïd ei ej ∈ Vj , j = 1, 2, · · · , s. du (1) ª´ A
Ú©)ª, Ïd ei L«{. duqk
ei = 0 + · · · + 0 + ei + 0 + · · · + 0,
2
Ïd ei ej = 0, j 6= i; ei = ei . u´ e1 , e2 , · · · , es ´ A |üü.
du ei ∈ Vi , Vi ń, Ïdéu?¿ a ∈ A, k aei ∈ Vi . l Aei ⊆ Vi .
? ai ∈ Vi , k
ai = ai 1 = ai e1 + · · · + ai ei−1 + ai ei + ai ei+1 + · · · + ai es ,
ai = 0 + · · · + 0 + ai + 0 + · · · + 0.
du ai L«{, Ïd ai = ai ei ∈ Aei . l Vi ⊆ Aei . u´ Vi = Aei , i =
1, 2, · · · , s.
, e1 , e2 , · · · , em ´ A |üü, P e = e1 + e2 + · · · + em .
w, Ae, Ae1 , · · · , Aem Ñ´ A n, ·k
e2 = (e1 + e2 + · · · + em )2 = e21 + e22 + · · · + e2m = e,
eei = (e1 + e2 + · · · + em )ei = e2i = ei ,
ei e = ei (e1 + e2 + · · · + em ) = e2i = ei .
? a ∈ A, k
ae = ae1 + ae2 + · · · + aem ∈ Ae1 + Ae2 + · · · + Aem ,
Ïd Ae ⊆ Ae1 + Ae2 + · · · + Aem .
· 52 · 1Ù k+ØL«
? a1 e1 + a2 e2 + · · · + am em ∈ Ae1 + Ae2 + · · · + Aem , k

a1 e 1 + a2 e 2 + · · · + am e m = a1 e 1 e + a2 e 2 e + · · · + am e m e
= (a1 e1 + a2 e2 + · · · + am em )e ∈ Ae,
Ïd Ae1 + Ae2 + · · · + Aem ⊆ Ae. l Ae = Ae1 + Ae2 + · · · + Aem .
? ae ∈ Ae, K ae = ae1 +ae2 +· · ·+aem . bXk ae = b1 e1 +b2 e2 +· · ·+bm em .
3dªü>m¦ ej Ú
aej = bj ej , j = 1, 2, · · · , m,
Ïd ae L«{. l Ae = Ae1 ⊕ Ae2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Aem .
3·K 1 Ü©¥, XJ 1 = e1 +e2 +· · ·+em , @o A = Ae1 ⊕Ae2 ⊕· · ·⊕Aem .
(2) ª¥ A n Aei UØU?Ú©)¤ A ü"nÚ?

Lã{', ·Ú?eãVg.
½Â 4 A n I XJUL«¤ A ü"nÚ, @o¡
I ´©); ÄK¡ I ´Ø©).
íØ 1 e ´ A e 6= 1, K A n Ae ´Ø©)
= e ´.
y² 75. Ae Ø©). bX e Ø´, K3
e1 , e2 , ¦ e = e1 + e2 . â·K 1 Ü©, Ae = Ae1 ⊕ Ae2 . gñ. Ïd e
´.
¿©5. e ´. bX Ae ©), Ae = V1 ⊕ V2 , Ù¥ V1 , V2
Ñ´ A "n. 2
e = e1 + e2 e1 ∈ V1 , e2 ∈ V2 .
eUy e1 e2 ´, K e ´gñ. dIr A Ú©).
du (1 − e)2 = 1 − 2e + e2 = 1 − e, (1 − e)e = e − e2 = 0, e(1 − e) = 0, Ïd 1 − e, e
´, (1 − e) + e = 1. â·K 1 Ü©,
A = A(1 − e) ⊕ Ae = A(1 − e) ⊕ V1 ⊕ V2 .
du 1 = (1 − e) + e1 + e2 , e1 ∈ V1 , e2 ∈ V2 , Ïdâ·K 1 cÜ©,
1 − e, e1 , e2 ´üü. gñ. Ïd Ae Ø©).
·K 1 ÚíØ 1 Ü3åL²: A ©)¤Ø©)"nÚ
du A ü ©)¤üüÚ.
e¡5&? A §"V>nÚ©)¯K, 'u©)¤§V>
nÚVgëw [24] 1 128 ½n 4.
·K 2 XJ A U©)¤kõ"V>n I1 , I2 , · · · , In Ú, =
A = I1 ⊕ I2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ In , (3)
1 = e1 + e2 + · · · + en , Ù¥ ej ∈ Ij (j = 1, 2, · · · , n), @o e1 , e2 , · · · , en ´ A
|üü¥%, ¿ Ij = Aej , ej ´ Aej ü , j = 1, 2, · · · , n.
, XJ e1 , e2 , · · · , em ´ A |üü¥%, P e = e1 + e2 + · · · + em ,
@o
Ae = Ae1 ⊕ Ae2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Aem , (4)
§2 küêØ · 53 ·
Ù¥ Aej = ej A ´ A V>n, j = 1, 2, · · · , n.
y² V>n Ij ,ń, u´â·K 1 cÜ©, e1 , e2 , · · · ,
en ´ A |üü, ¿ Ij = Aej , j = 1, 2, · · · , n. ? a ∈ A, ·
k a1 = 1a, l
ae1 + ae2 + · · · + aen = e1 a + e2 a + · · · + en a. (5)
du Ij ´V>n, ej ∈ Ij , Ïd aej ∈ Ij ej a ∈ Ij . u´l (3) ªÚ (5) ª,
aej = ej a. ù`² ej ∈ Z(A), j = 1, 2, · · · , n. éu Aej ¥? xej , Ù¥ x ∈ A,
k
ej (xej ) = (xej )ej = xe2j = xej ,
Ïd ej ´ Aej ü , j = 1, 2, · · · , n.
, â·K 1 Ü©
Ae = Ae1 ⊕ Ae2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Aen .
du ej ∈ Z(A), Ïd Aej = ej A. l Aej ´ A V>n.
½Â 5 A "V>n I XJ±L«¤ A ü"V>n
Ú, @o¡ I ©), ÄK¡ I ´Ø©).
íØ 2 e ´ A ¥% e 6= 1, K"V>n Ae ´Ø©)
= e ´.
y² 75. Ae Ø©). bX e Ø´. K3ü¥%
e1 , e2 , ¦ e = e1 + e2 , â·K 2 Ü©, Ae = Ae1 ⊕ Ae2 , Ù¥ Aej
´ A "V>n, j = 1, 2. gñ. Ïd e ´.
¿©5. e ´¥%. w, 1 − e ´¥% e .
â·K 2 Ü©
A = A(1 − e + e) = A(1 − e) ⊕ Ae.
bX Ae UL«¤ A ü"V>n I1 I2 Ú, K e = e1 + e2 , Ù¥
e1 ∈ I1 , e2 ∈ I2 . u´
A = A(1 − e) ⊕ I1 ⊕ I2 ,
1 = (1 − e) + e1 + e2 , â·K 2 cÜ©, e1 e2 ´¥%.

ù e ´¥%gñ. Ïd Ae ´Ø©).
·K 2 íØ 2 Ü3å`²: A ©)¤Ø©)"V>nÚ
du A ü ©)¤üü¥%Ú.
¥%keã5.
·K 3 A ü¥%½ö, ½ö.
y² e1 , e2 ´ A ü¥%, K
e1 = e1 (e2 + 1 − e2 ) = e1 e2 + e1 (1 − e2 ),
(e1 e2 )2 = e1 e2 , [e1 (1 − e2 )]2 = e1 (1 − e2 ),
(e1 e2 )[e1 (1 − e2 )] = e21 e2 (1 − e2 ) = e1 (e2 − e22 ) = 0.
e1 e2 ∈ Z(A), e1 (1 − e2 ) ∈ Z(A).
· 54 · 1Ù k+ØL«
bX e1 e2 6= 0 e1 (1 − e2 ) 6= 0, K e1 L«¤
A ü¥% e1 e2
e1 (1 − e2 ) Ú. ù e1 ´gñ. Ïd e1 e2 = 0 ½ e1 (1 − e2 ) = 0 (=
e1 = e1 e2 ). Óny e2 e1 = 0 ½ e2 (1 − e1 ) = 0 (= e2 = e2 e1 ). Ïd e1 e2 ,
½ö e1 = e1 e2 = e2 e1 = e2 .
íØ 3 XJ A ü 1 U
L«¤üüØ¥% e1 ,
e2 , · · · , en Ú, @o e1 , e2 , · · · , en ´ A Ü¥%.
y² d®^, 1 = e1 + e2 + · · · , en . bX A k¥%
f 6∈ {e1 , e2 , · · · , en }, Kâ·K 3 , f ej = 0, j = 1, 2, · · · , n. u´
f = f 1 = f e1 + f e2 + · · · + f en = 0,
gñ. Ïd e1 , e2 , · · · , en ´ A Ü¥%.
2.2 küêØ
·®², K AØUØk+ G , +ê K[G] þz

Ñ´. u´·5ïÄäkù«5êØ.
½Â 6 K þkê A ¡ü, XJz A-´.
A ´ K þkê, A ´ü. ·5&¢Ø A-k=
? ³ú, K A- A %¹´L&E, Ïd·lK A- A XÃïÄ.

du A ´ü, ÏdK A- A ´. du A ´kê, Ï
dK A- A ´k. u´âÙ §1 ·K 2 , K A- A ±©
)¤kõØfÚ:
A = L1 ⊕ L2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Ln , (6)
u´
1 = e1 + e2 + · · · + en , ei ∈ L i , i = 1, 2, · · · , n. (7)
duK A- A f´ A n, Ïdâ!·K 1 cÜ©,

e1 , e2 , · · · , en ´ A |üü, Li = Aei , i = 1, 2, · · · , n. u´
A = Ae1 ⊕ Ae2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Aen . (8)
du Li Ø, Ïd A n Li ´Ø©). u´âíØ 1 , e1 , e2 , · · · ,
en ´.
?Ø A- M .
¦ M A Øf Aei (i = 1, 2, · · · , n)
)éX, ? x ∈ M , x 6= 0, 4 Aei z^3 x þ, P Aei x. N´
y Aei x ´ M f.
Ï Aei x Aei éX, Ä Aei Aei x
N
fi : aei 7→ aei x. (9)
w, fi ´÷. Ný fi ´Ó. du Aei Ø, Ïd Ker fi = {0} ½

Ker fi = Aei . e ö, K Im fi = {0}. du fi ´÷, Ïd Aei x = {0}. du
x 6= 0
x = 1x = e1 x + e2 x + · · · + en x ∈ Ae1 x + Ae2 x + · · · + Aen x,
§2 küêØ · 55 ·
Ïdk j, ¦ Ker fj = {0}. l âÓÄ½n, Aej / Ker fj ∼

=
Im fj . du fj ´÷, Ïd
Aej ∼
= Aej x.
du M Ø, Ïd Aej x = M . l
M∼ = Aej .
u´·y²
eã½n.
½n 1 A ´ K þkê, XJ A ´ü, @oK A- A
±©)¤kõØfÚ:
A = L1 ⊕ L2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Ln ; (10)
l A ü 1 ±©)¤ A |üüÚ:
1 = e1 + e2 + · · · + en , ei ∈ Li , i = 1, 2, · · · , n, (11)
Li = Aei , i = 1, 2, · · · , n;
zØ A-Óu A ØfÚ©)ª (10) ¥,Ø
f, l zØ A-Ñ´k.
½n 1 L²: küê A zØÑÑy3 A Øf
Ú©)ª¥ (3Ó¿Âþ).
K AØUØk+ G , +ê K[G] ´ü. Ïdd½n
1 á=Xe½n.
½n 2 e K AØUØk+ G , K G zØ K-L
«du G KL« ρ Ú©)ª¥,ØfL«, l k+ G
zØ K-L«Ñ´k.
½n 2 L²: k+ G 3AØUØ |G| K þKL« ρ Ø
fL«Ú©)ª¥¹
G ¤kØ K-L« (3d¿Âþ).
â½n 2, k Abel + G zØEL«Ñ´k, l G
zØEL«Ñ´ 1 g.
3½n 1 y²¥, ^
K A- A ´±9 A ´k
^. ddßÿkeã(Ø.
½n 3 A ´ K þkê, K A ´ü¿©7^K
A- A ´.
½n 3 y²3e¡Öá¥.
Öá
{Hi |i ∈ I} ´ R þ M xf (UkÃõ). ýeã8Ü

{xi1 + xi2 + · · · + xin |xij ∈ Hij , ij ∈ I, j = 1, 2, · · · , n; n ∈ N∗ }
X
´ M f, ¡§´ M xf {Hi |i ∈ I} Ú, P Hi .
i∈I
· 56 · 1Ù k+ØL«
X
½Â 1 {Hi |i ∈ I} ´ R þ M xf, XJ M = Hi , ¿
i∈I
z x ∈ M L«¤
x = xi1 + xi2 + · · · + xin , xij ∈ Hij , j = 1, 2, · · · , n
L
L«{, @o¡ M ´ùxf {Hi |i ∈ I} (S) Ú, P M = Hi .
i∈I
½n 3 y² 75w,¤á. e¡5y¿©5.

K A- A ´. â½n 1 y²1Ü©, A ±©)
¤kõØfÚ:
A = Ae1 ⊕ Ae2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Aen , (1)
Ù¥ e1 , e2 , · · · , en ´ A |üü, 1 = e1 + e2 + · · · + en .
? A- M 6= {0}, y M ´. ? x ∈ M x 6= 0, k
x = 1x = e1 x + e2 x + · · · + en x. (2)
n
X
w, Aei x ´ M f (i = 1, 2, · · · , n). du ei x ∈ Aei x, Ïd x ∈ Aei x. l
i=1
n
XX
M= Aei x. (3)
x∈M i=1
l Aei Aei x N fi : aei 7→ aei x ´÷, Ó. du Aei Ø, Ïd
Ker fi = {0} ½ Ker fi = Aei . e Ker fi = Aei , K Aei x = {0}. e Ker fi = {0}, K
Aei x ∼
= Aei , l Aei x Ø. u´ (3) ªL² M ´xØfÚ.
? M f H. Ä8Ü
T
S = {M f W | W H = {0}}.
S éu8Ü¹'X ⊆ ¤ S8. ? S ^ó
W1 ⊆ W2 ⊆ · · · ⊆ Wt ⊆ · · · , (4)
∗
P T
∗ ∗ ∗
-W = Wi , ý W H = {0}, l W ∈ S. w,z Wi ⊆ W , Ïd
∗
W ´ó (4) þ.. â Zorn Ún, S k4, P L. ·F"
T
y² H ⊕ L = M . du L H = {0}, Ïdy H + L = M . bXdªØ¤á,
K3 x ∈ M , ¦ x 6∈ H + L. du x = e1 x + e2 x + · · · + en x, Ïd73,
T
ej x 6∈ H + L. l Aej x 6⊆ H + L. du Aej x Ø, Ïd (H + L) Aej x = {0}.
u´
(H + L) + Aej x = (H + L) ⊕ Aej x = (H ⊕ L) ⊕ Aej x
= H ⊕ (L ⊕ Aej x).
T
l H (L ⊕ Aej x) = {0}. u´ L ⊕ Aej x ∈ S. ù L ´ S 4gñ. Ï
d H + L = M . l M ´. u´ A ´ü.
½n 3 L²: éu K þkê A, K A- A ´.
@o A Ò´ü.
§3 küêØÓØê · 57 ·
SK 2.2
1. r 4 Ì+ G = hai 3EêþKL« ρ ©)¤ØfL«

Ú. ddwÑ, G zØEL«ÑÑy3 ρ Ú©)ª¥ (3d¿Â
þ).
2. H1 Ú H2 Ñ´ R þ M f, y²: Ú H1 + H2 ´Ú=
T
H1 H2 = {0}.
3. R þ M U©)¤§üf H1 H2 Ú: M = H1 ⊕ H2 ,
y²: M/H1 ∼ = H2 , M/H2 ∼
= H1 (Ó).
4. R þ M ´§f H1 , H2 , · · · , Hs Ú, = M = H1 ⊕ H2 ⊕
· · · ⊕ Hs , y²:
∼ H1 .
M/(H2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Hs ) =
§3 küêØÓØê
·®²küê A zØÑÓu A Ú©)

ª¥,Øf, Ïd·r5¿åÑ8¥ A §ØfÚ©
)ª¥, ïÄ A ØÓØkõ? A Øê÷v
o^? A zØ3 A Ú©)ª¥Ñy
Ag (3Ó¿
Âþ)? dÄkI?ØK A- A Øf?¿ü«Ú©)ªk
o'X?
A ´küê, Kk A §ØfÚ©)ª:
A = L1 ⊕ L2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Ln . (1)
Ä A füó:
A % L2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Ln % L3 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Ln % · · · % Ln % {0}. (2)
âSK 2.2 1 4 K
A/(L2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Ln ) ∼ = L1 , L2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Ln /L3 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Ln ∼ = L2 , · · · , Ln /{0} ∼
= Ln . (3)
u´ (3) ª¥zûÑ´Ø. ddÚÑeãVg.
½Â 1 R þ M füó
M = M1 % M2 % · · · % Mk ⊇ Mk+1 = {0} (4)
¡ M Ü¤, XJ¤kû Mi /Mi+1 ´Ø. ù
û Mi /Mi+1
(i = 1, 2, · · · , k) ¡Ü¤Ïf|. Ü¤Ïfê k ¡Ü¤Ý. M ü
Ü¤¡´d, XJ§Ý¿ùüÜ¤Ïf|U^,«
ªé, ¦éAÜ¤Ïf´Ó.
½n 1 (Jordan-Hölder) XJ R þ M kÜ¤, @o M ?¿
üÜ¤´d.
y² ! Ü©.
â½n 1, lþ¡?Øá=Xe½n.
· 58 · 1Ù k+ØL«
½n 2 XJ A ´küê, @oK A- A Øf?¿

ü«Ú©)ª¥ØfêÓ, ¿ùü«Ú©)ª¥Øf
U^,«ªé, ¦éAØf´Ó.
½n 2 L²: 3küê A K A Ú©)ª (1) ¥, ?
Øf Li , ©)ª (1) ¥Ñy Li ÓØfê´d A
û½, ©)ªÃ', ¡ùê8 Li 3 A ¥ê.
½n 2 L²: küê A K A Ú©)ª¥, ØÓØ
fê´d A û½, ©)ªÃ'. ùê8Ò´¤kØÓ
Ø A-ê (âÙ §2 ½n 1).
y35ïÄküê A ¤kØÓØêdoû½?

|^Ø£, ·rK A- A Øf^ A n
ó5x. ·, K A- A fÒ´ A n. duK A-
A Øf L Ø¹ A ²f, Ïd L A nØ¹ A
²n, = L ¹ A ün: {0} Ú L. ddÚÑeãVg.
½Â 2 A "n L ¡4n, XJ L ¹ A ü
n: {0} Ú L.
éu A ün L1 Ú L2 , XJr§w¤K A- A f´Ó
, @o¡n L1 L2 ´Ó, =3 L1 L2 V σ, §±\{, ¿
A ^ (= σ(rx) = r[σ(x)], ∀r ∈ A, x ∈ L1 ).
K A- A §ØfÚ©)ª±w¤´ A §4
nÚ©)ª. ½n 2 9Ù ¡üã{Ñ±¤ A 4n
ó5Qã. y3·ïÄ´: A ´ K þküê, A ¤k
ØÓ4nêdoû½?
ïÄù¯K, Äk·NØÓ
4näko5? dkyÚn.
Ún 1 A ´ K þküê, K A z"nd
)¤.
y² L ´ A "n, L 6= A. u´ L ´K A- A
"f. du A ´ü, ÏdK A- A ´. l 3 A
f L′ , ¦ A = L ⊕ L′ . du L 6= A, Ïd L′ 6= {0}. 1 = e + e′ , Ù¥
e ∈ L, e′ ∈ L′ . âÙ §2 ·K 1 , e ´ A , L = Ae, = L d e )¤.
e L = A, K L d 1 )¤.
|^Ún 1, ·±¼ØÓ4n5.
Ún 2 A ´ K þküê, L Ú L′ ´ A ü4n.
(1) e L ∼
= L′ , K LL′ = L′ ;
(2) e L ∼
6 L′ , K LL′ = {0}.
=
y² â A(üf8¦È½Â )
Xm
∗
LL′ = li li′ li ∈ L, li′ ∈ L′ , i = 1, 2, · · · , m; m ∈ N .

i=1
du L ´ A n, Ïd LL′ ´ A n. du L′ ´ A n, Ïd

LL′ ⊆ L′ . du L′ ´ A 4n, Ïd LL′ = {0} ½ LL′ = L′ .
(1) L ∼= L′ , Kk L L′ ÓN σ.
y LL′ = L′ , y L′ ⊆ LL′ .
? x′ ∈ L′ , K3 x ∈ L, ¦ x′ = σ(x). dÚn 1 L = Ae, Ù¥ e ´ A
. u´3 a ∈ A, ¦ x = ae. l
x′ = σ(ae) = aσ(e) = aσ(ee) = aeσ(e) = xσ(e) ∈ LL′ .
Ïd L′ ⊆ LL′ . u´ LL′ = L′ .
(2) ·5y_Ä·K. LL′ 6= {0}, Kdþ¡?Ø LL′ = L′ .
? x′ ∈ L′ , w, Lx′ ´ A n, Lx′ ⊆ L′ . du L′ ´ A 4n
, Ïd Lx′ = {0} ½ Lx′ = L′ . bX ∀x′ ∈ L′ k Lx′ = {0}, K LL′ = {0}, gñ. Ï
d3 y ′ ∈ L′ , ¦ Ly ′ = L′ . -
τ : L → L′
x 7→ xy ′ .
ý τ ±\{, A ^. du Ly ′ = L′ , Ïd τ ´÷, l
Im τ = L′ . Ker τ ´ A- L f, Ïd Ker τ ´ A n, Ker τ ⊆ L.
du L ´ A 4n, Ïd Ker τ = {0}, ½ Ker τ = L. e Ker τ = L, K
Im τ = {0}, gñ. Ïd Ker τ = {0}. l τ ´ü. u´ τ ń L L′
ÓN. ¤± L ∼ = L′ .
5 Ún 2 (1) ^ A ´küêù^, Ún 2 (2) Ø^ A
´küêù^.
aqu4nVg, e¡Ñ4V>nVg±9üVg.
½Â 3 A "V>n I ¡4V>n, XJ I ¹ A ü
V>n: {0} Ú I.
½Â 4 R ¡ü, XJ R k²V>n: {0} Ú R.
½Â 5 K þê B ¡üê, XJ B ´ü.
y3·±5&¢: A ´ K þküê, A ¤kØÓ
4nêdoû½?
A ´ K þküê, Kk A §4nÚ©
)ª:
A = L11 ⊕ · · · ⊕ L1m1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Ls1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Lsms , (5)
Ù¥ Lij ∼
= Lkt = i = k. A ¤kØÓ4nêÒ´ (5)
ª¥ØÓ4nê s.
tÙ s doû½, ég,/r (5) ª
¤
A = A1 ⊕ A2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ As , (6)
Ù¥
Ai = Li1 ⊕ Li2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Limi , i = 1, 2, · · · , s. (7)
· 60 · 1Ù k+ØL«
w, Ai ´ A n. 'u Ai &EØù. A ¥n\{÷v

ÆÚ(ÜÆ, n¦{÷v(ÜÆ, ±9éu\{!m©Æ (ëw [24] 1
120 ). k 6= i , âÚn 2 , Lij Lkt = {0}. l
Ai Lkt = Li1 Lkt + Li2 Lkt + · · · + Limi Lkt = {0}.
ddÑ, Ai Ak = {0}. ? xi ∈ Ai , a ∈ A, d (6) ª, a = a1 + a2 + · · · + as , Ù¥
aj ∈ Aj (j = 1, 2, · · · , s). u´
xi a = xi a1 + xi a2 + · · · + xi as = xi ai ∈ Ai .
Ïd Ai ´ A mn. l Ai ´ A V>n, i = 1, 2, · · · , s. du Lij (j =
1, 2, · · · , mi ) ´ A 4n, Ïd³úßÿ Ai ´ A 4V>n. y35
Øyùßÿ. I ´ A "V>n, I ⊆ Ai , du I ń, Ïd I
¹ A 4n L. L Óu, Lkt . âÚn 2 , Lkt L = L. bX
k 6= i, du L ⊆ I ⊆ Ai , Ïd Lkt L ⊆ Ak Ai = {0}. u´Ñ L = {0}, gñ. l
L∼ = Lit (1 6 t 6 mi ). âÚn 2 , LLit = Lit (1 6 t 6 mi ). du I ´mn, Ïd
Lit = LLit ⊆ I(1 6 t 6 mi ). ddÑ
I ⊇ Li1 + Li2 + · · · + Limi = Ai .
l I = Ai . ùy²
Ai ´ A 4V>n. l Ai ´Ø©)V>n,
i = 1, 2, · · · , s. â (6) ª,
1 = e1 + e2 + · · · + es . (8)
â §2 ·K 2 ÚíØ 2 , e1 , e2 , · · · , es ´ A |üü¥%,
Ai = Aei ´kü ei , i = 1, 2, · · · , s. â §2 ·K 3 ÚíØ 3 ,
e1 , e2 , · · · , ee ´ A ÜüüØ¥%. u´·y²
eã½n.
½n 3 A ´ K þküê, K A k§4V>n
Ú©)ª:
A = A1 ⊕ A2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ As , (9)
l
1 = e1 + e2 + · · · + es , ei ∈ Ai , i = 1, 2, · · · , s, (10)
e1 , e2 , · · · , es ´ A ÜüüØ¥%, ¿ Ai = Aei , ei ´ Ai ü
, i = 1, 2, · · · , s; u´¤kØÓØ A-êu A ¥%
ê.
íØ 1 ½n 3 ¥ Ai ´ü, §ü ´ A ¥% ei , i =
1, 2, · · · , s.
y² ? Ai V>n J. ? a ∈ A.
a = a1 + a2 + · · · + as , ai ∈ Ai , i = 1, 2, · · · , s.
éu?¿ b ∈ J, du Ai Aj = {0}, i 6= j, Ïd
ab = a1 b + a2 b + · · · + as b = ai b ∈ J,
ba = ba1 + ba2 + · · · + bas = bai ∈ J.
l J ´ A V>n. du Ai ´ A 4V>n, Ïd J = {0} ½ö J = Ai .
ùy²
Ai ´ü. l½n 3 , Ai ü ´¥% ei .
eÚïÄküê A Øfê÷vo^?
3 K þküê A §4nÚ©)ª (5) ¥, Lij
ei , i = 1, 2, · · · , s, Kl (5) ª
K þ5mê n
X s
dimK A = mi nei ,
i=1
Ù¥ mi ´4n Li1 3 A ¥ê, i = 1, 2, · · · , s.
n ei (i = 1, 2, · · · , s)
A÷v^, ItÙ mi uo? â (7) ª, mi ´ Ai A 4
nÚ©)ª¥4nê. w, Li1 ´ Ai n. ?Ú`²
Li1 ´ Ai 4n, ù´Ï J ´ Ai "n, J ⊆ Li1 , Kâí
Ø 1 y², J ´ A n. du Li1 ´ A 4n, Ïd J = Li1 .
l Li1 ´ Ai 4n. u´ mi uü Ai §4nÚ©)
ª¥4nê.
¦Ñ Ai Ú©)ª¥4nê, ÒIï
Äüê§4nÚ©). dÄkïÄküê(, ,
lküêÓap]ÑL5ïÄ§4nÚ©). ù
3e!òc[?Ø.
y3·Ñ½n 1 (Jordan-Hölder) y²:
R þ M kÜ¤;
M = M1 % M2 % · · · % Mk % Mk+1 = {0}. (11)
? M ,Ü¤:
M = H1 % H2 % · · · % Hr % Hr+1 = {0}. (12)
é M 1Ü¤Ý k êÆ8B{.
k = 1 , M = M1 % M2 = {0}. du M1 /M2 Ø, M1 /M2 ∼ = M1 , Ï
d M1 (= M ) Ø. Ø R- M kÜ¤: M % {0}. Ïd·K
¤á.
béu1Ü¤Ý k − 1 ·K¤á, y35w k /. kw
AÏ/: e M2 = H2 , K3 (11) Ú (12) ¥K1 , Ò´Ó R-
M2 = H2 Ü¤, §Ý©O k − 1 Ú r − 1. â8Bb, k − 1 = r − 1.
l k = r; §Ü¤Ïf|U^,«ªé, ¦éAÜ¤Ïf´Ó
. l (11) Ú (12) Ü¤Ïf|kù5. Ïd M Ü¤ (11) Ú
(12) d. e¡?Ø/, = M2 6= H2 /. du M/M2 Ú M/H2 Ñ´Ø
R-, Ïd M2 Ú H2 Ñ´ M 4f (=, ek M f N % M2 , K
N = M ). du M2 6= H2 , Ïd M2 H2 % M2 , M2 H2 % H2 . qdu M2 H2 E´ M
T
f, Ïdl M2 , H2 ´ M 4fíÑ M2 H2 = M . - M2 H2 = N3 . â
1+Ó½n (ëw [24] 1 58 ½n 8)
T T
M2 H2 /M2 ∼
= H2 /H2 M2 , M2 H2 /H2 ∼ = M2 /M2 H2 ,
=
M/M2 ∼ = H2 /N3 , M/H2 ∼ = M2 /N3 . (13)
ýù
´Ó. du N3 ´ M2 f, l N3 ´ M f, Ïdl M k
· 62 · 1Ù k+ØL«
Ü¤±íÑ N3 kÜ¤. ? N3 Ü¤:

N3 % N4 % · · · % Nt % Nt+1 = {0}. (14)
|^§Ñ M ü#Ü¤:
M = M1 % M2 % N3 % · · · % Nt % Nt+1 = {0}, (15)
M = H1 % H2 % N3 % · · · % Nt % Nt+1 = {0}. (16)
' (15) (11), M ùüÜ¤1Ó, u´âc¡AÏ/(
Ø, k = t, (15) Ü¤Ïf|:
M/M2 , M2 /N3 , N3 /N4 , · · · , Nk /Nk+1 (17)
(11) Ü¤Ïf|:
M/M2 , M2 /M3 , M3 /M4 , · · · , Mk /Mk+1 (18)
U^,«ªé, ¦éAÜ¤Ïf´Ó. ' (16) (12), M ùü
Ü¤1Ó, u´âc¡AÏ/(Ø, r = t. l k = r,
(16) Ü¤Ïf|:
M/H2 , H2 /N3 , N3 /N4 , · · · , Nk /Nk+1 (19)
(12) Ü¤Ïf|:
M/H2 , H2 /H3 , H3 /H4 , · · · , Hk /Hk+1 (20)
U^,«ªé, ¦éAÜ¤Ïf´Ó. d (13) , M Ü¤
(11) Ü¤Ïf| (18) M Ü¤ (12) Ü¤Ïf| (20) U^,«ªé,
¦éAÜ¤ÏfÓ. l M Ü¤ (11) (12) d.
dêÆ8B{n, ½n 1 ¤á.
SK 2.3
1. R ´kü 1(6= 0) , XJ R z"Ñ_, @o¡

R ´Ø (½N). y²: e D ´Ø, K Mn (D) ´ü.
2. V ´Ø D þm, r D 3 V þ^w¤´ D V (m)
Xþ¦{ (= V × D V N), K V ¡Ø D þm5m, V ¥
¡þ. þ5maq, Ø D þm5m V ¥, k5
'!5Ã'!ÄÚêVg. V gÓ¡ V þ5C. V þ¤
k5C|¤8ÜP HomD (V, V ). 3 HomD (V, V ) ¥k\{!¦{$, ´
y HomD (V, V ) ¤. y²: e dimD V = n, KkÓ:
∼ Mn (D).
HomD (V, V ) =
(5 3 HomD (V, V ) ¥±½Â (m) Xþ¦{$: ? A ∈ HomD (V, V ),
d ∈ D, 5½
( Ad)v := ( Av)d, ∀v ∈ V.
Ný HomD (V, V ) ¤Ø D þm5m, ÷v:

( A B)d = ( Ad) B = A( Bd), ∀ A, B ∈ HomD (V, V ), d ∈ D.
§4 küê(, ê4þküêØê · 63 ·
u´ HomD (V, V ) ¤Ø D þmê (Ø D þmê½Â K þ

ê½Âaq). Ný²: Ó HomD (V, V ) ∼
= Mn (D) ´Ø D þmê
Ó.)
§4 küê(, ê4þküêØ
ê
!·Äk5ïÄküê(. B ´ K þküê.
lSK 2.3 1 1 K, e D ´Ø, K Mn (D) ´ü. du B ´ü, Ïd·
ÿßÿkvkU B ∼ = Mn (D) (Ó)? qlSK 2.3 1 2 K, e V
´Ø D þ n m5m, K HomD (V, V ) ∼ = Mn (D) (Ó). Ïd
Øy
∼ ∼
B = Mn (D), ÒØy B = HomD (V, V ). ùÒIEØ D, ¿E
Ø D þm5m V .
1Ú, l B ÑuXÛEØ D Q? Ø D A´z"
Ñ_. dd B 4n I, I w¤´K B- B Ø
f, |^ I Ø5, y I gÓ½ö´"Ó, ½ö´Ó. u
´ I g¤kÓ|¤8ÜékU¤Ø. e¡5Øyù:.
V, W ´ R þ, V W ¤kÓ (¡ R-Ó) |¤8
ÜP HomR (V, W ). éu f, g ∈ HomR (V, W ), 5½ (f + g)v := f (v) + g(v), ∀v ∈ V ,
Ký HomR (V, W ) ¤ Abel \+, ¿ HomR (V, V ) éu\{ÚN¦{¤
kü .
Ún 1 (Schur) V, W ´ R þØ, K
(1) V 6∼
= W , HomR (V, W ) = {0};
(2) HomR (V, V ) ´Ø.
y² f ∈ HomR (V, W ), du V Ø, Ïd Ker f = {0} ½ Ker f = V .
du W Ø, Ïd Im f = W ½ Im f = {0}. Ker f = {0} , V /{0} ∼
= Im f ,
l Im f 6= {0}. u´ Im f = W . Ïd V ∼
= W , l f ´ V W Ó .
Ker f = V 7k Im f = {0}, d f ´"Ó.
(1) V ∼
6 W , âþã(Ø, éu?¿ f ∈ HomR (V, W ), k Ker f 6=
=
{0}. l Ker f = V . u´ f ´"Ó. Ïd HomR (V, W ) = {0}.
(2) dþã(Ø, f 6= 0 , Ker f 6= V . l Ker f = {0}. u´ f ´
V gÓ. l HomR (V, V ) ´Ø.
B ´ K þküê, B 4n I, - D = HomB (I, I),
Kâ Schur Ún, D ´Ø.
1Ú, éØ D þm5m. ÁÄc¡J I, I ´ Abel \
+. D I Xþ¦{Xe5½: éu d ∈ D, x ∈ I, 5½ xd Ò´ x 3N
d e. Nýù5½Xþ¦{÷vm5m 4 ^5K, ~X, éu
· 64 · 1Ù k+ØL«
d1 , d2 ∈ D, x ∈ I, k
x(d1 d2 ) = (xd1 )d2 , x(d1 + d2 ) = xd1 + xd2 .
Ïd I ¤Ø D þm5m: I ´Ø´kQ?
du B ´ K þê, I ´K B- B f, Ïd I ´ K þ
5m B fm, ÙXþ¦{ kx = (k1)x, ∀x ∈ I, Ù¥ 1 ´ê B ü ,
(k1)x ´ê B p¦{. du B ´kê, = B K þ5m´k
, Ïd I K þ5m´k.
·ßÿ I Ø D þm5m´k.
Øyù:, g
,I|^ “I K þ5m´k” (Ø. dáÙ I D
þm5mXþ¦{ I K þ5mXþ¦{m'X. éu
k ∈ K, x ∈ I, k kx ∈ I. ´Ä3 d ∈ D, ¦ kx = xd? âê B p¦{Xþ
¦{'Xª,
kx = (k1)x = k(1x) = k(x1) = x(k1). (1)
ddÉéu, -
(k1)R : I → I
x 7→ x(k1).
w, (k1)R ´ I gN, ±\{. éu?¿ b ∈ B, â B ¦{
(ÜÆ
(bx)(k1)R = (bx)(k1) = b[x(k1)] = b[x(k1)R ],
Ïd (k1)R ´Ó, l (k1)R ∈ HomB (I, I) = D. d (1) ª

kx = x(k1)R . (2)
3 K þ5m I ¥Ä α1 , α2 , · · · , αm . éu?¿ x ∈ I, k
Xm m
X
x= ki αi = αi (ki 1)R . (3)
i=1 i=1
(3) ª`² α1 , α2 , · · · , αm ´Ø D þm5m I |)¤, Ïd I Ø
D þm5m´k.
?Ú¯: dimK I dimD I koéX? ùIïÄ D K mko'
X. D ´ Abel \+, @oUÄ5½ K D Xþ¦{? ? d ∈ D, k ∈ K, 5½
kd := d(k1)R . (4)
ý D ¤ K þ5m. §´Ø´kQ? D ¥? d ´ I
I N, ±\{. ? k ∈ K du d ´ I gÓ, Ïd
(kx)d = [(k1)x]d = (k1)(xd) = k(xd), ∀x ∈ I.
l d ± K I Xþ¦{. Ïd d ´ K þ5m I þ5C. u
´
D ⊆ HomK (I, I).
dimK D 6 dimK [HomK (I, I)] = ( dimK I)2 .
ùL² D K þ5m´k. du D ´ K þk

5m, I ´Ø D þkm5m, I ´ K þk
5m, Xã 2–1 ¤«, Ïd [28] 1 234 ~ 39 y{y
dimK I = ( dimK D)( dimD I). (5)
∼
1nÚ, y B = HomD (I, I), Ù¥ HomD (I, I) ´Ø D þm
5m I þ¤k5C|¤8Ü, I þ5C´ I g ã 2–1
N A, §÷v: éu?¿ x1 , x2 , x ∈ I, ?¿ d ∈ D, k

A(x1 + x2 ) = Ax1 + Ax2 , A(xd) = ( Ax)d. (6)
ý HomD (I, I) éu5C\{N¦{¤. ±½Â K
HomD (I, I) Xþ¦{:
(k A)x := k( Ax), ∀ A ∈ HomD (I, I), k ∈ K, x ∈ I.
ý HomD (I, I) ¤ K þê. ·y B HomD (I, I) êÓ.
dr B ¥ b éAØ D þm5m I þ5C, -
bL : I → I
x 7→ bx.
du I ´ B n, Ïd bx ∈ I. l bL ´ I gN. w,, bL ±
\{. ? d ∈ D, x ∈ I, du d ´ B-Ó, Ïd
bL (xd) = b(xd) = (bx)d = [bL (x)]d.
l bL ±Xþ¦{. u´ bL ∈ HomD (I, I). -
σ : B → HomD (I, I)
b 7→ bL ,
K σ Ń, w, σ ±\{!¦{!Xþ¦{, σ(1) = 1L = 1I , Ïd σ ´
B HomD (I, I) êÓ. Ker σ ´ B V>n. du B ´ü, Ï
d Ker σ = {0} ½ Ker σ = B. bX Ker σ = B, K σ = 0. gñ. Ïd Ker σ = {0}.
l B ∼= Im σ (êÓ).
Im σ = {bL|b ∈ B} =: BL .
eUy BL = HomD (I, I), K B ∼
= HomD (I, I).
du BL = Im σ ⊆ HomD (I, I), Ïdy BL ⊇ HomD (I, I). du 1L ∈ BL ,
1L = 1I , Ïdéu?¿ A ∈ HomD (I, I), k A = A1I = A1L . eUy BL ´
HomD (I, I) n, K A = A1L ∈ BL . l HomD (I, I) ⊆ BL .
e¡5y BL ´ HomD (I, I) n. éu?¿ bL ∈ BL , ?¿ T ∈HomD (I, I),
y T bL ∈ BL . dIé eb ∈ B, ¦ T bL = ebL . ù eb éJé
. Ïd·,8¿». {Ñ B ,«L«ª. 5¿ IB ´ B
n, w, IB ´ B mn, u´ IB ´ B V>n. du B ´ü,
IB 6= {0}. Ïd IB = B. l y (IB)L ´ HomD (I, I) n. d
(m )
X

u IB = yi bi yi ∈ I, bi ∈ B , Ïdy: éu?¿ T ∈ HomD (I, I), ?¿

i=1
· 66 · 1Ù k+ØL«
y ∈ I, b ∈ B, k T (yb)L ∈ (IB)L . du T y ∈ I, Ïdy T (yb)L = [(T y)b]L . d

u ∀x ∈ I, k
[T (yb)L]x = T [(yb)Lx] = T [(yb)x] = T [y(bx)],
[(T y)b]Lx = [(T y)b]x = (T y)(bx),
ÏdXJUy²: ∀x, y ∈ I, k
T (yx) = (T y)x, (7)
@oÒk T [y(bx)] = (T y)(bx), l k T (yb)L = [(T y)b]L . u´Òy²
(IB)L ´
HomD (I, I) n, ? y²
BL = HomD (I, I).
y² (7) ª, ?
x ∈ I, -
xR : I → I
y 7→ yx.
w, xR ´ I gN, ±\{. ∀b ∈ B, y ∈ I, k
(by)xR = (by)x = b(yx) = b[(y)xR ],
Ïd xR ∈ HomB (I, I) = D. u´ ∀x, y ∈ I, k
T (yx) = T [(y)xR ] = (T y)xR = (T y)x.
ùy²
(7) ª¤á. l B HomD (I, I) ´ K-êÓ.
dimD I = n. 3SK 2.3 1 2 K®y: HomD (I, I) Mn (D) ´Ó. d
u D ´ K þ5m, ÙXþ¦{ kd = d(k1)R , ∀d ∈ D, k ∈ K. Ïd K
Mn (D) kXþ¦{: k(dij ) = (kdij ). l Mn (D) ¤ K þ5m. ´
y Mn (D) ¤ K þê. Ný HomD (I, I) Mn (D) ÓN:
A 7→ A ±Xþ¦{, Ïd§´êÓ. l K þê HomD (I, I)
Mn (D) êÓ. u´ K þê B Mn (D) êÓ. ù·y²
e
ãÍ¶½n.
½n 1 (Wedderburn) B ´ K þküê, I ´ B 4n,
- D = HomB (I, I), K
(1) D ´Ø, I ´Ø D þkm5m, D ´ K þk5
m, §êmkXe'X:
dimK I = ( dimK D)( dimD I); (8)
(2) k K þêÓ:
B∼
= HomD (I, I) ∼
= Mn (D), (9)
Ù¥ n = dimD I.
5 3½n 1 1 (1) Ü©y²¥^ B ´üù^; 1 (2) Ü©
y²¥^ B ´üù^.
½n 1 L²: K þküê B ÓuØ D þ n Ý
|¤
K þê Mn (D), Ù¥ n ´ B 4n I Ø D þm5m
ê, D = HomB (I, I). Ïd
ïÄküê B §4nÚ©
), ÒïÄÝ
ê Mn (D) §4nÚ©).
D ´Ø, y35ïÄü Mn (D) §4nÚ©). ?

Mn (D) ¥Ý
A = (aij ), k
     
a11 0 · · · 0 0 a12 0 ··· 0 0 ··· 0 a1n
     
 a21 0 · · · 0   a a22 0 ··· 0 0 ··· 0 a2n 
     
A= . .. ..  + ..  + ···+  . ..  . (10)
 .. . .   ... ..
.
..
. .  .. ..
. . 
    
an1 0 · · · 0 0 an2 0 ··· 0 0 ··· 0 ann
(j)
Mn (D) ¥Ø1 j Ù{ 0 Ý
|¤f8P Mn (D). w,,
(j) (j) (j)
Mn (D) éu~{µ4, éu?¿ X ∈ Mn (D), H ∈ Mn (D), k HX ∈ Mn (D),
(j)
Ïd, Mn (D) ´ Mn (D) n, j = 1, 2, · · · , n. (10) ªL²: Mn (D) ¥?
Ý
A U/L«¤ Mn(1) (D), Mn(2) (D), · · · , Mn(n) (D) ¥Ý
Ú, Ïd
Mn (D) = Mn(1) (D) ⊕ Mn(2) (D) ⊕ · · · ⊕ Mn(n) (D). (11)
w,, I = E11 + E22 + · · · + Enn , Ù¥ Eii ´ (i, i) 1 Ù{ 0 n Ý
,
(i)
i = 1, 2, · · · , n. w,, Eii ∈ Mn (D), âÙ §2 ·K 1 , E11 , E22 , · · · , Enn ´
|üüü, ¿ Mn(i) (D) = Mn (D)Eii , i = 1, 2, · · · , n. u´
Mn (D) = Mn (D)E11 ⊕ Mn (D)E22 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Mn (D)Enn . (12)
Mn (D)Eii ´Ø´ Mn (D) 4n? J ´ Mn (D) "n,
Mn (D)Eii ⊇ J. eUy Eii ∈ J, K Mn (D)Eii ⊆ J. l J = Mn (D)Eii , u
´ Mn (D)Eii ´ Mn (D) 4n. du J 6= {0}. Ïd J ¥kÝ
C = (cij ) 6= 0. cli 6= 0. du
(c−1 −1
li Eil )C = cli Eil (c1i E1i + · · · + cli Eli + · · · + cni Eni ) = Eii ,
Ïd Eii ∈ J. ùy²
Mn (D)Eii ´ Mn (D) 4n, i = 1, 2, · · · , n.
Mn (D)E11 , Mn (D)E22 , · · · , Mn (D)Enn ´Ø´*dÓ? i 6= j , du
E1i ∈ Mn (D)Eii , Eij ∈ Mn (D)Ejj , ¿
E1i Eij = E1j 6= 0,
Ïd [Mn (D)Eii ][Mn (D)Ejj ] 6= {0}. âÙ §3 Ún 2 9Ù ¡5, Mn (D)Eii
∼
= Mn (D)Ejj . u´·y²
eã½n.
½n 2 D ´Ø, Kü Mn (D) k§*dÓ4nÚ
©):
Mn (D) = Mn (D)E11 ⊕ Mn (D)E22 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Mn (D)Enn , (13)
Ù¥4nêuÝ
ê n.
r½n 1 Ú½n 2 (Üå5BXeíØ.
íØ 1 B ´ K þküê, I ´ B 4n, - D =
HomB (I, I), K B k§*dÓ4nÚ©), Ù¥4n
êu dimD I.
rÙ §3 ½n 3 Ú!íØ 1 (Üå5BXeíØ.
íØ 2 A ´ K þküê, A §4nÚ
· 68 · 1Ù k+ØL«
©)ª
A = L11 ⊕ · · · ⊕ L1m1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Ls1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Lsms , (14)
Ù¥, Lij ∼
= Lkt = i = k. -
Ai = Li1 ⊕ Li2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Limi , i = 1, 2, · · · , s, (15)
Di = HomAi (Li1 , Li1 ), i = 1, 2, · · · , s, (16)
ni = dimDi (Li1 ), i = 1, 2, · · · , s, (17)
n
ei = dimK (Li1 ), i = 1, 2, · · · , s, (18)
K Li1 3 A ¥ê mi = ni (i = 1, 2, · · · , s), l
X s
dimK A = ni n
ei , (19)
i=1
Ù¥ s ´ A ¥%ê.

ïÄ n ei ÷v^, ÒIïÄ ni uo. â½n 1, dimK Li1 =
( dimK Di )( dimDi Li1 ), = n
ei = ( dimK Di )ni , i = 1, 2, · · · , s. dIïÄ Di K
'X. Di ´d (16) ª½Â, Ù¥ Ai ´ K þê, Li1 ´ Ai 4n
(ëÙ §3 íØ 1 e¡ã). dd·ÄÑe¡¯K:
A ´ K þê, V ´kØ A-. Á¯: D = HomA (V, V )
K ko'X? ·3½n 1 1 (1) Ü©y²¥®y: D ⊆ HomK (V, V ). Ï
d D ¥? d ´ K þk5m V þ5C. XJ K ´ê
4, @o5C d kA. d A λ1 . d áu λ1 Afm
Vλ1 ⊆ V . du V ´Ø A-, ÏdeUy Vλ1 ´ A-, K Vλ1 = V . ?
α ∈ Vλ1 , a ∈ A, y: aα ∈ Vλ1 . du d ´ A-Ó V ´ K þê A ,
Ïd
d(aα) = a(dα) = a(λ1 α) = a[(λ1 1)α]
= [a(λ1 1)]α = [λ1 (a1)]α = [λ1 (1a)]α
= [(λ1 1)a]α = (λ1 1)(aα) = λ1 (aα). (20)
l aα ∈ Vλ1 . Ïd Vλ1 ´ A-. u´ Vλ1 = V . ddíÑ d ´ V þê¦C
λ1 1V . Ïd
D ⊆ {k1V |k ∈ K} =: K1V . (21)
, ? k1V ∈ K1V . éu?¿ a ∈ A, v ∈ V , |^ (20) ª,

(k1V )(av) = k(av) = a(kv) = a[(k1V )v].
Ïd k1V ∈ HomA (V, V ) = D. l K1V ⊆ D. u´ D = K1V . w,kÓ:
K1V ∼
= K. Ïd D ∼ = K. l ·y²
eãÚn.
Ún 2 (Schnr) A ´ê4 K þê, V ´kØ A-.
- D = HomA (V, V ), K
D = K1V ∼ = K. (22)
u´ D = HomA (V, V ) ´.

5 Ún 1 `´: e V ´ R þØ, K HomR (V, V ) ´Ø

. Ún 2 `´: e V ´ê4 K þê A þkØ, K
HomA (V, V ) ´, HomA (V, V ) ∼
= K.
|^Ún 2 ±9½n 1 ¥úª (8), líØ 2 á=ÑXe½n.
½n 3 A ´ê4 K þküê, PÒÓíØ 2, KkÓ:
Di ∼
= K, i = 1, 2, · · · , s, (23)
l Øf Li1 3 A ¥êu dimK (Li1 ), ¿
s
X
dimK A = [ dimK (Li1 )]2 , (24)
i=1
Ù¥ s ´ A ¥%ê. u´¤kØÓØ A-ê
²Úu A ê.
½n 3 Ñ
ê4 K þküê A þØêA÷
v^: A þ¤kØÓØê²Úu A ê. ù
´õo(Ø!
l½n 3 w: k “Di ∼
= K(i = 1, 2, · · · , s)” ù^ÒÑ (24) ª.
Ïd3k' A þØê9Ù3 A ¥ê¯K¥, ,·~~
b K ´ê4, ´r “K ´ê4” ^¤ “ K ÷v Di ∼
= K(i =
1, 2, · · · , s)”, (ØE,¤á.
SK 2.4
1. Φ Ú Ψ ´+ G 3 K þüØÝ
L«, gê©O n Ú m.
A ´ K þ m × n Ý
, ¦ Ψ (g)A = AΦ(g), ∀g ∈ G. y²: A = 0 ½ö m = n
A ´_Ý
.
2. (ϕ, V ) Ú (ψ, W ) ´+ G 3ê4 K þüØL«. σ ´
K þk5m V W 5N, ¿÷v: ψ(g)σ = σϕ(g), ∀g ∈ G. y²:
(1) e ϕ Ú ψ Ød, K σ = 0;
(2) e V = W ϕ = ψ, K σ = k1V , Ù¥ k ´ K ¥,.
3. (ϕ, V ) Ú (ψ, W ) ´k+ G üØEL«, ¿ σ ´kE
X
5m V W ?5N, - σ e = |G|−1 ψ(g)σϕ(g)−1 . y²:
g∈G
(1) e ϕ ψ Ød, K σ
e = 0;
e = k1V , Ù¥
(2) e V = W ϕ = ψ, K σ
tr(σ)
k= ,
dimV
ùp tr(σ) ´5C σ ,.
4. Φ ´+ G 3ê4 K þ n gØÝ
L«, A ´ K þ n
Ý
¦ Φ(g)A = AΦ(g), ∀g ∈ G. y²: A ´êþÝ
.
· 70 · 1Ù k+ØL«
§5 k+ØdØL«êÚgê
G ´k+, K AØUØ |G|, Kâ Maschke ½n, +ê

K[G] ´ü, ¿ K[G] êu |G|.
lÙ §2 ½n 2 , k+ G 3AØUØ |G| K þ?¿
ØL« ϕ Ñdu G KL« ρ Ú©)ª¥,ØfL«, ù
ØfL«3 ρ ¥ê¡ØL« ϕ 3 ρ ¥ê. lÙ §4 ½n
3 , K ´ê4, ϕ 3 ρ ¥êu ϕ gê.
lÙ §3 ½n 3 , k+ G 3AØUØ |G| K þ¤kØ
dØL«êu+ê K[G] ¥%ê. @o, K[G]
¥%ê+ G o5k'Q?
e1 , e2 , · · · , es ´+ê K[G] ÜüüØ¥%. K 1 =
e1 + e2 + · · · + es , §üü, ei ∈ Z(K[G]), i = 1, 2, · · · , s.
k1 e1 + k2 e2 + · · · + ks es = 0.
ü>¦ ei , ki ei ei = 0, = ki ei = 0. l ki = 0, i = 1, 2, · · · , s. Ïd e1 , e2 , · · · , es
5Ã'. u´
s 6 dimK Z(K[G]). (1)
e¡5¦ Z(K[G]) Ä.

du+ê K[G] Ä´ G Ü, Ïd
a ∈ Z(K[G]) ⇐⇒ gag −1 = a, ∀g ∈ G. (2)
X
a= kx x, Ù¥ kx ∈ K. K
x∈G
X X X
gag −1 = kx gxg −1 = kg−1 yg y = kg−1 xg x. (3)
x∈G y∈G x∈G
u´
a ∈ Z(K[G]) ⇐⇒ kg−1 xg = kx , ∀g, x ∈ G. (4)
X
(4) ª¿X3 Z(K[G]) p a Lª kx x ¥, Xê kx x ¼ê3
x∈G
G zÝaþ~ê. C1 , C2 , · · · , Cr ´ G ÜÝa. -
X
ci = x, i = 1, 2, · · · , r, (5)
x∈Ci
¡ ci Ci aÚ. dþã(J, ci ∈ Z(K[G]), i = 1, 2, · · · , r. 3zÝa
Ci pL xi , K
X r
X
a= kx x ∈ Z(K[G]) ⇐⇒ a = kxi ci . (6)
x∈G i=1
w,, c1 , c2 , · · · , cr 5Ã'. Ïd c1 , c2 , · · · , cr ´ Z(K[G]) Ä. l
dimK Z(K[G]) = r. (7)
u´ s 6 r. ·y²
eã½n.
§5 k+ØdØL«êÚgê · 71 ·
½n 1 k+ G 3AØUØ |G| K þ¤kØdØL«

ê s ØL G Ýaê r.
@o, oÿâk s = r Q? du 1 = e1 + e2 + · · · + es , e1 , e2 , · · · , es ´
K[G] üü¥%. ÏdâÙ §2 ·K 2 ÚíØ 2
K[G] = K[G]e1 ⊕ K[G]e2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ K[G]es ,
P Ai = K[G]ei , i = 1, 2, · · · , s, K
K[G] = A1 ⊕ A2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ As . (8)
âÙ §3 ½n 3 ÚíØ 1 , Ai ´ü, i = 1, 2, · · · , s. Li1 ´ K[G]
4n, Li1 ⊆ Ai , K Li1 ´ Ai 4n. - Di =
HomAi (Li1 , Li1 ), P ni = dimDi (Li1 ), Kâ Wedderburen ½n
Ai = ∼ Mn (Di ), i = 1, 2, · · · , s. (9)
i
XJ K ´ê4, @o Di = K. u´ ∼
Ai ∼= Mni (K), i = 1, 2, · · · , s. (10)
Ù¥ ni = dimK (Li1 ), i = 1, 2, · · · , s. w,
Z(Mni (K)) = KIni ∼ = K, i = 1, 2, · · · , s. (11)
du Ai Aj = {0}(i 6= j), Ïdl (8) ªN´Ñ
Z(K[G]) = Z(A1 ) ⊕ Z(A2 ) ⊕ · · · ⊕ Z(As ). (12)
l (12),(10) Ú (11) ª
Z(K[G]) ∼ = Z(Mn1 (K))+̇ Z(Mn2 (K))+̇ · · · +̇ Z(Mns (K))
∼
=K +̇K +̇ · · · +̇K . (13)
| {z }
s
Ïd dimK Z(K[G]) = s. l e1 , e2 , · · · , es ´ Z(K[G]) Ä, ¿ s = r. u´
·y²
eã½n.
½n 2 k+ G 3AØUØ |G| ê4 K þ¤kØdØ
L«êu G Ýaê, ¿ K[G] ÜüüØ¥%
´ Z(K[G]) Ä.
lÙ §4 ½n 3 á=Xe½n.
½n 3 ϕ1 , ϕ2 , · · · , ϕs ´k+ G 3AØUØ |G| ê4 K þ
¤kØdØL«, K
X s
|G| = (deg ϕi )2 . (14)
i=1

½n 3 Ñ
k+ G 3AØUØ |G| ê4 K þ¤kØd
ØL«gê^: G ¤kØdØL«gê²
Úu G .
~ 1 ¦é¡+ S3 ¤kØdØEL«.
) k¦ S3 ¤kØdØEL«ê, §u S3 Ýaê.
â [24] 1 80 1 15 K, Sn ¥ü σ1 σ2 Ý= σ1 σ2 Ó..
· 72 · 1Ù k+ØL«
Ïd S3 Ýak 3 :
{(1)}, {(12), (13), (23)}, {(123), (132)}.
u´ S3 ØdØEL«k 3 .
31Ù §5 ~ 1 ·¦Ñ
Sn (n > 3) ¤k 1 gEL«, kü: ´
ÌL« ϕ0 ; ,´ 1 gL« ϕ1 , ϕ1 róN¤ 1, rÛN¤ –1.
du 6 = 12 + 12 + 22 , Ïd S3 1 3 ØEL« ϕ2 ´ 2 g. âSK
1.3 1 2 KÚ1 8 K, d S3 3 Ω = {x1 , x2 , x3 } þg,^
( 3 3 gL« )
X X3

ϕ ©)Ñ 2 gØL« ϕ2 . ϕ2 L«m´ V2 = ai xi ai = 0 .

i=1 i=1
3 V2 ¥Ä: α1 = x1 − x2 , α2 = x1 − x3 .
ϕ2 ((12))α1 = x2 − x1 = −α1 , ϕ2 ((12))α2 = x2 − x3 = −α1 + α2 ;
ϕ2 ((123))α1 = x2 − x3 = −α1 + α2 , ϕ2 ((123))α2 = x2 − x1 = −α1 .
S3 d (12), (123) )¤, Ïdéu S3 Ù{ σ, ´¦Ñ ϕ2 (σ)α1 , ϕ2 (σ)α2 .
~ 2 ¦ 10 ¡N+ D5 = hσ, τ |σ5 = τ 2 = I, τ στ = σ−1 i ¤kØd
ØEL«.
) 1Ú, ¦ D5 ØdØEL«ê. â [24] 1 79 1 13
K, D5 Ýak 4 :
{I}, {σ, σ 4 }, {σ 2 , σ 3 }, {τ, στ, σ 2 τ, σ 3 τ, σ 4 τ }.
Ïd D5 ØdØL«k 4 .
1Ú, ¦ D5 ¤k 1 gEL«. â1Ù §5 ·K 4, k¦û+ D5 /D5′
¤k 1 gEL«, , r§J,B D5 ¤k 1 gEL«. du [D5 : hσi] = 2,
Ïd hσi ⊳ D5 , û+ D5 /hσi Abel +. u´ hσi ⊇ D5′ . du |hσi| = 5, Ïd
D5′ = hσi. u´ D5 /D5′ = D5 /hσi, ù´ 2 Ì+, §kü 1 gEL«: ´
ÌL« ϕ0 , ,´ ϕ1 : ϕ1 (τ hσi) = −1, ϕ(hσi) = 1. r ϕ0 , ϕ1 ©OJ,B D5
ü 1 gEL«: ÌL« ϕ0 , ϕ1 , Ù¥
ϕ1 (σ i ) = 1, ϕ1 (σ i τ ) = −1, i = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4.
1nÚ, ¦ D5 gêu 1 EL«. du

10 = |D5 | = 12 + 12 + 22 + 22 ,
Ïd D5 kü 2 gØEL«. D5 ´Ê>/é¡ (5) +. ±Ê>/¥
% O :, ±Ê>/^é¡¶ (τ ´'uù^é¡¶) y ¶ïá
²¡IX Oxy. x ¶, y ¶ü þ©OP¤ e1 , e2 . du

2π 2π
σ(e1 ) = cos e1 + sin e2 ,
5 5

2π 2π
σ(e2 ) = − sin e1 + cos e2 ;
5 5
τ (e1 ) = −e1 , τ (e2 ) = e2 ,
§5 k+ØdØL«êÚgê · 73 ·
Ïd σ, τ 3Ä e1 , e2 eÝ
©O
 2π 2π 
cos − sin !
 5 5  −1 0
A= , B = .
2π 2π 0 1
sin cos
5 5
Eêþ 2 5m V , V Ä α1 , α2 . ϕ2 (σ), ϕ2 (τ ) ´ V þ
5C, §3Ä α1 , α2 eÝ
©O A, B. u´ ϕ2 (σ), ϕ2 (τ ) ∈ GL (V ). -
ϕ2 (σ i τ j ) = [ϕ2 (σ)]i [ϕ2 (τ )]j , 0 6 i 6 4, j = 0, 1, K ϕ2 ´ D5 2 gEL«. w,
ϕ2 ´§¢. du D5 ´ Abel +, ÏdâSK 1.5 1 6 K, ϕ2 ´Ø.

¦ D5 , 2 gØEL« ϕ3 , |^ D5 gÓ γ:
γ : D5 → D5
σ i τ j 7→ σ 2i τ j , 0 6 i 6 4, 0 6 j 6 1,
- ϕ3 = ϕ2 γ, K ϕ3 ´ D5 2 gEL«. â1Ù §5 ·K 4 , ϕ3 ´
D5 ØEL«. e¡·5`² ϕ3 ϕ2 Ød. ϕ2 , ϕ3 3 V Ä α1 , α2 e
JøÝ
L«©OP Φ2 , Φ3 , K
 4π 4π 
cos − sin
 5 5 
Φ3 (σ) = Φ2 (σ 2 ) =  ,
4π 4π
sin cos
5 5
bX Φ3 Φ2 d, K3 2 _EÝ
S, ¦
Φ3 (σ i τ j ) = SΦ2 (σ i τ j )S −1 , 0 6 i 6 4, 0 6 j 6 1.
4π 2π
AO/, k Φ3 (σ) = SΦ2 (σ)S −1 . l tr[Φ3 (σ)] = tr[Φ2 (σ)], = 2 cos = 2 cos .
5 5
gñ. Ïd Φ3 Φ2 Ød. l ϕ3 ϕ2 Ød.
dþã, D5 ¤kØdØEL«´: ϕ0 , ϕ1 , ϕ2 , ϕ3 .
SK 2.5
1. ¦ 8 ¡N+ D4 = hσ, τ |σ 4 = τ 2 = I, τ στ = σ −1 i ¤kØdØ

EL«.
2. ¦oê+ Q = hi, j|i4 = j4 = 1, jij−1 = i−1 i ¤kØdØEL«.
(5 'uoê+Vgëw [24] 1 89 .)
3. ¦+ A4 ¤kØdØEL«.
4. G ´k+, K ÁØUØ |G| ê4. y²: XJ G k
Abel f+ H, @o G zØ K-L«gêØL [G : H].
1nÙ
+AI
k+ G 3AØUØ |G| ê4 K þ¤kØdØL«

gê²Úu |G|, ´kù^Ã{(½k Abel + G ¤
kØdØL«gê, IUY&¢ G ØL«gêÙ¦^
. k Abel + G K-L«´ÄØkvk{üO{? G ü
ØL«´Ädkvk{üO{? + G n Ý
L« Φ r G ¥
z g N¤ n Ý
Φ(g), n Ý
¹k n2 , ÏdE+ G n Ý
L«´(J. UØUl n Ý
Φ(g) pJåþ&E, §éu)û
þã¯KU
å'^, ¿3¢SA^¥¦^§Ò
, Ø7¦Ñ n Ý
Φ(g), ∀g ∈ G. ùÙÒ5&?ù
¯K. Ù?ØL«Ñ´k.
§1 +AI½ÂÚÄ5
·, + G 3 K þüÝ
L« Φ Ú Ψ d=§kÓ
gê, ¿3 K þ_Ý
S, ¦
Ψ (g) = SΦ(g)S −1 , ∀g ∈ G.
l Ψ (g) Φ(g) q, ∀g ∈ G. du·3ïÄ+ G 3 K þ5L«½
Ý
L«¢SþÑ´3ïÄL«da, Ïd·l Φ(g) pJ&EA
´3q'XeØCþ. ·, n Ý
!,!1ª!Aõª!A
!õªÑ´qØCþ. 3ù
qØCþ¥N´¦Ñ´Ý

,, §´Ý
Ìéþ¤kÚ. duÝ
,´qØCþ, n 5
m V þ5C3 V ØÓÄeÝ
´q, Ïd·±r5
C A 3 V ,ÄeÝ
,¡5C A ,, P tr ( A). ³
§1 +AI½ÂÚÄ5 · 75 ·
ú, ·l+ G 3 K þ5L« (ϕ, V ) ¥J&E´5C ϕ(g) ,,

∀g ∈ G.
½Â 1 (ϕ, V ) ´+ G 3 K þ5L«, 3 G þ½Â¼ê
χϕ Xe:
χϕ (g) := tr (ϕ(g)), ∀g ∈ G, (1)
¡ χϕ ´ G L« ϕ JøAI (character).

3Eêþ?Ø+ G 5L«±¦Nõ¯KC{², 3¢SA^¥
^õ´+ G 3Eêþ5L«. Ïd·²~3Eêþ?Ø+ G
L«. XJk'(Øé?¿Ñ¤á, @o·Ò3? K þ?1?Ø.
(ϕ, V ) ´+ G K-L«, χϕ ´ ϕ JøAI. Äk¯´: ϕ
gêXÛÂI χϕ 5x? r G ü P 1, K ü P 1, ù
lþe©±«©Ñ5. ·k
χϕ (1) = tr (ϕ(1)) = tr (1V ) = ( dimK V )1 = ( deg ϕ)1. (2)
u´·y²
eã·K.
·K 1 ϕ ´+ G K-L«, K χϕ (1) = ( deg ϕ)1.
l·K 1 Ñ, e K A 0, K χϕ (1) û½
L« ϕ gê. AO/, +
G EL« ϕ gêu χϕ (1).
8 ·r G L« ϕ gê¡AI χϕ gê.
duÝ
,´qØCþ, Ïdkeã·K.
·K 2 χ ´+ G K-L« ϕ JøAI, Kéu? a ∈ G, k
χ(gag −1 ) = χ(a), ∀g ∈ G, (3)
= χ 3 G ÓÝaþ¼ê.
y² χ(gag −1 ) = tr [ϕ(gag −1 )] = tr [ϕ(g)ϕ(a)ϕ(g)−1 ]
= tr [ϕ(a)] = χ(a), ∀g ∈ G.
½Â 2 + G þ K-¼ê f XJéu? a ∈ G, k
f (gag −1 ) = f (a), ∀g ∈ G,
@o¡ f ´ G þa¼ê.
+ G ? K-L«JøAIÑ´ G þa¼ê.
+ G ¤ka¼ê|¤8ÜP CfK (G), ý§´5m K G
fm, ´ K G f. ¡ CfK (G) ´ G a¼ê.
·K 3 (ϕ, V ) Ú (ψ, W ) Ñ´+ G K-L«, XJ ϕ ≈ ψ, @o χϕ = χψ .
y² e ϕ ≈ ψ, K§©OJøÝ
L« Φ Ψ d. u´3 K þ
_Ý
S, ¦
Ψ (g) = SΦ(g)s−1 , ∀g ∈ G.
l
χψ (g) = tr [Ψ (g)] = tr [Φ(g)] = χϕ (g), ∀g ∈ G.
Ïd χψ = χϕ .
· 76 · 1nÙ +AI
l·K 3 Ñ, e χϕ 6= χψ , K ϕ 6≈ ψ. ùÑ

½+ G ü K-L«Ø
d{. ?Ú¯: e χϕ = χψ , ´Äk ϕ ≈ ψ? ù¯K §2 5)û.
+ G 3 K þÌL« ϕ0 JøAI¡ G ÌAI, P χ0 . du
G ÌL« ϕ0 ´ 1 g²L«, Ïdéu?¿ g ∈ G, k
χ0 (g) = tr (ϕ0 (g)) = 1. (4)
+ G ÌL«P 1G , du 1G (g) = 1, ∀g ∈ G, Ïd G ÌL« 1G Jø
AI χ0 1G .
+ G 3 K þØL«JøAI¡ØAI.
k+ G 3 K þKL« ρ JøAI χρ ko5? d·K 1 á
=
χρ (1) = ( deg ρ)1 = dim(K[G])1 = |G|1. (5)
g 6= 1 , éu?¿ x ∈ G k ρ(g)x = gx 6= x. Ïd5C ρ(g) 3 K[G]

Ä (= G Ü) eÝ
, ÙÌéÑ´ 0. l k
χρ (g) = 0, g 6= 1. (6)
·K 4 (ϕ, V ) ´+ G K-L«, e ϕ = ϕU ⊕ ϕW , K χϕ = χϕU + χϕW .
y² 3 U, W ¥©OÄ, Üå5¤ V Ä. ϕ, ϕU , ϕW 3AÄ
eJøÝ
L« Φ, ΦU , ΦW keã'X: !
ΦU (g) 0
Φ(g) = , ∀g ∈ G.
0 ΦW (g)
Ïdéu?¿ g ∈ G, k
χϕ (g) = tr [Φ(g)] = tr [ΦU (g)] + tr [ΦW (g)]
= χϕU (g) + χϕW (g) = (χϕU + χϕW )(g),
l χϕ = χϕ U + χϕ W .
aq/, y²eã·K.
·K 5 (ϕ1 , V1 ) Ú (ϕ2 , V2 ) ´+ G ü K-L«, K
χϕ1 +̇ϕ2 = χϕ1 + χϕ2 .
·K 4 Ú·K 5 Ñ±í2kõL«Ú/.
l·K 5 wÑ, + G ?¿üAIÚE´ G AI. ?Úí2
: + G kõAIÚE´ G AI.
k+ G ¤kúê¡ G ê. k+ G ê
m, G EL« (ϕ, V ) JøAIP χ. Á¯: éu?¿ g ∈ G, χ(g) ´
oEê? du χ(g) = tr (ϕ(g)), tr (ϕ(g)) u ϕ(g) Aõª f (λ)
¤kEÚ (ëw [28] 1 73 ~ 16), ÏdIN f (λ) Eóf?
ùIN5C ϕ(g) ko5. du G ê m, Ïd g m = 1. l
k ϕ(g)m = 1V . u´ λm − 1 ´ ϕ(g) "zõª. λm − 1 ¤kE
2π
1, ξ, ξ 2 , · · · , ξ m−1 , Ù¥ ξ = e i m . du ϕ(g) õª m(λ)|λm − 1, Ïd m(λ)
EÑ´ m gü . du m(λ) f (λ) kÓE (ê±ØÓ), Ïd
§1 +AI½ÂÚÄ5 · 77 ·
f (λ) EÑ´ m gü . l χ(g) u m gü Ú. u´·y²

e
ã·K.
·K 6 k+ G ê m, G ?EL« ϕ JøAIP χ, K
χ(g) u m gü Ú, ∀g ∈ G.
e¡?Ø χ(g −1 ) χ(g) ko'X. deg ϕ = n, ϕ(g) n AP
λ1 , λ2 , · · · , λn , K ϕ(g)−1 n A λ−1 −1 −1
1 , λ2 , · · · , λn . l·K 6 y²L§
, λi ´ m gü . Ïd |λi | = 1. l λ−1 i = λi , i = 1, 2 · · · , n. Ïd
Xn
χ(g −1 ) = tr (ϕ(g −1 )) = tr (ϕ(g)−1 ) = λ−1
i
i=1
n
X
= λi = χ(g).
i=1
u´·y²
eã·K.
·K 7 χ ´k+ G EL« ϕ JøAI, K
χ(g −1 ) = χ(g), ∀g ∈ G. (7)
e¡?Ø |χ(g)| ko5 . éu?¿ g ∈ G, k
Xn X n n
X

|χ(g)| = λi 6 |λi | = 1 = n = χ(1). (8)

i=1 i=1 i=1
oÿ (8) ªÒQ? N´, e ϕ(g) ´ê¦C c1V , K c ´ ϕ(g) A
. l c ´ m gü . u´
|χ(g)| = | tr (ϕ(g))| = | tr (c1V )| = |nc| = n = χ(1).
, |χ(g)| = χ(1), Kd (8) ª
Xn X n

λi = |λi |. (9)

i=1 i=1
·, Eê8 C E²¡þ¤k½ þ|¤8Ü V mkéA,
§´¢5m C V 5N, l §´ C V ÓN. ·q
, éu a, b ∈ V , a 6= 0, |a + b| = |a| + |b| ¿©7^3K¢
ê r, ¦ b = ra. u´éu m gü λ1 , λ2 , l |λ1 + λ2 | = |λ1 | + |λ2 | ±íÑ
n−1
n−1
X X

λ1 = λ2 . bl λi = |λi | ±íÑ λ1 = λ2 = · · · = λn−1 . ·5w n

i=1 i=1
m gü λ1 , λ2 , · · · , λn / . n−1
(9) ª¤á
! , K
X n Xn X n−1
X
|λi | = λi = λi + λn 6 λi + |λn |.

i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1
u´k n−1 n−1
n−1
X X X

|λi | 6 λi 6 |λi |.

i=1 i=1 i=1

n−1
X n−1
X
l k |λi | = λi . d8Bb λ1 = λ2 = · · · = λn−1 . u´l (9) ª

i=1 i=1
|(n − 1)λ1 + λn | = |(n − 1)λ1 | + |λn |. (10)
· 78 · 1nÙ +AI
l 3K¢ê r, ¦ (n − 1)λ1 = rλn . ü>, r = n − 1. Ïd

λ1 = λn . u´ λ1 = λ2 = · · · = λn−1 = λn . l ϕ(g) ÜA´ λ1 (n ). u
´ m(λ) ÜE´ λ1 (êØL n). du m(λ)|λm − 1, λm − 1 vk.
Ïd m(λ) vk. l m(λ) = λ − λ1 . ddÑ, ϕ(g) = λ1 1V . u´·y²
eã·K.
·K 8 k+ G ê m, χ ´ G n gEL« (ϕ, V ) JøAI,
Kéu?¿ g ∈ G, k |χ(g)| 6 χ(1), ¿Ò¤á= ϕ(g) = c1V , Ù¥ c ´
m gü .
oÿ χ(g) = χ(1)? w, ϕ(g) = 1V , k
χ(g) = tr (ϕ(g)) = tr (1V ) = deg ϕ = χ(1).
, e χ(g) = χ(1), K |χ(g)| = χ(1). â·K 8 ϕ(g) = c1V , Ù¥ c ´ m gü
. du
n = χ(1) = χ(g) = tr (ϕ(g)) = tr (c1V ) = nc,
Ïd c = 1. l ϕ(g) = 1V . u´·y²
eã·K.
·K 9 χ ´k+ G EL« (ϕ, V ) JøAI, K χ(g) = χ(1)
= ϕ(g) = 1V .
χ ´+ G K-L« (ϕ, V ) JøAI, r ϕ“5/” *¿¤+ê K[G]
5L« ϕ∗ . 3 K[G] þ½Â¼ê χ∗ Xe:
χ∗ (a) := tr (ϕ∗ (a)), ∀a ∈ K[G]. (11)
∗ ∗
¡ χ ´ K[G] 5L« (ϕ , V ) JøAI (½ K[G]- V JøAI).
X
éu?¿ a = ag g ∈ K[G], k
g∈G
 
X X
χ∗ (a) = tr (ϕ∗ (a)) = tr  ag ϕ(g) = ag tr (ϕ(g))
g∈G g∈G
X
= ag χ(g). (12)
g∈G
Ïd χ∗ ±w¤´d χ “5/” *¿, l (12) ªá=
χ∗ (g) = χ(g), ∀g ∈ G. (13)
∗
Ïd χ ±w¤´ χ 3 G þ.
d ϕ∗ ´ K[G] HomK (V, V ) êÓ, ±95C,5N´í
Ñ:
χ∗ (a + b) = χ∗ (a) + χ∗ (b), ∀a, b ∈ K[G];
χ∗ (ka) = kχ∗ (a), ∀k ∈ K, a ∈ K[G].
du+ G K-L« (ϕ, V ) (ψ, W ) d= K[G]- V W Ó
, Ïdâ!·K 3 Xe·K.
·K 10 G ´+, XJ K[G]- V W Ó, @o§JøAI
.
§2 ØAI'X9ÙA^ · 79 ·
aqu·K 4 9Ùí2, Ný²keã·K.

·K 11 G ´+, XJ K[G]- M ´§f M1 , M2 , · · · , Ms Ú,
@o M JøAIu Mi (1 6 i 6 s) JøAIÚ.
SK 3.1
1. G ´k+, K AØUØ |G|. ϕ1 , ϕ2 , · · · , ϕs ´ G ¤kØ

dØ K-L«, y²:
s
\
Ker ϕi = {1}.
i=1
2. χ ´k+ G ? K-L« ϕ JøAI, ½Â

Ker χ := {g ∈ G|χ(g) = χ(1)}.
K Eê, y²:
(1) Ker χ = Ker ϕ;
(2) χ1 , χ2 , · · · , χs ´ G ¤kØdØEL« ϕi JøAI, K
s
\
Ker χi = {1}.
i=1
3. χ ´k+ G n gEL« (ϕ, V ) JøAI, ½Â

Z(χ) := {g ∈ G|χ(g)| = χ(1)},
¡ Z(χ) ´ χ ¥%. y²:
(1) Z(χ) ´ G 5f+, Ker ϕ ⊆ Z(χ);
(2) g ∈ Z(χ) =⇒ g Ker ϕ ∈ Z(G/ Ker ϕ);
(3) Z(χ)/ Ker ϕ ⊆ Z(G/ Ker ϕ), Z(χ)/ Ker ϕ ´Ì+;
(4) χ(1) = 1 =⇒ Z(χ) = G.
4. χ ´k+ G ?ØEL« (ϕ, V ) JøAI, y²:
(1) g ∈ Z(χ) ⇐⇒ g Ker ϕ ∈ Z(G/ Ker ϕ);
(2) Z(G) ⊆ Z(χ);
(3) Z(χ)/ Ker ϕ = Z(G/ Ker ϕ), Z(G/ Ker ϕ) ´Ì+;
(4) χ(1) = 1 ⇐⇒ Z(χ) = G;
\s
(5) Z(G) = Z(χi ), Ù¥ χ1 , χ2 , · · · , χs ´ G ¤kØdØEL«
i=1
ϕ1 , ϕ2 , · · · , ϕs JøAI.
§2 ØAI'X9ÙA^
G ´k+, K ÁØUØ |G| . ·5ïÄ G Ø K-A

Im'X. du G Ø K-L«du G KL« ρ §ØfL
· 80 · 1nÙ +AI
«Ú©)ª¥,ØfL«, Ïd·l G KL« ρ Ú©)ª

XÃ, dÄK K[G]- K[G] §ØfÚ©)ª:
K[G] = L11 ⊕ · · · ⊕ L1m1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Ls1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Lsms , (1)
∼
Ù¥, Lij = Lkt = i = k. -
Ai = Li1 ⊕ Li2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Limi , i = 1, 2, · · · , s, (2)
K
K[G] = A1 ⊕ A2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ As , (3)
l
1 = e1 + e2 + · · · + es , ei ∈ Ai , i = 1, 2, · · · , s; (4)
¿ Ai = K[G]ei , ei ´ Ai ü , i = 1, 2, · · · , s; e1 , e2 , · · · , es ´ K[G] Ü

¥%. -
Di = HomAi (Li1 , Li1 ), ni = dimDi Li1 , i = 1, 2, · · · , s. (5)
â1Ù §4 íØ 1, mi = ni , i = 1, 2, · · · , s.
G ØdØ K-L«êu K[G] ¥%ê s.
ϕ1 , ϕ2 , · · · , ϕs ´ G ÜØdØ K-L«, §JøAI©O
χ1 , χ2 , · · · , χs . du ϕi du G KL« ρ Ú©)ª¥,ØfL
«, ÏdØ ϕi ´ Li1 Jø G L«, ϕ∗i ´ Li1 Jø+ê K[G] L«,
i = 1, 2, · · · , s. ϕ∗i JøAIP χ∗i , χ∗i ±w¤´d χi “5/” *¿,
i = 1, 2, · · · , s. K K[G]- K[G] JøAIP χ∗ , G KL« ρ Jø
AIP χ. χ∗ w¤´d χ “5/” *¿. d (1) ªÚÙ §1 ·K
10 !·K 11
χ∗ = n1 χ∗1 + n2 χ∗2 + · · · + ns χ∗s . (6)

ïÄ G Ø K-AI χi χj 'X, ·I “xù”. l
K K[G]- K[G] Ú©)ª¥w: ¥% ei (i = 1, 2, · · · , s) åX
^. ei ´ Ai ü (i = 1, 2, · · · , s); K[G] ¥%êu G
ØdØ K-L«ê. Ïd·Äk5¦Ñ ei Lª.
X
ei = ky y, (7)
y∈G
Ù¥ ky ∈ K, 3 (7) ª¥k |G| Xê ky (y ∈ G) ½. dIk |G| §âU
¦Ñ§. u´? g ∈ G, ^ g ¦ (7) ªü>,
X X X
gei = ky (gy) = kg−1 x x = kg−1 y y. (8)
y∈G x∈G y∈G
l
X
χ∗ (gei ) = kg−1 y χ(y). (9)
y∈G
du χ ´ G KL« ρ JøAI, Ïd (9) ª¤

χ∗ (gei ) = kg−1 χ(1), (10)
§2 ØAI'X9ÙA^ · 81 ·

¦Ñ kg−1 , Ik¦Ñ χ∗ (gei ). d (6) ª
s
X
χ∗ (gei ) = nj χ∗j (gei ). (11)
j=1
u´8(¦ χ∗j (gei ),
χ∗j (gei ) = tr (ϕ∗j (gei )).
dïÄ5C ϕ∗j (gei ) óC. ϕ∗j L«m´ Lj1 , u´ ϕ∗j (gei ) ´ Lj1
þ5C. ? x ∈ Lj1 , j 6= i , du gei ∈ Ai , x ∈ Aj , Ai Aj = {0}, Ï
d
ϕ∗j (gei )x = (gei )x = 0.
l ϕ∗j (gei ) ´ Lj1 þ"C. u´

χ∗j (gei ) = 0, j 6= i. (12)
j = i , du x ∈ Li1 ⊆ Ai , ei ´ Ai ü , Ïd
ϕ∗i (gei )x = (gei )x = g(ei x) = gx = ϕi (g)x.
ddÑ, ϕ∗i (gei ) = ϕi (g). l
χ∗i (gei ) = χi (g). (13)
d (12) !(13) Ú (11) ª
χ∗j (gei ) = δij χi (g), (14)
∗
χ (gei ) = ni χi (g). (15)
d (15) Ú (10) ª
ni χi (g)
kg−1 = , ∀g ∈ G. (16)
χ(1)
u´d (7) ª
ni X
ei = χi (g −1 )g. (17)
χ(1)
g∈G
K Eê, χ(1) = deg ρ = dimK K[G] = |G|, ni = deg ϕi = χi (1), u

´ (17) ª¤
χi (1) X
ei = χi (g)g. (18)
|G|
g∈G
nþ¤ã, ·y²
eãÚn.
Ún 1 G ´k+, K AØUØ |G|, e1 , e2 , · · · , es ´ K[G]
Ü¥%, ϕ1 , ϕ2 , · · · , ϕs ´ G ÜØdØ K-L«, ϕi J
øAI χi , ϕi 3 G KL« ρ ØfL«Ú©)ª¥ê
ni , i = 1, 2, · · · , s; ρ JøAI χ. χi (i = 1, 2, · · · , s), χ “5/” *¿¤+ê
K[G] AI©O χ∗i (i = 1, 2, · · · , s), χ∗ , K
χ∗j (gei ) = δij χi (g), ∀g ∈ G, (19)
ni X
ei = χi (g −1 )g. (20)
χ(1)
g∈G
· 82 · 1nÙ +AI
K Eê,
xi (1) X
ei = χi (g)g. (21)
|G|
g∈G

dÚn 1 Ñeã½n.
½n 1 (1'X) G ´k+, ϕ1 , ϕ2 , · · · , ϕs ´ G ÜØd
ØEL«, ϕi JøA¡ χi , i = 1, 2, · · · , s, K
1 X
χi (g)χj (g) = δij . (22)
|G|
g∈G
y² e1 , e2 , · · · , es ´+ê C[G] Ü¥%. d (21) ª
χi (1) X
χ∗j (ei ) = χi (g)χj (g). (23)
|G|
g∈G
d (19) ª
χ∗j (ei ) = δij χi (1). (24)
d (23) Ú (24) ª
1 X
χi (g)χj (g) = δij .
|G|
g∈G
(22) ªà¦·éå½Âk8 Ω ¤kE¼ê|¤E5

m CΩ þSÈ (ëw [28] 1 746 ~ 94). ddÉéu, 3½Âk
+ G ¤kE¼ê|¤E5m CG þ½Â
1 X
(ξ, η) := ξ(g)η(g), ∀ξ, η ∈ CG . (25)
|G|
g∈G
ýùÉ5m C þSÈ. éuùSÈ CG ¤jm. k
G
+ G ØEAI1'X±¤
(χi , χj ) = δij . (26)
G
ùL² χ1 , χ2 , · · · , χs ´jm C ü þ|. du3jm¥, dü
ü"þ|¤þ|´5Ã', Ïd χ1 , χ2 , · · · , χs üüØ. (Ü
Ù §1 ·K 3 BÑ: k+ G ØEAI½ö, ½ö.
k+ G AI´ G þa¼ê. u´·5Ä G þEa¼ê|¤
8Ü Cf C (G), §É5m CG fm, ? ´jm CG f
m, ¡ Cf C (G) ´ G þEa¼êm. @o, G ¤kØØEA
I χ1 , χ2 , · · · , χs 3 Cf C (G) ¥åXo^? du G ØdØEL
«êu G Ýaê, Ïd G k s Ýa: C1 , C2 , · · · , Cs . 3z
Ýa Ci ¥L gi , i = 1, 2, · · · , s, K G þEa¼ê f s
kSEê| (f (g1 ), f (g2 ), · · · , f (gs )) û½. uŃ
σ : Cf C (G) → Cs
f 7→ (f (g1 ), f (g2 , · · · , f (gs )))
§2 ØAI'X9ÙA^ · 83 ·
´V, σ ±\{Úêþ¦{, Ïd σ É5m Cf C (G) Cs Ó

. l Cf C (G) ∼
= Cs . u´
dimCf C (G) = dim Cs = s.
Ïdü þ| χ1 , χ2 , · · · , χs ´jm Cf C (G) IOÄ. ùy²
eã½n.
½n 2 k+ G ¤kØØEAI χ1 , χ2 , · · · , χs ´ G þE
a¼êm Cf C (G) IOÄ.
½n 2 rk+ G þEa¼êm Cf C (G) (tÙ
. ù¦
k' G EAI¯K±|^ χ1 , χ2 , · · · , χs ´ Cf C (G) IOÄ¼
Ú)û{.
ϕ ´k+ G ?EL«, ϕ JøAI χϕ ´ G þEa¼ê. u
´
xϕ = (χϕ , χ1 )χ1 + (χϕ , χ2 )χ2 + · · · + (χϕ , χs )χs . (27)
ϕ ≈ a1 ϕ1 +̇a2 ϕ2 +̇ · · · +̇as ϕs , K
χϕ = a 1 χ1 + a 2 χ2 + · · · + a s χs . (28)
d (27) Ú (28) ª
ai = (χϕ , χi ), i = 1, 2, · · · , s. (29)
u´·y²
eã·K.
·K 1 ϕ1 , ϕ2 , · · · , ϕs ´k+ G ¤kØdØEL«, §J
øAI©O χ1 , χ2 , · · · , χs , Kéu G ?EL« ϕ, ØL« ϕi 3 ϕ
¥ê (= ϕ ØfL«Ú©)ª¥ ϕi dfL«ê) u
(χϕ , χi ).
d·K 1 ÚÙ §1 ·K 3 á=XeíØ.
íØ 1 ϕ Ú ψ ´k+ G üEL«, K ϕ ψ d= χϕ = χψ .
y² 75dÙ §1 ·K 3 .
¿©5. â·K 1
ϕ ≈ (χϕ , χ1 )ϕ1 +̇(χϕ , χ2 )ϕ2 +̇ · · · +̇(χϕ , χs )ϕs , (30)
ψ ≈ (χψ , χ1 )ϕ1 +̇(χψ , χ2 )ϕ2 +̇ · · · +̇(χψ , χs )ϕs . (31)
du χϕ = χψ , Ïdl (30) Ú (31) ª, ϕ ≈ ψ.
íØ 1 L²: k+ G EAIû½
EL«da. ½ G üE
L« ϕ Ú ψ ´Äd, O§JøAI, e χϕ 6= χψ , K ϕ ψ Ø
d; e χϕ = χψ , K ϕ ψ d.
éu¦±°:. ±y²: K Á 0 , Kk+ G
ü K-L«d=§JøAI. ·ry²3! ¡
Öáp.
l1'X, k+ G ØEL« ϕi JøAI χi ÷v
(χi , χi ) = 1. , e G EL« ϕ JøAI χϕ ÷v (χϕ , χϕ ) = 1, ϕ ´ÄØ
· 84 · 1nÙ +AI
? ϕ1 , ϕ2 , · · · , ϕs ´ G ¤kØdØEL«,
ϕ ≈ a1 ϕ1 +̇a2 ϕ2 +̇ · · · +̇as ϕs , (32)
K
χϕ = a 1 χ1 + a 2 χ2 + · · · + a s χs . (33)
3jm Cf C (G) ¥, |^þ3IOÄ χ1 , χ2 , · · · , χs eI±{B/O

SÈ:
(χϕ , χϕ ) = a1 a1 + a2 a2 + · · · + as as = |a1 |2 + |a2 |2 + · · · + |as |2 .
du a1 , a2 , · · · , as Ñ´Kê, Ïdl (χϕ , χϕ ) = 1 ±íÑ: 3 j ∈
{1, 2, · · · , s}, ¦ aj = 1, Ù{ ai = 0. u´ ϕ ≈ ϕj . ¤± ϕ Ø. ù·y
²
eã½n.
½n 3 ϕ ´k+ G EL«, K ϕ Ø= (χϕ , χϕ ) = 1.
½n 3 Ñ
½k+ G EL«´ÄØ{B{.
gi ´k+ G Ýa Ci L, i = 1, 2, · · · , s, K1'X
±¤
s
1 X
|Cl |χi (gl )χj (gl ) = δij . (34)
|G|
l=1
·rk+ G ¤kØØEAI χ1 , χ2 , · · · , χs 3zÝa

Lþ¼êü¤Ý
 W: 
χ1 (g1 ) χ1 (g2 ) · · · χ1 (gs )
 
 χ2 (g1 ) χ2 (g2 ) · · · χ2 (gs ) 
 
W = . .. ..  ,
 .. . . 
 
χs (g1 ) χs (g2 ) · · · χs (gs )
¡ W ´ G EAIL. Ï~½ W 11´ G ÌAI χ1 3 g1 , g2 , · · · , gs
þ¼ê, §´ 1; W 1´ χi 3 G ü g1 þ¼ê, §
´ù
ØAIgê. duN
σ : f 7→ (f (g1 ), f (g2 ), · · · , f (gs ))
É5m Cf C (G) Cs Ó, Ïdl χ1 , χ2 , · · · , χs ´ Cf C (G)
ÄÑ: W 1þ|´5Ã'. l W ´ s _EÝ
.
′
l1'X (34) ªÉéu, Ä W ∗ = W , ¿-
D = diag {|C1 |, |C2 |, · · · , |Cs |},
Kd (34) ª
s
X
(W DW ∗ )(i; j) = χi (gl )|Cl |χj (gl ) = δij |G|. (35)
l=1
l
W DW ∗ = |G|I, (36)
§2 ØAI'X9ÙA^ · 85 ·
1
u´ (W D)−1 = W ∗ . ddÑ
|G|
1
W ∗ (W D) = I. (37)
|G|
O (37) ªmü>Ý
(i, j) ,
s
1 X
χl (gi )χl (gj )|Cj | = δij . (38)
|G|
l=1
u´·y²
eã½n.
½n 4 (1'X) χ1 , χ2 , · · · , χs ´k+ G ¤kØØ
EAI, Ù¥ χ1 ´ÌAI; gi ´ G Ýa Ci L, i = 1, 2, · · · , s, Ù
¥ g1 ´ G ü , K
s
1 X
|Cj |χl (gj )χl (gi ) = δij . (39)
|G|
l=1

i 6= j , l1'X (39) ª
Xs
χl (gj )χl (gi ) = 0. (40)
l=1
(40) ªL²: G EAIL W ?¿ØÓüUì Cs IOSÈ´.
AO/, W 1 j (2 6 j 6 s) Ñ1 1 .
i 6= j , l1'X (34) ª
Xs
|Cl |χi (gl )χj (gl ) = 0. (41)
l=1
(41) ªL²: W ?¿ØÓü1Uì Cs IOSÈ´Ø, AT3z
¥¦AÝaê , ÙÚâ¬u 0.
k+ G ¤kØEAI|¤8ÜP Irr (G). éu G ØE
AI χ, r χ“5/” *¿¤+ê C[G] AI, EP χ, K1'X
¤
1 X
|Cj |χ(gj )χ(gi ) = δij . (42)
|G|
χ∈ Irr (G)
1'XA^ , ·^k+ G ØEAI5L«+

X
ê C[G] ¥? A = ag g ¤kXê ag (g ∈ G).
g∈G
X

¦Ñ A = ag g ¤kXê ag (g ∈ G). I |G| §. d? g ∈ G,
g∈G
X
−1
^g m¦ A = ah h ü>,
h∈G
X X
Ag −1 = ah (hg −1 ) = ayg y. (43)
h∈G y∈G
u´éu?¿ χ ∈ Irr (G), k
X
χ(Ag −1 ) = ayg χ(y). (44)
y∈G
· 86 · 1nÙ +AI

¦ÑXê ag , |^1'X,
 
X X X
χ(Ag −1 )χ(1) =  ayg χ(y) χ(1)
χ∈ Irr (G) χ∈ Irr (G) y∈G
X X X
= ayg χ(y)χ(1) = ag χ(1)χ(1)
y∈G χ∈ Irr (G) χ∈ Irr (G)
= ag |G|. (45)
l (45) ªÑ
1 X
ag = χ(Ag −1 )χ(1).
|G|
χ∈ Irr (G)
u´·y²
eã½n. X
½n 5 (üúª) G ´k+, G ü P 1. A = ag g ∈
g∈G
C[G], K
1 X
ag = χ(Ag −1 )χ(1), ∀g ∈ G. (46)
|G|
χ∈ Irr (G)

éu½n 5, ±|^k+ G KEL« ρ JøAI χρ 5¦Ñ
ag (g ∈ G): l (43) ª
X
χ∗ρ (Ag −1 ) = ayg χρ (y) = ag χρ (1) = ag |G|.
y∈G
X
du χ∗ρ = χ(1)χ, Ïd
χ∈ Irr (G)
1 ∗ 1 X
ag = χρ (Ag −1 ) = χ(1)χ(Ag −1 ).
|G| |G|
χ∈ Irr
G ´k Abel +, G ØEL«Ñ´ 1 g. l ±r G Ø

b Ïd G
EL« ϕi §JøAI χi Ó. u´ Irr (G) = G. b ¡k Abel
+ G EAI+. éu χ ∈ G,b k
χ(Ag −1 ) = χ(A)χ(g −1 ) = χ(A)χ(g), ∀g ∈ G.
u´üúª (46) ±¤
1 X
ag = χ(A)x(g), ∀g ∈ G.
|G|
b
χ∈G
Ïdkeã(Ø. X
íØ 2 (Abel +üúª) G ´k Abel +, A = ag g ∈ C[G], K
g∈G
1 X
ag = χ(A)χ(g), ∀g ∈ G. (47)
|G|
b
χ∈G
b k χ(A) = χ(B), @o A = B.
l XJ A, B ∈ C[G] ¦é χ ∈ G
§2 ØAI'X9ÙA^ · 87 ·
íØ 2 Ñ
½+ê C[G] ¥ü´Ä{B{. ríØ 2 ¥
X
A= ag g (47) ª'±¬Ñüúª¥ “ü” ¹Â.
g∈G
éuk Abel + G, zÝa¹, Ïd Cf C (G) = CG . u´d
½n 2 á=XeíØ.
íØ 3 n Abel + G n 1 gEAI χ1 , χ2 , · · · , χn ´jm CG
IOÄ. l G þ?E¼ê f ±L«¤
Xn
f= (f, χi )χi , (48)
i=1
(48) ª¡¼ê f Fourier Ðm, (f, χi )(i = 1, 2, · · · , n) ¡ f Fourier Xê.
b = {χg |g ∈ G}, Ïd (48) ª±¤
du G
X
f= (f, χg )χg . (49)
g∈G
-
p
fb(g) = |G|(f, χg ), ∀g ∈ G, (50)
K
1 X
fb(g) = p f (x)χg (x), ∀g ∈ G. (51)
|G| x∈G
d (51) ª±Ñ CG gN:

τ : CG → CG
f 7→ fb, (52)
¡ τ ´Äuk Abel + G Fourier C (½ Hadamard C).
l (49) ªÚ (50) ª
1 X b
f (x) = p f (g)χg (x), ∀x ∈ G. (53)
|G| g∈G
r (51) ªÚ (53) ª', ¬Ñ fb f mS3éX.
w,, τ ±\{Úêþ¦{, Ïd τ É5m CG þ5C. d
u CG ∼
= C|G| , Ïd dim CG = |G|. ? f1 , f2 ∈ CG , k
1 X b
(fb1 , fb2 ) = f1 (g)fb2 (g)
|G|
g∈G
" # 
1 X 1 X 1 X
= p f1 (x)χg (x)  p f2 (y)χg (y)
|G| |G| x∈G |G| y∈G
g∈G
 
1 XX 1 X
= f1 (x)f2 (y)  χg (y)χg (x)
|G| |G|
x∈G y∈G g∈G
1 X
= f1 (x)f2 (x)
|G|
x∈G
= (f1 , f2 ). (54)
· 88 · 1nÙ +AI
Ïd τ ±SÈ. l τ ´jm CG þjC. u´ τ ´_,

τ −1 (fb) = f . ù·y²
eã·K.
·K 2 G ´k Abel +, KÄu G Fourier C τ : f 7→ fb ´jm
CG þjC, Ù¥ fb d (51) ª½Â, τ −1 (fb) = f ; ¿keãª¤á:
X X
fb1 (g)fb2 (g) = f1 (x)f2 (x), (55)
g∈G x∈G
(55) ª¡ Parseval ª.
k Abel +þ Fourier C3|ÜO!èÆÚyÏ&+¥kNõ
A^.
~ 1 ¦¡N+ D5 = hσ, τ |σ5 = τ 2 = I, τ στ = σ−1 i EAIL.
) ·31Ù §5 ~ 2 ®¦Ñ
D5 ¤kØdØEL«. u
´±á=Ñ D5 EAILXe:
I σ σ2 τ
 
χ0 1 1 1 1
 
 
χ1 
1 1 1 −1 

 
 2π 4π .
χ2 
2 2 cos 2 cos 0 
 5 5 
 4π 8π 
χ3 2 2 cos 2 cos 0
5 5
2π 4π 2π
e¡r cos Ú cos OÑ5. - ξ = e i 5 , K
5 5
0 = 1 + ξ + ξ 2 + ξ 3 + ξ 4 = 1 + (ξ + ξ) + (ξ 2 + ξ 2 )
2π 4π
= 1 + 2 cos + 2 cos .
5 5
2π 4π 2π
P x = cos , K cos = 2 cos2 − 1 = 2x2 − 1. u´
5 5 5
1 + 2x + 2(2x2 − 1) = 0,
)
√
−1 + 5
x= .
4
u´ √ √ √
2π −1 + 5 4π −1 − 5 8π 2π −1 + 5
cos = , cos = , cos = cos = .
5 4 5 4 5 5 4
5 3~ 1 ¥, ·±k¦Ñ D5 ü 1 gEL«ÚlAÛ½Â (D5 ´
Ê>/é¡ (5) +) ¦Ñ 2 gØEL«, Ñ D5 EAILcn
1, 1o1±ÏL1 2, 3, 4 þ1 1 é¯¦Ñ, Ø7¦ D5 ,
2 gØEL«.
·, |^+ G 3 n 8Ü Ω þ^, ±E G 3? K þ
n gL«.
§2 ØAI'X9ÙA^ · 89 ·
+ G 38Ü Ω þ^¡D4, XJéu?¿ x, y ∈ Ω , Ñk G ¥

g, ¦ gx = y.
â [24] 1 72 ½Â 2 , + G 3 Ω þ^´D4= Ω 3 G
êk 1 ^;.
+ G 38Ü Ω þ^¡VD4, XJéu?¿ükSé (x1 , x2 ),
(y1 , y2 ) ∈ Ω × Ω , Ñ3 G ¥ g, ¦ gx1 = y1 , gx2 = y2 .
w,, e+ G 3 Ω þ^´VD4, K G ù^´D4; ¿é
uz x ∈ Ω , ½f+ Gx = {g ∈ G|gx = x} 3 Ω \{x} þ^´D4. l
Gx 3 Ω þ^r Ω y©¤ü^;: {x} Ú Ω \{x}.
â [24] 1 76 , keã Burnside Ún.
½n 6 (Burnside Ún) k+ G 3k8Ü Ω þk^, ^ F (g)
L« g ØÄ:8, =
F (g) := {x ∈ Ω |gx = x}, (56)
K G 3 Ω þù^;^ê r
1 X
r= |F (g)|. (57)
|G|
g∈G
·K 3 + G 38Ü Ω = {x1 , x2 , · · · , xn } þk^, dd^
G 3 K þ n gL«P ϕ, K
χϕ (g) = |F (g)| · 1, ∀g ∈ G, (58)
Ù¥ 1 ´ K ü .
y² du ϕ(g)xi = gxi , i = 1, 2, · · · ,(n, Ïdé ϕ JøÝ
L« Φ, k
1, gxi = xi ,
Φ(g) (i, i) =
0, gxi 6= xi .
u´
χϕ (g) = tr (Φ(g)) = |F (g)| · 1.
íØ 4 k+ G 3k8Ü Ω þk^, dd3Eêþ
L«P ϕ, K Ω y©¤;^ê r u (χϕ , χ0 ), Ù¥ χ0 ´ G ÌA
I, l r u G ÌL« ϕ0 3 ϕ ¥ê.
y² d Burnside ÚnÚ·K 3
1 X 1 X 1 X
r= |F (g)| = χϕ (g) = χϕ (g)χ0 (g)
|G| |G| |G|
g∈G g∈G g∈G
= (χϕ , χ0 ).
·K 4 ek+ G VD4/^3k8Ü Ω þ, K
X
|F (g)|2 = 2|G|.
g∈G
y² du Gx (x ∈ Ω ) 3 Ω \{x} þ^´D4, Ïdâ Burnside Ún

X |G|
|F1 (g)| = |Gx | = , (59)
|Ω |
g∈Gx
· 90 · 1nÙ +AI
Ù¥
F1 (g) = {y ∈ Ω \{x}|gy = y}, g ∈ Gx . (60)
w,, éu g ∈ Gx , k |F (g)| = 1 + |F1 (g)|. u´
X X |G|
|F (g)| = (1 + |F1 (g)|) = 2|Gx | = 2 . (61)
|Ω |
g∈G x g∈G x
ddÑ
X X X |G|
|F (g)| = 2 = 2|G|. (62)
|Ω |
x∈Ω g∈Gx x∈Ω
[ [
? h ∈ G, e h 6∈ Gx , K h vkØÄ:, l |F (h)| = 0. e h ∈ Gx ,
x∈Ω x∈n
du h k |F (h)| ØÄ:. Ïd h áu |F (h)| ½f+. l (62) ª>
|F (h)| Ñy
|F (h)| g, u´ (62) ª>
X X X X
|F (g)| = |F (h)|2 = |F (h)|2 .
x∈Ω g∈Gx h∈∪Gx h∈G
x∈Ω
X
dd= |F (h)|2 = 2|G|.
h∈G
½n 7 XJk+ G 3Eêþk n gVD4L« ϕ, @o ϕ
du G ÌL« ϕ0 G n − 1 gØL« ψ Ú, ¿
χψ (g) = |F (g)| − 1, ∀g ∈ G. (63)
y² ϕ ´d G 3 n 8Ü Ω = {x1 , x2 , · · · , xn } þVD4^
, ÙL«m ( n )
X

V = ki xi ki ∈ K, i = 1, 2, · · · , n .

* ni=1 + ( n )
X X Xn

- V1 = xi , V2 = ki xi ki = 0 .

i=1 i=1 i=1
ϕ 3 V1 þfL«w,´ G ÌL« ϕ0 . r ϕ 3 V2 þfL«P ψ, K
ϕ ≈ ϕ0 ⊕ ψ. l deg ψ = n − 1. du G 3 Ω þ^´VD4, Ïd
1 X 1 X 1
(χϕ , χϕ ) = χϕ (g)χϕ (g) = |F (g)|2 = 2|G| = 2.
|G| |G| |G|
g∈G g∈G
qdu χϕ = χ0 + χψ , G 3 Ω þ^;^ê r = 1, Ïd
(χψ , χψ ) = (χϕ − χ0 , χϕ − χ0 ) = (χϕ , χϕ ) − 2(χϕ , χ0 ) + (χ0 , χ0 )
= 2 − 2r + 1 = 1.
l ψ Ø,
χψ (g) = χϕ (g) − χ0 (g) = |F (g)| − 1, ∀g ∈ G.
íØ 5 n > 3 , + An k n − 1 gØEL« ψ, ¿
χψ (g) = |F (g)| − 1, ∀g ∈ An . (64)
y² ØJwÑ, n > 3 , An ´VD4+, ¿ An g,/^3 n
8Ü Ω þ. d½n 7 , An k n − 1 gØEL« ψ,
χψ (g) = |F (g)| − 1, ∀g ∈ G.
§2 ØAI'X9ÙA^ · 91 ·
Öá
½n 1 K Á 0 , Kk+ G ü K-L« ϕ ψ d

= χϕ = χψ .
y² 75dÙ §1 ·K 3 á=. e¡y¿©5. ϕ1 , ϕ2 , · · · , ϕs
´ G ¤kØdØ K-L«, §JøAI©O χ1 , χ2 , · · · , χs .
ϕ ≈ a1 ϕ1 +̇a2 ϕ2 +̇ · · · +̇as ϕs , (1)
ψ ≈ b1 ϕ1 +̇b2 ϕ2 +̇ · · · +̇bs ϕs , (2)
K
χϕ = a 1 χ1 + a 2 χ2 + · · · + a s χs . (3)
ϕ L«m V . K[G]- V Jø+ê K[G] L« ϕ∗ AIP

χ∗ϕ . χ∗ϕ ±w´d χϕ “5/” *¿. u´l (3) ª
χ∗ϕ = a1 χ∗1 + a2 χ∗2 + · · · + as χ∗s . (4)
|^Ún 1 ¥ (19) ª
χ∗ϕ (ei ) = ai χi (1), i = 1, 2, · · · , s. (5)
du K A 0, Ïd χi (1) = ( deg ϕi )1 6= 0, 1 6 i 6 s. u´l (5) ª
ai = χ∗ϕ (ei )χi (1)−1 , i = 1, 2, · · · , s. (6)
lù(ØÑ
bi = χ∗ψ (ei )χi (1)−1 , i = 1, 2, · · · , s. (7)
u´XJ χϕ = χψ , @o χ∗ϕ = χ∗ψ . l

ai = bi , i = 1, 2, · · · , s. (8)
ddÑ ϕ ≈ ψ.
l½n 1 Ñ, k+ G 3A 0 K þ5L«JøAIû½
L«da.
SK 3.2
1. ¦e+EAIL:
(1) ¡N+ D4 = hσ, τ |σ 4 = τ 2 = I, τ στ = σ −1 i;
(2) oê+ Q = hi, j|i4 = j4 = 1, jij−1 = i−1 i;
(3) + A4 ;
(4) ¡N+ D6 = hσ, τ |σ 6 = τ 2 = I, τ στ = σ −1 i.
2. G ´k+, χ1 , χ2 , · · · , χs ´ G ÜØØEAI; gi ´ G
Ýa Ci L, ci ´ Ci ¤kÚ (¡ ci aÚ), i = 1, 2, · · · , s; e1 ,
e2 , · · · , es ´+ê C[G] Ü¥%. y²:
X s
χj (gi )
ci = |Ci | ej , i = 1, 2, · · · , s.
j=1
χj (1)
· 92 · 1nÙ +AI
3. G = hai ´ n Ì+. y²: G þ?E¼ê f kXeÐmª:

n−1
X
f (ar ) = kj ξ rj , r = 0, 1, · · · , n − 1,
j=0
2π
Ù¥ ξ = e i n , Xê kj
n−1
1X
kj = f (ar )ξ −rj , j = 0, 1, · · · , n − 1.
n r=0
4. G ´k Abel +, f ´ G þE¼ê, y²: f ´~¼ê=
fb(g) = 0, ∀g ∈ G g 6= 1, Ù¥ fb ´ f 3Äu G Fourier C τ e.
5. ¦ S4 3 gØEAI.
6. ¦+ A5 4 gØEAI.
§3 ØEL«gê÷v^
k+ G ØEL«gê÷vo^? * eL¥ D4 , o

ê+ Q, D5 , A4 Ú D6 ØEL«gê+:
+ + ØEL«gê
D4 8 1,1,1,1,2
Q 8 1,1,1,1,2
D5 10 1,1,2,2
A4 12 1,1,1,3
D6 12 1,1,1,1,2,2
\uyù
+ØEL«gê+ko'X? N´wÑ: ù
+
ØEL«gêUØ+. @o, ´Äé?k+ G Ñkù5Æ?
·5&¢ù¯K. ?k+ G ØEL« ϕi , i ∈ {1, 2, · · · , s}, ϕi
s
X
JøAI χi , K ϕi gêu χi (1). ·®² |G| = χi (1)2 , ´l
i=1
ùªíØÑ χi (1) Ø |G|, i = 1, 2, · · · , s. r |G| ÚØEAI χi éXå
5ªk1'X:
s
1 X
|Cl |χi (gl )χi (gl ) = 1. (1)
|G|
l=1
ddÑ
s
X |Cl |χi (gl )
|G|
= χi (gl ). (2)
χi (1) χi (1)
l=1
|G|
χi (1) Ø |G| = ´ê. dI&¢ (2) ªmà´Äê. G
χi (1)
ê m, K χi (gl ) ´ m gü Ú. m gü ´ xm − 1 E, xm − 1
´ÄXê 1 Xêõª. ddÚÑeãVg.
§3 ØEL«gê÷v^ · 93 ·
½Â 1 Eê α XJ´ÄXê 1 Xêõª, @o¡ α ´

êê.
w,, ?ê´êê. 8 ·rê¡knê.
|Cl |χi (gl )
(2) ªmà χi (gl ) ´ m gü Ú, l χi (gl ) ´êêÚ.
χi (1)
´Ø´êêQ? XJ´, @o§ χi (gl ) ¦È´Ø´êê? eUy²¤
kêê|¤8Ü Ω Éê C f, Kù
¯K)û. q (2) ª
à´knê, úßÿ: êêXJ´knê, @o§7knê. ùÒ
|G|
y² ´ê. e¡5Å&?ù
¯K.
χi (1)
Äk5&?Eê α ´êêA5.
α Éê, â [24] 1 144 ½Â 1, Eê C ¥¹ê Z Ú α
¤kf¡ Z V\ α f, P Z[α]. â [24] 1 145 ,
Z[α] = {an αn + an−1 αn−1 + · · · + a1 α + a0 |ai ∈ Z, 0 6 i 6 n, n ∈ N}.
w,, Z[α] ´ Z-.
α ´êê, K3ÄXê 1 Xêõª f (x) ¦
f (α) = 0.
f (x) = xm + am−1 xm−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 , ai ∈ Z, 0 6 i < m,
K αm = −am−1 αm−1 − · · · − a1 α − a0 .
ddÑ, Z[α] ´d αm−1 , · · · , α, 1 )¤ Z-.
, Z[α] ´k)¤ Z-, §|)¤ f1 (α), f2 (α), · · · , ft (α).
Àê n > deg fi (x), i = 1, 2, · · · , t. du αn ∈ Z[α], Ïd
αn = b1 f1 (α) + b2 f2 (α) + · · · + bt ft (α), bi ∈ Z, i = 1, 2, · · · , t.
- g(x) = xn − b1 f1 (x) − b2 f2 (x) − · · · − bt ft (x), K g(α) = 0. l α ´ê
ê. u´·y²
eã·K.
·K 1 Eê α ´êê= Z[α] ´k)¤ Z-.
·K 1 Ñ
Eê α ´êêA5: Z[α] ´k)¤ Z-. ù¦
·±|^Ø£5&?¤kêê|¤8Ü Ω (, =&¢ Ω ´
ØÉê C f.
α, β ´?¿üêê, K Z[α], Z[β] Ñ´k)¤ Z-. Z[α], Z[β]
|)¤©O´
f1 (α), f2 (α), · · · , ft (α); h1 (β), h2 (β), · · · , hu (β).
·5&¢ α − β, αβ ´ÄEêê, ùïÄ Z[α − β], Z[αβ] ´Äk
)¤ Z-. w, Z[α − β], Z[αβ] Ñ´ Z[α, β] f, Ù¥ Z[α, β] ´ C ¥
¹ Z Ú α, β ¤kf, ¡ Z[α, β] ´ Z V\ α, β f. â [24] 1
135 ·K 1, Z ´Ìn (=znÑ´d)¤n).
â “Ìnþk)¤f´k)¤” (y²! ¡Öá
), IïÄ Z[α, β] ´Ø´k)¤ Z-. â [24] 1 149 , k
Z[α, β] = Z[α][β].
· 94 · 1nÙ +AI
du Z[α] ¥?L«¤
Xt
ai fi (α), ai ∈ Z, i = 1, 2, · · · , t,
i=1
Ïd Z[α][β] ¥?±L«¤
" t # " t # " t #
X X X
m
aim fi (α) β + · · · + ai1 fi (α) β + ai0 fi (α)
i=1 i=1 i=1
t
X
= fi (α)(aim β m + · · · + ai1 β + ai0 )
i=1  
Xt u
X
= fi (α)  bj hj (β)
i=1 j=1
t X
X u
= bj fi (α)hj (β).
i=1 j=1
ùL² Z[α][β] ±d
f1 (α)h1 (β), f1 (α)h2 (β), · · · , f1 (α)hu (β), · · · , ft (α)h1 (β), · · · , ft (α)hu (β)
)¤. Ïd Z[α, β] ´k)¤ Z-. l Z[α − β], Z[αβ] Ñ´k)¤
Z-. u´ α − β, αβ Ñ´êê. ù·y²
eã·K.
·K 2 ¤kêê|¤8Ü Ω ´ C f.
q
XJEê α Q´êê, q´knê, α = , Ù¥ p q ´pê.
p
du α ´êê, Ïd3ÄXê 1 Xêõª f (x) ¦ f (α) = 0. u
q
´ ´ f (x) kn. l p|1. ddíÑ p = ±1. Ïd α ´knê. ùy
p
²
eã·K.
·K 3 XJ α Q´êê, q´knê, @o α ´knê.
|Cl |χi (gl )
e¡5&¢ (2) ªmà¥ ´Äêê. ^ cl L« G Ýa
χi (1)
Cl ¥¤kÚ (¡ cl aÚ), K
|Cl |χi (gl ) χi (cl )
= . (3)
χi (1) χi (1)
(3) ªmà´ χi 3aÚ cl þ χi (cl ) Ø± χi gê, P
χi (cl )
ωi (cl ) = . (4)
χi (1)
ωi ±w¤´+ê C[G] C N:
χi (A)
ωi (A) := , ∀A ∈ C[G]. (5)
χi (1)
w,, k
ωi (A + B) = ωi (A) + ωi (B), ∀A, B ∈ C[G], (6)
ωi (kA) = kωi (A), ∀k ∈ C, A ∈ C[G]. (7)
duaÚ cl ∈ Z( C[G]), Ïd·5&¢éu C[G] ¥% Z( C[G]) ¥
A, ωi (A) ko5? du Z[G] Ü¥% e1 , e2 , · · · , es ´ Z( C[G])
§3 ØEL«gê÷v^ · 95 ·
s
X
Ä, Ïd A = kj ej , Ù¥ kj ∈ C. âÙ §2 Ún 1,
j=1
χi (gej ) δij χi (g)
ωi (gej ) = = = δij ωi (g), ∀g ∈ G. (8)
χi (1) χi (1)
u´
s
X s
X
ωi (A) = kj ωi (ej ) = kj δij ωi (1) = ki . (9)
j=1 j=1
Ïd
s
X
A= ωj (A)ej , ∀A ∈ Z( C[G]). (10)
j=1
l  
Xs
ωi (Ag) = ωi (gA) = ωi  ωj (A)gej 
j=1
s
X s
X
= ωj (A)ωi (gej ) = ωj (A)δij ωi (g)
j=1 j=1
= ωi (A)ωi (g). (11)
ddÑ, ∀B ∈ C[G], A ∈ Z( C[G]), k
ωi (AB) = ωi (A)ωi (B). (12)
u´·y²
eã·K.
·K 4 G ´k+, éu χi ∈ Irr (G), -
χi (A)
ωi (A) := , ∀A ∈ C[G],
χi (1)
K
s
X
A= ωj (A)ej , ∀A ∈ Z( C[G]), (13)
j=1
Ù¥ e1 , e2 , · · · , es ´ C[G] Ü¥%; ¿
ωi (AB) = ωi (A)ωi (B), ∀A ∈ Z( C[G]), B ∈ C[G]. (14)

d·K 4 á=
ωi (cl ck ) = ωi (cl )ωi (ck ), 1 6 l, k 6 s. (15)
du c1 , c2 , · · · , cs ´ Z( C[G]) Ä, Ïd
Xs
cl ck = mlkj cj , 1 6 l, k 6 s. (16)
j=1
du cl ck ´ G ¥Xê5|Ü, Ïd
mlkj ∈ Z, 1 6 l, k, j 6 1. (17)
l (15) Ú (16) ª,
s
X
ωi (cl )ωi (ck ) = mlkj ωi (cj ), 1 6 l, k 6 s. (18)
j=1
· 96 · 1nÙ +AI
½ l, l (18) ª
    
ωi (c1 ) ml11 ml12 ··· ml1s ωi (c1 )
    
 ωi (c2 )   ml21 ml22 ··· ml2s   
     ωi (c2 ) 
ωi (cl )  .  =  . .. ..   . . (19)
 ..   .. . .   . 
    . 
ωi (cs ) mls1 mls2 ··· mlss ωi (cs )
r (19) ªmà s XêÝ
P M . bX
ωi (c1 ) = ωi (c2 ) = · · · = ωi (cs ) = 0,
Xs
? A ∈ Z( C[G]), A = a j cj , K
j=1
s
X
ωi (A) = aj ωi (cj ) = 0.
j=1
ù ωi (1) = 1 gñ. Ïd (19) ªL² ωi (cl ) ÉêþÝ
M A.
l ωi (cl ) ´ M Aõª f (λ) E. du M Ñ´knê, Ï
d f (λ) ´ÄXê 1 Xêõª. l ωi (cl ) ´êê. ù·y²
eã·K.
·K 5 G ´k+, éu χi ∈ Irr (G), -
χi (A)
ωi (A) = , ∀A ∈ C[G],
χi (1)
Kéu G ?Ýa Cl aÚ cl , ωi (cl ) ´êê.
nÜ·K 2, ·K 5 Ú·K 3, l (2) ªá=Xe½n.
½n 1 k+ G ?ØEL«gêÑUØ G .
Öá
y35y²Ìnþk)¤f´k)¤.
a' “ F þk5mfm´k”, ·k5ÄkÄ
.
½Â 1 R kü 1(6= 0) , M R-. XJ M k
f8 S, ¦
(1) M ¥z x UL«¤ S ¥kõ R-5|Ü:
x = a1 αi1 + a2 αi2 + · · · + am αim ,
Ù¥ {αi1 , αi2 , · · · , αim } ⊆ S, m ∈ N∗ ;
(2) S ?kf8 S1 = {αj1 , αj2 , · · · , αjt } ´ R-5Ã', =l
a1 αj1 + a2 αj2 + · · · + at αjt = 0
±íÑ a1 = a2 = · · · = at = 0. @o¡ S ´ M Ä.
½Â 2 e R- M kÄ, K¡ M ´gd R-.
§3 ØEL«gê÷v^ · 97 ·
Ný²: e S ´ R- M Ä, K M ¥z x L«¤ S ¥k

õ R-5|ÜL«{´.
R ´kü 1(6= 0) , 3 R
|
× R × · · · × R ¥5½\{Ú R §
{z }
n
^Xe:
(x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ) + (y1 , y2 , · · · , yn ) := (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 , · · · , xn + yn ),
r(x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ) := (rx1 , rx2 , · · · , rxn ), ∀r ∈ R,
n n
ý R {z· · · × R} ¤ R-, P R . w, R ¥eã n
| ×R×
n
ε1 = (1, 0, · · · , 0), ε2 = (0, 1, 0, · · · , 0), · · · , εn = (0, · · · , 0, 1)
n n
´ R Ä. l R ´gd R-.
M ´± α1 , α2 , · · · , αn Ägd R-, K M ¥z x ±
/L«¤
x = a1 α1 + a2 α2 + · · · + an αn , ai ∈ R, 1 6 i 6 n.
u´éu? R- M ′ ?¿ n β1 , β2 , · · · , βn (§¥±k
), eãéA{K
σ : M → M′
n
X n
X
x= ai αi 7→ a i βi
i=1 i=1
′
´ M M N, w, σ ±\{. éu?¿ r ∈ R, k
" n
!# " n # n
X X X
σ r ai αi =σ (rai )αi = (rai )βi
i=1 i=1 i=1
n
" n
!#
X X
=r a i βi = r σ ai αi ,
i=1 i=1
Ïd σ ´ M M ′ Ó. u´·y²
eã½n.
½n 1 M ´gd R-, α1 , α2 , · · · , αn ´ M Ä. M ′ ´?
R-, ? M ′ n β1 , β2 , · · · , βn , -
σ : M → M′
n
X n
X
x= ai αi 7→ a i βi , (1)
i=1 i=1
K σ ´ M M ′ Ó.
½n 1 x
gdA5. gd M ÄkÃõ, Uì
Ä½Â, M z±/L«¤Ä¥kõ R-5|Ü, Ïd
(1) ªÑéA{K σ E´ M M ′ Ó.
N´ßÿ: k n Ägd½ Rn Ó, =keã·K.
·K 1 M ´± α1 , α2 , · · · , αn Ägd R-, K M ∼
= Rn .
· 98 · 1nÙ +AI
y² du α1 , α2 , · · · , αn ´ M Ä, Ïdâ½n 1 , N
σ : M → Rn
n
X n
X
ai αi 7→ ai ε i
i=1 i=1
´ M Rn Ó. qdu ε1 , ε2 , · · · , εn ´ Rn Ä, ÏdN
τ : Rn → M
n
X n
X
ai εi 7→ ai αi
i=1 i=1
´ Rn M Ó. du τ σ = 1M , στ = 1Rn , Ïd σ ´_N. l σ
´V. u´ σ ´ M Rn Ó. ¤± M ∼ = Rn .
a' “ F þk5m V ?¿üÄ¹kê”, g,
¯: kkÄgd R- M ?¿üÄ¹kê´Ä? |^k
5m V ?¿üÄ¹kê(Ø, ùÄkIl R Ñ
uE. â [24] 1 139 ½n 6: “ R ´kü 1(6= 0)
, K R n I 4n=û R/I ”, ·3kü
R ¥4n I.R ´Äk4n3: e¡½nÑ
½
£.
½n 2 R kü 1(6= 0) , K R k4n.
y² S R Ø¹ü 1 n|¤8Ü. du (0) ∈ S, Ïd S
8. S Uì8Ü¹'X¤ S8. T = {Ji |i ∈ I} S ?¿
[
^ó (I I8). - J = Ji . ·5y J ´ R n. ? a, b ∈ J, 3
i∈I
α, β ∈ I, ¦ a ∈ Jα , b ∈ Jβ . du T ´^ó, Ïd Jα Jβ k¹'X, Ø
Jα ⊆ Jβ . u´ a − b ∈ Jβ , l a − b ∈ J. ? r ∈ R, k ra ∈ Jα . Ïd ra ∈ J. ù
y²
J ´ R n. bX 1 ∈ J, K 1 áu, Ji . ù S ½Âgñ. Ï
d 1 6∈ J, l J ∈ S. u´ J ´ T þ.. â Zorn Ún, S k4
P . y35y P ´ R 4n. Q ´ R n, ¦ Q ⊇ P ,
Q 6= P . du P S 4, Ïd Q 6∈ S. u´ 1 ∈ Q. l Q = R. ¤±
P ´ R 4n.
éukü 1(6= 0) R, §n I, lkkÄgd R- M
Ñu, XÛE R/I þ? α1 , α2 , · · · , αn ´ M Ä. Ä8Ü
{a1 α1 + a2 α2 + · · · + an αn |ai ∈ I, 1 6 i 6 n}, (2)
P N . w, N ´ M f. β1 , β2 , · · · , βm ´ M ,Ä, -
N ′ = {b1 β1 + b2 β2 + · · · + bm βm |bi ∈ I, 1 6 i 6 m},
K N ′ ´ M f. ·5y N = N ′ .
βj = cj1 α1 + cj2 α2 + · · · + cjn αn , cji ∈ R, 1 6 j 6 m, 1 6 i 6 n,
§3 ØEL«gê÷v^ · 99 ·
K N ′ ¥?L«¤  
m m n
! n m
X X X X X
b j βj = bj cji αi =  bj cji  αi ,
j=1 j=1 i=1 i=1 j=1
m
X m
X
du I ´ R n, Ïd bj cji ∈ I, l bj βj ∈ N , = N ′ ⊆ N . Ón N ⊆ N ′ .
j=1 j=1
¤± N = N ′ .
éu?¿ x ∈ M, a ∈ I, x = r1 α1 + r2 α2 + · · · + rn αn , K
ax = ar1 α1 + ar2 α2 + · · · + arn αn ∈ N.
ddÉéu, éu R û R/I Ú M û M/N , 5½
(r + I)(x + N ) := rx + N, ∀r + I ∈ R/I, x + N ∈ M/N. (3)
e r + I = r1 + I, x + N = x1 + N , K r − r1 = a, x − x1 = y, Ù¥ a ∈ I, y ∈ N . u´
rx − r1 x1 = (r1 + a)(x1 + y) − r1 x1 = r1 y + ax1 + ay ∈ N.
Ïd rx + N = r1 x1 + N . ùL² (3) ª½Â´Ün. ý M/N ¤
Xn
R/I-. ? M/N ¥ x + N . x = ri αi , K
i=1
n
X n
X
x+N = (ri αi ) + N = (ri + I)(αi + N ). (4)
i=1 i=1
ùL² α1 + N, α2 + N, · · · , αn + N ´ R/I þ M/N |)¤.
Xn
(ri + I)(αi + N ) = N,
! i=1
Xn Xn
d (4) ª ri αi +N = N . l ri αi ∈ N . â N ½Â, 3 a1 , a2 , · · · ,
i=1 i=1
an ∈ I, ¦
n
X n
X
ri αi = ai αi .
i=1 i=1
du α1 , α2 , · · · , αn ´ M Ä, Ïd ri = ai , i = 1, 2, · · · , n. u´ ri + I = I, i =
1, 2, · · · , n. l α1 + N, α2 + N, · · · , αn + N ´ R/I-5Ã'. u´§´
R/I- M/N Ä. ù·y²
eã·K.
·K 2 R ´kü 1(6= 0) , I ´ R n; M ´g
d R-, α1 , α2 , · · · , αn ´ M Ä. -
N = {a1 α1 + a2 α2 + · · · + an αn |ai ∈ I, i = 1, 2, · · · , n}, (5)
K N ´ M f. -
(r + I)(x + N ) := rx + N, (6)
Kû M/N ¤ R/I-, M/N ´gd R/I-, α1 +N, α2 +N, · · · , αn +
N ´ R/I- M/N Ä.
|^·K 2 y²eã½n.
½n 3 R kü 1(6= 0) , M ´kkÄgd R-,
K M ?¿üÄ¤¹ê.
· 100 · 1nÙ +AI
y² â½n 2, R k4n I, K R/I . α1 , α2 , · · · , αn ´

M Ä, ¿-
N = {a1 α1 + a2 α2 + · · · + an αn |ai ∈ I, i = 1, 2, · · · , n},
Kû M/N ¤gd R/I-, α1 + N, α2 + N, · · · , αn + N ´§Ä,
Ò´ R/I þ5m M/N Ä. β1 , β2 , · · · , βm ´ M ,Ä, -
N ′ = {b1 β1 + b2 β2 + · · · + bm βm |bi ∈ I, i = 1, 2, · · · , m},
K N ′ = N . u´ β1 + N, β2 + N, · · · , βm + N ´ R/I þ5m M/N Ä.
Ïd n = m.
½Â 3 R kü 1(6= 0) , M ´kkÄgd
R-, K M Ä¤¹ê¡gd R- M .
"wgd, 5½§ 0.
a' “ F þ n 5m V fmêØL n”, ·5y²eã½
n.
½n 4 R Ìn, M ´ n gd R-, K M ?
f N ´gd R-, N ØL n.
y² égd R- M n êÆ8B{.
n = 0 , M ´", ·Kw,ý.
béuu n gd R-, ·Ký. y35w n gd R- M .
? M f N . α1 , α2 , · · · , αn ´ M Ä. Ä N ¥
a1 α1 + a2 α2 + · · · + an αn
1Xê a1 |¤8Ü I1 . w, I1 ´ R n. du R ´Ìn,
Ïd I1 = (b), Ù¥ b ∈ R. e b = 0, K I1 = {0}. u´ N ⊆ Rα2 + Rα3 + · · · + Rαn .
w, M1 = Rα2 + Rα3 + · · · + Rαn ´ n − 1 gd R-, u´d8Bb,
N ´gd R-, N ØL n − 1. d·Ký. e¡ b 6= 0. u´ N ¥
k
y1 = bα1 + b2 α2 + · · · + bn αn ,
T
l Ry1 ⊆ N . w, Ry1 ´ R-, l Ry1 ´ N f. - N1 = N M1 .
T
e y ∈ Ry1 N1 , K
y = r(bα1 + b2 α2 + · · · + bn αn ) = r2 α2 + r3 α3 + · · · + rn αn .
du α1 , α2 , · · · , αn ´ M Ä, Ïd rb = 0. du R ´, §vk""
T
Ïf, Ïd r = 0. l y = 0, u´ Ry1 N1 = {0}. ? N ¥
x = a1 α1 + a2 α2 + · · · + an αn .
du I1 = (b), Ïd3 r1 ∈ R, ¦ a1 = r1 b. l
T
x − r1 y1 = (a2 − r1 b2 )α2 + · · · + (an − r1 bn )αn ∈ M1 N,
T
u´ x ∈ Ry1 + N1 , Ïd N = Ry1 + N1 . du Ry1 N1 = {0}, Ïd
N = Ry1 ⊕ N1 .
du N1 ´ n − 1 gd R- M1 f, Ïdâ8Bb, N1 ´
ØL n − 1 gd R-. N1 Ä y2 , y3 , · · · , yt , Ù¥ t 6 n, K N1 =
§3 ØEL«gê÷v^ · 101 ·
Ry2 ⊕ Ry3 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Ryt . l

N = Ry1 ⊕ Ry2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Ryt .
ddÑ, y1 , y2 , · · · , yt ´ N Ä. Ïd N ´gd R-, § t 6 n.
âêÆ8B{n, éug,ê n, ·Ký.
íØ 1 Ìnþk)¤f´k)¤.
y² M ´Ìn R þk)¤. x1 , x2 , · · · , xs ´ M |
)¤. ? M f N . -
σ : Rs → M
Xs s
X
ai εi 7→ ai xi .
i=1 i=1
du Rs ´ s gd R-, Ïdâ½n 1 , σ ´ Rs M
Ó. du x1 , x2 , · · · , xs ´ M |)¤, Ïd σ ´ Rs M ÷. P
H = σ −1 (N ). ý H ´ Rs f. â½n 4 , H ´gd R-, H
t 6 s. H Ä h1 , h2 , · · · , ht , éu N ¥? y, 3 h ∈ H, ¦
σ(h) = y. h = b1 h1 + b2 h2 + · · · + bt ht , Ù¥ bi ∈ R, 1 6 i 6 t, K
y = σ(b1 h1 ) + σ(b2 h2 ) + · · · + σ(bt ht ) = b1 σ(h1 ) + b2 σ(h2 ) + · · · + bt σ(ht ).
Ïd σ(h1 ), σ(h2 ), · · · , σ(ht ) ´ N |)¤. ùy²
N ´k)¤.
5 XJ R Ø´Ìn, @o R þgdfØ½´gd. ~
X, R = Z/6 Z, R R-kÄ 1, Ïd R ´ 1 gd R-, Ä R f
:
2R = {0, 2, 4}.
2R Ø´gd R-, ù´Ï"gd R-¤¹êØu R

ê.
SK 3.3
1. α Éê, knê Q V\ α f (= C ¥¹ Q Ú α

¤kf) P Q[α]. y²:
(1) 3knê Q þõª Q[x] ¥, ± α E¤kõª|¤
8Ü
I = {f (x) ∈ Q[x]|f (α) = 0}
´ Q[x] n; e I 6= (0), K α ¡êê, d3 Q[x] ¥± α E

¤k"õª¥gê$ÄXê 1 õª p(x) ¡ α 3 Q þ
4õª, `² p(x) ´ I )¤;
(2) êê α 3 Q þ4õª p(x) ´ Q[x] ¥Øõª.
2. y²: XJ α ´êê, @o α 3 Q þ4õª p(x) ´ÄXê
1 Xêõª.
· 102 · 1nÙ +AI
§4 ØL«3+Ø¥A^
k+ØL«´ïÄ+(^Lk¤å». !éd
0.
·K 1 k+ G k p gØEL«, Ù¥ p ´ê, K G k p
.

y² âÙ §3 ½n 1 , p|G|. u´ |G| = pl m, Ù¥ l > 0, (m, p) = 1.
â [24] 1 83 ½n 1 (Sylow 1½n), éu 1 6 k 6 l, G ¥7k pk f+.
H ´ G p f+, K H ´Ì+. H )¤ a Ò´ G p .
½Â 1 XJ+ G k²5f+ (= {1} Ú G), @o¡ G ´ü+.
ü+´+ØÄ, gXê´ênØÄ.
du Abel +zf+Ñ´5f+, Ïd Abel + G ´ü+= G
´êÌ+ (y²ëw [24] 1 60 1 18—23 1).
XÛäk Abel + G ´Ø´ü+? ·±|^ G ØEL
«5ä. Äk|^ G ØEL«5Ñ G 5f+x.
·K 2 G ´k+, ϕ1 , ϕ2 , · · · , ϕs ´ G ¤kØdØEL«. e
N ´ G 5f+, K N ueZ Ker ϕi .
y² rû+ G/N KEL« ρ J, G L« ϕ, §L«m
C[G/N ] P V . du ρ ´§¢, Ïd
g ∈ Ker ϕ ⇐⇒ ϕ(g) = 1V ⇐⇒ ρ(gN ) = 1V
⇐⇒ gN ∈ Ker ρ ⇐⇒ gN = N
⇐⇒ g ∈ N.
ddÑ, N = Ker ϕ.
ϕ ≈ m1 ϕi1 +̇m2 ϕi2 +̇ · · · +̇mt ϕit ,
Ù¥ ϕij ∈ {ϕ1 , ϕ2 , · · · , ϕs }, mj > 0, j = 1, 2, · · · , t. deg ϕij = nj (j = 1, 2, · · · , t),
deg ϕ = n. u´§©OJøÝ
L« Φ, Φij (j = 1, 2, · · · , t) ÷v:
 

 

Φ(g) ∼ diag Φi1 (g), · · · , Φi1 (g), · · · , ϕit (g), · · · , ϕit (g) .

| {z } | {z }

m1 mt
ddÑ
g ∈ Ker ϕ ⇐⇒ Φ(g) = In
⇐⇒ Φij (g) = Inj , j = 1, 2, · · · , t
⇐⇒ g ∈ Ker ϕij , j = 1, 2, · · · , t
\t
⇐⇒ g ∈ Ker ϕij .
j=1
§4 ØL«3+Ø¥A^ · 103 ·
Ïd
t
\
N = Ker ϕ = Ker ϕij .
j=1
·K 3 G ´k+, ϕ1 , ϕ2 , · · · , ϕs ´ G ¤kØdØEL«, Ù
¥ ϕ1 ´ G ÌL«, K G ´ü+= Ker ϕi = {1}, i = 2, 3, · · · , s.
y² ¿©5. Ker ϕi = {1}, i = 2, 3, · · · , s. du Ker ϕ1 = G, Ïd?¿e
Z Ker ϕi u {1} ½ G. u´â·K 2 , G 5f+ N u {1} ½
G. l G ´ü+.
75. G ´ü+. bXk, j ∈ {2, 3, · · · , s}, ¦ Ker ϕj 6= {1}. du
G ´ü+, Ïd Ker ϕj = G. deg ϕj = nj , Ké?¿ g ∈ G, ϕj JøÝ
L«
Φj ÷v: Φj (g) = Inj . du ϕj Ø, Ïd nj = 1. u´ ϕj ´ÌL«, gñ. Ïd
Ker ϕi = {1}, i = 2, 3, · · · , s.
|^·K 3 ±Ñk+ G Ø´ü+¿©^, dIeãÚn.
Ún 1 χ ´k+ G ?ØEAI, C ´ G Ýa. X
J (|C|, χ(1)) = 1, @oéu?¿ g ∈ C, k χ(g) = 0 ½ |χ(g)| = χ(1).
Ún 1 y²3!" “Öá” ¥.
½n 1 XJk+ G kÝa C ê´ê, @o
G Ø´ü+.
y² â·K 3, y G kØEL« (ÌL«) ØØuü
f+. ϕ1 , ϕ2 , · · · , ϕs ´ G ÜØdØEL«, Ù¥ ϕ1 ´ÌL«, ϕi
JøAI χi , i = 1, 2, · · · , s. |C| = pr , p ´ê, r > 0. Ä G KL«
ρ ©):
ρ ≈ χ1 (1)ϕ1 +̇χ2 (1)ϕ2 +̇ · · · +̇χs (1)ϕs . (1)
d (1) ª
s
X
χρ (g) = χ1 (1)χ1 (g) + χi (1)χi (g)
i=2
s
X
=1+ χi (1)χi (g), ∀g ∈ G. (2)
i=2
g ∈ C. w, g 6= 1, Ïd χρ (g) = 0. u´l (2) ª
Xs
1=− χi (1)χi (g). (3)
i=2
l (3) ªwÑ, χ2 (g), · · · , χs (g) Ø 0. j1 , j2 , · · · , jt ∈ {2, 3, · · · , s}, ¦
χjl (g) 6= 0, l = 1, 2, · · · , t, Ù{ χi (g) = 0. bXéz jl Ñk p|χjl (1),
χjl (1) = ml p, l = 1, 2, · · · , t,
Kd (3) ª
X t
1
=− ml χjl (g). (4)
p
l=1
· 104 · 1nÙ +AI
1
(4) ªm>´êê, >´knê, ddíÑ ´knê, gñ. Ïd3 jk
p
¦ p ∤ χjk (1). u´ (|C|, χjk (1)) = 1. âÚn 1 , |χjk (g)| = χjk (1). l Φjk (g)
´êþÝ
, Ù¥ Φjk ´ ϕjk JøÝ
L«. bX Ker ϕjk = {1}, K G ∼ = Im ϕjk .
l G ∼= Im Φjk . du Φjk (g) ∈ Z( Im Φjk ), Ïd g ∈ Z(G). u´ g ¤3Ýa
¹ g , ù |C| = pr gñ. Ïd Ker ϕjk 6= {1}. l G Ø´ü+.
′ (2)
½Â 2 G ´+, G f+ G f+P G , ge, X
Jkê k, ¦ G(k) = {1}, @o¡ G )+; ÄK, ¡ G Ø)+.
â [24] 1 63 ¯¢ 6, Abel )+Ø´ü+. Ïd Abel ü+U
lØ)+¥Ïé. uÓ+´Ø´)+éuÏéü+åX^.
|^½n 1 ±y²+Ø¥Í¶ Burnside ½n.
½n 2 (Burnside) z pa q b + (p, q Ñ´ê) ´)+.
½n 2 y²3!"Öá¥.
Burnside 'u pa q b +)½n, @3 20 VÐÒ^+L«Øy²
. ,
´ 1960 cmâkX{+Øy{. AAOÑ´, +L«Ø3ïÄk
ü+©a¯K¥å
^.
1962 c, W. Feit Ú J. Thompson y²
: zÛê+Ñ´)+. Ùy²
255 . §L²: Ø)k+7óê+. l Feit-Thompson ½ny²
Burnside ß: 3k+¥, ¤k Abel ü+Ñ´óê+.
Öá
·5&¢Ún 1 XÛy².
½Â 1 n ´ê, ε1 , ε2 , · · · , εs ´ÜüüØ n gü .
-
fn (x) = (x − ε1 )(x − ε2 ) · · · (x − εs ), (1)
K¡ fn (x) ´ n ©õª.
·K 1 n ©õª fn (x) gê ϕ(n), §´ÄXê 1 Xêõ
ª, ¿ fn (x) 3 Q þØ.
y² [25] 1 136 — 138 ~ 13.
Ún 1 χ ´k+ G ?ØEAI, C ´ G Ýa. X
J (|C|, χ(1)) = 1, @oéu?¿ g ∈ C, k χ(g) = 0 ½ |χ(g)| = χ(1).
y² du (|C|, χ(1)) = 1, Ïd3 u, v ∈ Z, ¦
u|C| + vχ(1) = 1. (2)
u´éu?¿ g ∈ C, k
g = u|C|g + vχ(1)g, (3)
χ(g) χ(c)
=u + vχ(g) = uω(c) + vχ(g), (4)
χ(1) χ(1)
§4 ØL«3+Ø¥A^ · 105 ·
Ù¥ c ´Ýa C aÚ. âÙ §3 ·K 5 , ω(c) ´êê. u´

(4) ªm>´êê, l (4) ª>´êê. e¡ |χ(g)| =
6 χ(1), y
χ(g) = 0.
χ(1) = m, g n. ^ ε1 , ε2 , · · · , εϕ(n) L«¤k n gü . d
u χ(g) ´ n gü Ú, Ïd χ(g) = εr11 + εr12 + · · · + εr1m , Ù¥ 0 6 ri <
n, i = 1, 2, · · · , m. -
χ(g) εr1 + εr12 + · · · + εr1m
a1 = = 1 , (5)
χ(1) m
εr1 + εrl 2 + · · · + εrl m
al = l , 2 6 l 6 ϕ(n). (6)
m

y χ(g) = 0, y a1 = 0. ´·4 a1 , ØÐy§u 0. ÏdÄ
ϕ(n)
Y
al (2 6 l 6 ϕ(n)), - b = al . y b = 0, ÒÑk, j ∈ {1, 2, · · · , ϕ(n)}
l=1
¦ aj = 0. e¡5ïÄ al a1 'X (2 6 l 6 ϕ(n)). l·K 1 y²¥w,
éu?¿ n gü εl , Ñk εl 3 Q þ4õªu n ©õ
ª fn (x). â [24] 1 146 1 4 ã Q[x]/(fn (x)) ∼ = Q[εl ], Ù¥ Q[εl ] ´ C
¥ Q V\ εl f. du fn (x) 3 Q þØ, Ïd (fn (x)) ´ Q[x]
4n (â [24] 1139 ê1 3 ãÚ1 2 ã). l Q[x]/(fn (x)) ´
(â [24] 1 139 ½n 6). u´ Q[εl ] ´, l = 1, 2, · · · , ϕ(n). dr Q[εl ]
P¤ Q(εl ), l = 1, 2, · · · , ϕ(n). â [30] 1 188 ·K 11 , Q(εl ) z
ϕ(n)−1
X
. /L«¤/X ki εil . éu l ∈ {2, 3, · · · , ϕ(n)}, -
i=0
τl : Q(ε1 ) → Q(εl )
ϕ(n)−1 ϕ(n)−1
X X
ki εi1 7→ ki εil .
i=0 i=0
ý τl Ń, ´ü!÷, ¿±\{Ú¦{$, Ïd τl ´ Q(ε1 )
Q(εl ) Ó. w, τl (ε1 ) = εl . u´l (5) ªÚ (6) ª
τl (a1 ) = al , l = 2, 3, · · · , ϕ(n). (7)
l e aj = 0, K a1 = 0.
e¡5y b = 0. d¤
ϕ(n) ϕ(n) r1
Y Y ε + ε r2 + · · · + ε rm
l l l
b= al = , (8)
m
l=1 l=1
b ´êê. eUy b ´knê, K b ´knê. du |χ(g)| = 6 χ(1), Ïd
1 r1 r2 rm
|χ(g)| < χ(1). l |a1 | < 1. qdu |al | = |εl + εl + · · · + εl | 6 1, Ïd
m
ϕ(n)
Y
|b| = |al | < 1. (9)
l=1
uéUy b ´knê, K b = 0. e':ý b ´knê. l (8) ªÉ
· 106 · 1nÙ +AI
éu, Ä ϕ(n) õª:

ϕ(n)
Y xr1 + xr2 + · · · + xrm
l l l
f (x1 , x2 , · · · , xϕ(n) ) = , (10)
m
l=1
K
b = f (ε1 , ε2 , · · · , εϕ(n) ). (11)
w, f (x1 , x2 , · · · , xϕ(n) ) ´knêþé¡õª. âé¡õªÄ½n,

3 Q þ ϕ(n) õª ψ(x1 , x2 , · · · , xϕ(n) ), ¦
f (x1 , x2 , · · · , xϕ(n) ) = ψ(σ1 , σ2 , · · · , σϕ(n) ), (12)
Ù¥ σ1 , σ2 , · · · , σϕ(n) ´ ϕ(n) Ðé¡õª. -
σei = σi (ε1 , ε2 , · · · , εϕ(n) ), i = 1, 2, · · · , ϕ(n), (13)
K x1 , x2 , · · · , xϕ(n) ©O^ ε1 , ε2 , · · · , εϕ(n) \, l (12) Ú (13) ª
f (ε1 , ε2 , · · · , εϕ(n) ) = ψ(e
σ1 , σ
e2 , · · · , σ
eϕ(n) ). (14)
du ε1 , ε2 , · · · , εϕ(n) ´ n ©õª fn (x) ÜE, Ïdâ Vieta úª,
−e e2 , · · · , (−1)ϕ(n) σ
σ1 , σ eϕ(n) ´ fn (x) n − 1 gXê, n − 2 gXê, · · · , ~ê.
l σ ei ´knê, i = 1, 2, · · · , ϕ(n). u´ ψ(e σ1 , σ eϕ(n) ) ´knê. Ïdl
e2 , · · · , σ
(11) ªÚ (14) ª, b ´knê.
nþ¤ã, Ún 1 y²..
y35y Burnside ½n, Äkéu)+
&?.
·K 2 + G ´)=34üf+
G = G0 > G1 > · · · > Gs = {1}, (15)
¦ Gi ⊳ Gi−1 û+ Gi−1 /Gi ´ Abel +, i = 1, 2, · · · , s.
y² [30] 1 178 — 179 ½n 6.
·K 3 )+zf+Úû+Ñ´)+.
y² [30] 1 179 ½n 7 ÚíØ 1.
·K 4 XJ+ G äk5f+ N , ¦ N Ú G/N Ñ´)+, @o G ´
)+.
y² [30] 1 179 ½n 8.
·K 5 p, q ´Øê, K pq + G ).
y² Ø p > q. â Sylow 1n½n, G Sylow p-f+ê r ≡
1(mod p) r|q. ddíÑ, r = 1. l G Sylow p-f+ P ⊳ G. qdu |G/P | = q,
l G/P ê q Ì+. q P ´ê p Ì+, Ïd P Ú G/P Ñ´)
+. â·K 4 , G ´)+.
a b
½n 1 (Burnside) z p q + (p, q ´ê) ´)+.
y² + G ´ pa q b . XJ a, b ¥k 0, @o G ´ p-+. â [24]
1 75 íØ 8 , G ¥% Z(G) 6= {1}. e Z(G) = G, K G ´ Abel +, l G
). e Z(G) 6= G, K 1 < |G/ Z(G)| < |G|. é p-+êÆ8B{, G/ Z(G)
). qdu Z(G) ), Ïd G ).
§4 ØL«3+Ø¥A^ · 107 ·
e¡ a 6= 0 b 6= 0. e G Abel +, K G ). e G Abel +. é

G êÆ8B{. a = 1 b = 1 , â·K 5, e p 6= q, K pq +
). e p = q, Kâ [24] 1 75 ~ 1, p2 +Ñ´ Abel +, l ). b
|G| = pc q b , Ù¥ c < a , G ), 5w |G| = pa q b /. {éÑ G
²5f+ N , Kd8Bb, N Ú G/N Ñ), l â·K 4 , G ).
w,, Z(G) ´ÿÀö. Iy Z(G) 6= 1. d3 Z(G) ¥éü .
Ä G Sylow q-f+ Q, K Z(Q) 6= {1}. u´3 Z(Q) ¥3ü g. l
g Q ¥?, Ïd Q ⊆ CG (g), ùp CG (g) L« g 3 G ¥¥%
zf, = CG (g) = {x ∈ G|xg = gx}, §´ G f+. eUy | CG (g)| = |G|, K
CG (g) = G. l g ∈ Z(G). e¡5y | CG (g)| = |G|. Ä g ¤3Ýa C, k
|G| pa q b
|C| = = l b = pa−l , Ù¥ l 6 a.
| CG (g)| pq
e l = a, K |G| = | CG (g)|. l G = CG (g). e l < a, Kâ!½n 1 , G Ø
´ü+. l G k²5f+ N . Ïd G ). âêÆ8B{n,
éê a Ú b, Ñk pa q b +).
nþ¤ã, z pa q b +).
SK 3.4
1. y²: e G ´5+ GL (2, C) kf+, ¿ G ´ü+, K G 7

Abel +, l G ´êÌ+.
2. y²: ? Abel kü+ G vk 2 gØEL«, l e Abel k
+ G k 2 gØEL«, K G Ø´ü+.
1oÙ
+L«ÜþÈ, +ÈL«
ÙÄk0l G ®L«E#L«q{. |^ù«{¼

+ G #ØL«.
Ùò0l+ G1 Ú G2 L«§È G1 × G2 L«{.
ù
¯K)ûÑIÜþÈVg.
§1 ÜþÈ
R ´kü 1(6= 0) , M ´m R-, N ´ R-, l M Ú

N ÑuXÛE “” 8Ü T , ¦ T ´ Abel \{+? 3 M Ú N ¥
©O? m, n, K (m, n) ∈ M × N . d (m, n) E#8Ü T
, P m ⊗ n. du M Ú N Ñ´\{+, ·E#8Ü T ¦
´\{+, Ïdég,¦÷ve${K:
(m1 + m2 ) ⊗ n = m1 ⊗ n + m2 ⊗ n, (1)
m ⊗ (n1 + n2 ) = m ⊗ n1 + m ⊗ n2 . (2)
du M ´m R-, N ´ R-, Ïdéu?¿ r ∈ R, ¦÷veã{K
(mr) ⊗ n = m ⊗ rn. (3)
r (m, n) éA m ⊗ n ´ M × N T N, P t, K (1) !(2) !(3) ª
¤
t(m1 + m2 , n) = t(m1 , n) + t(m2 , n), (4)
t(m, n1 + n2 ) = t(m, n1 ) + t(m, n2 ), (5)
t(mr, n) = t(m, rn). (6)
ddÚÑeãVg.
§1 ÜþÈ · 109 ·
½Â 1 R ´kü 1(6= 0) , M ´m R-, N ´ R-;

P ´ Abel \{+. XJl M × N P kN f ÷vé?¿ m1 , m2 , m ∈
M, n, n1 , n2 ∈ N, r ∈ R, k
f (m1 + m2 , n) = f (m1 , n) + f (m2 , n), (7)
f (m, n1 + n2 ) = f (m, n1 ) + f (m, n2 ), (8)
f (mr, n) = f (m, rn), (9)
@o¡ f ´ M × N P ²ïN.
·l M × N ÑuE Abel \{+ T , El M × N T
²ïN t. Äk, - 
 
X
F = k(m,n) (m, n) k(m,n) ∈ Z, kkõ k(m,n) 6= 0 .
 
(m,n)∈M×N
5½ F ¥ü=§éAXê; ¿5½ F ¥ü
\éAXê\, Ný F ¤ Abel \{+. , , H ´d F ¥eã
/ª)¤f+:
(m1 + m2 , n) − (m1 , n) − (m2 , n), (10)
(m, n1 + n2 ) − (m, n1 ) − (m, n2 ), (11)
(mr, n) − (m, rn), (12)
Ù¥ m1 , m2 , m ∈ M, n, n1 , n2 ∈ N, r ∈ R. rû+ F/H P T . -
t:M ×N →T
(m, n) 7→ (m, n) + H, (13)
K t(m1 + m2 , n) − t(m1 , n) − t(m2 , n)
= [(m1 + m2 , n) + H] − [(m1 , n) + H] − [(m2 , n) + H]
= [(m1 + m2 , n) − (m1 , n) − (m2 , n)] + H
= H.
du H ´û+ F/H ", Ïd3 T ¥k
t(m1 + m2 , n) = t(m1 , n) + t(m2 , n). (14)
Óny
t(m, n1 + n2 ) = t(m, n1 ) + t(m, n2 ), (15)
t(mr, n) = t(m, rn). (16)
Ïd (13) ª½Â t ´l M × N T ²ïN.
T ¥äko/ª? du T ´û+ F/H, Ïd T éã/
ªkÚ:
X X
ki (mi , ni ) + H = [ki (mi , ni ) + H]. (17)
i i
·5w k(m, n) + H U¤o{ü/ª? éuê k, du t ´²ïN

· 110 · 1oÙ +L«ÜþÈ, +ÈL«
, Ïdk
k(m, n) + H = k[(m, n) + H] = kt(m, n) = t(km, n). (18)
y35w (−k)(m, n) + H. du3 F ¥, k

k(m, n) + (−k)(m, n) = [k + (−k)](m, n) = 0(m, n) = 0,
Ïd3 F ¥, −[k(m, n)] = (−k)(m, n). l d (18) ª
(−k)(m, n) + H = −[k(m, n)] + H = −[k(m, n) + H]
= −t(km, n). (19)
du t ´²ïN, Ïd3 T ¥k
t(km, n) + t(−(km), n) = t(km − (km), n) = t(0, n)
= t(m1 + 0, n) − t(m1 , n) = t(m1 , n) − t(m1 , n) = 0.
l −t(km, n) = t(−(km), n). \ (19) ª
(−k)(m, n) + H = t(−(km), n). (20)
l (18) ªÚ (20) ª, T ¥z´/XeãªfkÚ:
X
t(mi , ni ), (21)
i
Ù¥ mi ∈ M, ni ∈ N .
e¡5&?þ¡EÑ Abel \{+ T Ú²ïN t : M × N → T äko
Ð5.
? Abel \{+ P , f : M × N → P ´²ïN. du F ¥
L«¤kÚ/ªL«{, ÏdeãéA{K
fe : F → P
X X
ki (mi , ni ) 7→ ki f (mi , ni ) (22)
i i
Ń. w, fe ±\{, Ïd fe ´l F P +Ó. @o, fe 3 H þ
óN? du f ´l M × N P ²ïN, Ïd
fe[(m1 + m2 , n) − (m1 , n) − (m2 , n)]
= f (m1 + m2 , n) − f (m1 , n) − f (m2 , n) = 0.
Ónk
fe[(m, n1 + n2 ) − (m, n1 ) − (m, n2 )] = 0,
fe[(mr, n) − (m, rn)] = 0.
ddÑ, fe(h) = 0, ∀h"∈ H. u´ fe p
û+ # "F/H P N # f ∗:
X X
f∗ ki (mi , ni ) + H := fe ki (mi , ni ) . (23)
i i
du fe ±\{, Ïd f ±\{. l f ∗ ´ F/H (= T ) P +Ó.
∗
w, f ∗ ¦é?¿ (m, n) ∈ M × N , k
f ∗ [(m, n) + H] = fe(m, n) = f (m, n),
f ∗ [(m, n) + H] = f ∗ t(m, n),
§1 ÜþÈ · 111 ·
lþãüª
f = f ∗ t. (24)
nþ¤ã, ·y²
eã½n.
½n 1 R ´kü 1(6= 0) , M ´m R-, N ´
R-, K3 Abel \{+ T Ú²ïN t : M × N → T , ¦ T z
X
éã/ªkÚ: t(mi , ni ), ¿äkeã5: éu? Abel \{+ P
i
Ú?²ïN f : M × N → P , 3 T P +Ó f ∗ , ¦ f = f ∗ t, =
ã 4–1 :
ã 4–1
d¡ f ±ÏL T ©).

l½n 1 Ééu, ÚÑeãVg.
½Â 2 R ´kü 1(6= 0) , M ´m R-, N ´ R-.
XJk Abel \{+ T Ú²ïN t : M × N → T , ¦ T ¥z´
X
kÚ t(mi , ni ), ¿äkeãA5: éu? Abel \{+ P Ú?²ï
i
N f : M × N → P , 3 T P +Ó f ∗ , ¦ f = f ∗ t, =ã 4–1
, @o¡| (T, t) ´ M N ÜþÈ.
½n 1 y²
M N ÜþÈ´3. g,?Ú¯: M N Üþ
È´Ä3+Ó¿Âe´? £´½, =ke¡½n 2.
½n 2 ^Ó½Â 2. M N ÜþÈ3+Ó¿Âe´.
y² ½n 1 E
M N ÜþÈ (T, t). (T ′ , t′ ) ´ M N ,
ÜþÈ. du (T, t) ´ÜþÈ, T ′ ´ Abel \{+, t′ : M × N → T ′ ´
²ïN, Ïd3 T T ′ +Ó σ, ¦
t′ = σt. (25)
Xã 4–2 ¤«.
ã 4–2
Ón, du (T ′ , t′ ) ´ M N ÜþÈ, Ïd3 T ′ T +Ó τ , ¦

t = τ t′ .
· 112 · 1oÙ +L«ÜþÈ, +ÈL«
Xã 4–2 ¤«. u´éu?¿ (m, n) ∈ M × N , k

t′ (m, n) = σt(m, n) = στ t′ (m, n). (26)
X
du T ′ ¥zkÚ t′ (mi , ni ), Ïdl (26) ª
i
στ = 1T ′ (27)
Óny, τ σ = 1T . (Ü (27) ª, σ ´_. l σ ´V, Ïd σ ´ T T ′
+Ó. u´ T T ′ ´Ó.
·rm R- M R- N ÜþÈP (M ⊗R N, t), ²ïN t k
ÑØÑ.
éuÜþÈ (M ⊗R N, t), 8 r t(m, n) {P¤ m ⊗ n. l½n 1 y²L§
, t(m, n) = (m, n) + H, Ïdr t(m, n) ^ m ⊗ n 5L«, ÙL«{Ø. ´
PÒ m ⊗ n k`:, §¦²ïN t n^5¤
(m1 + m2 ) ⊗ n = m1 ⊗ n + m2 ⊗ n, (28)
m ⊗ (n1 + n2 ) = m ⊗ n1 + m ⊗ n2 , (29)
(mr) ⊗ n = m ⊗ (rn), (30)
ùn^53/ªþaq¢ê¥¦{éu\{©Æ, ±9¦{(ÜÆ, ,§
X
¹ÂØ. $^PÒ m⊗n, K M ⊗R N ¥zL«¤kÚ mi ⊗ni ,
i
5¿ÙL«{Ø. ~X
0 ⊗ n = (m + 0) ⊗ n − m ⊗ n = m ⊗ n − m ⊗ n = 0;
Ónk m ⊗ 0 = 0, 0 ⊗ 0 = 0. Ïd M ⊗R N "L«{k 0 ⊗ n, m ⊗ 0, 0 ⊗ 0,
. kU m 6= 0 n 6= 0, ´ m ⊗ n = 0. ~X, 3 Q ⊗ Z Z2 ¥,
2 1 1
⊗ 1 = ⊗ 21 = ⊗ 0 = 0.
3 3 3
íØ 1 R ´kü 1(6= 0) , M ´m R-, N ´ R-,
P ´ Abel \{+, f ´l M × N P ²ïN, K3 M ⊗R N
P +Ó f ∗ , ¦ f = f ∗ t.
y² kl M ⊗R N P +Ó g ∗ , ¦ f = g ∗ t, Kéu M ⊗R N
X
? mi ⊗ n i , k
i !
X X X X
∗
f mi ⊗ n i = f ∗ (mi ⊗ ni ) = f ∗ t(mi , ni ) = f (mi , ni ),
i i i i
!
X X X X
g∗ mi ⊗ n i = g ∗ (mi ⊗ ni ) = g ∗ t(mi , ni ) = f (mi , ni ).
i i i i
Ïd f ∗ = g ∗ .
y35?ØÜþÈÓ'X.
½n 3 R ´kü 1(6= 0) , M Ú M ′ Ñ´m R-, N Ú N ′ Ñ´
R-; f : M → M ′ , g : N → N ′ Ñ´Ó, K3 M ⊗R N M ′ ⊗R N ′
+Ó, P f ⊗ g, ¦
(f ⊗ g)(m ⊗ n) = f (m) ⊗ g(n). (31)
§1 ÜþÈ · 113 ·
y² -
ψ : M × N → M ′ ⊗R N ′
(m, n) 7→ f (m) ⊗ g(n),
w,, ψ Ń.
ψ(m1 + m2 , n) = f (m1 + m2 ) ⊗ g(n)
= [f (m1 ) + f (m2 )] ⊗ g(n) = f (m1 ) ⊗ g(n) + f (m2 ) ⊗ g(n)
= ψ(m1 , n) + ψ(m2 , n).
Ón, k
ψ(m, n1 + n2 ) = ψ(m, n1 ) + ψ(m, n2 ).
du f : M → M ′ Ú g : N → N ′ Ñ´Ó, Ïdk
ψ(mr, n) = f (mr) ⊗ g(n) = f (m)r ⊗ g(n) = f (m) ⊗ rg(n)
= f (m) ⊗ g(rn) = ψ(m, rn).
l ψ ´ M × N M ′ ⊗R N ′ ²ïN. âíØ 1 , 3 M ⊗R N
M ′ ⊗R N ′ +Ó, P f ⊗ g, ¦
ψ = (f ⊗ g)t,
Xã 4–3 ¤«, ddÑ
(f ⊗ g)(m ⊗ n) = (f ⊗ g)t(m, n) = ψ(m, n) = f (m) ⊗ g(n).
ã 4–3
íØ 2 R ´kü 1(6= 0) , M, M ′ , M ′′ Ñ´m R-; N, N ′ , N ′′ Ñ

´ R-;
f : M → M ′ , f ′ : M ′ → M ′′ , g : N → N ′ , g ′ : N ′ → N ′′
Ñ´Ó, K
(f ′ ⊗ g ′ )(f ⊗ g) = (f ′ f ) ⊗ (g ′ g). (32)
y² w,, f ′ f : M → M ′′ , g ′ g : N → N ′′ Ñ´Ó.
[(f ′ ⊗ g ′ )(f ⊗ g)](m ⊗ n) = (f ′ ⊗ g ′ )[f (m) ⊗ g(n)]
= f ′ [f (m)] ⊗ g ′ [g(n)] = (f ′ f )(m) ⊗ (g ′ g)(n),
[(f ′ f ) ⊗ (g ′ g)](m ⊗ n) = (f ′ f )(m) ⊗ (g ′ g)(n).
X
du M ⊗R N ¥kÚ mi ⊗ ni , Ïd
i
(f ′ ⊗ g ′ )(f ⊗ g) = (f ′ f ) ⊗ (g ′ g).
· 114 · 1oÙ +L«ÜþÈ, +ÈL«
e¡?ØÜþÈÚ'X.
½n 4 R ´kü 1(6= 0) , M ´m R-, M1 Ú M2 Ñ´ M f
, M = M1 ⊕ M2 ; N ´ R-, Kkeã+Ó:
M ⊗R N ∼
= M1 ⊗R N +̇M2 ⊗R N. (33)
y² du M = M1 ⊕ M2 , Ïd M ¥z m ±/L«¤ m =
m1 + m2 , Ù¥ m1 ∈ M1 , m2 ∈ M2 . -
π1 (m) = m1 , π2 (m) = m2 ,
Ký π1 Ú π2 Ñ´ M gÓ, ¡ πi ´ M 3 Mi þÝK, πi (M ) = Mi ,
u´ πi ±w¤´ M Mi Ó, i = 1, 2. â½n 3 , 3 M ⊗R N
M1 ⊗R N +Ó π1 ⊗ 1N , P θ1 ; 3 M ⊗R N M2 ⊗R N +
Ó π2 ⊗ 1N , P θ2 .
i1 ´ M1 M ¹\N; i1 (m1 ) = m1 ; i2 ´ M2 M ¹\N:
i2 (m2 ) = m2 . w,§Ñ´Ó. â½n 3 , 3 M1 ⊗R N M ⊗R N
+Ó i1 ⊗ 1N , 3 M2 ⊗R N M ⊗R N +Ó i2 ⊗ 1N . P
j1 = i1 ⊗ 1N , j2 = i2 ⊗ 1N . -
σ : M ⊗R N → M1 ⊗R N +̇M2 ⊗R N
v 7→ (θ1 (v), θ2 (v));
τ : M1 ⊗R N +̇M2 ⊗R N → M ⊗R N
(v1 , v2 ) 7→ j1 (v1 ) + j2 (v2 ).
ý σ Ú τ Ñ±\{, Ïd§Ñ´+Ó.
τ σ(m ⊗ n) = τ (θ1 (m ⊗ n), θ2 (m ⊗ n)) = τ (m1 ⊗ n, m2 ⊗ n)
= j1 (m1 ⊗ n) + j2 (m2 ⊗ n) = m1 ⊗ n + m2 ⊗ n
= (m1 + m2 ) ⊗ n = m ⊗ n.
X
du M ⊗R N ¥z¤ mi ⊗ ni , Ïdlþª
i
τ σ = I1 , (34)
Ù¥ I1 ´ M ⊗R N þðC.
n 2 ⊗R N |)¤
M1 ⊗R N +̇M o

(m1 ⊗ n, 0), (0, m2 ⊗ n)m1 ∈ M1 , m2 ∈ M2 , n ∈ N .
du
στ (m1 ⊗ n, 0) = σ[j1 (m1 ⊗ n) + j2 (0)] = σ(m1 ⊗ n)
= (θ1 (m1 ⊗ n), θ2 (m1 ⊗ n)) = (m1 ⊗ n, 0),
στ (0, m2 ⊗ n) = σ[j1 (0) + j2 (m2 ⊗ n)] = σ(m2 ⊗ n)
= (θ1 (m2 ⊗ n), θ2 (m2 ⊗ n)) = (0, m2 ⊗ n),
Ïd
στ = I2 ,
§1 ÜþÈ · 115 ·
Ù¥ I2 ´ M1 ⊗R N +̇M2 ⊗R N þðC. u´ σ ´_, l σ ´V. Ï

d σ ´+Ó. ùy²
k+Ó:
M ⊗R N ∼
= M1 ⊗R N +̇M2 ⊗R N.
½n 4 í2 M ½ö N ´kõfÚ/.
y3·5?Øoê M ⊗R N ¤.
½Â 3 R Ú S ´kü , XJ Abel \+ M Q´ S-, q´m
R-, ÷v
(sm)r = s(mr), ∀s ∈ S, r ∈ R, m ∈ M, (35)
@o¡ M ´ (S, R)-V.
~X, R ´kü 1(6= 0) , M ´ R-. -
mr := rm, ∀m ∈ M, r ∈ R,
ý
(m1 + m2 )r = m1 r + m2 r, ∀m1 , m2 ∈ M, r ∈ R;
m(r1 + r2 ) = mr1 + mr2 , ∀m ∈ M, r1 , r2 ∈ R;
m(r1 r2 ) = (r1 r2 )m = (r2 r1 )m = r2 (r1 m)
= r2 (mr1 ) = (mr1 )r2 , ∀m ∈ M, r1 , r2 ∈ R;
m1 = 1m = m, ∀m ∈ M,
Ïd M ¤m R-, ÷véu?¿ r1 , r2 ∈ R, m ∈ M , k
(r1 m)r2 = r2 (r1 m) = (r2 r1 )m = (r1 r2 )m = r1 (r2 m) = r1 (mr2 ).
l M ¤ (R, R)-V.
·K 1 e M ´ (S, R)-V, N ´ R-, K M ⊗R N ´ S-.
y² IÑ S × (M ⊗R N ) M ⊗R N N. éu s ∈ S, -
fs : M × N → M ⊗R N
(m, n) 7→ sm ⊗ n.
·k
fs (m1 + m2 , n) = s(m1 + m2 ) ⊗ n = (sm1 + sm2 ) ⊗ n
= (sm1 ) ⊗ n + (sm2 ) ⊗ n = fs (m1 , n) + fs (m2 , n).
fs (m, n1 + n2 ) = fs (m, n1 ) + fs (m, n2 ),
fs (mr, n) = s(mr) ⊗ n = (sm)r ⊗ n = sm ⊗ rn
= fs (m, rn).
Ïd fs ´ M ×N M ⊗R N ²ïN. â½n 3, 3 M ⊗R N M ⊗R N
+Ó ψs , ¦ fs = ψs t, Xã 4–4 ¤«. u´éu?¿ (m, n) ∈ M × N ,
k
fs (m, n) = ψs t(m, n) = ψs (m ⊗ n).
l
ψs (m ⊗ n) = sm ⊗ n.
· 116 · 1oÙ +L«ÜþÈ, +ÈL«
ã 4–4
u´ !
X X X
ψs mi ⊗ n i = ψs (mi ⊗ ni ) = smi ⊗ ni . (36)
i i i
y3- ! !
X X
s mi ⊗ n i := ψs mi ⊗ n i , (37)
i i
K !
X X
s mi ⊗ n i = smi ⊗ ni . (38)
i i
Ný M ⊗R N ¤ S-.

X
5 du M ⊗R N L«¤kÚ mi ⊗ ni L«{Ø, Ïde
i
5½ (38) ª, KØU`²ùÑ
S × (M ⊗R N ) M ⊗R N N.
aq/, !e M ´m R-, N ´ (R, S)-V, K M ⊗R N ´m S-, Ù¥
X X
mi ⊗ n i s = mi ⊗ ni s.
i i
·K 2 M = M1 ⊕ M2 , §Ñ´ (S, R)-V, N ´ R-, K½n 4
Ó
M ⊗R N ∼= M1 ⊗R N +̇M2 ⊗R N (39)
´ S-Ó.
y² â·K 1, M ⊗R N, M1 ⊗R N, M2 ⊗R N Ñ´ S-. éu s ∈ S,
5½ s(v1 , v2 ) := (sv1 , sv2 ), ∀v1 ∈ M1 ⊗R N, v2 ∈ M2 ⊗R N , KNý Abel \+
M1 ⊗R N +̇M2 ⊗R N ¤ S-. ½n 4 y²L§¥, ®y σ ´+Ó.
X
eIy σ ^gS. ? M ⊗R N mi ⊗ ni . du
i
M = M1 ⊕ M2 , Ïd mi ©)¤
mi = mi1 + mi2 , mi1 ∈ M1 , mi2 ∈ M2 .
du M, M1 , M2 Ñ´ S-, Ïdéu?¿ s ∈ S, k
smi = smi1 + smi2 , smi1 ∈ M1 , smi2 ∈ M2 .
" !# !
X X
σ s mi ⊗ n i =σ smi ⊗ ni
i i
! !!
X X
= θ1 smi ⊗ ni , θ2 smi ⊗ ni
i i
§1 ÜþÈ · 117 ·
!
X X
= smi1 ⊗ ni , smi2 ⊗ ni ,
i i
" !# !
X X X
s σ mi ⊗ n i =s mi1 ⊗ ni , mi2 ⊗ ni
i i i
! !
X X X X
= s mi1 ⊗ ni , s mi2 ⊗ ni = smi1 ⊗ ni , smi2 ⊗ ni .
i i i i
Ïd " !# " !#
X X
σ s mi ⊗ n i =s σ mi ⊗ n i .
i i
ùy²
σ ´ S-Ó.
XJ·K 2 ¥ N ´ (R, H)-V, @o (39) ªÑÓ´m H-Ó.
e¡(J´± ²~^.
½n 5 R ´kü 1(6= 0) . N ´ R-, Kk R-Ó:
R ⊗R N ∼
= N. (40)
y² du R w¤´ (R, R)-V, Ïd R ⊗R N ´ R-. -
f :R×N → N
(r, n) 7→ rn.
w, f ´²ïN. u´3 R ⊗R N N +Ó ϕ, ¦ f = ϕt,
Xã 4–5 ¤«. u´k
ϕ(r ⊗ n) = ϕt(r, n) = f (r, n) = rn.
ã 4–5
,¡, -
ψ : N → R ⊗R N
n 7→ 1 ⊗ n.
w, ψ ´ N R ⊗R N +Ó. Ïd ϕψ = 1N . du
ψϕ(r ⊗ n) = ψ(rn) = 1 ⊗ rn = 1r ⊗ n = r ⊗ n,
¤± ψϕ ´ R ⊗R N þðC. l ϕ _. u´ ϕ ´ R ⊗R N N
+Ó.
? r ∈ R," ·k !# !
X X X
ϕ r ri ⊗ ni =ϕ rri ⊗ ni = ϕ(rri ⊗ ni )
i i i
· 118 · 1oÙ +L«ÜþÈ, +ÈL«
X
= (rri )ni ,
i
" !# " # !
X X X
r ϕ ri ⊗ ni =r ϕ(ri ⊗ ni ) = r ri ni
i i i
X X
= r(ri ni ) = (rri )ni ,
i i
Ód ϕ ´ R-Ó.
5 e N ´ (R, S)-V, K R ⊗R N ∼
= N ´m S-Ó. aq/, e M ´
(S, R)-V, K M ⊗R R ∼
= M Q´m R- Ó , q´ S-Ó.
y35ïÄÜþÈ÷v${K (3Ó¿Âe).
½n 6 (ÜþÈ(ÜÆ) R, S Ñ´kü , L ´m R-, M ´
(R, S)-V, N ´ S-, K L ⊗R M ´m S-, M ⊗S N ´ R-, ¿k+Ó
(L ⊗R M ) ⊗S N ∼
= L ⊗R (M ⊗S N ). (41)
?Ú, e L ´ (H, R)-V, KdÓ´ H-Ó; e N ´ (S, H)-V, Kd
Ó´m H-Ó, Ù¥ H ´kü .
©Û ùpkn: L, M, N . ÏdId§¤(kÈ L × M × N . a
qu M × N Abel \+ P ²ïN½Â, ±½Â L × M × N Abel \
+ P ²ïN f , §÷v:
f (l1 + l2 , m, n) = f (l1 , m, n) + f (l2 , m, n), (42)
f (l, m1 + m2 , n) = f (l, m1 , n) + f (l, m2 , n), (43)
f (l, m, n1 + n2 ) = f (l, m, n1 ) + f (l, m, n2 ), (44)
f (lr, m, n) = f (l, rm, n), (45)
f (l, ms, n) = f (l, m, sn). (46)
½n 6 y² du L ´m R-, M ´ (R, S)-V, Ïd L ⊗R M ´m S-.

qdu N ´ S-, Ïd (L ⊗R M ) ⊗S N ´ Abel \+. l L × M L ⊗R M
k²ïN t1 , l (L ⊗R M ) × N (L ⊗R M ) ⊗S N k²ïN t2 . u´±½Â
l L × M × N (L ⊗R M ) ⊗S N N t2 t1 Xe:
(t2 t1 )(l, m, n) := t2 (t1 (l, m), n). (47)
ØJy t2 t1 ´²ïN, ~X
(t2 t1 )(l1 + l2 , m, n) = t2 (t1 (l1 + l2 , m), n)
= t2 (t1 (l1 , m) + t1 (l2 , m), n) = t2 (t1 (l1 , m), n) + t2 (t1 (l2 , m), n)
= (t2 t1 )(l1 , m, n) + (t2 t1 )(l2 , m, n);
(t2 t1 )(lr, m, n) = t2 (t1 (lr, m), n) = t2 (t1 (l, rm), n)
= (t2 t1 )(l, rm, n);
. aq/, d®^ M ⊗S N ´ R-. l L ⊗R (M ⊗S N ) ´ Abel \
§1 ÜþÈ · 119 ·
+. y3-
f : L × M × N → L ⊗R (M ⊗S N )
(l, m, n) 7→ l ⊗ (m ⊗ n).
Ný f ´²ïN, ~X
f (l1 + l2 , m, n) = (l1 + l2 ) ⊗ (m ⊗ n) = l1 ⊗ (m ⊗ n) + l2 ⊗ (m ⊗ n)
= f (l1 , m, n) + f (l2 , m, n),
f (lr, m, n) = lr ⊗ (m ⊗ n) = l ⊗ r(m ⊗ n) = l ⊗ (rm ⊗ n)
= f (l, rm, n),
.
X
du L ⊗R M z´kÚ t1 (li , mi ), Ïd (L ⊗R M ) ⊗S N z
i
´kÚ " #
X X XX
t2 t1 (lij , mij ), nj = t2 (t1 (lij , mij ), nj )
j i j i
XX
= (t2 t1 )(lij , mij , nj ).
j i
- ϕ : (L ⊗R M ) ⊗S N → L ⊗R (M ⊗S N )
XX XX
(t2 t1 )(lij , mij , nj ) 7→ f (lij , mij , nj ),
j i j i
K ϕ Ń. l ϕ ½Â±9 t2 t1 Ú f Ñ´²ïNÑ: ϕ ±\{. Ï
d ϕ ´+Ó. l ϕ ½ÂwÑ
ϕ[(t2 t1 )(l, m, n)] = f (l, m, n) = l ⊗ (n ⊗ n).
du
ϕ[(t2 t1 )(l, m, n)] = ϕ[t2 (t1 (l, m), n)] = ϕ[t2 (l ⊗ m, n)]
= ϕ[(l ⊗ m) ⊗ n],
Ïd
ϕ[(l ⊗ m) ⊗ n] = l ⊗ (m ⊗ n). (48)
Xã 4–6 ¤«.
ã 4–6
Ón, 3l L ⊗R (M ⊗S N ) (L ⊗R M ) ⊗S N +Ó ψ, ¦

ψ[l ⊗ (m ⊗ n)] = (l ⊗ m) ⊗ n. (49)
· 120 · 1oÙ +L«ÜþÈ, +ÈL«
d (48) Ú (49) ªÑ, ψϕ, ϕψ ©O´ (L ⊗R M ) ⊗S N, L ⊗R (M ⊗S N ) þð

C. Ïd ϕ ´_N, l ϕ ´+Ó.
e L ´ (H, R)-V, Kéu? h ∈ H, k
ϕ[h((l ⊗ m) ⊗ n)] = ϕ[h(l ⊗ m) ⊗ n] = ϕ[(hl ⊗ m) ⊗ n] = hl ⊗ (m ⊗ n),
h[ϕ((l ⊗ m) ⊗ n)] = h[l ⊗ (m ⊗ n)] = hl ⊗ (m ⊗ n),
u´
ϕ[h((l ⊗ m) ⊗ n)] = h[ϕ((l ⊗ m) ⊗ n)]. (50)
ddÑ, ϕ ´ H-Ó.
aq/, e N ´ (S, H)-V, K ϕ ´m H-Ó.
3Ó¿Âe, ÜþÈ´Ä÷vÆ? úßÿù R 7L´, â
kU¦ÜþÈ÷vÆ (3Ó¿Âe). M ´m R-, -
rm := mr, ∀m ∈ M, r ∈ R,
K±y M ¤ R-, M ¤ (R, R)-V. N ´ R-, K3½Â 3
e¡®y N ¤ (R, R)-V. u´ M ⊗R N, N ⊗R M ÑQ´ R-, q´m
R-.
½n 7 (ÜþÈÆ) R ´kü 1(6= 0) , M ´m R-,
N ´ R-, Kk (m) R-Ó:
M ⊗R N ∼= N ⊗R M. (51)
y² -
f : M × N → N ⊗R M
(m, n) 7→ n ⊗ m.
du
f (m1 + m2 , n) = n ⊗ (m1 + m2 )
= n ⊗ m1 + n ⊗ m2 = f (m1 , n) + f (m2 , n),
f (m, n1 + n2 ) = f (m, n1 ) + f (m, n2 )
f (mr, n) = n ⊗ mr = n ⊗ (rm) = nr ⊗ m = rn ⊗ m
= f (m, rn).
Ïd f ´ M × N N ⊗R M ²ïN, l 3l M ⊗R N N ⊗R M
+Ó ϕ, ¦ f = ϕt, Xã 4–7 ¤«. u´éu?¿ (m, n) ∈ M × N , k
n ⊗ m = f (m, n) = ϕt(m, n) = ϕ(m ⊗ n).
ã 4–7
§1 ÜþÈ · 121 ·
aq/, 3l N ⊗R M M ⊗R N +Ó ψ, ¦

ψ(n ⊗ m) = m ⊗ n.
ddÑ, ψϕ, ϕψ ©O´ M ⊗R N, N ⊗R N þðC. l ϕ _. Ïd ϕ ´
+Ó.
? r ∈ R, k
ϕ[r(m ⊗ n)] = ϕ(rm ⊗ n) = n ⊗ rm = nr ⊗ m = rn ⊗ m,
r[ϕ(m ⊗ n)] = r(n ⊗ m) = rn ⊗ m,
ÏdÑ, ϕ ´ R-Ó.
aq/y, ϕ ´m R-Ó.
½n 4 Ú·K 2 ±w¤´ÜþÈ'uÚ©Æ (3Ó¿Âe).
du K þ5m V ±w¤ (K, K)-V, Ïdþã'uÜþÈ
VgÚ5±A^5mþ.
V Ú W ´ K þ5m, K V ⊗K W Q´ K-, q´m K-, l
´ K þ5m, Ù¥Xþ¦{ !
X X X
k vi ⊗ wi = kvi ⊗ wi = vi ⊗ kwi .
i i i
½n 8 e V Ú W Ñ´ K þk5m, K V ⊗K W ´ K þk
5m, ¿
dimK (V ⊗K W ) = ( dimK V )( dimK W ), (52)
e v1 , v2 , · · · , vr ´ V Ä; w1 , w2 , · · · , ws ´ W Ä, K
{vi ⊗ wj |i = 1, 2, · · · , r; j = 1, 2, · · · , s}
´ V ⊗K W Ä.
y² du V = hv1 i ⊕ hv2 i ⊕ · · · ⊕ hvr i, Ïd
V ⊗K W ∼
= hv1 i ⊗K W +̇hv2 i ⊗K W +̇ · · · +̇hvr i ⊗K W. (53)
ù´ K-Ó, q´m K-Ó. l ´5mÓ. du hvi i ∼ = K, Ïd
hvi i ⊗K W ∼ = K ⊗K W ∼ = W, (54)
ù´ K-Ó, q´m K-Ó, l ´5mÓ. l (53) ªÚ (54) ª

V ⊗K W ∼ = |W +̇W +̇ · · · +̇W , (55)
{z }
r
Ïd
dim(V ⊗K W ) = r( dimW ) = ( dimV )( dimW ). (56)
du ! !
r
X s
X r X
X s
v⊗w = ai vi ⊗ bj wj = (ai vi ) ⊗ (bj wj )
i=1 i=1 i=1 j=1
r X
X s
= ai bj (vi ⊗ wj ),
i=1 j=1
· 122 · 1oÙ +L«ÜþÈ, +ÈL«
¿ dim(V ⊗K W ) = rs, Ïd
{vi ⊗ wj |1 6 i 6 r, 1 6 j 6 s}
´ V ⊗K W Ä.
íØ 3 V Ú W Ñ´ K þ5m, éu v ∈ V, w ∈ W , e v 6= 0,
w 6= 0, K3 V ⊗K W ¥, v ⊗ w 6= 0.
y² ©O V, W kfm V1 , W1 , v ∈ V1 , w ∈ W1 . du v 6= 0,
Ïd v ±*¿¤ V1 K-Ä v, v2 , · · · , vr . Ón, w ±*¿¤ W1
K-Ä w, w2 , · · · , ws . â½n 8, v ⊗ w ´ V1 ⊗K W1 Äþ. Ïd3 V1 ⊗K W1
¥ v ⊗ w 6= 0. du V1 ⊗K W1 ⊆ V ⊗K W , Ïd3 V ⊗K W ¥, v ⊗ w 6= 0.
Vi Ú Vi′ Ñ´ K þ5m, i = 1, 2. Ai : Vi → Vi′ ´5N,
i = 1, 2. du5N Ai ´ Vi Vi′ Ó. Ïdâ½n 3 , 3 V1 ⊗K V2
V1′ ⊗K V2′ +Ó A1 ⊗ A2 , ¦
( A1 ⊗ A2 )(v1 ⊗ v2 ) = A1 (v1 ) ⊗ A2 (v2 ), (57)
duéu?¿ k ∈ K, k
( A1 ⊗ A2 )[k(v1 ⊗ v2 )] = ( A1 ⊗ A2 )(kv1 ⊗ v2 ) = A1 (kv1 ) ⊗ A2 (v2 )
= k A1 (v1 ) ⊗ A2 (v2 ) = k[ A1 (v1 ) ⊗ A2 (v2 )]
= k( A1 ⊗ A2 )(v1 ⊗ v2 ),
Ïd A1 ⊗ A2 ´5m V1 ⊗K V2 V1′ ⊗K V2′ 5N. ¡ A1 ⊗ A2 ´
5N A1 A2 ÜþÈ.
AO/, V Ú W Ñ´ K þ5m, A, B ©O´ V, W þ5C
, K3 V ⊗K W þ5C A ⊗ B, ¦
( A ⊗ B)(v ⊗ w) = A(v) ⊗ B(w), (58)
¡ A ⊗ B ´5C A B ÜþÈ.
dimK V = r, dimK W = s. 3 V ¥Ä v1 , v2 , · · · , vr ; 3 W ¥Ä
w1 , w2 , · · · , ws , K
v1 ⊗ w1 , · · · , v1 ⊗ ws , · · · , vr ⊗ w1 , · · · , vr ⊗ ws (59)
´ V ⊗K W Ä.
A(v1 , v2 , · · · , vr ) = (v1 , v2 , · · · , vr )A, (60)
B(w1 , w2 , · · · , ws ) = (w1 , w2 , · · · , ws )B, (61)
Ù¥ A = (aij ), B = (bij ) ©O´ K þ r Ú s Ý
. &? A ⊗ B 3 (59)
ªÑÄeÝ
C óf? ! !
r
X s
X
( A ⊗ B)(vi ⊗ wj ) = Avi ⊗ Bwj = ali vl ⊗ bkj wk
l=1 k=1
r X
X s
= ali bkj vl ⊗ wk . (62)
l=1 k=1
rÝ
C ©¬, C 1©¤ r |, z|k s 1; C ©¤ r |, z|k s . l
§1 ÜþÈ · 123 ·
r X
X s
(62) ª, ( A ⊗ B)(vi ⊗ wj ) = ali bkj vl ⊗ wk , l C (p, q) ¬
 l=1 k=1 
apq b11 apq b12 ··· apq b1s
 
 apq b21 apq b22 ··· apq b2s 
 
 . .. ..  = apq B. (63)
 .. . . 
 
apq bs1 ap bs2 ··· apq bss
Ïd A ⊗ B 3þãÄeÝ
 C eã©¬Ý

a11 B a12 B · · · a1r B
 
 a21 B a22 B · · · a2r B 
 
C = . .. ..  . (64)
 .. . . 
 
ar1 B ar2 B · · · arr B
(64) ªmàÝ
P A ⊗ B, ¡§ A B Kronecher È.
éu K þk5m V Ú W , §éóm V ∗ Ú W ∗ þV5
¼ê (= V ∗ × W ∗ K V5N) |¤5m P(V ∗ , W ∗ ) Ò´ V W
ÜþÈ, V × W P(V ∗ , W ∗ ) V5N τ
τ (v, w) := v ⊗ w,
Ù¥ (v ⊗ w)(g, h) = g(v)h(w), ∀g ∈ V ∗ , h ∈ W ∗ .
´éu K þÃ5m V Ú W , E,I^!Em R- M
R- N ÜþÈ{ (=½n 1), 5E V W ÜþÈ. ù
ëw [28] 1
806 — 821 .
SK 4.1
1. y²: Q ⊗ Z Z2 = 0.
2. S, R Ñ´kü , M ´ (S, R)-V, y²: M ⊗R R ∼
= M ´ S-
Ó, ´m R-Ó.
3. V, W Ñ´ K þ5m, A, A1 , A2 ´ V þ5C, B, B 1 , B 2
´ W þ5C, IV , IW , IV ⊗W ©OL« V, W, V ⊗K W þðC. y²:
(1) ( A1 + A2 ) ⊗ B = A1 ⊗ B + A2 ⊗ B;
(2) A ⊗ ( B 1 + B 2 ) = A ⊗ B 1 + A ⊗ B 2 ;
(3) ( A1 ⊗ B 1 )( A2 ⊗ B 2 ) = A1 A2 ⊗ B 1 B 2 ;
(4) (k A) ⊗ B = A ⊗ (k B) = k( A ⊗ B), k ∈ K;
(5) IV ⊗ IW = IV ⊗W ;
(6) l A, B _±íÑ A ⊗ B _,
( A ⊗ B)−1 = A−1 ⊗ B −1 .
4. V ´ K þ5m, F ¹ K, y²:
(1) F ⊗K V ´ F þ5m, P V F ;
· 124 · 1oÙ +L«ÜþÈ, +ÈL«
(2) e V ´ r , Ù K-Ä v1 , v2 , · · · , vr , K V F ´ r , 1 ⊗ v1 , 1 ⊗

v2 , · · · , 1 ⊗ vr ´ V F F -Ä.
§2 +L«ÜþÈ
y3·Ñl+ G ü®L«E#L«q«{.
(ϕ, V ) Ú (ψ, W ) ´+ G ü K-L«. Äk K þ5m V W
ÜþÈ V ⊗K W . duéu G ?¿ g, ϕ(g) Ú ψ(g) ©O´ V Ú W þ5C
, Ïd V ⊗K W þ5C ϕ(g)⊗ψ(g) ¦ (ϕ(g)⊗ψ(g))(v ⊗w) =
[ϕ(g)](v) ⊗ [ψ(g)](w). qdu ϕ(g) Ú ψ(g) Ñ_, ÏdâSK 4.1 1 3 K,
ϕ(g) ⊗ ψ(g) _, [ϕ(g) ⊗ ψ(g)]−1 = [ϕ(g)]−1 ⊗ [ψ(g)]−1 . u´ G
GL (V ⊗K W ) N, P ϕ ⊗ ψ, Xe:
(ϕ ⊗ ψ)(g) := ϕ(g) ⊗ ψ(g). (1)
éu?¿ x, y ∈ G, k
(ϕ ⊗ ψ)(xy) = ϕ(xy) ⊗ ψ(xy) = ϕ(x)ϕ(y) ⊗ ψ(x)ψ(y)
= (ϕ(x) ⊗ ψ(x))(ϕ(y) ⊗ ψ(y)) = [(ϕ ⊗ ψ)(x)][(ϕ ⊗ ψ)(y)],
Ïd ϕ ⊗ ψ ´+ G GL (V ⊗K W ) +Ó. l (ϕ ⊗ ψ, V ⊗K W ) ´+ G
K-L«. ¡ ϕ ⊗ ψ ´ G L« ϕ ψ ÜþÈ, ¡§´ÜþÈL«.
V Ú W ´k, ·r (ϕ, V ), (ψ, W ), ±9 (ϕ ⊗ ψ, V ⊗K W ) ©O3
V, W, V ⊗K W AÄeJøÝ
L«P Φ, Ψ , ±9 Φ ⊗ Ψ , KâÙ §1
ê1ã
(Φ ⊗ Ψ )(g) = Φ(g) ⊗ Ψ (g). (2)
Φ(g) = (aij (g)), dimV = r, KâÙ §1 (64) ª

χϕ⊗ψ (g) = tr [(Φ ⊗ Ψ )(g)] = tr [Φ(g) ⊗ Ψ (g)]
r
" r #
X X
= tr [aii (g)Ψ (g)] = aii (g) tr [Ψ (g)]
i=1 i=1
= tr [Φ(g)] tr [Ψ (g)] = χϕ (g)χψ (g),
=
χϕ⊗ψ (g) = χϕ (g)χψ (g), ∀g ∈ G. (3)
ù·y²
eã·K.
·K 1 + G ük K-L« (ϕ, V ) Ú (ψ, W ) ÜþÈ (ϕ⊗ψ, V ⊗K W )
JøAI χϕ⊗ψ u ϕ AI χϕ ψ AI χψ ¦È:
χϕ⊗ψ = χϕ χψ . (4)
íØ 1 + G üAI¦ÈE´ G AI.
y² d·K 1 á=.
·K 2 (ϕ, V ) ´+ G 1 g K-L«, (ψ, W ) ´ G n gØ K-L«,
K (ϕ ⊗ ψ, V ⊗K W ) ´ G n gØ K-L«.
§2 +L«ÜþÈ · 125 ·
y²3Öö, !SK1 1 K.
|^·K 2, ±l+ G ® 1 gÌL« ϕ Ú n gØL« ψ,
ÏLÜþÈEÑ ψ Ød n gØL«. ëw!SK1 3 K.
ϕ, ψ ´+ G ügêu 1 Ø K-L«, §ÜþÈ ϕ ⊗ ψ k
U. r ϕ ⊗ ψ ©)¤
ØL«Ú, l¥kU ϕ, ψ ÑØd
ØL«. ù·|^+ G ®ØL«ÜþÈ9ÙÚ©)Òk
U G
ØL«.
~X, + A5 k 5 Ýa, ÙL©O
(1), (12)(34), (123), (12345), (13524),
Ýaêg
1, 15, 20, 12, 12.
(ëw [24] 1 80 1 21 K, l S5 Ýa¥, róÝae5, ¿
ïÄ S5 ÝaUÄ ¤ A5 üÝa).
A5 Óu¡N (½¡N) ^=é¡+ G. ±¡N¥%
:, éu G ¥z^=, ±=¶ e3 , ïáIX [O; e1 , e2 , e3 ], K
d^=3ùÄ e1 , e2 , e3 eÝ
 
cos θ − sin θ 0
 
B=  sin θ cos θ 0,
0 0 1
Ù¥ θ =. r B w¤EÝ
, 3 E5m V , V þ5C
B 3 V ÄeÝ
B. ^ù«{ A5 3 gEL« ϕ. dd
Ñ
χϕ ((12)(34)) = 1 + 2 cos π = −1,
2π
χϕ ((123)) = 1 + 2 cos = 0,
3 √ √
2π −1 + 5 1+ 5
χϕ ((12345)) = 1 + 2 cos =1+2 = ,
5 4√ 2√
4π −1 − 5 1− 5
χϕ ((13524)) = 1 + 2 cos =1+2 = .
5 4 2
du " √ !2 √ !2 #
1 2 1 + 5 1 − 5
(χϕ , χϕ ) = 3 + 15 · (−1)2 + 20 · 02 + 12 · + 12 · = 1,
60 2 2
Ïd ϕ ´ A5 ØEL«.
r ϕ ⊗ ϕ P ψ, K ψ ´ A5 9 gEL«,
χψ ((12)(34)) = [χϕ ((12)(34))]2 = 1,
χψ ((123)) = [χϕ ((123))]2 = 0,
1 √
χψ ((12345)) = [χϕ ((12345))]2 = (3 + 5),
2
2 1 √
χψ ((13524)) = [χϕ ((13524))] = (3 − 5).
2
· 126 · 1oÙ +L«ÜþÈ, +ÈL«
^ χ0 L« A5 ÌAI . du
1 1 √ 1 √
(χψ , χ0 ) = 9 + 15 · 1 + 20 · 0 + 12 · (3 + 5) + 12 · (3 − 5) = 1,
60 2 2

1 1 √ 1 √
(χψ , χϕ ) = 9 · 3 + 15 · 1 · (−1) + 20 · 0 · 0 + 12 · (3 + 5) · (1 + 5)
60 2 2

1 √ 1 √
+12 · (3 − 5) · (1 − 5) = 1,
2 2
Ïd A5 ÌL«Ú 3 gØEL« ϕ 3 ψ Ú©)ª¥Ñy 1 g. u´
χψ − χ0 − χϕ ´ A5 5 gEL« ξ AI.
χξ ((12)(34)) = 1 − 1 − (−1) = 1,
χξ ((123)) = 0 − 1 − 0 = −1,
1 √ 1 √
χξ ((12345)) = (3 + 5) − 1 − (1 + 5) = 0,
2 2
1 √ 1 √
χξ ((13524)) = (3 − 5) − 1 − (1 − 5) = 0.
2 2
du
1 2
(χξ , χξ ) = [5 + 15 · 12 + 20 · (−1)2 + 12 · 02 + 12 · 02 ] = 1,
60
Ïd ξ ´ A5 5 gØEAI.
þã~fL²: ·l A5 3 gØEL« ϕ gÜþÈ ϕ ⊗ ϕ
Ú©)¥
A5 5 gØEL« ξ.
SK 4.2
1. (ϕ, V ) ´+ G 1 g K-L«, (ψ, W ) ´ G n gØ K-L«, y²:

(ϕ ⊗ ψ, V ⊗K W ) ´ G n gØ K-L«.
2. G ´k+, C1 , C2 , · · · , Cs ´ G ÜÝa, gj ∈ Cj (j = 1, 2, · · · , s).
χ1 , χ2 , · · · , χs ´ G ÜØØEAI. y²:
.X
s
|Cj | = |G| χl (gj )χl (gj ), j = 1, 2, · · · , s.
l=1
3. ®k+ G 1 gEAI χ2 Ú 2 gØEAI χ4 . §
3 G ÝaL {g1 = 1, g2 , · · · , g7 } þXe:
g1 g2 g3 g4 g5 g6 g7
χ2 1 1 1 ω2 ω ω2 ω
χ4 2 −2 0 −1 −1 1 1
i 2π
Ù¥ ω = e . 3
(1) ¦ G EAIL, ±9 |G|;

(2) ¦ G Ýaê;
(3) ¦ G Ü5f+ (Ñz5f+d=
Ýa|¤±9T5
f+);
§3 +ÈL« · 127 ·
(4) ¦ G f+ G′ ;
(5) ¦ G ¥% Z(G), G ´Ä Abel +?
§3 +ÈL«
G1 , G2 ´+, 3 G1 × G2 þ5½¦{$Xe:
(x1 , x2 )(y1 , y2 ) := (x1 y1 , x2 y2 ),
K G1 × G2 ¤+, ¡§ G1 G2 È (½ È), EP G1 × G2 ( G1
Ú G2 Ñ´ Abel \{+, ÈÏ~¡ Ú, P G1 +̇G2 ). (ϕ, V ), (ψ, W )
©O´ G1 Ú G2 K-L«. - G = G1 × G2 , · G K-L«,
dE K[G]-. N´5m V Ú W ÜþÈ V ⊗K W . du
(ϕ, V ) ´ G1 K-L«, Ïd V ´ K[G1 ]-. Ón W ´ K[G2 ]-.
¦
V ⊗K W ¤ K[G]-, aquÙ §1 ·K 1 y²¥æ^{, ·±
+ê K[G] 3 V ⊗K W þ^:
(g1 , g2 )(v ⊗ w) := g1 v ⊗ g2 w, ∀g1 ∈ G1 , g2 ∈ G2 , v ∈ V, w ∈ W. (1)
¿5/*¿ K[G] Ú V ⊗K W þ. ù V ⊗K W ¤ K[G]-, ¡§´
K[G1 ]- V K[G2 ]- W ÜþÈ, r§P V #W . d K[G]- V #W
Jø G L«¡ G1 L« ϕ G2 L« ψ ÜþÈ, P ϕ#ψ. u´k
[(ϕ#ψ)(g1 , g2 )](v ⊗ w) = (g1 , g2 )(v ⊗ w) = g1 v ⊗ g2 w
= ϕ(g1 )v ⊗ ψ(g2 )w
= [ϕ(g1 ) ⊗ ψ(g2 )](v ⊗ w). (2)
ddÑ
(ϕ#ψ)(g1 , g2 ) = ϕ(g1 ) ⊗ ψ(g2 ). (3)
l V Ú W Ñ´k, AÝ
L«÷veã'Xª:
(Φ#Ψ )(g1 , g2 ) = Φ(g1 ) ⊗ Ψ (g2 ), ∀g1 ∈ G1 , g2 ∈ G2 . (4)
uÁAI÷v:
χϕ#ψ (g1 , g2 ) = χϕ (g1 )χψ (g2 ), ∀g1 ∈ G1 , g2 ∈ G2 . (5)
y3?Ø ÜþÈL«d¯K.
½n 1 G ´+ G1 G2 È. K ´?. (ϕ, V ) Ú (ϕ′ , V ′ ) ´ G1
ükØ K-L«; (ψ, W ) Ú (ψ ′ , W ′ ) ´ G2 ükØ K-L
«, K ϕ#ψ ≈ ϕ′ #ψ ′ = ϕ ≈ ϕ′ ψ ≈ ψ ′ .
y² ¿©5. ϕ ≈ ϕ′ ψ ≈ ψ ′ , K35m V V ′ Ó σ
Ú W W ′ Ó τ , ¦
ϕ′ (g1 )σ = σϕ(g1 ), ∀g1 ∈ G;
ψ ′ (g2 )τ = τ ψ(g2 ),
∀g2 ∈ G.
w, σ ⊗ τ ´5m V ⊗K W V ′ ⊗K W ′ 5N, σ−1 ⊗ τ −1 ´5m
· 128 · 1oÙ +L«ÜþÈ, +ÈL«
V ′ ⊗K W ′ V ⊗K W 5N, ¿k
(σ −1 ⊗ τ −1 )(σ ⊗ τ ) = σ −1 σ ⊗ τ −1 τ = 1V ⊗ 1W = 1V ⊗K W ,
(σ ⊗ τ )(σ −1 ⊗ τ −1 ) = σσ −1 ⊗ τ τ −1 = 1V ′ ⊗ 1W ′ = 1V ′ ⊗K W ′ .
l σ ⊗ τ ´_N. Ïd σ ⊗ τ ´5m V ⊗K W V ′ ⊗K W ′ Ó.
·k
(ϕ′ #ψ ′ )(g1 , g2 )(σ ⊗ τ )(v ⊗ w)
= ϕ′ (g1 )(σ(v)) ⊗ ψ ′ (g2 )(τ (w)) = σϕ(g1 )v ⊗ τ ψ(g2 )w
= (σ ⊗ τ )[(ϕ#ψ)(g1 , g2 )](v ⊗ w).
ddÑ
[(ϕ′ #ψ ′ )(g1 , g2 )](σ ⊗ τ ) = (σ ⊗ τ )[(ϕ#ψ)(g1 , g2 )], ∀g1 ∈ G1 , g2 ∈ G2 ,
Ïd ϕ′ #ψ ′ ≈ ϕ#ψ.
5 3y²¿©5, ØIØ^, ØIk^.
75. ϕ#ψ ≈ ϕ′ #ψ ′ , Kk K[G]-Ó:
V #W ∼ = V ′ #W ′ .

y ϕ ≈ ϕ′ , y: k K[G1 ]-Ó V ∼ = V ′.
du G1 × {1} ∼ = G1 , G1 × {1} < G1 × G2 , Ïdr G1 w¤´ G f+. l
r V #W Ú V #W ′ Ñw¤´ K[G1 ]-, d g1 (v⊗w) = g1 v⊗w, g1 (v ′ ⊗w) =
′
g1 v ′ ⊗ w′ . u´k K[G1 ]-Ó: V #W ∼ = V ′ #W ′ .

3 W ¥Ä w1 , w2 , · · · , wm . du V ´ (K[G1 ], K)-V, Ïdk K[G1 ]-
Ó:
V ⊗K W ∼ = V ⊗K hw1 i+̇ · · · +̇V ⊗K hwm i.
w,k5mÓ: V ⊗K hwi i ∼ = V ⊗K K, ÙÓ τi r v ⊗ wi N¤ v ⊗ 1. du

τi (g1 (v ⊗ wi )) = τi (g1 v ⊗ wi ) = g1 v ⊗ 1 = g1 (v ⊗ 1) = g1 τi (v ⊗ wi ),
Ïd τi ´ K[G1 ]-Ó. l k K[G1 ]-Ó:
V ⊗K W ∼ = V ⊗K K +̇ · · · +̇V ⊗K K ∼ =V +̇ · · · +̇V .
| {z }
m
aq/, 3 W ′ ¥Ä w1′ , w2′ , · · · , wn′ , K[G1 ]-Ó:
V ′ ⊗K W ′ ∼ =V ′
+̇ · · · +̇V ′ .
| {z }
n
K[|G1 ]- V ⊗K W (= V #W ) kÝ m Ü¤:
V +̇V +̇ · · · +̇V ⊇ V +̇ · · · +̇V ⊇ · · · ⊇ V ⊇ {0};
| {z } | {z }
m (m−1)
′ ′ ′ ′
K[G1 ]- V ⊗K W (= V #W ) kÝ n Ü¤:
V ′ +̇V ′ +̇ · · · +̇V ′ ⊇ V ′ +̇ · · · +̇V ′ ⊇ · · · ⊇ V ′ ⊇ {0}.
| {z } | {z }
n (n−1)
du K[G1 ]- V #W V ′ #W ′ Ó, Ïdâ Jordan-Hölder ½n, m = n,
k K[G1 ]-Ó: V ∼
= V ′ . u´ ϕ ≈ ϕ′ .
§3 +ÈL« · 129 ·
aq/, V ¥Ä v1 , v2 , · · · , vr , keã5mÓ:

V ⊗K W ∼
= hv1 i ⊗K W +̇hv2 i ⊗K W +̇ · · · +̇hvr i ⊗K W.
du {1}×G2 ∼
= G2 , Ïd G2 w¤´ G = G1 ×G2 f+. l r V #W, V ′ #W ′
Ñw¤´ K[G2 ]-. d
g2 (v ⊗ w) = v ⊗ g2 w, g2 (v ′ ⊗ w′ ) = v ′ ⊗ g2 w′ .
ØJy²þã5mÓ´ K[G2 ]-Ó. y²k K[G2 ]-Ó:
hvi i ⊗K W ∼
= K ⊗K W ∼
= W . u´k K[G2 ]-Ó:
V ⊗K W ∼
=W +̇ · · · +̇W .
| {z }
r
aq/, k K[G2 ]-Ó: V ′ ⊗K W ′ ∼
=W|
′
+̇ · · · +̇W ′ , Ù¥ s ´ V ′ ê. u´
{z }
s
y W ∼ = W ′ . l ψ ≈ ψ.
½n 2 K ´?, (ϕ, V ), (ψ, W ) ©O´+ G1 , G2 K-L«, G = G1 ×
G2 . XJ ϕ#ψ ´ G Ø K-L«, @o ϕ Ú ψ ÑØ.
y² bX ϕ , K V k² G1 ØCfm V1 . V = V1 ⊕ V2 . u
´k K-Ó: V ⊗K W ∼ = V1 ⊗K W +̇V2 ⊗K W . âÙ §1 ½n 4 y²L
§, ÙÓN σ _N τ
τ : V1 ⊗K W +̇V2 ⊗K W → V ⊗K W
(α1 , α2 ) 7→ j1 (α1 ) + j2 (α2 ),
Ù¥ j1 = i1 ⊗ 1W , j2 = i2 ⊗ 1W , i1 ´ V1 V ¹\N, i2 ´ V2 V ¹\N
. P U = τ (V1 ⊗K W +̇{0}). du
dimV1 ⊗K W = ( dimK V1 )( dimK W ) < ( dimK V )( dimK W ) = dimK (V ⊗K W ),
dimV1 ⊗K W > 0, Ïd U ´ V ⊗K W ²5fm. U ´deã/ª
kÚ|¤8Ü:! !
X X X X
τ v1i ⊗ wi , 0 = j1 v1i ⊗ wi + j2 (0) = j1 (v1i ⊗ wi ) = v1i ⊗ wi ,
i i i i
Ù¥ v1i ∈ V1 , wi ∈ W . ·k !
X X
(ϕ#ψ)(g1 , g2 ) v1i ⊗ wi = (ϕ#ψ)(g1 , g2 )(v1i ⊗ wi )
i i
X
= ϕ(g1 )v1i ⊗ ψ(g2 )wi .
i
du V1 ´ G1 ØCfm, Ïd ϕ(g1 )v1i ∈ V1 . l
X
ϕ(g1 )v1i ⊗ ψ(g2 )wi ∈ U, ∀g1 ∈ G1 , g2 ∈ G2 .
i
u´ U ´ V #W ² G ØCfm. ù ϕ#ψ Øgñ. Ïd ϕ Ø.
Ón, ψ Ø.
½n 3 ϕ, ψ ©O´k+ G1 Ú G2 ØEL«, K ϕ#ψ ´ G =
G1 × G2 ØEL«.
· 130 · 1oÙ +L«ÜþÈ, +ÈL«
y² du ϕ, ψ Ø, Ïd (χϕ , χϕ ) = 1, (χψ , χψ ) = 1.

1 X
(χϕ#ψ , χϕ#ψ ) = χϕ#ψ (g)χϕ#ψ (g)
|G|
g∈G
1 X X
= χϕ (g1 )χψ (g2 )χϕ (g1 )χψ (g2 )
|G1 ||G2 |
g ∈G g ∈G
1 2
= (χϕ , χϕ )(xψ , χψ ) = 1.
u´ χϕ#ψ Ø.
½n 4 G1 Ú G2 Ñ´k+, ϕ1 , ϕ2 , · · · , ϕs ´ G1 ¤kØdØ
EL«; ψ1 , ψ2 , · · · , ψr ´ G2 ¤kØdØEL«, K
{ϕi #ψj |i = 1, 2, · · · , s; j = 1, 2, · · · , r}
´ G = G1 × G2 ¤kØdØEL«.
y² d½n 3 , z ϕi #ψj Ñ´ G = G1 ×G2 ØEL«. d½n 1 ,
ϕi #ψj ≈ ϕk #ψl = i = k j = l. Ïd {ϕi #ψj |i = 1, 2, · · · , s; j = 1, 2, · · · , r}
Ñ
G sr ØdEL«.
G1 , G2 ©Ok s !r Ýa, ÙL {a1 , a2 , · · · , as }, {b1 , b2 , · · · , br }.
éu G ¥ (x1 , x2 ) (y1 , y2 ),
(x1 , x2 ) (y1 , y2 ) 3 G ¥Ý
⇐⇒ 3 (g1 , g2 ) ∈ G, ¦
(g1 , g2 )(x1 , x2 )(g1 , g2 )−1 = (y1 , y2 ),
= (g1 x1 g1−1 , g2 x2 g2−1 ) = (y1 , y2 )
⇐⇒ 3 g1 ∈ G1 , g2 ∈ G2 , ¦
g1 x1 g1−1 = y1 , g2 x2 g2−1 = y2
⇐⇒ x1 y1 3 G1 ¥Ý, x2 y2 3 G2 ¥Ý.
Ïd G ÜÝaL
{(ai , bj )|i = 1, 2, · · · , s; j = 1, 2, · · · , r}.
l G k sr Ýa. u´ G k sr ØdØEL«. Ïd {ϕi #ψj |1 6

i 6 s, 1 6 j 6 r} ´ G ÜØdØEL«.
íØ 1 ^Ó½n 4. e G1 , G2 EAIL©O T1 Ú T2 , K G = G1 ×G2
EAIL T = T1 ⊗ T2 .
y² d½n 4 , {χϕi #ψj |1 6 i 6 s, 1 6 j 6 r} ´ G ÜØØ
EAI. du
χϕi #ψj (g1 , g2 ) = χϕi (g1 )χψj (g2 ), ∀g1 ∈ G1 , g2 ∈ G2 .
§4 ØEL«gê÷vq^ · 131 ·
Ïd G EAIL T 1 i 1|1 j | fÝ

(aj , b1 ) (aj , b2 ) ··· (aj , br )
 
χϕi #ψ1 χϕi (aj )χψ1 (b1 ) χϕi (aj )χψ1 (b2 ) · · · χϕi (aj )χψ1 (br )
 
χϕi #ψ2  χϕi (aj )χψ2 (b1 ) χϕi (aj )χψ2 (b2 ) · · · χϕi (aj )χψ2 (br ) 
 
..  .. .. ..  = χϕi (aj )T2 ,
.  . . . 
 
χϕi #ψr χϕi (aj )χψr (b1 ) χϕi (aj )χψr (b2 ) · · · χϕi (aj )χψr (br )
l  
χϕ1 (a1 )T2 χϕ1 (a2 )T2 ··· χϕ1 (as )T2
 
 χϕ2 (a1 )T2 χϕ2 (a2 )T2 ··· χϕ2 (as )T2 
 
T = .. .. ..  = T1 ⊗ T2 .
 . . . 
 
χϕs (a1 )T2 χϕs (a2 )T2 ··· χϕs (as )T2
SK 4.3
1. ¦+ G = Z2 × Z2 × Z2 EAIL.
2. ¦ 15 + G EAIL (J«: â [24] 1 85 Sylow 1n½n, G
Sylow 3-f+ê 1 + 3k 1 + 3k|5. u´ k = 0. l G Sylow 3-f+
k P , u´ P ⊳ G. Ón, G Sylow 5-f+ê 1. u´ G Sylow
T |P ||Q|
5-f+ Q ⊳ G. w, P Q = {1}, l |P Q| = T = 15. u´ G = P Q. du
|P Q| T
P ⊳ G, Q ⊳ G, Ïdéu?¿ a ∈ P, b ∈ Q, k aba b ∈ P Q. l aba−1 b−1 = 1.
−1 −1
ùL« P Q . â [24] 1 47 ½n 4 , G ∼ = P × Q. u

´l P, Q EAILÑ G EAIL. ){: P = hai, Q = hbi. ´¦
Ñ ab 15, Ïd G ´ 15 Ì+. l ±Ñ G EAIL).
§4 ØEL«gê÷vq^
!ò|^ ÜþÈy²k+ØEL«gê÷vq^.
½n 1 (Schur) k+ G ?ØEL«gêUØ [G : Z(G)], Ù
¥ Z(G) ´ G ¥%.
y² ? G ØEL« (ϕ, V ), ϕ JøAIP χ. ? a ∈
Z(G), w, ϕ(a) ϕ(g) . qdu ϕ Ø, âSK 2.4 1 2 K

ϕ(a) = λ(a)1V ,
Ù¥ λ(a) ∈ C. N a 7→ λ(a) w,´ Z(G) C∗ +Ó. ?ê m,

Ä C[G]- V m ÜþÈ: V #V # · · · #V , P V (m) . du V Ø,
âÙ §3 ½n 3 : V (m) Jø G × G × · · · × G L« ϕ#φ# · · · #ϕ ´Ø
· 132 · 1oÙ +L«ÜþÈ, +ÈL«
. -
Hm = {(a1 , a2 , · · · , am )|a1 a2 · · · am = 1, ai ∈ Z(G), 1 6 i 6 m},
w, Hm ´ Z(G)×· · ·× Z(G) f+, ¿ |Hm | = | Z(G)|m−1 . ? (a1 , a2 , · · · , am )
∈ Hm , v1 ⊗ · · · ⊗ vm ∈ V (m) , k
(a1 , a2 , · · · , am )(v1 ⊗ · · · ⊗ vm ) = a1 v1 ⊗ · · · ⊗ am vm
= λ(a1 )v1 ⊗ · · · ⊗ λ(am )vm
= λ(a1 ) · · · λ(am )[v1 ⊗ · · · ⊗ vm ]
= λ(a1 · · · am )[v1 ⊗ · · · ⊗ vm ]
= λ(1)[v1 ⊗ · · · ⊗ vm ] = v1 ⊗ · · · ⊗ vm ,
Ïd (a1 , a2 , · · · , am ) ∈ Ker (ϕ#ϕ# · · · #ϕ). l Hm ⊆ Ker (ϕ#ϕ# · · · #ϕ). u´
û+ G × · · · × G/Hm ØL« ψ ¦ ψ J,u ϕ#ϕ# · · · #ϕ. ψ
ϕ#ϕ# · · · #ϕ kÓL«m, Ùê χ(1)m . â1nÙ §3 ½n 1 :
|G|m
χ(1)m Ø = [G : Z(G)]m · | Z(G)|. Ïd
|Hm | m
[G : Z(G)] km
= , km ´ê.
χ(1) | Z(G)|
P
[G : Z(G)]
α= ,
χ(1)
1
Kdþã: éê m k αm ∈ Z. l
| Z(G)|
1
Z[α] ⊆ Z.
| Z(G)|
1 1
w, Z ´ Z-, ¿ ´§)¤. duÌnþk)¤
| Z(G)| | Z(G)|
fE´k)¤, ¤± Z[α] ´k)¤. â1nÙ §3 ·K 1 α ´
êê. qdu α ´knê, Ïd α ´knê. l χ(1)|[G : Z(G)] (ùy²
´d J.Tate Ñ).
SK 4.4
1. (ϕ, V ) ´k+ G ?ØEL«, ϕ JøAIP χ. y²:

(1) χ(1)|[G : Z(χ)];
(2) χ(1)2 6 [G : Z(χ)], Ò¤á=é y ∈ G\Z(χ) k χ(y) = 0;
(3) e G′ ⊆ Z(χ), K χ(1)2 = [G : Z(χ)].
1ÊÙ
pL«ÚpAI
Ïé+ G ØL«q{´|^ G f+ØL«5¼ G

ØL«. Ù5?Øù¯K.
§1 pL«
(ψ, W ) ´+ G f+ H K-L«, XÛd§E G K-L«?

^ó5`, l K[H]- W Ñu, XÛE K[G]-?
½Â 1 K ´?, H ´+ G f+, (ψ, W ) ´ H K-L«, K
(K[G], K[H])-V K[G] K[H]- W ÜþÈ
K[G] ⊗K[H] W
´ K[G]-, ¡§´ W p, P W G . d W G Jø G K-L«¡ ψ
pL«, P ψ G .
W ´k, g,¯: W G ´Äk? W G ê dimW ko'
X?
½n 1 (ψ, W ) ´+ G f+ H k K-L«, w1 , w2 , · · · , wr ´
W K-Ä. + G 'uf+ H 8©)ª
S S S
G = g1 H g2 H · · · gt H, (1)
G
Ù¥ g1 = 1,1 ´ G ü , K W K-Ä
{gi ⊗ wj |1 6 i 6 t, 1 6 j 6 r}, (2)
¿
dimK (W G ) = ( dimK W )[G : H]. (3)
· 134 · 1ÊÙ pL«ÚpAI
y² du W G = K[G] ⊗K[H] W , ÏdÄk

) K[G] óf.
? g ∈ G, d (1) ª, g L«¤ gi h, Ù¥ i ∈ {1, 2, · · · , t}, h ∈ H. u´
K[G] zL«¤
X t X
X t
X X t
X
kg g = kgi h gi h = gi kgi h h = gi bi , (4)
g∈G i=1 h∈H i=1 h∈H i=1
Ù¥
X
bi = kgi h h ∈ K[H]. (5)
h∈H
N´wÑ gi K[H] ´m K[H]-, i = 1, 2, · · · , t. Ïdd (4) ªÚ (5) ª

K[G] = g1 K[H] ⊕ g2 K[H] ⊕ · · · ⊕ gt K[H]. (6)
u´ K[G] K[H]-Ä´ g1 , g2 , · · · , gt . du gi K[H] ´ê K[H] þm, Ï
d gi K[H] ´ K þ5m, l gi K[H] w¤ (K, K[H])-V. u´keã
K-Ó:
W G = K[G] ⊗K[H] W ∼
= (g1 K[H]) ⊗K[H] W +̇ · · · +̇(gt K[H]) ⊗K[H] W. (7)
N´wÑeãN
gi K[H] → K[H]
gi b 7→ b
´m K[H]-Ó, ´ K-Ó, l ´ (K, K[H])-VÓ, u´ K-
Ó:
gi K[H] ⊗K[H] W ∼
= K[H] ⊗K[H] W. (8)
qk K[H]-Ó:
K[H] ⊗K[H] W ∼
= W, (9)
§r b ⊗ w N¤ bw. N´wÑù´ K-Ó. l (7) !(8) !(9) ªeã

K-Ó (=5mÓ):
WG ∼
=W| +̇ ·{z
· · +̇W} . (10)
t
l
dimK (W G ) = t dimK W = [G : H] dimK W. (11)
du W Ä´ w1 , w2 , · · · , wr ,Ïd 
r
X r
X
gi b ⊗ w = gi ⊗ bw = gi ⊗  
kj wj = gi ⊗ kj wj
j=1 j=1
r
X r
X
= gi ⊗ (kj 1)wj = gi (kj 1) ⊗ wj
j=1 j=1
Xr r
X
= kj gi ⊗ wj = kj (gi ⊗ wj ). (12)
j=1 j=1
§1 pL« · 135 ·
l d (4) ªÚ (12) ª
  !
X t
X t
X
 kg g  ⊗ w = gi bi ⊗w = gi bi ⊗ w
g∈G i=1 i=1
t X
X r
= kj (gi ⊗ wj ). (13)
i=1 j=1
ddÑ, W G ¥zL«¤ {gi ⊗ wj |1 6 i 6 t, 1 6 j 6 r} K-5|Ü,
qdu dimK W G = tr , Ïd {gi ⊗ wj |1 6 i 6 t, 1 6 j 6 r} ´ W G K-Ä.
·K 1 (ψ, W ) ´+ G f+ H k K-L«, PÒÓ½n 1. ψ 3
W Ä w1 , w2 , · · · , wr eÝ
L« Ψ , KpL« ψ G 3 W G AÄ
g1 ⊗ w1 , g1 ⊗ w2 , · · · , g1 ⊗ wr , · · · , gt ⊗ w1 , · · · , gt ⊗ wr
eÝ
L« Ψ G  
Ψ̇ (g1−1 gg1 ) Ψ̇ (g1−1 gg2 ) ··· Ψ̇ (g1−1 ggt )
 
 Ψ̇ (g2−1 gg1 ) Ψ̇ (g2−1 gg2 ) ··· Ψ̇ (g2−1 ggt ) 
G  
Ψ (g) =  .. .. .. , (14)
 . . . 
 
−1
Ψ̇ (gt gg1 ) Ψ̇ (gt−1 gg2 ) ··· −1
Ψ̇ (gt ggt )
Ù¥
(
Ψ (y), y ∈ H,
Ψ̇ (y) =
0, y∈ 6 H.
y² ? j ∈ {1, 2, · · · , t}, g ∈ G, k
ggj = gl h, é, l ∈ {1, 2, · · · , t} Ú, h ∈ H.
Ψ (h) = (aij (h)), u´k
ψ G (g)(gj ⊗ wi ) = g(gj ⊗ wi ) = ggj ⊗ wi = gl h ⊗ wi
= gl ⊗ hwi = gl ⊗ ψ(h)wi
Xr X r
= gl ⊗ ami (h)wm = ami (h)(gl ⊗ wm ). (15)
m=1 m=1
5½
(
ami (y), y ∈ H,
ȧmi (y) =
0, y∈ 6 H.
du h = gl−1 ggj , Ïdl (15) ª

r
X
ψ G (g)(gj ⊗ wi ) = ami (gl−1 ggj )(gl ⊗ wm ). (16)
m=1
du gl−1 ggj = h ∈ H, Ïd s 6= l , gs−1 ggj 6∈ H. l (16) ª±¤
Xr X t
ψ G (g)(gj ⊗ wi ) = ȧmi (gs−1 ggj )(gs ⊗ wm ). (17)
m=1 s=1
l (17) ªÑ Ψ G (g) 1 k 1|1 j |?fÝ

gj ⊗ w1 gj ⊗ w2 ··· gj ⊗ wr
 
gk ⊗ w1 ȧ11 (gk−1 ggj ) ȧ12 (gk−1 ggj ) · · · ȧ1r (gk−1 ggj )
 
gk ⊗ w2  −1 −1 −1
 ȧ21 (gk ggj ) ȧ22 (gk ggj ) · · · ȧ2r (gk ggj ) 

..  .. .. ..  = Ψ̇ (gk−1 ggj ). (18)
.  . . . 
 
−1 −1 −1
gk ⊗ wr ȧr1 (gk ggj ) ȧr2 (gk ggj ) · · · ȧrr (gk ggj )
dd (14) ª.
−1 −1 −1 G
5 du gk gg1 , gk gg2 , · · · , gk ggt kkáu H, Ïd ψ (g)
©¬Ý
(14) z1kkfÝ
Ø"Ý
. Ón (14) zk
kfÝ
Ø"Ý
.
·K 2 K ´?, G ´k+, H < G, K H KL« ρH pL
« (ρH )G ´ G KL« (3d¿Âþ).
y² ρH L«m´ K[H], §´ K[H]-. du
K[H]G = K[G] ⊗K[H] K[H] = ∼ K[G], (19)
G G
ù´ K[G]-Ó, Ïd K[H] Jø G L« (ρH ) K[G] Jø G L
« ρG d.
½n 2 K ´?, H ´+ G f+, ¿ (ψi , Wi ) ´ H K-L«, i = 1,
2, · · · , m, K
(ψ1 +̇ψ2 +̇ · · · +̇ψm )G ≈ ψ1G +̇ψ2G +̇ · · · +̇ψm
G
. (20)
y² P W = W1 +̇W2 +̇ · · · +̇Wm , K W Jø H L« ψ = ψ1 +̇ψ2 +̇ · · · +̇

ψm . dukeã K[G]-Ó:
W G = K[G] ⊗K[H] W
∼
= K[G] ⊗K[H] W1 +̇ · · · +̇K[G] ⊗K[H] Wm
= W1G +̇ · · · +̇Wm
G
,
Ïd ψ G ≈ ψ1G +̇ψ2G +̇ · · · +̇ψm
G
.
½n 3 (pL«D45) K ´?, H, L Ñ´+ G f+, ¿
H < L. (ψ, W ) ´ H K-L«, K
(ψ L )G ≈ ψ G . (21)
y² dukeã K[G]-Ó:
(W L )G = K[G] ⊗K[L] W L = K[G] ⊗K[L] (K[L] ⊗K[H] W )
∼
= (K[G] ⊗K[L] K[L]) ⊗K[H] W
∼
= K[G] ⊗K[H] W,
Ïd (ψ L )G ≈ ψ G .
G
e¡?Ø+ G f+ H 1 g K-L« (ψ, W ) pL« ψ , §Ý
L
« Ψ G ko5? l·K 1 9Ù ¡5, Ψ G (g) z1!zk
kØ 0, ù«a.Ý
¡üÝ
. Ïd, f+ H 1 gL« ψ
§2 pAI · 137 ·
pL« ψ G Ý
L« Ψ G ¦éu?¿ g ∈ G Ñk Ψ G (g) ´üÝ
.
½Â 2 K ´?, + G K-L« ϕ ¡üL«, XJ§´ G
,f+ 1 g K-L«pL«.
lpL«D45á=: L ´+ G f+, K L üL«p
L«´ G üL«.
SK 5.1
1. K ´?, H ´+ G 5f+, H 3 G ¥8LX´ {g1 =

1, g2 , · · · , gt }, (ψ, W ) ´ H K-L«, y²: éu 1 6 i 6 t, k
(1) gi K[H] ⊗K[H] W ´ K[H]-;
(2) gi K[H] ⊗K[H] W Jø H L« ψi gêu ψ gê.
2. K ´?, H ´+ G f+, H 3 G ¥8LX´ {g1 =
1, g2 , · · · , gt }. W ´ K[H]-. -
Wi = gi K[H] ⊗K[H] W,
l½n 1 y², Wi ´ K-, = K þ5m. l (7) ªwÑ, Wi
w¤ W G fm (3Ó¿Âþ), i = 1, 2, · · · , t. -
Ω = {W1 , W2 , · · · , Wt }.
G
y²: K[G]- W p
G 3 Ω þ^, dd G L«
du H ÌL«pL«.
3. K ´?, H ´+ G f+, ¿ [G : H] = t. r H 3 G ¥¤k
8|¤8ÜP G/H. éu g ∈ G, aH ∈ G/H, 5½ g(aH) := (ga)H. w,, ù
Ñ
G 38Ü G/H þ^. y²: lù^ G L«d
u H ÌL« 1H pL« (1H )G .
§2 pAI
K ´?, H ´+ G f+, {g1 = 1, g2 , · · · , gt } ´ H 3 G ¥

8LX. (ψ, W ) ´ H k K-L«, ψ JøAIP µ. ·r
pL« ψ G Jø G AI¡pAI, P µG .
âÙ §1 ·K 1 (14) ª
t
X
µG (g) = µ̇(gi−1 ggi ), ∀g ∈ G, (1)
i=1
Ù¥ (
µ(y), y ∈ H,
µ̇(y) = (2)
0, y∈ 6 H.
lúª (1) á=Xe·K.

·K 1 PÒÓþã.
[
(1) e g 6∈ (aHa−1 ), K µG (g) = 0;
a∈G
(2) e H ⊳ G, Kéu g 6∈ H, k µG (g) = 0;
(3) e H = Z(G), Kéu?¿ g ∈ G, k
µG (g) = [G : H]µ̇(g). (3)
y² (1) !(2) w,¤á.
(3) â1 (2) Ü©, g 6∈ Z(G) , µG (g) = 0.
e¡ g ∈ Z(G), Kéu?¿ i ∈ {1, 2, · · · , t}, k gi−1 ggi = g ∈ Z(G). l
t
X t
X
µG (g) = µ(gi−1 ggi ) = µ(g) = tµ(g) = [G : H]µ(g).
i=1 i=1
Ïd (3) ª¤á.
G
úª (1) 6u H 3 G ¥8L g1 , g2 , · · · , gt . y3·5é µ ,
úª, ¦§Ø6u8L.
? h ∈ H, e g ∈ H, K h−1 gh ∈ H, l
µ̇(h−1 gh) = µ(h−1 gh) = µ(g) = µ̇(g). (4)
−1
e g 6∈ H, K h gh 6∈ H, l
µ̇(h−1 gh) = 0 = µ̇(g). (5)
Ïdéu?¿ h ∈ H, g ∈ G, Ñk
µ̇(h−1 gh) = µ̇(g). (6)
·K 2 PÒÓþã, H ´ G kf+, char K ∤ |H| , k
1 X
µG (g) = µ̇(a−1 ga), ∀g ∈ G. (7)
|H|
a∈G
y² ? y ∈ gi H, y = gi h, Ù¥ h ∈ H. ·k
µ̇(y −1 gy) = µ̇(h−1 gi−1 ggi h) = µ̇(gi−1 ggi ), ∀g ∈ G. (8)
l
X t
X X t
X X
µ̇(a−1 ga) = µ̇(a−1 ga) = µ̇(gi−1 ggi )
a∈G i=1 a∈gi H i=1 a∈gi H
t
X
= |H|µ̇(gi−1 ggi ) = |H|µG (g).
i=1
ddÑ (7) ª.
lpL«5±pAI5.
íØ 1 K ´?, G ´k+, H < G. r H KL«JøAI
P µρ . r G KL«JøAIP χρ , K
χρ = (µρ )G .
íØ 2 K ´?, H ´+ G f+. µi ´ H K-L« ψi Jø
AI, i = 1, 2, · · · , m, K
(µ1 + · · · + µm )G = µG G
1 + · · · + µm .
§3 Frobenius pÆ · 139 ·
íØ 3 (pAID45) K ´?, H, L Ñ´+ G f+,

H < L. µ ´ H K-L« ψ JøAI, K
(µL )G = µG .
|^pAIOúª (1), ·pAIq^5.
·K 3 K ´?, H ´+ G f+, H 3 G ¥8LX
{g1 = 1, g2 , · · · , gt }. µ ´ H AI, χ ´ G AI, K
µG χ = [µ(χ|H)]G , (9)
Ù¥ χ|H ´ χ 3 H þ.
y² ? g ∈ G, lúª (1)
t
X Xt
· −1
[µ(χ|H)] (g) =G
[µ(χ|H)] (gi ggi ) = µ̇(gi−1 ggi )χ(gi−1 ggi )
i=1 i=1
Xt
= µ̇(gi−1 ggi )χ(g) = µG (g)χ(g) = (µG χ)(g).
i=1
Ïd
[µ(χ|H)]G = µG χ.
SK 5.2
1. Q oê+, = Q = {±1, ±i, ±j, ±k}, Ù¥ k = ij. H = hii.

(1) ψ1 ´ H 1 gEL«, Ù¥ ψ1 (i) = −1. y²: ψ1Q ´ Q ü 1 gE
L«Ú;
(2) ψ2 ´ H 1 gEL«, Ù¥ ψ2 (i) = i, y²: ψ2Q ´ Q 2 gØE
L«. l Q 2 gØgEL«´üL«.
2. G = A4 , H = {(1), (12)(34), (13)(24), (14)(23)}. ψ ´ H ?²
1 gEL«. y²: ψ G ´ G 3 gØEL«, l G 3 gØ
EL«´üL«.
§3 Frobenius pÆ
½n 1 (Frobenius pÆ) G ´k+, H < G. µ ´ H EAI,

χ ´ G EAI, K
(µG , χ)G = (µ, χ|H)H . (1)
1 X G
y² (µG , χ)G = µ (g)χ(g)
|G|
g∈G
" #
1 X 1 X −1
= µ̇(a ga) χ(g)
|G| |H|
g∈G a∈G
1 1 XX
= µ̇(a−1 ga)χ(g)
|G| |H|
a∈G g∈G
1 1 XX
= µ̇(y)χ(aya−1 )
|G| |H|
a∈G y∈G
1 1 XX
= µ̇(y)χ(y)
|G| |H|
a∈G y∈G
1 X 1 X
= µ̇(y)χ(y) = µ(y)χ(y)
|H| |H|
y∈G y∈H
= (µ, χ|H)H .
d½n 1 ±^pL«/ªL Frobenius pÆ.

½n 2 (Frobenius pÆ) G ´k+, H < G. ψ ´ H ØE
L«, ϕ ´ G ØEL«, K ϕ 3 ψ G ¥êu ψ 3 ϕ|H ¥ê.
e¡Ñ Frobenius pÆ
A^.
·K 1 G ´k Abel +, H < G, K H zØEAI µ ´ G
,ØEAI χ 3 H þ.
y² Ï G ´ Abel +, ¤± G Ú H ØEL«Ñ´ 1 g. µG
¹ØEAI χ, = (µG , χ) > 0. d Frobenius pÆ
(µ, χ|H)H = (µG , χ)G > 0.
ù`² µ 3 χ|H ¥Ñy. qdu χ ´ 1 g, Ïd χ|H ´ H ØEAI.
â1'X, µ = χ|H.
·rk+ G ¤kØEL«gê¥öP m(G).
·K 2 éuk+ G ?f+ H, k
m(H) 6 m(G) 6 [G : H]m(H). (2)
XJ H ´ G Abel f+, @o m(G) 6 [G : H].
y² µ ´ H ØEAI µ(1) = m(H). µG ¤¹ G
ØEAI χ, K
(µ, χ|H)H = (µG , χ)G > 0.
l µ 3 χ|H ¥Ñy. Ïd
µ(1) 6 (χ|H)(1) = χ(1) 6 m(G).
χ ´ G ØEAI, χ(1) = m(G). χ|H ¤¹ H Ø
EAI µ, K
(µG , χ)G = (µ, χ|H)H > 0.
l χ 3 µG ¥Ñy. Ïd
m(G) = χ(1) 6 µG (1) = [G : H]µ(1) 6 [G : H]m(H).
XJ H ´ Abel f+, @o m(H) = 1. l
m(G) 6 [G : H].
§4 pAIØ½ · 141 ·
SK 5.3
1. G ´k Abel +, H < G. χ ´ G EAI. y²: XJéu g 6∈ H, k

χ(g) = 0, @o [G : H]|χ(1).
2. G = S4 . P N = {(1), (12)(34), (13)(24), (14)(23)}. w, N ⊳ S4 . -
H = h(12)iN .
(1) y²: H =∼ D4 , Ù¥ D4 ´ 8 ¡N+;
(2) y²: H , 1 gEAIpAI´ S4 3 gØEAI;
(3) y²: A4 ² 1 gEAIpAI´ S4 2 gØEA
I;
(4) ¦ S4 EAIL.
3. G ´k+, H < G, µ ´ H EAI, C ´ G Ýa. y
²:
T
(1) e C H = ∅, Kéu g ∈ C, k µG (g) = 0;
T T T
(2) e C H 6= ∅, w, C H ´ H eZÝa¿8, C H ¹
H ÝaLX´: h1 , · · · , hr , Kéu g ∈ C, k
r
|G| X µ(hi )
µG (g) = ,
|C| i=1 | CH (hi )|
Ù¥ CH (hi ) ´ hi 3 H p¥%zf, | CH (hi )| u |H| Ø± hi 3 H ¥Ý
aê.
4. ¦+ A5 EAIL.
§4 pAIØ½
H ´k+ G f+, XJ µ ´ H ØEAI, @ooÿ µG

Ø?
ä µG ´ÄØ, g,O (µG , µG )G , â Frobenius pÆ,

(µG , µG )G = (µ, µG |H)H . (1)

|^ µ ´ H ØEAI^, A3 (1) ªmàÑy (µ, µ)H ù.
dIïÄ µG |H uo. /, L ´ G f+, ïÄ µG |L u
o. l (1) ªwÑ, Ir (µG , µG )G L«¤eZSÈÚ, Ù¥ (µ, µ)H ,
uÍkeZ H k'f+, N´´ H Ýf+. ? H
Ýf+ gHg −1 . µ ´ H EL« (ψ, V ) JøAI, -
ψ g : gHg −1 → GL (V )
y 7→ ψ(g −1 yg).
´wÑ ψ g ´ gHg −1 GL (V ) N, ý ψ g ±¦{, Ïd (ψ g , V )
´f+ gHg −1 EL«. ψ g JøAIP µg . u´
µg (y) = µ(g −1 yg), ∀y ∈ gHg −1 . (2)
T
éu G ?f+ L, g,Ä L gHg −1 , ∀g ∈ G. ·k
T
x ∈ L gHg −1 ⇐⇒ x ∈ L x = ghg −1 é, h ∈ H
⇐⇒ x ∈ L g = xgh−1 , h∈H
−1
⇐⇒ g = xgh ∈ LgH.
T
Ïd,
¤k8 L gHg −1 (∀g ∈ G), ·IÄ/X LgH ùf
8. L = {l1 , l2 , · · · , lm }, K
S S S
LgH = l1 gH l2 gH · · · lm gH.
Ïd LgH ´ H eZ8¿8,
li gH = lj gH ⇐⇒ (lj g)−1 (li g) ∈ H ⇐⇒ g −1 lj−1 li g ∈ H
⇐⇒ lj−1 li ∈ gHg −1
T
⇐⇒ lj−1 li ∈ L gHg −1 . (3)
aq/, LgH ´ L eZm8¿8. ·rf8 LgH ¡f+é (L, H)
V8. duf+ H ¤k8|¤8Ü´ G y©, f+ L ¤
km8|¤8Ü´ G y©, Ïdf+é (L, H) ¤kV8|¤
8Ü´ G y©. u´ (L, H) ?¿üV8½ö, ½öØ.
S S S
G = Lg1 H Lg2 H · · · Lgt H, (4)
Ù¥ (4) ªmàV8üüØ, ¡ {g1 , g2 , · · · , gt } ´f+é (L, H) V8
LX. -
T
Li = L gi Hgi−1 , i = 1, 2 · · · , t. (5)
éuf+ H ?EAI µ,
O µG |L, ÄkO µG , ùI
H 3 G ¥8LX. ?V8 Lgi H ´ H eZ8¿. l (3) ª
, ½ y0 ∈ L, éu y ∈ L, k
T
ygi H = y0 gi H ⇐⇒ y0−1 y ∈ L gi Hgi−1 ⇐⇒ y ∈ y0 Li . (6)
ù`²: XJ Li 3 L ¥8LX {yi1 , yi2 , · · · , yiri }, K H 3 G ¥
8LXpÑy3 Lgi H p´ {yi1 gi , yi2 gi , · · · , yiri gi }. l H 3 G ¥
8LX´
{yiji gi |1 6 i 6 t, 1 6 ji 6 ri }. (7)
?¿ y ∈ L, w,k
−1 T
(yiji gi )−1 y(yiji gi ) ∈ H ⇐⇒ yij i
yyiji ∈ L gi Hgi−1 .
l âÙ §2 (1) ªÚ! (2) ª
X t X ri Xt Xri
−1
µG (y) = µ̇[(yiji gi )−1 y(yiji gi )] = µ̇gi (yiji
yyiji )
i=1 ji =1 i=1 ji =1
X ri
t X t
X
−1
= (µgi |Li )· (yiji
yyiji ) = (µgi |Li )L (y). (8)
i=1 ji =1 i=1
Ïd
t
X
G
µ |L = (µgi |Li )L . (9)
i=1
§4 pAIØ½ · 143 ·
8 ·r µgi {P¤ µ(i) , i = 1, 2, · · · , t. u´·y²

eã½n1 (1) Ü©.
½n 1 (Mackey f+½n) G ´k+, L, H Ñ´ G f+, {g1 ,
T
g2 , · · · , gt } ´ (L, H) 3 G pV8LX, - Li = L gi Hgi−1 , i = 1, 2, · · · , t.
µ ´ H EAI, λ ´ L EAI, K
X t
(1) µG |L = (µ(i) |Li )L ; (10)
i=1
t
X
(2) (λG , µG )G = (λ|Li , µ(i) |Li )Li . (11)
i=1
y² 1 (1) Ü©3þ¡®y. y3y1 (2) Ü©. |^úª (10) Ú Frobenius
pÆ, !
t
X
G G G (i) L
(λ , µ )G = (λ, µ |L)L = λ, (µ |Li )
i=1 L
t
X
= (λ, (µ(i) |Li )L )L
i=1
t
X
= (λ|Li , µ(i) |Li )Li .
i=1
·K 1 G ´k+, H < G. µ ´ H EAI, Kéu g ∈ G, k

(µg , µg )gHg−1 = (µ, µ)H . (12)
y² |^ (2) ª
1 X
(µg , µg )gHg−1 = µg (y)µg (y)
|gHg −1 |
y∈gHg−1
1 X
= −1
µ(g −1 yg)µ(g −1 yg)
|gHg |
y∈gHg−1
1 X
= µ(h)µ(h)
|H|
h∈H
= (µ, µ)H .
½n 2 G ´k+, H < G. {g1 = 1, g2 , · · · , gt } ´ (H, H) 3 G pV

T
8LX. P Hi = H gi Hgi−1 , i = 1, 2, · · · , t. µ ´ H EAI, K µG
Ø=eü^¤á:
(i) µ Ø;
(ii) éuz i(2 6 i 6 t), Hi üAI µ(i) |Hi Ú µ|Hi Ø (§
vkúØ¤©, = (µ(i) |Hi , µ|Hi )Hi = 0).
y² â Mackey f+½n
t
X t
X
G G (i)
(µ , µ )G = (µ|Hi , µ |Hi )Hi = (µ, µ)H + (µ|Hi , µ(i) |Hi )Hi ,
i=1 i=2
µG Ø ⇐⇒ (µG , µG )G = 1
Xt
⇐⇒ (µ, µ)H + (µ|Hi , µ(i) |Hi )Hi = 1
i=2
⇐⇒ (µ, µ)H = 1, (µ|Hi , µ(i) |Hi )Hi = 0, i = 2, 3, · · · , t

⇐⇒ µ Ø, µ|Hi µ(i) |Hi Ø, i = 2, 3, · · · , t.
T
íØ 1 G ´k+, H < G, éu x ∈ G, - Hx = H xHx−1 . µ ´ H
EAI, K µG Ø=eü^¤á:
(i) µ Ø;
(ii) éuz x ∈ G\H, Hx üAI µx |Hx Ú µ|Hx Ø.
y² du (H, H) 3 G ¥V8LXØ
g1 , Ù{þØáu H,
z x ∈ G\H Ñ±,V8L, Ïdd½n 2 á=d
íØ.
íØ 2 G ´k+, N ⊳ G. N 3 G ¥8LX´ {g1 = 1, g2 , · · · ,
gt }. µ ´ N EAI, K µG Ø= µ Ø, ¿ µ µ(i) Ø
, i = 2, 3, · · · , t.
T
y² du N ⊳ G, Ïd N gN = gN , Ni = N gi N gi−1 = N, µ(i) ´ N
AI i = 1, 2, · · · , t. d·K 1 , µ(i) Ø= µ Ø. ué µ Ø
, K µ(i) µ Ø= µ(i) µ Ø. Ïdd½n 2 á=: µG Ø
= µ Ø, µ µ(i) Ø (2 6 i 6 t).
(i)
5 íØ 2 ¥,“µ µ Ø, i = 2, 3, · · · , t” ±¤ “éu?¿ x ∈
G\N, µ µx Ø”.
SK 5.4
1. H Ú L Ñ´k+ G f+, y²: (L, H) 3 G pV8êu

((1L )G , (1H )G )G .
2. H Ú L Ñ´k+ G f+, ϕ1 , ϕ2 , · · · , ϕs ´ G ¤kØdØ
EL«. 1L 3 ϕi |L pê ai , 1H 3 ϕi |H pê bi . r H 3 G ¥
8|¤8ÜP G/H, éu y ∈ L, gH ∈ G/H, 5½ y(gH) := (yg)H, ù
Ñ
L 3 G/H þ^. y²: ù^ò G/H y©¤;^ê r
X s
u ai b i .
i=1
3. G ´k+, G ©OD4/^3k8Ü Ω1 Ú Ω2 þ. xi ∈ Ωi , r
xi ½f+ Gxi P Hi , ηi ´ G 3 Ωi þ^ÚåEêþAI,
i = 1, 2. y²: H1 3 Ω2 þ^;^ê r1 u H2 3 Ω1 þ^;^ê r2 ,
¿ r1 = r2 = (η1 , η2 )G .
4. k+ G D4/^3k8Ü Ω þ, §Úå3EêþL«
P ϕ. y²: éu?¿ x ∈ Ω , x ½f+ Gx 3 Ω þ^;^ê r(x) =
§4 pAIØ½ · 145 ·
(χϕ , χϕ )G , § x Ã', ¡§´ G .

5. k+ G D4/^3k8Ü Ω þ. y²: éu?¿ x ∈ Ω , Gx 3 Ω
þ^;^ê r(x)
1 X
r(x) = |F (g)|2 ,
|G|
g∈G
Ù¥ F (g) ´ g ØÄ:8, = F (g) := {x ∈ Ω |gx = x}.
6. G ´ GF (q) þ 2 ?5+ GL (2, q). Ä§eãf+ H:
( ! )
a1 0
∗
H= ai ∈ GF (q) , i = 1, 2, b ∈ GF (q) .
b a2
Ì+ GF (q)∗ ¤kØEL«P ψ1 , ψ2 , · · · , ψq−1 . ψj JøAIP
µj , j = 1, 2, · · · , q − 1. 5½
!
a1 0
ϕij : 7→ ψi (a1 ) ⊗ ψj (a2 ),
b a2
Ù¥ i = 1, 2, · · · , q − 1; j = 1, 2, · · · , q − 1. y²:
(1) ϕij ´ H EL«, gêu 1;
(2) r ϕij JøAIP χij , K
" !#
a1 0
χij = µi (a1 )µj (a2 );
b a2
(3) i 6= j , χG
ij ´ G q + 1 gØAI;
(4) χG
ii , i = 1, 2, · · · , q − 1.
7. (Brauer) G ´k+, r G ¤kÝa C1 , C2 , · · · , Cs |¤8ÜP
Ω , gi ´ Ci L, i = 1, 2, · · · , s. χ1 , χ2 , · · · , χs ´ G ¤kØ
ØEAI, §|¤8ÜP Irr (G). k+ A 3 Ω þk^, ¿
A 3 Irr (G) þk^, ¦
(aχi )(aCj ) = χi (gj ), ∀a ∈ A, 1 6 i, j 6 s.
y²:
(1) A ¥z a 3 Ω ¥ØÄ:êu a 3 Irr (G) ¥ØÄ:ê;
(2) Ω A-;^êu Irr (G) A-;^ê.
8. G ´k+, N ⊳ G, r N ¤kÝa C1 , C2 , · · · , Ct |¤8ÜP
Ω . ? g ∈ G, 5½
gCj := gCj g −1 , j = 1, 2, · · · , t,
ùÑ
G 3 Ω þ^. éu µi ∈ Irr (N ), â1Ù §5 ·K 4
µgi ∈ Irr (N ), Ù¥ Irr (N ) ´ N ¤kØEAI|¤8Ü. 5½
gµi := µgi , i = 1, 2, · · · , t,
ùÑ
G 3 Irr (N ) þ^, y²:
(1) G ¥z3 Ω ¥ØÄ:êu g 3 Irr (N ) ¥ØÄ:ê;
(2) Ω G-;^êu Irr (N ) G-;^ê.
9. G ´k+, N ⊳ G, Ω ´ N ¤kÝa|¤8Ü. G 3 Ω þ^

Ú G 3 Irr (N ) þ^Ó1 8 K. y²en·Kd:
(i) G\N ¥z g 3 Ω ¥½:;
(ii) G\N ¥z g 3 Irr (N ) ¥½:;
(iii) éu?¿ y ∈ N \{e}, k CG (y) ⊆ N , Ù¥ e ´ G ü .
10. G ´k+, N ⊳ G. XJéu?¿ y ∈ N \{e}, k CG (y) ⊆ N , y²:
(1) éu N zØEAI µ 6= 1N , k µG Ø, ¿ N 6⊆ Ker (µG );
(2) e χ ´ G ØEAI, Ker χ 6⊇ N , K3 N ØEAI
µ 6= 1N , ¦ χ = µG .
11. (Clifford) G ´k+, N ⊳ G. χ ´ G ØEAI, µ ´ χ|N
Ø¤©, µ 3 χ|N ¥êP m. G 3 Irr (N ) þk^: gµi = µgi , µ
3ùê½f+P Gµ . y²:
(1) XJ Gµ 6= G, @o3 Gµ ØAI ν, ¦ χ = ν G ;
(2) XJ Gµ = G, @o χ|N = mµ.
(5 1 11 K¡ Clifford ½n, §L²: ek+ G k²5f+ N ,
K G ?ØEAI χ ½ö±d G ýf+ØEAIp
Ñ, ½ö χ 3 N þ´ N ,ØEAIê. e¡1 12 KÑ
aAÏ/.)
12. (Blichfeldt ½n) k+ G k Abel 5f+ N , N 6⊆ Z(G). e χ
´ G §¢ØEAI, K χ U
d G ,ýf+ØEA
IpÑ.
13. (Ito) k+ G k5f+ N , χ ´ G ØEAI, XJ
χ|N ¹ N 1 gAI, @o χ gêUØ [G : N ].
14. XJk+ G k Abel 5f+ N , @o G zØEAI
gêØ [G : N ].
§5 +©, M-+
5.1 5mÄ*Ü, +©
V ´ K þ5m, F ´ K *. Ä
F ⊗K V.
Ï F w¤ (F, K)-V, V ´ (K, K)-V, ¤± F ⊗K V ´ F -, l §´
F þ5m, P V F .
V ´ r , § K-Ä´ α1 , α2 , · · · , αr . ·5¦ F þ5m
F
V êÚ F -Ä.
Ï V ∼
= K +̇ · · · +̇K, ¤±
F ⊗K V ∼ = F ⊗K K +̇ · · · +̇F ⊗K K ∼
= F +̇ · · · +̇F,
§5 +©, M -+ · 147 ·
ù
Ñ´ F -Ó, l ´ F þ5mÓ. Ïd
dimF (F ⊗K V ) = r( dimF F ) = r = dimK V.
Ïéu f ∈ F, v ∈ V , k !
Xr Xr
f ⊗v =f ⊗ ki αi = (f ⊗ ki αi )
i=1 i=1
r
X r
X
= (f ki ⊗ αi ) = f ki (1 ⊗ αi ),
i=1 i=1
F
¤± {1 ⊗ αi |i = 1, 2, · · · , r} ´ V F -Ä. ù·y²
e¡·K.
·K 1 V ´ K þ5m, F ´ K *, K F ⊗K V ´ F þ
5m, P V F . XJ V ´ r , § K-Ä α1 , α2 , · · · , αr , K V F
´ r , ¿ 1 ⊗ α1 , 1 ⊗ α2 , · ( · · , 1 ⊗ αr ´ V F F -Ä. )
X r

Ä V F f8 V1F := ki (1 ⊗ αi )ki ∈ K, i = 1, 2, · · · , r , ´wÑ V1F ´

i=1
K þ5m. ÄN
ψ : V → V1F
X X
ki αi 7→ ki (1 ⊗ αi ),
w, ψ ´÷!ü, ¿±\{Úêþ¦{, Ïd ψ ´ K þ5m V V1F
þÓ. l r V V1F Ó, =r V w¤ V F f8 (5¿ØUr V w¤ V F
fm, Ï V1F Ø´ V F fm). d±r αi 1⊗αi Ó, i = 1, 2, · · · , r.
Xr
Ïd V F zL«¤/ª fi αi , Ù¥ fi ∈ F, i =, 2, · · · , r.
i=1
A ´ K þ5m V 5C, §3 V K-Ä α1 , α2 , · · · , αr e
X
Ý
A = (aij ). éu V F ? fi αi , 5½
! i
X X
F
A fi αi := fi A(αi ), (1)
i i
ý AF ´ V F 5C, ¿´wÑ AF 3 V F F -Ä α1 , α2 , · · · , αr
eÝ
´ A, d´r A w¤ F þÝ
. l N A 7→ AF Ñ
GL (V )
GL (V F ) üÓ.
y3 (ϕ, V ) ´+ G K-L«, F ´ K *. éu g ∈ G, ϕ(g) ´ V
_5C, âþã, ϕ(g)F ´ V F _5C. -
ϕF : G → GL (V F )
g 7→ ϕ(g)F ,
du ϕ ´ G GL (V ) +Ó, ¿ A 7→ AF ´ GL (V ) GL (V F ) +Ó,
Ïd ϕF ´ G GL (V F ) +Ó, l ϕF ´ G F -L«, ÙL«m
V F . ù·l+ G K-L« ϕ
G 3 K * F þL« ϕF .
3 V ¥ K-Ä α1 , α2 , · · · , αr , ϕ 3ùÄeJøÝ
L« Φ.
ϕF 3 V F F -Ä α1 , α2 , · · · , αr eJøÝ
L« Φ F . âc¡¤ã, Φ F (g)
Φ(g) ´ÓÝ
, ćöw¤ F þÝ
, ö´ K þÝ
. dd
ϕF JøAI χϕF ϕ JøAI χϕ kXe'X:
χϕF (g) = χϕ (g), ∀g ∈ G, (2)
´ χϕF w¤´ G F ¼ê, χϕ ´ G K ¼ê. ù·l+ G
K-AI χϕ ±á=Ñ G F -AI χϕF . ¯K´: XJ χϕ Ø,
@o χϕF ´ÄØ? ·we¡~f.
~ 1 G = hai ´ 3 Ì+, |^SK 1.3 1 1 K{, ±¦Ñ G
2 gØ¢L« ϕ, §JøÝ
L« ! Φ !
−1 −1 2 0 1
Φ(a) = , Φ(a ) = .
1 0 −1 −1
ddÑ χϕ (a) = −1, χϕ (a2 ) = −1, χϕ(1) = 2. l G ¢L« ϕ G
EL« ϕ C , §JøAI χϕ C 3 G þ¼êá=Ñ: χϕ C (a) =
−1, χϕ C (a2 ) = −1, χϕ C (1) = 2. du
1 X
(χϕ C , χϕ C ) = χϕ C (g)χϕ C (g −1 )
3
K∈G
1 2
= [2 + (−1)(−1) + (−1)(−1)] = 2,
3
Ïd χϕ C .
~ 1 `²: 5mÄ*ÜUL«Ø5.
½Â 1 + G Ø K-L« (ϕ, V ) ¡ýéØ, XJéu K z
* F Ñk (ϕF , V F ) ´ G Ø F -L«.
½Â 2 K ¡+ G ©, XJ G zØ K-L«Ñ´ýé
Ø.
±y²: ?ê4´?k+©. y²w [13] 1 162 í
Ø 4.3.4.
±y²: G ´k+, K AØUØ |G|. K[G] = A1 ⊕
A2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ As , Ù¥ Ai (i = 1, 2, · · · , s) ´ü. Li1 ´ K[G] 4n¿
Li1 ⊆ Ai , - Di = HomAi (Li1 , Li1 ), i = 1, 2, · · · , s, K K ´ G ©=
Di ∼
= K, i = 1, 2, · · · , s. y²w [13] 1 162 — 163 ½n 4.3.2.
5.2 M -+
Ù §1 QÑ: e+ G L« ϕ ´ G ,f+ 1 gL«pL«, K
¡ ϕ ´üL«, §JøÝ
L« Φ ¦z Φ(g) Ñ´üÝ
.
½Â 3 K ´+ G ¤kf+©, XJ G zØ K-L«
Ñ´üL«, K¡ G ´'u K M -+. e G ´'uEê C M -+, K{
¡ G M -+.
½n 1 k+ G ´'u K M -+, K G ?û+ G = G/N ´
'u K M -+.
y² G ¤kØdØ K-L«´ ϕ1 , ϕ2 , · · · , ϕs , Ù¥ Ker ϕi ⊇
§5 +©, M -+ · 149 ·
N (i = 1, 2, · · · , t). ϕi (1 6 i 6 t) ´û+ G/N L« ϕ

ei J,, K ϕ
e1 , ϕ
e2 , · · · , ϕ
et
´ G/N ÜØdØ K-L« (â1Ù §5 ·K 2).
ky K ´ G/N © (=+©´û+U«). ? K *
F , Ï K ´ G ©, ¤± ϕF F
i EØ. w, Ker ϕi = Ker ϕi , u´éu
1 6 i 6 t, k Ker ϕF F
i ⊇ N , l ϕi ´d G/N F -L« ϕi J,, Ï
F
F
d ϕi Ø. Ï Φi (g) Φi (g) 3{þ, Φ
F e (gN ) Φ
F e i (gN ) 3{þ
i
e e F F
, ¿ Φi (gN ) = Φi (g), ¤± Φi (gN ) = Φi (g) = ϕi (gN ), ∀gN ∈ G/N . dd
F
e F = ϕF , l ϕ eF
Φ i i i Ø (1 6 i 6 t). Ïd K ´ G/N ©.
? G/N f+ H/N . du K ´ H ©, âþã¤y(J
: K ´ H/N ©.
éuz i(1 6 i 6 t), Ï ϕi ´üL«, ¤±3 G ,f+ Hi
1 gL« ψi ¦ ϕi = ψiG . Hi 3 G ¥8LX´ {g1 = 1, g2 , · · · , gl }.
? g ∈ Ker ϕi , K Φi (g) = I, Ù¥ I ´ü Ý
. du Φi (g) = ΨiG (g), Ïd
Ψ̇i (g1−1 gg1 ) = 1, = Ψ̇i (g) = 1, l g ∈ Hi . ¤± Hi ⊇ Ker ϕi ⊇ N . ? n ∈ N , Ó
n, du Φi (n) = I íÑ Ψi (n) = 1, dd n ∈ Ker ψi . Ïd N ⊆ Ker ψi . u´
ψi ´ Hi /N L« ψei J,, ψei ´ 1 g. N´wÑ, Hi /N 3 G/N ¥
8LX´ {g1 N, g2 N, · · · , gl N }. u´éu?¿ gN ∈ G/N, (Ψ e i )G (gN ) (k, j)

ė i [(gk N )−1 (gN )(gj N )] = Ψ
Ψ ė i (g −1 ggj N ),
k
gk−1 ggj ∈ Hi ,
ė i (g −1 ggj N ) = Ψ
Ψ e i (g −1 ggj N ) = Ψi (g −1 ggj );
k k k
gk−1 ggj ∈Hi , k
ė i (g −1 ggj N ) = 0.
Ψ k
,¡, Φ e i (gN ) = Φi (g) = Ψ G (g), Ïd Φ(gN

e ) (k, j) Ψ̇i (gk−1 ggj ). ¤
i
fi = (Ψ
±Φ fi )G , = ϕ ei ´üL«. Ïd G/N ´'u K M -+.
½n 1 `²: éuk+5`, M -+ù5´û+U«.
e¡·5?Ø=
k+´ M -+? k0+Ø¥AVgÚ5, e¡
þ?Øk+.
½Â 4 + G ¡), XJ3 G f+S
{1} = G0 ⊆ G1 ⊆ · · · ⊆ Gn = G, (3)
Ù¥ Gi ⊳ G, ¿ Gi+1 /Gi ´Ì+, 0 6 i 6 n.
·K 2 )+zf+Úzû+Ñ´).
∗
y² G ´)+, K G kf+ (3), Ù¥ Gi ⊳ G, ¿ Gi+1 /Gi ´Ì
+, 0 6 i 6 n.
T
? G f+ H, - Hi = H Gi (0 6 i 6 n). w,k
{1} = H0 ⊆ H1 ⊆ · · · ⊆ Hn = H.
Ï Gi ⊳ G, ¤± Hi ⊳ H(0 6 i 6 n). éuz i(0 6 i < n), -

f : Hi+1 → Gi+1 /Gi
h 7→ hGi ,
w, f ´+Ó, ¿
T
h ∈ Ker f ⇐⇒ h ∈ Hi+1 hGi = Gi ⇐⇒ h ∈ Hi+1 Gi = Hi ,
Ïd Ker f = Hi , l Hi+1 /Hi ∼ = Im f . du Im f < G i+1 /G i , ¿ Gi+1 /Gi ´Ì
+, ¤± Hi+1 /Hi ´Ì+. l H ´).
? G û+ G = G/N , - Gi = Gi N/N, 0 6 i 6 n. u´k
{1} = G0 ⊆ G1 ⊆ · · · ⊆ GN = G,
Ï Gi ⊳ G, ¤± Gi ⊳ G. éuz i(0 6 i < n), k
Gi+1 /Gi = (Gi+1 N/N )/(Gi N/N ) ∼ = (Gi+1 N )/(Gi N )
T
= (Gi+1 (Gi N ))/(Gi N ) ∼ = Gi+1 /(Gi+1 Gi N )
∼ T
= (Gi+1 /Gi )/((Gi+1 Gi N )/Gi ).
Ï Gi+1 /Gi ´Ì+, ¤± Gi+1 /Gi ´Ì+. l G ´)+.
G ´+, N ⊳ G, H < G. XJ
T
G = N H, N H = {e},
Ù¥ e ´ G ü , @o¡ G ´ N H È, P G = N ⋊ H.
½Â 5 + G ¡", XJ3 G f+
{1} = G0 ⊆ G1 ⊆ · · · ⊆ Gn = G, (4)
Ù¥ Gi ⊳ G, ¿ Gi+1 /Gi ⊆ Z(G/Gi ), 0 6 i < n.
·K 3 "+½´)+.
∗
y² G ´"+. Ï G1 /G0 ⊆ Z(G/G0 ), ¤± G1 ´ Abel +, l G1
). u´ G1 kf+
(0) (1) (m)
{1} = G1 ⊆ G1 ⊆ · · · ⊆ G1 = G1 , (5)
(i) (i+1) (i)
Ù¥ G1 ⊳ G1 , ¿ G1 /G1 ´Ì+, 0 6 i < m. Ï G1 ⊆ Z(G), ¤
± G(i) 1 ⊳ G, 0 6 i 6 m. Ï G2 /G1 ⊆ Z(G/G1 ), ¤± G2 /G1 ´ Abel +.
G2 /G1 = hg1 G1 i × hg2 G1 i × · · · × hgr G1 i, Ù¥ gi ∈ G2 \G1 , 1 6 i 6 r. Ä
G1 ⊆ hG1 , g1 i ⊆ hG1 , g1 , g2 i ⊆ · · · ⊆ hG1 , g1 , · · · , gr i = G2 . (6)
−1
? x1 ∈ G1 , Kk g1 x1 = (g1 x1 g1 )g1 ∈ G1 · hg1 i. Ïd hG1 , g1 i = G1 · hg1 i. q
T
G1 hg1 i = {1}, ¿ G1 ⊳ hG1 , g1 i, Ïd hG1 , g1 i ´ G1 hg1 i È, l
hG1 , g1 i ¥z/L«¤/ª x1 g1 , Ù¥ x1 ∈ G1 . é?¿ g ∈ G, k
g −1 (x1 g1 )g = (g −1 x1 g)(g −1 g1 g).
Ï G2 /G1 ⊆ Z(G/G1 ), ¤± (g1 G1 )(gG1 ) = (gG1 )(g1 G1 ), l éu, y1 ∈ G1 ,
g −1 g1 g = g1 y1 . u´ g −1 (x1 g1 )g = (g −1 x1 g)g1 y1 ∈ hG1 , g1 i. Ïd hG1 , g1 i⊳G. qdu
hG1 , g1 i/G1 ∼ = hg1 i, ¤± hG1 , g1 i/G1 ´Ì+. aqy hG1 , g1 , g2 i, · · · , hG1 , g1 , · · · ,
gr−1 i Ñ´ G 5f+, ¿ hG1 , g1 , g2 i/hG1 , g1 i, · · · , hG1 , g1 , · · · , gr i/hG1 , g1 , · · · ,
gr−1 i Ñ´Ì+. r (5) Ú (6) é(å5BÑ G2 ´)+.
§5 +©, M -+ · 151 ·
aq/, du G3 /G2 ⊆ Z(G/G2 ), ¤± G3 /G2 ´ Abel +, l l G2

G3 f+, 2 G2 f+é(å5Ñ G3 ´)+. g?1e, B
Ñ G ´)+.
·K 4 p-+½´"+.
∗
y² + G ´ ps , Ù¥ p ´ê, s > 0. e G ´ Abel +, K G w
,´". e G Abel. K Z(G) 6= {1}. - G0 = {1}, G1 = Z(G). P
Z(G/G1 ) = G2 /G1 . e Z(G/G1 ) 6= G/G1 , KUYÄ Z(G/G2 ) = G3 /G2 , · · · , u´
G f+
{1} = G0 ⊆ G1 ⊆ G2 ⊆ G3 ⊆ · · · .
du G/G1 E Abel +, ¤± Z(G/G1 ) 6= {1}, l G2 6= G1 . Ón G3 6= G2 , · · · .
du G ´k+, ¤±þãf+73kÚ ªu G, =
{1} = G0 ⊆ G1 ⊆ G2 ⊆ · · · ⊆ Gn = G,
Ù¥ Gi+1 /Gi = Z(G/Gi ), 0 6 i < n. ?¿ g2 ∈ G2 , g ∈ G, Ï G2 /G1 = Z(G/G1 ),
¤± (g2 G1 )(gG1 ) = (gG1 )(g2 G1 ), l : g −1 g2 g = g2 y1 , Ù¥ y1 ∈ G1 . u´
G2 ⊳ G. Ón G3 ⊳ G, · · · , Gn−1 ⊳ G. Ïd G ´"+.
nþ¤ã, k+ke'X:
p-+ =⇒ "+ =⇒ )+ =⇒ )+.
Ún 1 G ´ Abel +, e G k Abel 5f+ A, ¦ G/A ´)+,
K G 7k Abel 5f+ H ¦ H 6⊆ Z(G).
y² A ⊆ Z(G), ÄK H = A =. Ï G/ Z(G) ∼ = (G/A)/( Z(G)/A),
¿du G/A ), ¤± G/ Z(G) )¿ G/ Z(G) 6= {1}. u´3 G/ Z(G)
f+
{1} = G0 / Z(G) ⊆ G1 / Z(G) ⊆ · · · ⊆ Gm / Z(G) = G/ Z(G),
Ù¥ Gi / Z(G)⊳G/ Z(G), ¿ (Gi+1 / Z(G))/(Gi / Z(G)) ´Ì+, 0 6 i 6 m. u´k
G1 ⊳G, ¿ G1 / Z(G) ´Ì+. Ï G1 / Z(G1 ) ∼ = (G1 / Z(G))/( Z(G1 )/ Z(G)), ¤±
G1 / Z(G1 ) ´Ì+, l G1 Abel +. Ï G/ Z(G) 6= {1}, ¤± G1 6= Z(G).
H = G1 =.
½n 2 K ´k+ G ¤kf+©¿ char K = 0, XJ G k
Abel 5f+ A ¦ G/A )+, K G ´'u K M -+.
y² e G ´ Abel +, Kw, G ´ M -+. e¡ G ´ Abel +. é |G| ^
8B{. ? G Ø K-L« ϕ.
/ 1 e ϕ Ø´§¢, - G = G/ Ker ϕ, K |G| < |G|. du©´û+U
«, Ïd K ´ G ¤kf+©. Ï A · Ker ϕ ⊳ G, ¤± A · Ker ϕ/ Ker ϕ ⊳
T
G/ Ker ϕ. Ï A · Ker ϕ/ Ker ϕ ∼ = A/A Ker ϕ, ¤± A · Ker ϕ/ Ker ϕ ´ Abel +.
Ï
(G/ Ker ϕ)/(A · Ker ϕ/ Ker ϕ)
∼
= G/A · Ker ϕ ∼= (G/A)/(A · Ker ϕ/A),
¤±l G/A )íÑ (G/ Ker ϕ)/(A · Ker ϕ/ Ker ϕ) ). u´ G ÷v½
n 2 ¤^, l d8Bb, G ØL« ϕe (§J, = ϕ) ´ G

,f+ G1 = G1 / Ker ϕ 1 gL« ψe pL«. ψe J,P ψ, §´ G1
1 gL«. aqu½n 1 y²¥"ãØã, l ϕ e = ψeG ±íÑ ϕ = ψ G .
/ 2 ϕ ´§¢. Ï G k Abel 5f+ A ¦ G/A ), ¤
±âÚn 1 , G k Abel 5f+ H * Z(G). χ ´ ϕ JøAI, µ
´ χ|H Ø¤©. â Blichfeldt ½n, χ ±d G ýf+ Gµ ,
T
ØAI ν pÑ, = χ = ν G . w, Gµ A ´ Gµ Abel 5f+, k
T
Gµ /(Gµ A) ∼= (AGµ )/A. Ï (AGµ )/A ´ G/A f+, ¤± AGµ /A ), l
T
Gµ /(Gµ A) ). u´ Gµ ÷v½n 2 ^. qÏ |Gµ | < |G|, â8B
b, Gµ ØAI ν ±d Gµ ,f+ L 1 gAI λ pÑ,
= ν = λGµ . l
χ = ν G = (λGµ )G = λG .
nþ¤ãÑ, G ´'u K M -+.
5 SK 5.4 1 11 K (Clifford ½n) Ú1 12 K (Blichfeldt ½n) ¥, Eê
±¤ “K ´k+ G ¤kf+© charK = 0”, (ØE,¤á.
íØ 1 )+´'u K M -+, Ù¥ K ´ù+¤kf+©
¿ char K = 0.
y² 3½n 2 ¥ A = {1} =(Ø.
íØ 2 K ´k+ G ¤kf+©, ¿ char K = 0, e G ´ p-+
½"+, K G ´'u K M -+.
íØ 3 K ´k+ G ¤kf+©, ¿ char K = 0. e G ´æ
Abel + (= G ´ Abel +, G k Abel 5f+ A ¦ G/A Abel +),
K G ´'u K M -+.
íØ 4 K ´k+ G ¤kf+©, ¿ char K = 0. e |G| =
p1 p2 · · · ps , Ù¥ p1 , p2 , · · · , ps ´pØÓê, K G ´'u K M -+.
y² d G z Sylow pi -f+Ñ´Ì+, l G ´æ Abel +.
§6 pAI Brauer ½n
lSK 5.4 1 11 K Clifford ½n, ek+ G k²5f+

N , K G ØEAI χ ½öU
d G ,ýf+ØEAI
pÑ, ½ö χ 3 N þ χ|N ´ N ,ØEAIê.
lþ!, éu M -+ G, §zØEAId§f+ 1 g
EAIpÑ, l G zEAI±L«¤
f+ 1 gEAI
pAIKXê5|Ü.
!5?ÚïÄéu?k+ G, §?EAIUÄL«¤§,
f+ 1 gEAIpAIXê5|Ü? ù
f+óf+?
Brauer Ñ
ù¯K÷), !ò0ù
(J. ·òæ^ Goldschmidt
§6 pAI Brauer ½n · 153 ·
y². Äk0
Vg.
½Â 1 H ´k+ G f+, XJ H ´, p-f+ P ,Ú p p
Ìf+ C È, Ù¥ p ´ê, @o¡ H ´ G Ðf+.
w,, e H ´ G p-f+, K H ´ G Ðf+; e H ´ G Ìf+ hai,
du hai = ha1 i × ha2 i, Ù¥ ha1 i ,ê p , ha2 i p p, Ï
d H ´ G Ðf+. ddwÑ, ?k+ G okÐf+ (X G Sylow
p-f+Ò´Ðf+).
½Â 2 H ´k+ G f+, XJ H ´, p-f+ P ,Ú p p
5 (3 H ¥5) Ìf+ C È, Ù¥ p ´ê, K¡ H ´ G O
Ðf+.
w,, G ?Ðf+ÓÐ. N´wÑ, OÐf+?f+EÓ
Ð. Ðf+f+E´Ðf+.
T
G ¤kOÐf+|¤8ÜP D. N´wÑ, e H, L ∈ D, K L gHg −1 ∈
D, ∀g ∈ G.
G ´k+, K ÁØUØ |G| . XJ G K ¼ê f ´ G Ø
AIXê5|Ü, K f ¡ G 2ÂAI.
w,, G 2ÂAI´ G a¼ê. G ¤k2ÂAI|¤8ÜP
char (G). ý char (G) ´ G a¼ê CfK (G) f, §ü ´ G
ÌAI χ0 (½P 1G ). ¡ char (G) ´ G 2ÂAI.
K AØUØk+ G , Ä G 2ÂAI char (G) \
{f+:
B(G; D) = h(1H )G |H ∈ Di,
Ù´ G
OÐf+ÌAIpAIXê5|Ü.
·K 1 B(G; D) ´ char (G) f.
y² H, L ∈ D, {x1 , x2 , · · · , xt } ´ (L, H) 3 G ¥V8LX. é
(i) (i)
uz i(6 i 6 t), ?¿ y ∈ xi Hx−1 −1
i , k 1H (y) = 1H (xi yxi ) = 1. Ïd 1H ´
T (i)
xi Hx−1
i ÌAI. - Li = L xi Hx−1 i , u´ 1H |Li = 1Li . âÙ §2 ·K 3
Ú §4 ½n 1 (Mackey f+½n)
(1L )G · (1H )G = [1L · (1H )G |L]G = [(1H )G |L]G
" t #G t
X (i) X
L
= (1H |Li ) = [(1Li )L ]G
i=1 i=1
t
X
= (1Li )G ∈ B(G; D),
i=1
¤± B(G; D) ´ char (G) f.
B(G; D) ¡ G 'u D Burnside .
Ún 1 R ´k8Ü G
¼ê (= G Z N) |¤.
XJéuzê p Úz g ∈ G, 3¼ê fg,p ∈ R ¦ fg,p (g) 6≡
0( mod p), @o 1G ∈ R, Ù¥ 1G ´3 G zþ 1 ¼ê.

y² ? g ∈ G, Ä8Ü Ig := {f (g)|f ∈ R}. w, Ig é~{µ4; éu?
¿ f (g) ∈ Ig , ?¿ m ∈ Z, m > 0, k
mf (g) = (f + · · · + f )(g) ∈ Ig ,
(−m)f (g) = −[mf (g)] = [−(mf )](g) ∈ Ig ,
¤± Ig ´ê Z n. l 3,ê n ¦ Ig = (n). bX n 6= 1,
n = pα1 α2 αs
1 p2 · · · ps , Ù¥ p1 , p2 , · · · , ps ´pØÓê, αi > 0(1 6 i 6 s). d®
^, éu p1 , 3¼ê fg,p1 ∈ R ¦ fg,p1 (g) 6≡ 0( mod p1 ). du fg,p1 (g) ∈ Ig , ¤
± n|fg,p1 (g). l k p1 |fg,p1 (g), gñ. ¤± n = 1, = Ig = Z. Ïd R ¥k¼
ê fg ¦ fg (g) = 1. l " #
Y
(1G − fg ) (x) = 0, ∀x ∈ G,
g∈G
Y
¤± (1G − fg ) = 0, r>Ðm, £= 1G ∈ R.
g∈G
·K 2 G ´k+, D ¿ÂÓþ, K A", K 1G ∈ B(G; D).
y² y B(G; D) ÷vÚn 1 ^. ?ê p, ? g ∈ G, g
l
pl m, Ù¥ (m, p) = 1, l > 0. - C = hg p i, K |C| = m. - N = NG (C),
Ù¥ NG (C) ´ C 3 G ¥5zf, = NG (C) = {x ∈ G|x−1 Cx = C}. u´
C ⊳ N . w, g ∈ N . P ´ N Sylow p-f+¦ g m ∈ P . H = P C, w,
T
C ⊳ H, P C = {1}, ¤± H ´ P C È, l H ∈ D.
y35y (1H )G (g) 6≡ 0( mod p). {x1 = 1, x2 , · · · , xt } ´ H 3 G ¥8
LX, K
t
X
(1H )G (g) = 1̇H (x−1 −1
i gxi ) = |{i|xi gxi ∈ H}|.
i=1
l
é?¿ x ∈ G, e x−1 gx ∈ H, K x−1 g p x ∈ H, l x−1 Cx ⊆ H. Ï H = P C,
x−1 Cx p p, ¤± x−1 Cx ⊆ C. l x−1 Cx = C, ù`² x ∈ NG (C) =
N . qd x−1 gx ∈ H, íÑ gx ∈ xH, l g(xH) = (gx)H = xH. , e
g(xH) = xH, K gx ∈ xH, l x−1 gx ∈ H. ¤± x−1 gx ∈ H = x ∈ N ¿
S S
g(xH) = xH. Ï H = P C < N , d G = x1 H · · · xt H
T T S S T
N =N G = [(x1 H) N ] · · · [(xt H) N ].
T −1
ek y ∈ xi H N , Kéu, h ∈ H y = xi h. l xi = yh ∈ N , u´ xi H ⊆ N .
T T T
Ïd xi H N 6= ∅ xi H N = xi H. ù`² xi H N ½ö´8, ½öu
xi H. u´
S S S
N =H x2 H · · · xr H, r 6 t.
dþã, (1H )G (g) u H 3 N p g ½8ê8.

?¿ c ∈ C, éuz i(1 6 i 6 r), k
c(xi H) = (cxi )H = xi (x−1
i cxi )H = xi H.
Ä hgi 3û8 N/H þ^ (5¿ g ∈ N ). u´ hgi 8Ü N/H

C+ (∼
l l
= Sr ) Ó ϕ. Ï g p ∈ C, ¤± ϕ(g p ) ´8Ü N/H ðN.
l ϕ(g) UØ pl . ϕ(g) ps , Ù¥ s 6 l. du ϕ(g) ´ ϕ(g)
Ó©)ª¥ÓÝúê. ¤± ϕ(g) z 1-Ó
u p êg. ,¡, Ï H ¹ N Sylow p-f+ P , r = [N : H],
¤± r p p. du ϕ(g) Ó©)ª¥¤kÓ () 1-Ó) ÝÚ
u r, Ïd p ØUØ ϕ(g) ØÄ:ê8, = p ØUØ g ½ H 3 N ¥
8ê8, ùê8u (1H )G (g). ¤± (1H )G (g) 6≡ 0( mod p). dÚn 1 =
1G ∈ B(G : D).
Ù §2 ·K 2 ¥úª (7), ±Ñpa¼ê½Â.
½Â 3 G ´k+, H < G, K AØUØ |G|. η ´ H þa
¼ê, Ä G þ¼ê η G , §deª½Â:
1 X
η G (g) := η̇(a−1 ga), ∀g ∈ G, (1)
|H|
a∈G
Ù¥
(
η(y), y ∈ H,
η̇(y) = (2)
0, y∈ / H;
´wÑ η G ´ G þa¼ê, ¡ η G ´ η pa¼ê.

pa¼êke5.
·K 3 (D45) G ´k+, K AØUØ |G|, H, L Ñ´ G
f+, ¿ H < L. η ´ H þa¼ê, K
(η L )G = η G . (3)
y² ? g ∈ G, XJ g ∈ L, K
1 X
η L (g) = η̇(a−1 ga);
|H|
a∈L
XJ g ∈ / L, Ké a ∈ L, k a−1 ga ∈ / L. du H < L, Ïd a−1 ga ∈ / H, l
−1 ˙
η̇(a ga) = 0. aqu (2) ª½Â¼ê (η ), éu g ∈
L ˙
/ L, k (η )(g) = 0. l é
L
g ∈ G, k
1 X
(η˙L )(g) = η̇(a−1 ga). (4)
|H|
a∈L
u´é g ∈ G, k
1 X ˙L −1
(η L )G (g) = (η )(b gb)
|L|
b∈G
1 1 XX
= · η̇(a−1 b−1 gba)
|L| |H|
b∈G a∈L
1 1 XX
= · η̇((ba)−1 g(ba))
|L| |H|
a∈L b∈G
1 1 X X −1
= · η̇(t gt)
|L| |H|
a∈L t∈G
1 X G
= η (g) = η G (g).
|L|
a∈L
dd= (3) ª.
·K 4 G ´k+, char K ∤ |G|, H < G, η1 , η2 , · · · , ηr Ñ´ H a¼ê.
ki ∈ K, 1 6 i 6 r, K
r
!G r
X X
ki ηi = ki ηiG . (5)
i=1 i=1
y² é?¿ g ∈ G, k
r
!G r
!·
X 1 X X
ki ηi (g) = ki ηi (a−1 ga)
i=1
|H|
a∈G i=1
r
1 XX
= ki η̇i (a−1 ga)
|H| i=1
a∈G
r
X 1 X
= ki η̇i (a−1 ga)
i=1
|H|
a∈G
r r
!
X X
= ki ηiG (g) = ki ηiG (g),
i=1 i=1
l (5) ª¤á.
·K 5 G ´k+, char K ∤ |G|, H < G. η ´ H a¼ê, ξ ´ G
a¼ê, K
η G · ξ = (η · ξ|H)G . (6)
y² é?¿ g ∈ G, k
1 X
(η · ξ|H)G (g) = (η · ξ|H)· (a−1 ga)
|H|
a∈G
1 X
= η̇(a−1 ga)(ξ|H)· (a−1 ga)
|H|
a∈G
1 X
= η̇(a−1 ga)ξ(a−1 ga)
|H|
a∈G
1 X
= η̇(a−1 ga)ξ(g)
|H|
a∈G
= η (g)ξ(g) = (η G ξ)(g),
G
dd= (6) ª.
½n 1 (Frobenius pÆ) G ´k+, H < G, char K ∤ |G|. η ´ H
a¼ê, ξ ´ G a¼ê, K K Éê, k
(η G , ξ)G = (η, ξ|H)H . (7)
y² " #
1 X 1 X 1 X
(η G , ξ)G = η G (g)ξ(g) = η̇(a−1 ga) ξ(g)
|G| |G| |H|
g∈G g∈G a∈G
1 XX
= η̇(a−1 ga)ξ(g)
|G| · |H|
a∈G g∈G
1 XX
= η̇(y)ξ(aya−1 )
|G| · |H|
a∈G y∈G
1 XX 1 X
= η̇(y)ξ(y) = η̇(y)ξ(y)
|G| · |H| |H|
a∈G y∈G y∈G
1 X
= η(y)ξ(y) = (η, ξ|H)H .
|H|
y∈H
5 K ´, G ´k+. ·3¼êm K G ¥½Â¼êX

e:
1 X
hξ, ηi := ξ(g)η(g −1 ).
|G|
g∈G
Nýù¼ê´ K G þé¡V5¼ê. 1nÙ §2 ½n 1 1

'X±í2¤: G ´k+, K AØUØ |G| ¿ K ´ G ©
, q χi χj ´ G ØAI, K
1 X
χi (g)χj (g −1 ) = δij .
|G|
g∈G
|^þãé¡V5¼ê, ±r1'X¤ hχi , χj i = δij . ½n 1 (Frobenius
pÆ) (Øk: hη G , ξiG = hη, ξ|HiH .
½n 2 (Brauer) K A 0, ¿ K ´k+ G ¤kf+©
. ξ ´ G a¼ê, Ke·Kd:
(i) ξ ´ G Ðf+ 1 gAIpAIXê5|Ü;
(ii) ξ ´ G 2ÂAI;
(iii) éu G zÐf+ H, Ñk ξ|H ´ H 2ÂAI.
y² E ´ G ¤kÐf+|¤8Ü.
T = {G Ðf+ 1 gAIpAIXê5|Ü }.
w,, T ´ char (G) \{f+.
R = {ξ ∈ Cfk (G) | ξ|H ∈ char (H), H ∈ E }.
´wÑ R ´ CfK (G) f. w,k
T ⊆ char (G) ⊆ R.
Ïd
y½n 2, ÒIy T = R.
n
X
Äky T ´ R n. ? ξ ∈ T , η ∈ R, ξ = mi λG
i , Ù¥ λi ´ G
i=1
Ðf+ Hi 1 gAI, 1 6 i 6 n, K
n
X n
X
G
ξη = mi (λi η) = mi [λi (η|Hi )]G .
i=1 i=1
Ï η|Hi ∈ char (Hi ), ¤± λi (η|Hi ) ∈ char (Hi ). u´3ê lij ¦ λi (η|Hi ) =
ri
X
lij µij , Ù¥ µij ∈ Irr (Hi ). Ïd
j=1
 G
n
X Xri ri
n X
X
ξη = mi  lij µij  = mi lij µG
ij . (8)
i=1 j=1 i=1 j=1
Ï Hi ´Ðf+, ¤± Hi = Pi × Ci , Ù¥ Pi ´ p-+, Ci ´Ù p pÌ
+. u´ Hi /Ci ∼ = Pi . du p-+´)+, âÙ §5 ½n 2 , Hi ´'
u K M -+, l Hi zØAI µij ´ Hi ,f+ 1 gAI
pAI. N´wÑ, Ðf+f+E´Ðf+. âpAID45
, µG
ij ´ Hi Ðf+ 1 gAIpAI, u´d (8) ª ξη ∈ T .
¤± T ´ R n.
Ùgy 1G ∈ T . â·K 2, 1G ∈ B(G; D). du B(G; D) p´ G

OÐf+ÌAIpAIXê5|Ü, u´XJ·Uy²
zOÐf+ L ÌAI 1L ´ L Ðf+ 1 gAIpAI
Xê5|Ü, dpD45, ÒÑ (1L )G ∈ T , l 1G ∈ T .
L = P C, Ù¥ P ´ p-+, C ´Ù p p5Ìf+, N = NL (P ). Ï
T
P ⊆ NL (P ) = N , ¤± N = P × (N C). u´ N ´ L Ðf+, dÐf+½
Â, N ´ G Ðf+. XJ L = N , K L ´Ðf+, l (1L )G ∈ T .
e N 6= L, 1L , ν2 , · · · , νs ´ L ÜØÓØAI, K
s
X
(1N )L = a1 1L + ai νi ,
i=2
Ù¥ ai ´Kê (1 6 i 6 s). ·k
a1 = h(1N )L , 1L iL = h1N , (1L )|N iN = h1N , 1N iN = 1.
r ai = 0 K, Ø
Xt
(1N )L = 1L + ai νi , ai > 0 (2 6 i 6 t). (9)
i=2
bXéu, i (2 6 i 6 t), νi (1) = 1, K νi |N ´ N 1 gAI. Ï
hνi |N, 1N iN = hνi , (1N )L iL = ai > 0,
¤± νi |N = 1N . l N ⊆ Ker νi =: M . Ï νi ´ 1 gAI, ¿ νi 6= 1L , ¤
± M ´ L ý5f+. Ï P ⊆ N ⊆ M , ¤± P ´ M Sylow p-f+. é?
¿ g ∈ L, gP g −1 ´ M Sylow p-f+, Ïd3 y ∈ M ¦ y(gP g −1 )y −1 = P ,
l yg ∈ NG (P ) = N , u´ g ∈ M . l L = M , gñ. ¤±éuz
i(2 6 i 6 t), Ñk νi (1) > 1.
Ï L k5Ìf+ C, ¿ L/C ∼ = P ´ p-+, ¤± L ´'u K M -+.
du νi (2 6 i 6 t) 1 gAI, Ïdz νi (2 6 i 6 t) ´ L ýf+ Li 1 g
AI ωi pAI. u´ (9) ª¤

t
X
L
1L = (1N ) − ai ωiL . (10)
i=2
Ï L ´ G OÐf+, ¤± Li EOÐf+, ¿ |Li | < |L|. u´·
±$^8B{, béuu |L| OÐf+, §ÌAI±L«¤§Ð
f+ 1 gAIpAIXê5|Ü . y35w 1L . d8Bb,
X
Li
Li ÌAI 1Li = bj εij , Ù¥ εij ´ Li Ðf+ Lij 1 gAI, bj ´
j
ê. u´ !
X X
ωi = ωi · 1 Li = ωi bj εL
ij
i
= bj ωi εL
ij
i
j j
X
Li
= bj [(ωi |Lij )εij ] .
j
Ï (ωi |Lij )εij ´ Lij 1 gAI, ¤± ωi L«¤ Li Ðf+ 1 gA

IpAIXê5|Ü. u´l (10) ªwÑ: 1L ´ L Ðf+ 1 g
AIpAIXê5|Ü. d8B{n, éu G ?OÐf
+, ÙÌAIþL«¤§Ðf+ 1 gAIpAIXê5
|Ü. l 1G ∈ T . ¤± T = R.
d½n 2 á=eã½n 3.
½n 3 (Brauer) K ´k+ G ¤kf+© char K = 0, K G
zAI´ G Ðf+ 1 gAIpAIXê5|Ü.
½n 2 Ú 3 kNõA^. !50§A^.
½n 4 (Brauer) G ´k+, χ ´ G ØEAI, p ´ê, Ke
·Kd:
(i) χ(g) = 0, éuzÙU p Ø g;
(ii) χ(g) = 0, éuzÙU p Ø g;
|G|
(iii) 6≡ 0( mod p).
χ(1)
y² (i)⇒(ii) w,.
(ii)⇒(iii). |G| = pl m, Ù¥ p ∤ m. P ´ G Sylow p-f+. d (ii) , ?
¿ g ∈ P , g 6= 1, k χ(g) = 0. u´
1 X 1
(χ|P, 1P )P = χ(g) = χ(1),
|P | |P |
g∈P
|G| |G|
¤± pl |χ(1), l p p, = 6≡ 0( mod p).
χ(1) χ(1)
(iii)⇒(i). Äky(Ø: “ H = P1 × Q ⊆ G, Ù¥ P1 ´ p-+½ü f+,
|G|
p ∤ |Q|, p p, Ké¤k ν ∈ Irr (Q), k (ν, χ|Q) U |P1 | Ø.”
χ(1)
|G|
n= . ? y ∈ Q, â1nÙ §3 ·K 5
χ(1)
|G|χ(y)
| CG (y)|χ(1)
´êê. Ï P1 ⊆ CG (y), ¤± | CG (y)| = |P1 |r. u´
|G|χ(y) nχ(y)
= .
| CG (y)|χ(1) |P1 |r
nχ(y) |G|
ddÑ: ´êê. â (iii) b, n = p p, l n |P1 |
|P1 | χ(1)
p. u´3ê a, b ¦ an + b|P1 | = 1, l
χ(y) anχ(y)
= + bχ(y).
|P1 | |P1 |
χ(y)
þªL² ´êê. y3ÀJê d, e ¦ d|P1 | + e|Q| = 1, K
|P1 |
(ν, χ|Q) e|Q|
= d(ν, χ|Q) + (ν, χ|Q)
|P1 | |P1 |
1 X
= d(ν, χ|Q) + e ν(y −1 )χ(y)
|P1 |
y∈Q
X χ(y)
= d(ν, χ|Q) + e ν(y −1 ) .
|P1 |
y∈Q
þªm>´êê, l íÑ |P1 | |(ν, χ|Q).
Ùg, ·½Â G þa¼êXe:
(
χ(g), g ØU p Ø,
ξ(g) =
0, g U p Ø.
e¡5y ξ = χ. 'Úý ξ ∈ char (G). â½n 2, ùy: éu G z
Ðf+ H k ξ|H ∈ char (H). H = P2 × C, Ù¥ P2 ´ p2 -+, p2 ´ê; C
´Ù p2 pÌ+. XJ p2 = p, K P2 Ò´ p-+. XJ p2 6= p, e |C| U
p Ø, K C = C1 × C2 , Ù¥ p| |C1 |, p ∤ |C2 |, u´ H = C1 × (C2 × P2 ); e p ∤ |C|,
K H = 1 × H. o, H = P3 × Q, Ù¥ P3 ´ p-+½ü f+, p ∤ |Q|. âf
ây(Ø, éuz ν ∈ Irr (Q) k (ν, χ|Q) U |P3 | Ø. qd+È
L«, H zØAI ω ÷v ω(xy) = µ(x)ν(y), Ù¥ µ ´ P3 ,
ØAI, ν ∈ Irr (Q), x ∈ P3 , y ∈ Q. é?¿ x ∈ P3 x 6= 1, ±9?¿ y ∈ Q,
du xy = yx, x y p, Ïd xy |xy| = |x| |y|. l xy U
p Ø. Ïdk ξ(xy) = 0. u´
1 X 1 X
(ω, ξ|H)H = ω(xy)ξ(xy) = µ(1)ν(y)ξ(y)
|H| x∈P |P3 ||Q|
3 y∈Q
y∈Q
µ(1) 1 X µ(1)
= ν(y)χ(y) = (ν, χ|Q)Q .
|P3 | |Q| |P3 |
y∈Q
ddÑ (ω, ξ|H)H ´ê. (Ü1nÙ §2 ½n 2 ξ|H ∈ char (H), u´
§7 knAI Artin ½n · 161 ·
ξ ∈ char (G). S = {g ∈ G|g ØU p Ø }, Ï 1 ∈ S, ¤±

1 X 1 X
0 < (ξ, ξ)G = ξ(g)ξ(g) = |χ(g)|2
|G| |G|
g∈G g∈S
1 X
6 |χ(g)|2 = (χ, χ)G = 1.
|G|
g∈G
du (ξ, ξ)G ´ê, ¤±þª7ª, l Ñ χ(g) = 0, ∀g ∈ G\S.
§7 knAI Artin ½n
+ G Q-L«¡knL«, §JøAIknAI. e χ ´k+

G knAI, Kéuz g ∈ G χ(g) ∈ Z, ù´Ï χ(g) ´ |G| gü Ú,
l ´êê. H < G, K (1H )G ´ G knAI. , G zkn
AIUÄd G ,
f+ÌAIpÑ? Artin knAI½n£
ù
¯K.
y² Artin ½n, ·IÚn.
Ún 1 χ ´ G knAI, G üÌf+ hxi hyi 3 G ¥
Ý, K χ(x) = χ(y).
y² Ï χ ´ G þa¼ê, ¤±Ø hxi = hyi. x n, ε ´
n gü . Ï hyi = hxi, ¤± y = xm , Ù¥ (m, n) = 1. u´ εm ´ n
gü . l 3© Q(ε) Q-gÓ σ ¦ σ(ε) = εm . â1 3 Ù §1
χ(1)
X
·K 6 , χ(x) = εi , Ù¥z εi ´ n gü , l §´ ε . χ ´d
i=1
G Q-L« ϕ Jø, K ε1 , ε2 , · · · , εχ(1) ´ ϕ(x) AõªÜE. u
´ ϕ(xm ) = ϕ(x)m AõªÜE´ εm m m
1 , ε2 , · · · , εχ(1) . l ·k
X X
χ(y) = χ(xm ) = εm
i = σ(εi )
i i
!
X
=σ εi = σ(χ(x)) = χ(x).
i
½n 1 (Artin) χ ´k+ G knAI, K
X aH
χ= (1H )G , (1)
[ NG (H) : H]
Ù¥ H H G Ìf+, ¿ aH ∈ Z.
y² 3 G þ½Âd'X “≡”:
x ≡ y ⇐⇒ hxi hyi3 G ¥Ý.
lÚn 1 Ñ: χ 3'u “≡” daþ~ê. B1 , B2 , · · · , Bm ´ G 'u
“≡” ØÓda (8 {¡ (≡)-a), ¿ fi ´ Bi A¼ê, =
(
1, x ∈ Bi ,
fi (x) =
0, x 6∈ Bi .
´wÑ χ ´ f1 , f2 , · · · , fm Z-5|Ü. 3 Bi pÀL xi , ¿
Hi = hxi i, ni = |Hi |(i = 1, 2, · · · , m). â [24] SK 1.5 1 23 K, Hi 3 G ¥
Ýf+ê8u [G : NG (Hi )]. qdu hxi i = hxki i = (k, ni ) = 1, Ïd·

|Bi | = [G : NG (Hi )]ϕ(ni ), (2)
ùp ϕ(ni ) ´î.¼ê.
e¡·3 ni þ$^8B{5y²
m
X
| NG (Hi )|fi = aj nj (1Hj )G , (3)
j=1
éu· aj ∈ Z, Ù¥ Hj Ø Hi f+Ýk aj = 0.
XJ ni = 1, K Bi = {1}, Hi = {1}, [G : Hi ] = |G|. âÙ §2 úª (1)
: (1Hi )G (1) = |G|, (1Hi )G (g) = 0 éu g 6= 1. Ïd (1Hi )G = |G|fi . du
Hi = {1} f+kgC, Ïd Hi f+Ý Hj k Hi . u´ (3) ª
m> ai (1Hi )G , > |G|fi , ai = 1, K (3) ª¤á.
b ni > 1. Ï (1Hi )G ´ G knAI, ¤± (1Hi )G 3 (≡)-aþ~ê
. l
m
X
(1Hi )G = bj fj , (4)
j=1
Ù¥ bj ∈ Z, j = 1, 2, · · · , m. ·k
1 X
(fj , fk )G = fj (g)fk (g)
|G|
g∈G
m
1 X |Bj |
= |Bl |fj (xl )fk (xl ) = δjk . (5)
|G| |G|
l=1
XJ y = gxg −1 , K y ≡ x. ddwÑ fj ´ G a¼ê (j = 1, 2, · · · , m). â
Frobenius pÆ: ((1Hi )G , fj )G = (1Hi , fj |Hi! )Hi . du (4) ªÚ (5) ª·k
Xm
|Bj |
((1Hi )G , fj )G = bk fk , fj = bj . (6)
|G|
k=1 G
fj |Hi (xsi ) = 1 = xsi ∈ Bj , = xsi ≡ xj . ddwÑ: Hj Ø Hi f+Ý,
k fj |Hi = 0. Hj Hi f+ hxsi i Ý, k hxj i = ghxsi ig −1 = hgxsi g −1 i.
l : xsi = g −1 xrj g éu, r. u´
xsi ∈ Bj ⇐⇒ xrj ∈ Bj ⇐⇒ (r, nj ) = 1.
¤±d fj |Hi 3 Hi ϕ(nj ) þ 1, 3Ù{þ 0. dd
ϕ(nj )
Ñ (1Hi , fj |Hi )Hi = . 2d (6) ªÚ (2) ªB
ni
|G| |G| ϕ(nj ) | NG (Hj )|
bj = (1Hi , fj |Hi )Hi = · = . (7)
|Bj | |Bj | ni ni
Ïd, Hj Hi f+Ý, bj d (7) ªÑ; Hj Ø Hi f
+Ý, bj = 0. ¤±
Xm X
ni (1Hi )G = ni b j f j = | NG (Hl )|fl , (8)
j=1 l
§7 knAI Artin ½n · 163 ·
Ù¥ l H Hl eI8 Hl Hi f+Ý. d8Bb, Hl Hi ýf

+Ý, k
m
X
| NG (Hl )|fl = ak nk (1Hk )G , (9)
k=1
Ù¥ Hk Ø Hl f+Ý, ak = 0. l (8) ª)Ñ | NG (Hi )|fi , ¿^ (9) ª

\BÑ (3) ª.
(3) ª¥ aj 6= 0 , Hj Hi ,f+ hxsi i Ý, u´ Hj hxsi i ?u
G 3Ù¤kf+8ÜþÝêÓ^;, l Hj ½f+ hxsi i
½f+Ý, Ïd | NG (Hj )| = | NG (hxsi i)|. q´wÑ NG (Hi ) ⊆ NG (hxsi i), ¤±

| NG (Hi )|| NG (Hj )|. | NG (Hj )| = | NG (Hi )|cij , l (3) ª
Xm X cij aj nj
aj n j
fi = (1Hj )G = (1Hj )G
j=1
| NG (H i )| j
| NG (H j )|
X c′ij
= (1Hj )G ,
j
[ NG (Hj ) : Hj ]
Hj Ø Hi f+Ý, c′ij = 0; Ý, c′ij = cij aj . Ï χ ´ f1 , f2 , · · · , fm
Z-5|Ü, ¤±·B (1) ª.
íØ 1 χ ´k+ G ?knAI, K
X aH
χ= (1H )G ,
|G|
H
Ù¥ H H G Ìf+, ¿ aH ∈ Z.
Artin ½nÚ<58íØXe.
íØ 2 k+ G ØdØknL«ê8u G ÝÌf
+ê8.
y² ÷^½n 1 PÒ, K G ÝÌf+ê8 ≡-aê8 m.
χ1 , χ2 , · · · , χt ´ G ØÓØknAI. Ï χi 3 (≡)-aþ~ê,
¤± χi §3 x1 , x2 , · · · , xm þ¼ê¤û½. w,, G ¤k (≡)-a¼ê
|¤8Ü U ´ QG fm, ¿ f 7→ (f (x1 ), f (x2 ), · · · , f (xm )) ´ U Qm
þÓN. Bj A¼ê fj ∈ U , ´wÑ f1 , f2 , · · · , fm ´5Ã'. Ï
χi ´ f1 , f2 , · · · , fm Z-5|Ü, ¤±þ| χ1 , χ2 , · · · , χt ØL m. du
χ1 , χ2 , · · · , χt ´5Ã', ddÑ t 6 m.
,¡, Ï (1Hj )G ´ G knAI, ¤± (1Hj )G ´ χ1 , χ2 , · · · , χt
KXê5|Ü. l (3) ªÑ: | NG (Hi )|fi ´ χ1 , χ2 , · · · , χt Z-5|Ü, Ï
d | NG (H1 )|f1 , | NG (H2 )|f2 , · · · , | NG (Hm )|fm ØL t. lþã U Qm Ó
N´wÑ: | NG (H1 )|f1 , | NG (H2 )|f2 , · · · , | NG (Hm )|fm 5Ã', Ïd m 6 t. u
´ m = t.
§8 Frobenius +3ý5f+y²
!ò|^+AInØy²Í¶ Frobenius +3ý5f+½n (^

+âÚÄ+â), ù½n8vkX{Øy², dd, +L
«ØéuïÄ+Ø¤å^.
½Â 1 G ´ Ω þD4+, |Ω | = n. e G ¥zü õk 1
ØÄ:, ¿3ü k 1 ØÄ:, K¡ G ´ n g Frobenius +. G ¥
g evkØÄ:, K¡ g K; e g Tk 1 Ä:, K¡ g K.
½Â 2 + G f+ H ¡ G Af+, XJéu G zgÓ σ
Ñk σ(H) ⊆ H.
½n 1 (Frobenius) G ´ n g Frobenius +, K G ¥¤kKÚü
|¤f8 N ´ G Af+, ¿§ n.
y² du G ¥3ü Tk 1 ØÄ:, dØÄ: j, K j ½
f+ Gj 6= {1}. du G 3 Ω þD4, ¤±é i ∈ Ω , k Gi 6= {1}. du G ´
T
Frobenius +. Ïd Gi Gl = {1}, i 6= l. |G1 | = m, K |Gi | = m, ∀i ∈ Ω . u´
[n

Gi = (m − 1)n + 1.

i=1
Ï |G| = |G1 | · n = mn,¤± G Kê8
[n

|G| − Gi = mn − [(m − 1)n + 1] = n − 1,

i=1
G Kê8 (m − 1)n.
P H = G1 . é?¿ i ∈ Ω , i 6= 1, i 3 H ¥½f+ Hi = {1}, l i H-;
|H| = m. du H w¤´ Ω \{1} þ+, l Ω \{1} ´
H-;
¿8. ddÑ m|(n − 1). Ïd (m, n) = 1.
Ï G ´ Ω þ+, ¤± G 3Eêþk n gL« ϕ. â1
nÙ §2 ·K 3 χϕ (g) = |F (g)|, Ù¥ |F (g)| ´ g ØÄ:ê8. u´ χϕ (1) = n;
g ´K, χϕ (g) = 0; g ´K, χϕ (g) = 1. χ1 ´ G ÌAI.
du G 3 Ω þD4, u´â1nÙ §2 íØ 4 (χϕ , χ1 ) = 1. l ϕ ≈ 1G ⊕ ψ,
Ù¥ ψ ´ G n − 1 gEL«. u´ g K, χψ (g) = −1; g K
, χψ (g) = 0. Ä G þ¼ê ξ, §deª½Â:
ξ(g) = χρ (g) − mχψ (g), ∀g ∈ G, (1)
Ù¥ ρ ´ G KL«. d (1) ª
ξ(1) = χρ (1) − mχψ (1) = |G| − m(n − 1) = m;
g K, ξ(g) = m; g K, ξ(g) = 0. w, ξ ∈ char (G). XJU
y² ξ ´ G AI, K
Ker ξ = {g ∈ G|ξ(g) = ξ(1)} = N,
l N ⊳ G. ? G gÓ σ, ?¿ g ∈ N , du g Ø |N | = n, Ïd
σ(g) ´ n Ïf. du G ?K7áu, Gj , |Gj | = m, Ïd
§8 Frobenius +3ý5f+y² · 165 ·
K´ m Ïf. du (n, m) = 1, ¤± σ(g) ´K. ùL² σ(N ) ⊆ N ,

l N ´ G Af+. e¡5y ξ ´ G AI.
Irr (H) = {µ1 , µ2 , · · · , µr }, µi (1) = mi , 1 6 i 6 r. ^ µρ P H KL«
ρH JøAI, K r r
X X
µρ = mi µi , m = m2i .
i=1 i=1
r
X
Ï (µρ )G = χρ , ¤± χρ = mi µG
i , l
i=1 !
r
X r
X
ξ = χρ − mχψ = mi µG
i − m2i χψ
i=1 i=1
r
X
= mi (µG
i − mi χψ ).
i=1
ÏdIy: éuz i(1 6 i 6 r), µG G
i − mi χψ ´ G AI. P πi = µi − mi χψ .
Ï H = G1 , ¿ [G : H] = n, l H 3 G ¥8LX´
g1 = 1, g2 , · · · , gn , Ù¥ gj (1) = j, 2 6 j 6 n. ? G K x, w, gj−1 xgj E
K, l Xn
µGi (x) = µ̇i (gj−1 xgj ) = 0.
j=1
? G K y, y ØÄ:´ l, K gl−1 ygl ØÄ:´ 1, l gl−1 ygl ∈ H;
j 6= l , gj−1 ygj ØÄ:Ø´ 1, l gj−1 ygj ∈ / H. Ïd
n
X
µG
i (y) = µ̇i (gj−1 ygj ) = µi (gl−1 ygl ).
j=1
r gl−1 ygl {P ye, = ye ´ y 3 G ¥Ý, ¿ ye ∈ H. qk µG i (1) = [G :
H] · mi = nmi .
(πi , πi )G = (µG G G 2
i , µi )G − 2mi (µi , χψ )G + mi (χψ , χψ )G ,
 
1 X 1  2 2 X
(µG G
i , µi )G = µG G
i (g)µi (g) = n mi + y )|2  .
|µi (e
|G| |G|
g∈G y∈G\N
Ïe y ∈ Gl , K ye = gl−1 ygl ∈ H. e y1 , y2 ∈ Gl , y1 6= y2 , K gl−1 y1 g1 =
6
−1
gl y2 gl . l y H Gl z, ye H H z. du G\N =
[n
(Gl \{1}), ¤± y H G\N , ye BH H\{1} z n g, l
l=1 " #
1 X
(µG G
i , µi ) = n2 m2i + n y )|2
|µi (e
|G| e
y∈H
e=1
y6
nm2i 1 X
= + y )|2
|µi (e
m m
y
e∈H\{1}
" #
1 X
nm2i 2 2
= + |µi (e
y )| − µi (1)
m |H|
y
e∈H
nm2i m2 (n − 1)m2i
= + (µi , µi )H − i = + 1,
m m m
1 X
(χψ , χψ )G = |χψ (g)|2
|G|
g∈G
1 n−1
= [(n − 1)2 + (n − 1)(−1)2 ] = ,
nm m
1 X
(µG
i , χψ )G = µG
i (g)χψ (g)
|G|
g∈G
1 (n − 1)mi
= [nmi (n − 1) + 0] = ,
nm m
¤±
(n − 1)m2i (n − 1)mi n−1
(πi , πi )G = + 1 − 2mi + m2i = 1,
m m m
s
X
πi = bj χj , Ù¥ bj ´ê (1 6 j 6 s), {χ1 , χ2 , · · · , χs } = Irr (G). u´
j=1
s
X
1 = (πi , πi )G = b2j . ddíÑk k ¦ bk = ±1, Ù{ bj = 0. Ïd
j=1
πi = χk ½ πi = −χk . du
πi (1) = µG
i (1) − mi χψ (1) = nmi − mi (n − 1) = mi > 0,
¤± πi = χk . l ξ ´ G AI.
½n 1 ´^+âQã Frobenius +35f+½n, ·l§
±^Ä+âQãd½n.
T
½n 2 (Frobenius) G ´k+, H < G, ¿éu g ∈ G\H, k H gHg −1
T
= {1}, K3 G 5f+ N ¦ H N = {1}, ¿ HN = G, l G ´
H N È.
y² e H = {1}, K N = G =. e H = G, K N = {1} =. e¡
H 6= {1} ¿ H 6= G. {g1 = 1, g2 , · · · , gn } ´ H 3 G ¥8LX. + G
3û8 G/H þ²£^´D4. du
x(gi H) = gi H ⇐⇒ gi−1 xgi ∈ H ⇐⇒ x ∈ gi Hgi−1 ,
\n
Ïdù^Øu gi Hgi−1 . d®^, ù^´§¢. Ïd G
i=1
±w¤´8Ü G/H þ+.
n
[
-S= gi Hgi−1 . x ´ G ü , du gi H ´ x ØÄ:=
i=1
x ∈ gi Hgi−1 , Ïd x ´K= x ∈ G\S.
T
bX G ü x küØÄ: gi H Ú gj H, K x ∈ gi Hgi−1 gj Hgj−1 . l
3 h1 , h2 ∈ H\{1} ¦ gi h1 gi−1 = gj h2 gj−1 . dd h1 = (gi−1 gj )h2 (gi−1 gj )−1 .
T
du gi H 6= gj H, ¤± gi−1 gj ∈
/ H. u´ H (gi−1 gj )H(gi−1 gj )−1 6= {1}, g
ñ. Ïd G ü õkØÄ:. du gi Hgi−1 6= {1}, ¤±3ü
§8 Frobenius +3ý5f+y² · 167 ·
x ∈ gi Hgi−1 , §± gi H ØÄ:. Ïd G ´ n g Frobenius +. â½n 1 , G

¤kKÚü |¤8Ü N ´ G Af+, |N | = n. lþã,
S
N = {1} (G\S). |H| = m, K |G| = [G : H]|H| = nm. du H ´ “:”g1 H 3 G
T
¥½f+, ¤± H N = {1}. l |HN | = mn = |G|, Ïd G = HN .
½Â 3 H ´+ G f+, ¿ {1} < H < G. XJéuz g ∈ G\H, k
T
H gHg −1 = {1}, K¡ H ´ G ¥ Frobenius Ö. + G XJ¹ Frobenius
Ö, K¡ G ´ Frobenius +.
½n 2 `²: Frobenius + G ½35f+ N , ¦ G ´ Frobenius
Ö H N È. ù5f+ N ¡ G Frobenius Ø. N ´ H
T T −1
û½ (bX  M ⊳ G äk5  M H = {1}, K M gHg = {1}, ∀g ∈ G. du
S [
N = {1} G − gHg −1 , Ïd M ⊆ N ).
g∈G
18Ù
Ã+5L«
Öl1Ù1ÊÙSN, ´vk\þ “k+” ^, éuk+Ú

Ã+Ñ¤á; ´L«mvk\þ “k” ^, éukL«ÚÃ
L«Ñ¤á. 31Ù¥Ø
§5 Ù{!SN´vk\þê A ´ “k
” ^, Kéuk+ÚÃ+Ñ·^ ( G ´Ã+, +ê K[G] ´Ã
).
Ù5XÚ/ïÄÃ+5L«.
§1 +Ã5L«
·31Ù §3 ½n 1 ¥y²

: + G kL«½±©
)¤kõØfL«Ú. g,¯: + G ÃL«UÄ©
)¤ØfL«Ú? ³ú, ùpeÚ©), éU´ÃõØfL
«Ú, ÏdIkÃõfmÚVg.
{Vi |i ∈ I} ´ K þ5m V xfm, Ù¥ I Í8 (I ±´
Øê8), Ä V eãf8:
{vi1 + vi2 + · · · + vin |vij ∈ Vij , ij ∈ I, j = 1, 2, · · · , n; n ∈ N∗ },
´wÑùf8´ V fm, ¡ V xfm {Vi |i ∈ I} Ú, P
X X X M
Vi . XJ Vi ¥zL«{, @o¡Ú Vi ´Ú, P Vi .
i∈I i∈I i∈I i∈I
·Ikx5m ÚVg. kwI8 I ´ê8/.
Vi ´ K þ5m, i = 1, 2, · · · . Äeã8Ü:
{(v1 , v2 · · · )|vi ∈ Vi , i = 1, 2, · · · , kkõ vi 6= 0},
§1 +Ã5L« · 169 ·
3ù8Ü¥5½\{$ÚXþ¦{$Xe:
(α1 , α2 , · · · ) + (β1 , β2 , · · · ) := (α1 + β1 , α2 + β2 , · · · ),
k(α1 , α2 , · · · ) := (kα1 , kα2 , · · · ).
ýù8Ü¤ K þ5m, ¡§ V1 , V2 , · · · Ú, P
∞
V1 +̇V2 +̇ · · · = +̇ Vi .
i=1
∞
Ä +̇ Vi f8
i=1
{(0, · · · , 0, vi , 0, · · · )|vi ∈ Vi }.
∞
w,§´ +̇ Vi fm, P Vi′ . ýeãN
i=1
Vi′ → Vi ,
(0, · · · , 0, vi , 0, · · · ) 7→ vi
´5mÓN, Ïd Vi′ ∼= Vi . r Vi′ (0, · · · , 0, vi , 0, · · · ) Vi
∞
vi Ó, K +̇ Vi ¥z±L«¤/XeãkÚ:
i=1
vi1 + vi2 + · · · + vim , vij ∈ Vij , j = 1, 2, · · · , m.
∞ ∞
M
ùL² +̇ Vi = Vi′ .
i=1
i=1
y3ÄI8 I / (I ±´Øê8).
{Vi |i ∈ I} ´ K þx5m. ·E§ Ú, Éþã
I ´ê8/éu, '´éz i ∈ I ½ Vi ¥þ vi , uÁ
[
Ä I Vi N, l Äd¤kù«N|¤8Ü:
i∈I
[
{f : I → Vi |f (i) ∈ Vi , i ∈ I, kkõ f (i) 6= 0}.
i∈I
3ù8Ü¥5½
(f + g)(i) := f (i) + g(i),
(kf )(i) := kf (i),
Ù¥ k ∈ K. ýù8Ü¤ K þ5m, ¡§ K þx
5m {Vi |i ∈ I} Ú, P +̇ Vi .
i∈I
Ä +̇ Vi f8
i∈I
( )
[

f :I→ Vi f (i) ∈ Vi , f (j) = 0 ∈ Vj , j ∈ I j 6= i .

i∈I
ýùf8´ +̇ Vi fm, P Vi′ . ýeãN
i∈I
Vi′ → Vi
f 7→ f (i)
´5mÓN, Ïd Vi′ ∼
= i r Vi′ f Vi f (i) Ó, r
V .
· 170 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
f (i) P vi , K +̇ Vi ¥z±L«¤/XeãkÚ:
i∈I
v + vi2 + · · · + vim , vij ∈ Vij , j = 1, 2, · · · , m.
Mi1
ùL² +̇ Vi = Vi′ .
i∈I
i∈I
X
aq/, éu R þ M xf {Mi|i ∈ I}, k§Ú Mi ,
i∈I
M
±9Ú Mi Vg. éu R þx {Mi |i ∈ I}, k§ Ú +̇ Mi
i∈I
i∈I
Vg.
y3·5&¢+ G ÃL«´Ä±©)¤ØfL«
Ú.
(ϕ, V ) ´+ G K-L«, e (ϕ, V ) , K V k² G Ø
Cfm V1 . du (ϕ, V ) . Ïd V1 3 V ¥k G ØCÖm V2 . u´
V = V1 ⊕ V2 . P ϕV1 ϕ1 , ϕV2 ϕ2 , K ϕ = ϕ1 ⊕ ϕ2 . â1Ù §3 ·K 2,
+ G L«?fL«´, Ïd ϕ1 , ϕ2 Ñ´.
e ϕ1 Ú ϕ2 Ñ, K V1 , V2 Ñ±©)¤ G ØCfmÚ. XJ V ´k
, @oùL§3kÚ7ª, u´ ϕ ©)¤kõØfL«
Ú. y3 V ´Ã, @o, þãL§?1e, UØUÑyfL«´Ø
? eUÑyfL«´Ø, Kúßÿ ϕ U©)¤ØfL«Ú
(U´ÃõØfL«Ú). u´·ÄkI&¢+ G L
«´Ä½kØfL«. lÜ6þù, 3ùU5: þãL§±Ã
/?1e, vkÑyØfL«. ·ô{5y²½¬Ñy
ØfL«Q? 5¿ØfL«L«m´ G ØCfm, §vk
² G ØCfm. u´l8Ü¹'XÝw, Ø G ØCfm3¤
k G ØCfm|¤8Ü¥äk “4” 5. êÆ¥²~ùaÃ?
1L§, äó,«é35, ù«éáu½8Ü, ¿äkA½5
. êÆþ?nùa¯K{´: 3¤Ä8Ü¥ïá'X, ¦§äk
5!D45Úé¡5 (e¡ò)ºo´é¡5), ¡ù«'Xù
8Ü S. k
S , ,«éA½5ÒLy«45. l ä
ó,«é3Ò=C¤äó S8Ü4 (½4) 3.
½Â 1 8Ü S þ'X, P 6, XJäken^5:
(i) 5, = a 6 a, ∀a ∈ S;
(ii) é¡5, =e a 6 b b 6 a, K a = b;
(iii) D45, =e a 6 b b 6 c, K a 6 c,
@o¡ù'X 6 ´ S S.
8Ü S k S 6, e a 6 b a 6= b, KP a < b.
äk S8Ü¡ S8Ü. S8Ü S a b ¡',
XJ a 6 b Ú b 6 a k¤á. XJ S f8 T ?¿éÑ´'
, @o T ¡ S ó.
§1 +Ã5L« · 171 ·
XJ8Ü S þ S 6 ¦éu?¿ a, b ∈ S, Ñk a 6 b ½ b 6 a, @o

6 ¡ S S.
~ 1 Ω 8Ü, d Ω ¤kf8|¤8Ü¡ Ω 8, P
P (Ω ). w, P (Ω ) Uì Ω ¹'X ⊆ ¤ S8Ü. ù S ⊆ Ø´S.
~ 2 g,ê8 N Uìu½u'X 6 ¤S8Ü.
~ 3 g,ê8 N Ø'X´ S, d a|b P¤ a 6 b.
S ´ S8Ü, A ´ S f8. XJ3 u ∈ S ¦é¤k a ∈ A,
Ñk u 6 a, @o¡ u ´ A e.. aq/, XJ3 m ∈ S ¦é¤k a ∈ A,
Ñk a 6 m, @o¡ m ´ A þ., A ±vke.½kõe., e A ke
., Ø¦e.áu A, éu A þ.´ù. 3~ 2 ¥, - A = {2k|k ∈ N}, A
ke. 0, 0 ∈ A; ´ A vkþ.. 3~ 3 ¥, - B = {2k + 1|k ∈ N}, B kþ.
0, ´ 0 ∈ / B; B ke. 1, 1 ∈ B.
S S8Ü, b ∈ S ¡ S 4, XJØ3 x ∈ S
¦ b < x (½ö`l b 6 x íÑ b = x). aq/, XJØ3 x ∈ S ¦ x < c
(½ö`l x 6 c íÑ x = c), c ∈ S ¡ S 4.
~ 4 - S = N\{0, 1}, S UØ'X¤ S8Ü. zê´ S 4
. S vk4.
S S8Ü, A S f8. XJ A ke. u u ∈ A, @
o¡ u ´ A . aq/, XJ A kþ. m m ∈ A, @o¡ m
´ A . A ±vk () . XJ A k () , @o
§´.
~ 1 ¥8 ∅ ´ P (Ω ) , Ω ´ P (Ω ) . ~ 2 ¥ 0 ´
N , N vk. ~ 3 ¥ 1 ´ N , 0 ´ N .
8Ü S þ SûS, XJ S zf8Ñk. äk
ûS8Ü¡ûS8Ü. ûS7,´S. g,ê8 N UÏ~u½u'
X 6 ´ûS8Ü. 8wûS8Ü.
1904 c Zermelo JÑ
eãÍ¶ÀJún:
ÀJún [ S = {Ai |i ∈ I} x8Ü Ai (i ∈ I, I I8) |¤
8, K3 S Ai N f , ¦é i ∈ I Ñk f (Ai ) ∈ Ai .
i∈I
f ¡ S þÀJ¼ê. ÀJún`´3,«5K¦±lz
Ai , i ∈ I, Ó/]ÑT8Ü¥. *þw, ùÚ. Ai (i ∈ I)
Ñ´ÓêÃ8 Ω f8, kò Ω ^g,ê?Ò, , ½ÂN f
r Ai N¤´ Ai ¥k?Ò, K f Ò´ {Ai |i ∈ I} þÀJ¼
ê. I8 I ´k8½êÃ8, ±âg,ê48½n8B/E
ÑÀJ¼ê. I8 I ´ØêÃ8, ÀJún´ØUy².
ÀJúnd·KéãÍ¶ Zorn Ún:
Zorn Ún e S8 S zóÑkþ., K S k4.
y²±ë [31] 1 14 .
· 172 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
ÀJúnd,·KéãÍ¶ûS½n:
ûS½n z8ÜÑ3ûS.
y²±ë [18] 1 19 — 21 .
ûS½n53ug,ê8êÆ8B{±í2ûS8Üþ, l
8B{n.
S ´ûS8Ü, éu a ∈ S, f8
S(a) := {x ∈ S|x < a}
¡ S cã.
8By²{n S ´ûS8Ü, A S ?f8. XJéuz
a ∈ S þk
S(a) ⊆ A =⇒ a ∈ A,
@o A = S (S a0 7,áu A, Ï S(a0 ) = ∅ ⊆ A).
y² bX A $ S, K A 3 S ¥Ö8 Ac 6= ∅. u´ Ac k c. l
S(c) ⊆ A. d®^, c ∈ A. gñ. Ïd A = S.
â8By²{n,
y²ûS8Ü S ¤kÑäk5 E,
·±ù?1: ? a ∈ S, XJ·Uy²l S(a) Ñäk5
E ±íÑ a äk5 E, @o S ¤kÒÑäk5 E.
NõêÆ¯K¦3ûS8Ü S þ½Â¼ê ϕ, ϕ ,8Ü
W , =ïá S W éA{K ϕ, ¦ S z x Ñk W ¥(½
éA, rùP ϕ(x).
EùN ϕ, ¯k
'X (
±´|'X), ¦ ∀x ∈ S, ϕ(x) Ñ·Üù'X. ùUí? XÛE? ϕ ´
Ä? e¡½n£
ù
¯K.
8BE{n S ´ûS8Ü, ·
'X (=¤¢ “48
½Â'X”), 5ïá S ,8Ü W N ϕ. b ¤k ϕ(b)(b < a)
½ , ù'XÒ/û½ ϕ(a), §å·Ü¤'X, Kk
kl S W N ϕ ·Ü¤'X.
y² ky5. bk S W üØÓN ϕ Ú ψ Ñ·Ü½Â'
X, -
S1 = {x ∈ S|ϕ(x) 6= ψ(x)},
K S1 ⊆ S. du S ´ûS8Ü, S1 6= ∅, Ïd S1 k a. l éu S ¥¤
k b < a Ñk ϕ(b) = ψ(b). du ϕ(a)(ψ(a)) d¤k ϕ(b)(ψ(b))(b < a) û½, Ï
d ϕ(a) = ψ(a). gñ. l ϕ = ψ.
y35y35. Ä S z x cã S(x) |¤8Ü Ω = {S(x)|x ∈
S}, ±8Ü¹'X S. -
σ: S→Ω
x 7→ S(x),
K σ ´ S Ω N, σ ´÷. e S(x1 ) = S(x2 ), bX x1 < x2 , K
/ S(x1 ), gñ. Ón, bX x2 < x1 , gñ. Ïd x1 = x2 , = σ ´
x1 ∈ S(x2 ). x1 ∈
§1 +Ã5L« · 173 ·
ü. Ïd σ ´ S Ω V. Ný: l b < a íÑ S(b) $ S(a). u´

S
l S ´ûS8ÜíÑ Ω ´ûS8Ü. - Ω ′ = Ω {S}, K Ω ′ éu8Ü¹
'XE,´ûS8Ü. w, Ω ¥? S(x) ⊆ S, Ïd S ´ Ω ′ .
B|å, r S P¤ S(∞), =r S w¤ “∞” cã.

·5y²: “3 Ω ′ z S(x) (x ∈ S ½ x = ∞) þÑ3¼ê ϕx
·Ü¤'X”. â8By²{n, ·±ù?1: ? Ω ′
S(x) (x ∈ S ½ x = ∞), béu S(x) 3 Ω ′ ¥cã (= {S(b)|S(b) $ S(x)})
p S(b) Ñ3¼ê ϕb ·Ü¤'X, 5y S(x) þU½Â¼ê
ϕx ·Ü¤'X. ©ü«/:
/ 1 S(x) k a. - S(x) e e
= S(x)\{a}, K S(x) $ S(x). â8
e
Bb, 3 S(x) þ±½Â¼ê ϕx ·Ü'X. du a ´ S(x) , Ï
e
d S(x) ¥? b < a. â®^, S(x) e ¤k ϕx (b)(b < a)
/û½ ϕx (a), §å·Ü¤'X. u´ ϕx ´ S(x) þ¼ê, §·Ü¤
'X.
/ 2 S(x) vk. u´ S(x) z c Ñáu, S(b), Ù¥
S(b) $ S(x) (ÄK, S(x) ¥k a Øáu S(b), ∀S(b) $ S(x), = a > b, ∀b < x,
u´ a ´ S(x) , gñ). du S(b) $ S(x), â8Bb, 3 S(b) þ
±½Â¼ê ϕb ·Ü¤'X. k c ∈ S(d), Ù¥ S(d) $ S(x),
S(b) 6= S(d), Ø S(b) $ S(d). du S(d) $ S(x), Ïdâ8Bb, 3 S(d) þ
±½Â¼ê ϕd ·Ü¤'X. u´ ϕb ϕd Ñ3 S(b) þk½ÂÑ·Ü¤
'X. du S(b) ´ S f8, Ïd S(b) ´ûS8Ü. âc¡¤y5,
ϕb = ϕd |S(b). u´ ϕb (c) = ϕd (c). S(b) ´ Ω ′ f8 {S(d)|S(d) $ S(x), c ∈ S(d)}
. - ϕx (c) = ϕb (c). u´éu S(x) z c, ½Â
ϕx (c).
l 3 S(x) þ½Â
¼ê ϕx , §·Ü¤'X.
nþ¤ã, ·y²
: “3 Ω ′ zþÑ3¼ê·Ü¤'X”.
AO/, 3 Ω ′ S þ3¼ê ϕ ·Ü¤'X.
8BE{´3ûS8Ü S þïá¼ê ϕ (Ù,8Ü W ), ¦
ϕ ·Ü¤'X (=¤¢ “48½Â'X”) «~k^{.
ÀJún, Zorn Ún, ûS½n, 8By²{Ú8BE{Ñ´êÆþ
?nÃ8Ü¯K¤¦^{.
y3·5Øy+ G L« (ϕ, V ) ½kØfL«. c¡
®Ñ, XJ (ϕ, V ) , @o V ¥k² G ØCfm V1 . Q, V1 6= V , Ï
d V ¥k"þ α ∈ / V1 . XJ (ϕ1 , V1 ) , @o V1 ¥k² G
ØCfm V11 . w, α ∈/ V11 , Xde, y²3 V ©)¤ G ØCfmÚ
?1L§¥, V kØ G ØCfm U ′ , Kéu V f8¹'X
ó, U ′ äk45, l U ′ 3 V ¥ G ØCÖm U äk45. u´·
r V ¥Ø¹k α ¤k G ØCfm|¤8Ü S, ± V f8¹'X
S, y² S k4.
· 174 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
½n 1 + G 3 K þL«½kØfL«.
y² (ϕ, V ) ´+ G L«, α ∈ V , α 6= 0. ·r V ¥Ø¹
k α ¤k G ØCfm|¤8Ü S. w, S éu V f8¹'X¤ [
S8Ü. ? S ó T = {Wi |i ∈ I}, Ù¥ I I8. - W = Wi .
i∈I
ý W ´ V fm. w, W ´ G ØCfm, α ∈ / W . u´ W ∈ S.
l W ´ T þ.. â Zorn Ún, S k4 U . du (ϕ, V )
, Ïd U 3 V ¥k G ØCÖm U ′ . l V = U ⊕ U ′ , â1Ù §3 ·K
2, fL« ϕU ′ ´. bX ϕU ′ , K U ′ k² G ØCfm U1′ .
u´ U1′ 3 U ′ ¥k G ØCÖm U2′ . l U ′ = U1′ ⊕ U2′ , U2′ ´². d
T
u U1′ U2′ = {0}, Ïdâ [28] 1 250 ·K 1
T
U ⊆ (U ⊕ U1′ ) (U ⊕ U2′ ).
T ′ T
du U U = {0}, U1′ U2′ = {0}, ÏdO
T
U ⊇ (U ⊕ U1′ ) (U ⊕ U2′ ),
T
l U = (U ⊕ U1′ ) (U ⊕ U2′ ).
du α ∈ / U ⊕ U1′ ½ α ∈
/ U , Ïd α ∈ / U ⊕ U2′ . qdu U ⊕ Ui′ ´ G ØCfm, Ïd
U ⊕ U1 ∈ S ½ U ⊕ U2 ∈ S. du Ui′ 6= {0}, i = 1, 2. Ïd U ⊕ Ui′ % U, i = 1, 2. ù
′ ′
U ´ S 4gñ. Ïd ϕU ′ Ø.
d½n 1, + G L« (ϕ, V ) ½kØfL«. l V kØ
G ØCfm.
y² ϕ ´xØfL«Ú, AÄd V Ø
G ØCfm8Ü|¤x S, Ù¥z8Üp G ØCfmÚ´
Ú.
½n 2 + G 3 K þL«´xØfL«Ú.
y² (ϕ, V ) ´+ G L«. du ϕ kØfL«, Ïd±
Äd V Ø G ØCfm|¤8Ü/¤x S, Ù¥z8Üp G ØC
fmÚ´Ú. ? S ó T, T ¥¤k8Ü¿8E´ V Ø G Ø
Cfm|¤8Ü, P Ω . ¿ Ω ¥¤kØ G ØCfmÚ¥z
´kõØ G ØCfmpÚ, ù
kõØ G ØCf
m½´ T ¥,8Üp, u´ Ω ¥¤kØ G ØCfmÚ¥z
L«{. ÏdÚ´Ú. l Ω ∈ S. Ïd Ω ´ T þ.. â Zorn
Ún , S k4 {Ui |i ∈ I}, Ù¥ Ui ´Ø G ØCfm (i ∈ I), Ú
X M
Ui ´Ú. - U = Ui . u´ U ´ G ØCfm. du (ϕ, V ) , Ïd
i∈I i∈I
U 3 V ¥k G ØCÖm U ′ . l V = U ⊕ U ′ . bX U ′ 6= {0}, dufL« ϕU ′
T T
´, Ïd ϕU ′ kØfL« ϕU1′ . du U1′ U ⊆ U ′ U = {0},
Ïd !
M L ′
U+ U1′ = Ui U1 .
i∈I
S
l {Ui |i ∈ I} {U1′ } ∈ S. ù {Ui|i ∈ I} ´ S 4gñ. Ïd U ′ = {0}.
§2 ÿÀm · 175 ·
M M
l V = U = Ui . u´ ϕ = ϕUi .
i∈I i∈I
§2 ÿÀm
lÙ §1 ½n 2 , + G 3 K þL«½U©)¤xØ

fL«Ú. Ïd+ G L«(ÒtÙ
. eÚg,
&¢+3 K þL«´ÄÑ´.
31Ù §3 ½n 2 (Maschke ½n) y²
: k+ G 3AØUØ |G|
K þ?5L«Ñ´. y²g´´: (ϕ, V ) ´+ G ?
K-L«. e (ϕ, V ) , K V k² G ØCfm U . du U 3 V ¥kÖ
m, Ïd V = U ⊕ U ′ . ¯K3u U ′ Ø½´ G ØCfm. Ä V 3 U ′ þ
ÝK P U ′ , K V = Ker P U ′ ⊕ Im P U ′ , Ù¥ Ker P U ′ = U, Im P U ′ = U ′ . ·l
U ′ ÑuE V þC B, ¦ Im B G ØCfm, Ker B = U .
e B ϕ(g) , K Im B ´ ϕ(g) ØCfm. u´-
X
B = (|G| · 1)−1 ϕ(h) P U ′ ϕ(h)−1 , (1)
h∈G
K ϕ(g) Bϕ(g)−1 = B, ∀g ∈ G. l Im B ´ G ØCfm. 2y B 2 = B,
Ker B = U , K V = U ⊕ Im B. ddwÑ: '´^ (1) ªE B. éuÃ+
G, (1) ªmàÚ´ÃÚ, ùØÐ?n. lêÆ©Û§¥Ééu, (1) ªm
àA^+ G þÈ©5O.
U3+ G þ¼êïáÈ©, 1k+$´
Ø
, I G Ù¦(. o(Q? ·, [a, b] þëY
Z b
¼ê f (x), §½È© f (x) dx ´ÏL©!¦Ú!4. u´·5
a
©Û4Ńo£¯? ¼ê4½Â´ù: ¼ê g(x) 3: x0 NCk
½Â (3: x0 ±vk½Â), c ´~ê, XJéu? ε > 0, 3 δ > 0, ¦
0 < |x − x0 | < δ, Òk |g(x) − c| < ε, @o¡ c ´ g(x) 3: x0 4, P
lim g(x) = c. ù½ÂAÛ¿ÂXã 6–1 ¤«. 3²¡IX Oxy y ¶
x→x0
þ± c ¥%!ε »m«m (c − ε, c + ε); 3 x ¶þ3± x0 ¥
%!δ »m«m (x0 − δ, x0 + δ). e g(x) 3 (x0 − δ, x0 + δ) SØ
: x0
S
¤k: (= (x0 − δ, x0 ) (x0 , x0 + δ) S:) þ¼êÑá3m«m (c − ε, c + ε)
S, K¡ c ´ g(x) 3: x0 4. ddwÑ,
x¼ê4, ÒIk
m«mVg. /,
x½Â8Ü X ¼ê4Vg, ÒI3
8Ü X ¥km8Vg, ¿r8Ü X m8|¤8Ü¡ X þÿÀ.
=keã½Â.
½Â 1 8Ü X þÿÀ T ´d X
f8¤8Ü, §¤

m8, §÷ve¦:
(i) X 8 ∅ ´m8;
(ii) ?¿õm8¿8´m8;
· 176 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
(iii) kõm88´m8.
8Ü X
ÿÀ T ± ÒÿÀm, P (X, T ), {P X.
ã 6–1
ÿÀÆ83uïÄ4L§$.
~ 1 ¢ê¶ R. R f8 U ¡m8, XJéuz x ∈ U , 3 δ > 0, ¦
(x − δ, x + δ) ⊆ U . ý R ¤km8|¤8Ü´ R þÿÀ. ùÿ
À¡ålÿÀ (Ïm«m (x − δ, x + δ) ´d¢ê¶þ: x ålu δ ¤
k:|¤8Ü), R ùÿÀ¤ÿÀm.
3½Â 1 ¥ (iii) ¦ “kõm88´m8”, ù¦µ´: 3
¢ê¶þ?¿õm«m8Ø½´m8, ~X, em«m
(1.4, 1.5) ⊇ (1.41, 1.42) ⊇ (1.414, 1.415) ⊇ · · ·
√ √
8´ { 2}, w, { 2} Ø´m«m.
~ 2 n î¼m Rn . Rn f8 U ¡m8, XJéuz α ∈ U , 3
ε > 0, ¦± α ¥%!ε »m¥ (=: α ålu ε ¤k:|¤
8Ü) ¹u U . ýù½Âm8÷v½Â 1 ¥n^¦, ù½Â
ÿÀ¡ålÿÀ, Rn ¤ÿÀm.
~ 3 X ´8Ü, XJ X m8k X Ú ∅ ü, @od X Ú
∅ |¤ÿÀ¡ X ²ÿÀ. d X ¡²ÿÀm.
~ 4 X ´8Ü, XJ½Â X zf8Ñ´m8, @o X ù
ÿÀ¡lÑÿÀ, d X ¡lÑÿÀm. X lÑÿÀ´3 X þ¤U
kÿÀ¥ö (XJÿÀ¹
,ÿÀS¤km8, @o¡§ “
u” , @ÿÀ).
3~ 1 ¥, R ?m8 U ´¢ê¶þ
m«m¿8. ddÉéu, Ú
Ñ
eãVg.
½Â 2 ÿÀm X
m8|¤8Ü B, XJ¦ X zm
8Ñ±¤ B ¥¤
¿8, @o B ¡ X ÿÀÄ.
~X, ¢ê¶þ¤km«m|¤8Ü B ´ÿÀm R ÿÀÄ. äkk
nêà:m«m|¤8Ü B1 ´ R ÿÀÄ (Ï?m«m´äkk
§2 ÿÀm · 177 ·
nêà:m«m¿8). w,, B1 6 B, ¡ B1 ' B .

du¤kÄê|¤8Ü´ûS8, Ïd3ÿÀm X ¤kÿÀÄ¥3ä
kÄêÿÀÄ. ùÄê¡ÿÀm X .
3¢ê¶ R þ, éu x ∈ R, δ > 0, (x − δ, x + δ) ½ [x − δ, x + δ] Ñ´ x
. ddÉéu, ÚÑeãVg.
½Â 3 X ´ÿÀm, A ´ X f8, x ∈ X. XJ3m
8 Ux , ¦ x ∈ Ux ⊆ A, @o¡ A ´ x , d¡ x ´ A S:.
XJéuÿÀm X f8 A z: x, Ñk A ´ x , @o A ´
m8. ndXe:
[
? x ∈ A, du [
A ´ x , Ïd3m8 Ux , ¦ x ∈ Ux ⊆ A. l
[
Ux ⊆ A, A ⊆ Ux . Ïd, A = Ux . l A ´m8.
x∈A x∈A x∈A
ÿÀm X f8 A ¡48, XJ A 3 X ¥Ö8 X\A ´m8.
du X 3 X ¥Ö8´ ∅, Ïd X ´48. du ∅ 3 X ¥Ö8´ X, Ï
d ∅ ´48, u´ X Ú ∅ Q´m8, q´48.
A ´ÿÀm X f8, A 4´ X ¹ A ¤k4f8.
A 4P A.
A ´ÿÀm X f8, x ∈ X ¡ A à: (½4:), XJ
T
éu x z U Ñk A (U \{x}) 6= ∅. A : y XJ§Ø´ A à:,
@o y ¡ A á:.
A ´ÿÀm X f8, A 4 A TÐd A :Ú A à:|¤.
ÿÀm X f8 A ´48= A = A.
ÿÀm X f8 D ¡ X Èf8, XJ D = X.
A ÿÀmf8, ½Â A m8 X m8 A 8, w,§
÷v½Â 1 ¥n^¦, ¡ù½ÂÿÀfmÿÀ½pÿÀ, ¡ A ´ X
fm.
·, k.4«mþëY¼êk½È©. ·5£ëY¼ê½Â.
y = f (x) ´«m I þ¼ê, x0 ∈ I. XJ lim f (x) = f (x0 ), @o¡
x→x0
f (x) 3: x0 ëY. XJ f (x) 3«m I z:ëY, @o¡ f (x) 3«m I ëY.
(Ü¼ê4½ÂBeã(Ø:
«m I þ¼ê y = f (x) 3: x0 ∈ I ëY
⇐⇒ ? ε > 0, 3 δ > 0, ¦ x ∈ I |x − x0 | < δ Òk
|f (x) − f (x0 )| < ε
⇐⇒ éu f (x0 ) z V , Ñ3 x0 éu I U
(= U ´ x0 I 8), ¦ f (U ) ⊆ V
⇐⇒ éu f (x0 ) z V , Ñk f −1 (V ) ´ x0 éu I .
ddÉéu, ÚÑeãVg.
· 178 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
½Â 4 X Y Ñ´ÿÀm, f : X → Y Ń, x ∈ X. XJéu

f (x) z N , Ñk f −1 (N ) ´ x , @o¡ f 3: x ëY. XJ
f 3 X f8 A z:ëY, @o¡ f 3f8 A ëY. XJ f 3 X z:ë
Y, @o¡ f ´ëYN.
·K 1 X Y Ñ´ÿÀm, f : X → Y Ń, K f ´ëYN
=éu Y ?m8 V , Ñk f −1 (V ) ´ X m8.
y² 75. f ´ëYN. ? Y m8 V , U = f −1 (V ), Ké
uz x ∈ U , k f (x) ∈ V , l V ´ f (x) . u´â½Â 4 , U
´ x , Ïd U ´ X m8.
¿©5. ? x ∈ X. N ´ f (x) ?¿, K3 Y m8 V ,
¦ f (x) ∈ V ⊆ N . U = f −1 (V ). ·k x ∈ U . d®^, U ´ X
m8. w, U ⊆ f −1 (N ). u´ f −1 (N ) ´ x . Ïd f 3: x ëY. l
f ´ëYN.
íØ 1 X Y Ñ´ÿÀm, f : X → Y Ń, K f ´ëYN
=éu Y ?48 F , Ñk f −1 (F ) ´ X 48.
y² ? Y f8 A. éu?N f : X → Y , k f −1 (Y \A) =
X\f −1 (A). Ïd, ^ “éu Y ?m8 G Ñk f −1 (G) ´ X m8” du
^ “éu Y ?48 F Ñk f −1 (F ) ´ X 48”. l d·K 1 á=í
Ø 1.
íØ 2 X Y Ñ´ÿÀm, KN f : X → Y ´ëYN= Y
ÿÀÄz¤
3 f e´ X m8.
·K 2 X, Y, Z Ñ´ÿÀm, f : X → Y, g : Y → Z. XJ f 3: x ∈ X
ëY, g 3: f (x) ëY, @o gf 3: x ëY.
y² W ´ (gf )(x) , du g 3: f (x) ëY, Ïd V = g −1 (W )
´ f (x) 3 Y . du f 3: x ëY, Ïd f −1 (V ) ´: x .
f −1 (V ) = f −1 (g −1 (W )) = (gf )−1 (W ), u´ gf 3: x ëY.
d·K 2 á=: X, Y, Z Ñ´ÿÀm, e f : X → Y, g : Y → Z Ñ´ë
YN, K gf : X → Z ´ëYN.
X Y Ñ´ÿÀm, A ´ X fm, e f : X → Y ´ëYN,
K f 3 A þ f |A ´ëYN.
ÿÀm X ÿÀm R (ålÿÀ) ëYN f ¡ X þ
¢ëY¼ê.
½Â 5 X Y Ñ´ÿÀm, f : X → Y . XJ f ´V, ¿ f f −1
Ñ´ëYN, @o¡ f ´ X Y þÓ, d¡ X Y ´Ó.
?ÿÀm§gþðN´Ó. XJ f : X → Y ´Ó,
@o f −1 : Y → X ´Ó. 2|^·K 2 Ñ, Ó´ÿÀm|¤?
8Üþd'X.
πx
~X, «m (−1, 1) R ´Ó, ù´ÏN f : x 7→ tan ´ëYV
2
§2 ÿÀm · 179 ·
, f −1 ´ëYN, l f ´ (−1, 1) R þÓ.

X Y Ñ´ÿÀm, N f : X → Y XJr X ?m (4) 8N¤ Y
m (4) 8, @o¡ f m (4) N.
½Â 6 X ´ÿÀm. éu X ¥?¿ØÓü: a Ú b,
(1) e3m8¹ü:¥:, K¡ X T0 m;
(2) e3 a , §Ø¹ b, K¡ X T1 m;
T
(3) e3 a Wa b Wb , ¦Wa Wb = ∅, K¡ X T2
m½ Hausdorff m.
~X, ÿÀm Rn (
ålÿÀ) ´ Hausdorff m.
½Â 7 e X ´ T0 m, é X ¥48 A 9: b ∈ / A, 3üm8 U
T
Ú V , ¦ b ∈ U, A ⊆ V, U V = ∅, K¡ X T3 m½Km.
±y²: Km7´ Hausdorff m. y²Xe:
a, b ´Km X ¥ØÓü:. du X ´ T0 m, Ïd3m
8 U ¹Ù¥:, Ø a ∈ U , b ∈ / U , K b ∈ X\U . du X ´Km,
Ïdéu: a Ú48 X\U (§Ø¹: a), 3üØm8 V Ú W , ¦
a ∈ V, X\U ⊆ W. V Ú W =©O¹k a Ú b üØm8. Ïd X ´
Hausdorff m.
3 Hausdorff m X ¥, ?ü:8 {a} ´48. ù´Ï {a} vkà: (b
X b ´ {a} à:, K b zÑ¹ a. ù X ´ Hausdorff mgñ).
k.4«mþëY¼êk½È©, ·5©Ûk.4«m5.
k.4«m¥zÃf8Ñkà:.
nd´: A ´k.4«m [a, b] Ãf8, K3 A ¥±Eê
(xn ) (§kÃ¡õ). du A ⊆ [a, b], Ïdê (xn ) k.. â Bolzano-Weierstrass
½n, (xn ) kÂñf (xnk ). f (xnk ) 4 c, K c ∈ [a, b], c ?
¹kf (xnk ) ¥Øu c ê xnl . w, xnl ∈ A. u´ c ´ A à
:.
|^(.3½n±y²k.4«m,^5:
Heine-Borel ½n [a, b] ´k.4«m, F = {Uα |α ∈ I} ´ R
[
xm8¦ [a, b] ⊆ Uα , Kk F ¥kõm8 Uα1 , Uα2 , · · · , Uαm , ¦
α∈I
m
[
[a, b] ⊆ Uαj .
j=1
[ [
y² du [a, b] ⊆ Uα , Ïd a ∈ Uα . l 3 i ∈ I ¦ a ∈ Ui . -
 α∈I α∈I 

 m
[ 

E = x ∈ [a, b][a, x] ⊆ Uαj , α1 , α2 , · · · , αm ∈ I, m ∈ N∗ .
 
j=1
u´ a ∈ E, l E 8. w, [
E kþ. b. Ïdâ(.3½n, E kþ(
. c. w,, a 6 c 6 b. u´ c ∈ Uα . l 3 β ∈ I, ¦ c ∈ Uβ . du Uβ ´m
α∈I
· 180 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
8, Ïd3 ε > 0, ¦
(c − ε, c + ε) ⊆ Uβ .
du c ´ E þ(., Ïd3 x ∈ E ¦ x > c − ε. u´k α1 , · · · , αn ∈ I ¦

n
[
[a, x] ⊆ Uαk . l
k=1 !
h εi Sh εi S [n
S
a, c + = [a, x] x, c + ⊆ [a, x] (c − ε, c + ε) ⊆ Uαk Uβ . (2)
2 2
k=1
ε ε
bX c < b, rþã ε v
, ¦ c + 6 b, Kd (2) ª c + ∈ E. ù c
2 2
´ E þ.gñ. Ïd c = b. u´d (2) ª !
h εi [n [
[a, b] ⊆ a, b + ⊆ Uαk Uβ .
2
k=1
lk.4«mþãù^5Ééu, 3ÿÀm¥Ú?eãVg.
½Â 8 X ÿÀm
[
, A ´ X f8. F = {Uα |α ∈ I} ´ X
xm8. XJ A ⊆ Uα , @o F ¡ A mCX. XJ A CX F
α∈I
fx´ A CX, @o¡§ A fCX.
½Â 9 ÿÀm X ¡; (½;), XJ X zmCXkk
fCX.
ÿÀm X f8 C ¡;f8 (½;f8), XJ C zmCXk
kfCX.
w,, ÿÀm X f8 C ´;=fm C ´;.
l Heine-Borel ½nÑ, k.4«m´ÿÀm R ;f8.
·K 3 XJ C ´ÿÀm X ;f8, @o C z4f8´;
.
y² C1 ⊆ C ´48, K C1 3 X ¥Ö8 X\C1 ´m8. U ´ C1
S
mCX, du X\C1 ⊇ C\C1 , Ïd F = U {X\C1 } ´ C mCX, du
C ´;, Ïd F kkfx F1 ´ C CX. du X\C1 Ø¹ C1 , Ï
d U kkfx´ C1 CX, l C1 ;.
íØ 3 R zk.4f8´;.
y² A ´ R k.4f8. A þ. b, A e. a,
K A ⊆ [a, b]. du [a, b] ´ R ;f8, Ïdâ·K 3 , [a, b] 4f8 A
´;.
·K 4 XJ X ´ Hausdorff m, @o X z;f8´48.
y² C ´ X ;f8.
y C ´48, y C 3 X ¥
Ö8 X\C ´m8. du X ´ Hausdorff m, Ïdéuz x ∈ X\C Úz
T
y ∈ C, 3 x Uxy y Vxy ¦ Uxy Vxy = ∅. u´éuz
x ∈ X\C, 8Ü {Vxy |y ∈ C} ´ C mCX. du C ´;, Ïd3
§2 ÿÀm · 181 ·
n
[ n
\ T
y1 , y2 , · · · , yn ∈ C, ¦ C ⊆ Vxyj . Ux = Uxyj , K Ux ´m8, Ux C = ∅,
j=1 j=1
x ∈ Ux . l Ux ⊆ X\C. ùL² X\C ´§z: x . Ïd X\C ´
m8. u´ C ´48.
íØ 4 R f8 C ´;= C ´k.48.
y² íØ 3 ®y R k.4f8´;. y35y75, C ´;,
du R ´ Hausdorff m, Ïdâ·K 4 , C ´48. P Un = (−n, n), n ∈ N∗ ,
∞
[ m
[
KC⊆ Un . du C ´;, Ïdéu, mC ⊆ Un . ù¿X C ⊆ Um .
n=1 n=1
Ïd C ´k..
·K 5 X Ú Y Ñ´ÿÀm, X ´;. XJ f : X → Y ´ëYN
, @o f (X) ´;.
y² U ´ f (X) mCX, K
f −1 (U ) = {f −1 (U ′ )|U ′ ∈ U }
´ X mCX. du X ´;, Ïd3 U1′ , · · · , Un′ ∈ U , ¦ X =
n
[
f −1 (Uj′ ). ddÑ
j=1
n
[
f (X) ⊆ Uj′ .
j=1
Ïd f (X) ´;.
íØ 5 X ´;m, XJ f : X → R ´ëY¼ê, @o f 3 X þ
Ú.
y² â·K 5 , f (X) ´ R ;f8. u´âíØ 4 , f (X) ´k.
48. u´ f (X) kþ(. b Úe(. a. bX b ∈ / f (X), K b áu f (X) 3 R ¥
Ö8 D. du f (X) ´48, Ïd D ´m8. l 3 b (b−δ, b+δ) ⊆ D.
du b ´ f (X) þ(., Ïd3 ξ ∈ X ¦ f (ξ) > b − δ, f (ξ) 6 b. u´
f (ξ) ∈ D. ù f (ξ) ∈ f (X) gñ. Ïd b ∈ f (X), l f 3 X þ b. Ó
n, f 3 X þ a.
íØ 6 X ´;ÿÀm, Y ´ Hausdorff m, XJ f : X → Y ´
éAëYN, @o f −1 ´ëYN, l f ´ÓN.
y² éu X ?4f8 A, â·K 3 , A ´;. du f : X → Y
´ëYN, Ïdâ·K 5 , f (A) ´;. du Y ´ Hausdorff m, Ïd
â·K 4 , f (A) ´48. P g = f −1 , K g −1 (A) ´48. l g ´ëYN.
líØ 4 Ééu, ·ßÿkeã(Ø:
î¼m Rd f8´;=§´k.48.

y²ùßÿý, I
Oó.
½Â 10 X ´ÿÀm, (xn ) ´ X S. ·¡ (xn ) Âñ x, P
lim xn = x, XJ x ∈ X ¿éu x z U , 3 n0 , ¦ n > n0 ,
n→∞
· 182 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
Òk xn ∈ U .
N´wÑ, e X ´ Hausdorff m, (xn ) ´ X S, XJ lim xn = x
n→∞
lim xn = y, @o x = y.
n→∞
8Ü X XJ½Â
ål¼ê ρ (¡ X þÝþ), @o¡
(X, ρ) ´Ýþm.
aquî¼m Rd , Ýþm (X, ρ) ålÿÀ¤ÿÀm.
Ýþm X ½´ Hausdorff m.
Ýþm X ekêÈf8, K¡ X ´ © (separable).
·K 6 A ´Ýþm (X, ρ) f8, α ∈ X, K α ∈ A =3 A
¥3S (αn ), §Âñ α. AO/, A ´4f8=§¹ A ¥¤k
ÂñS4.
y² ¿©5. A ¥3S (αn ), §Âñ α. ? α
T
U , Kéu¿© n k αn ∈ U . l A (U \{α}) 6= ∅. Ïd α ´ A à:.
u´ α ∈ A.
75. α ∈ A, K α ∈ A ½ α ´ A à:. u´éu α z
T 1
U , Ñk A (U \{α}) 6= ∅. l éuz n, 3 αn ∈ A ¦ ρ(αn , α) < . u
n
´S (αn ) Âñ α.
A ´4f8= A = A. l ·K 6 Ü©¤á.
½Â 11 Ýþm (X, ρ) S (αn ) ¡ Cauchy S, XJéu?
ε > 0, 3 n0 , ¦ n > n0 , m > n0 Òk ρ(αn , αm ) < ε.
½Â 12 Ýþm X ¡´, XJ X z Cauchy SÑ3 X ¥
Âñ.
·®² R ´. y3·5y²: éu?ê d, Rd ´
. ? Rd Cauchy S (αn ), Ù¥ αn = (xn1 , xn2 , · · · , xnd ). du
|αn − αm |2 = (xn1 − xm1 )2 + · · · + (xnd − xmd )2 > |xnj − xmj |2 ,
Ïd? ε > 0 Ñ3 n0 , ¦ n > n0 , m > n0 , Òk |xnj −xmj | 6 |αn −αm | < ε.
u´éuz j(1 6 j 6 d), S (xnj ) ´ R Cauchy S, l §Âñ xj .
- β = (x1 , x2 , · · · , xd ), K
|αn − β|2 = (xn1 − x1 )2 + · · · + (xnd − xd )2 6 d max {(xnj − xj )2 }.
16j6d
√
l |αn − β| 6 d max {|xnj − xj |}. ddÑ, lim αn = β. Ïd Rd ´.
16j6d n→∞
·K 7 X ´Ýþm. X fm A ´= A ´ X
4f8.
y² 75. A ´. ? α ∈ A, â·K 6 , 3 A ¥
S (αn ), §Âñ α. u´ (αn ) ´ A Cauchy S. du A ´, Ï
d (αn ) 3 A ¥Âñ, u´ α ∈ A. l A ⊆ A. Ïd A = A. u´ A ´48.
¿©5. A ´4f8. ? A ¥ Cauchy S (αn ), du X ´,
Ïd (αn ) Âñ α ∈ X. du A ´4f8, Ïdâ·K 6 , α ∈ A. u´ A ´
§2 ÿÀm · 183 ·
.
½Â 13 A ´Ýþm X f8. ·½Â A » diam A =
sup{ρ(x, y)|x, y ∈ A}. XJ diam A < +∞, @o¡ A ´k..
N´wÑ, A ´k.= A ⊆ B(a, r), Ù¥ B(a, r) := {x ∈ X|ρ(x, a) <
r}, ¡ B(a, r) ´± a ¥%!r »m¥.
½Â 14 Ýþm X f8 A ¡k., XJéuz ε > 0,
n
[
3 X kf8 {x1 , · · · , xn }, ¦ A ⊆ B(xk , ε).
k=1
·K 8 Rn ?k.f8´k.. XJ A ´Ýþm X
k.f8, K
(1) A ´k.;
(2) A ´k.;
(3) A ?f8´k..
·K 8 y²Öög.
·K 9 Ýþm X XJ´k., @o§´©.
y² du X ´k., Ïdéuzê n, 3 X kf8
[ [∞ [∞
1
Wn ¦ X ⊆ B x, . u´ Wn 4u X, l Wn ´ X
n n=1 n=1
x∈W n
êÈf8, Ïd X ´©.
½n 1 Ýþm X ´;=§´k..[
y² 75. Ýþm X ´;. ? ε > 0, k X = B(x, ε). d
x∈X
n
[
u X ´;, Ïd3 x1 , · · · , xn , ¦ X = B(xk , ε). u´ X ´k
k=1
.. y3 (xn ) ´ X Cauchy S. - Am = {xk |k > m}, Kéuz
S T T
m k Am+1 ⊆ Am . - Cm = X\Am , K Cm = X\ Am . bX Am = ∅,
K {Cm |m ∈ N∗ } ´ X mCX. du X ´;, Ïd3 s ∈ N∗ ¦
s
[ \s \s
Cm = X. §du Am = ∅. Am = As 6= ∅, gñ. Ïd
m=1 m=1 m=1
∞
\ ∞
\
Am 6= ∅. x ∈ Am . ? ε > 0, du (xn ) ´ Cauchy S, Ïd
m=1 m=1 εT
ε
3 n0 ¦ m, n > n0 Òk ρ(xm , xn ) < , ¿k B x, An0 6= ∅ (Ï
2 2
ε
x ∈ An0 ). u´3 m > n0 ¦ ρ(x, xm ) < , l éu n > n0 , ρ(x, xn ) < ε. Ï
2
d lim xn = x. l X ´.
n→∞
¿©5. Ýþm X ´k., {Uα |α ∈ I} ´ X mCX,
Ù¥ I Í8. du X ´k., Ïd X UL«¤kõ»u½
u 1 f8¿. bXØ3 {Uα |α ∈ I} ?Ûkf8CX X, K3 X
· 184 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
f8 F1 äk diam F1 6 1, ¦ {Uα |α ∈ I} ?Ûkf8ÑØUCX F1 . ·

1
48/E X f8S (Fn ) äkeã5: (i) diam Fn 6 ; (ii) Fn+1 ⊆ Fn
n
éuz n; (iii) {Uα |α ∈ I} ?Ûkf8ÑØUCX Fn . â·K 8, X ?
f8Ñ´k., Ïd Fn ´k.. l Fn 3, ¿ Fn UL«¤k
1
õ»u½u f8¿, Ù¥UÀ Fn+1 . y3éuz
n+1
1
n ÀJ xn ∈ Fn . XJ m 6 n m 6 p, K xn , xp ∈ Fm . u´ ρ(xp , xn ) 6 . Ï
m
d (xn ) ´ Cauchy S. du X ´, Ïd3 x ∈ X ¦ lim xn = x.
n→∞
du {Uα |α ∈ I} CX X, Ïd3 β ∈ I ¦ x ∈ Uβ . du Uβ ´m8, Ïd
3 ε > 0 ¦ B(x, ε) ⊆ Uβ . du lim xn = x, Ïd3 m ¦ n > m Òk
n→∞
ε 2
xn ∈ B x, . ÀJ n > m ¦ n > , ·k Fn ⊆ B(x, ε) ⊆ Uβ . ù Fn 5
2 ε
(iii) gñ. Ïd3 {Uα |α ∈ I} kf8CX X. l X ´;.
íØ 7 Rd f8´;=§´k.48.
y² 75. Rd f8 A ´;. â½n 1 , A ´
k.. du Rd ´Ýþm, Ïdâ·K 7 , A ´48. â·K 8 , A
´k..
¿©5. Rd f8 A ´k.48. â·K 8 , A ´k.. â
·K 7 , A ´. l â½n 1 , A ´;.
½Â 15 ÿÀm X ¡ÛÜ;, XJ§z:Ñk´;
.
½Â 16 X1 , X2 , · · · , Xn |ÿÀm, Bi ´ Xi ÿÀÄ, 3
X1 × X2 × · · · × Xn ¥DÿÀ: X1 × X2 × · · · × Xn m8eã8Ü¥¤
¿
8µ
B = {B1 × B2 × · · · × Bn |Bi ∈ Bi , i = 1, 2, · · · , n},
ù½ÂÿÀ¡¦ÈÿÀ, X1 × X2 × · · · × Xn
¦ÈÿÀ ¡¦È
m, ½ö¡ X1 , X2 , · · · , Xn ÿÀÈ. d B ´¦ÈmÿÀÄ.
½Â 17 {Ai( |i ∈ I} ´x8Ü, §(kÈ´8Ü )

[
N f : I → Ai f (i) ∈ Ai , i ∈ I ,
i∈I
Y
P Ai .
i∈IY
3 Ai ¥, z f d§ {f (i)|i ∈ I} û½. P ai = f (i), i ∈ I.
i∈I
rN f 8Ü {ai |i ∈ I} Ó, r8Ü {ai |i ∈ I} {P (ai ).
½Â 18 {Xi |i ∈ I} ´xÿÀm, Bi ´ Xi ÿÀÄ, 3(k
Y Y
È Xi ¥DÿÀ: Xi m8eã8Ü¥¤
¿8:
i∈I i∈I
§2 ÿÀm · 185 ·
( )
Y

B= Bi Bi ∈ Bi , Ø
k i , Bi = Xi , i ∈ I ,

i∈I
Y
ù½ÂÿÀ¡¦ÈÿÀ, Xi
¦ÈÿÀ ¡¦Èm, ½ö¡
i∈I
{Xi |i ∈ I} ÿÀÈ.
Ný²eã(Ø:
Hausdorff mÿÀÈ´ Hausdorff m. , exÿÀm {Xi |i ∈ I}
Y
ÿÀÈ Xi ´ Hausdorff m, Ké i ∈ I, Xi ´ Hausdorff m.
i∈I
±y²eã½n (y²w [12] 1 87 — 89 ).
3öìÅ (Tihonov) ½nµ;ÿÀmÿÀÈE´;ÿÀm
Y
; ,
exÿÀm {Xi |i ∈ I} ÿÀÈ Xi ´;, Ké i ∈ I, Xi ´;.
i∈I
Y
- πj : Xi → Xj
i∈I
{ai |i ∈ I} 7→ aj ,
¡ πj ´ÝKN.
{Xi |i ∈ I} ´xÿÀm, KÝKN
Y
πj : Xi → Xj
i∈I
´ëYN, ´mN.
X1 , X2 , · · · , Xn , Y Ñ´ÿÀm, KN f : Y → X1 × X2 × · · · × Xn ëY
= n Ü¤N πi f : Y → Xi , i = 1, 2, · · · , n, ÑëY.
S
½Â 19 X ´ÿÀm, XJ§©)¤üf8¿8 A B ,
T T
k A B 6= ∅ ½ A B 6= ∅, @o¡ X ´ëÏ.
ÿÀm X f8 A ¡ëÏf8, XJ±pÿÀ, fm A ´ëÏ
m.
éuÿÀm X, e^´d:
(i) X ëÏ;
(ii) X SÓm848f8k X Ú ∅;
(iii) X ØUL«üØm8¿8;
(iv) Ø3ëY÷Nl X õu:lÑÿÀmþ.
ëÏmëY´ëÏm.
ëÏ5´mÿÀ5. =: e h : X → Y ÓN, K X ëÏ=
Y ëÏ.
¢ê¶ R ´ëÏm.
e X1 , X2 , ·, Xm Ñ´ëÏm, K§ÿÀÈ´ëÏ.
lþã(Já=Ñ, n î¼m Rn ´ëÏ.
· 186 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
§3 ÿÀ+, ;+
3.1 ÿÀ+

3+ G þïáÈ©, g,A G kÿÀm(, A¦+
(ÿÀm(N. duÿÀÆÄ?Öúy3ëYNÚÓe
±ØC5, ÏdëYN´ÿÀÆØ%. u´·ÚÑeãVg.
½Â 1 XJ+ G
ÿÀ, ¦ G ¦{$ µ : G × G → G Ú¦
_$ ν : G → G Ñ´ëYN, @o¡ G ´ÿÀ+.
e¡ÑAÿÀ+~f.
~ 1 ¢ê¶ R, +$´¢ê\{, ålÿÀ. ? (x, y) ∈ R ×
R, µ(x, y) = x + y. duù´õª¼ê, Ïd§´ëY¼ê. l R \{$
´ R × R R ëYN. ? x ∈ R, ν(x) = −x, w,ù´ëY¼ê, Ïd¦
_$ ν ´ R R ëYN. l ( R, +) ´ÿÀ+.
~ 2 1 ¥¡ S 1 (=²¡þü ), §±w¤´d 1 Eê|¤
8Ü, +$Éê¦{, l²¡ålÿÀp5ÿÀ. aqu~ 1
Øy, S 1 ´ÿÀ+.
~ 3 äklÑÿÀ?¿Ä+ G. du G zf8Ñ´m8, Ïd G
z|¤ü8¤¤x´ G ÿÀÄ B. l éu¦{$
µ : G × G → G, G ÿÀÄ B z¤
{a} 3 µ e
µ−1 ({a}) = {(x, y) ∈ G × G|xy = a}
´ G × G m8. u´âÙ §2 íØ 2 , µ ëYN. du G ÿÀ
Ä B z¤
{a} 3¦_$ ν e v −1 ({a}) = {a−1 } ´ G m8,
Ïd ν ´ëYN. l G ¤ÿÀ+.
~ 4 n î¼m Rn , +$´ n kSê|\{ (= n þ\
{), ålÿÀ, α = (a1 , a2 , · · · , an ), β = (b1 , b2 , · · · , bn ).
µ π
Rn × Rn −
→ Rn −→
i
R
(α, β) 7→ α + β 7→ ai + bi .
du πi µ(α, β) = ai + bi ´ëY¼ê, i = 1, 2, · · · , n, Ïd µ ´ëYN. aq/
y¦_$ ν ´ëYN. Ïd ( Rn , +) ¤ÿÀ+.
~ 5 ¢êþ5+ GL n ( R). +$´Ý
¦{, r n ¢Ý
2
A = (aij ) Óu Rn ::

(a11 , a12 , · · · , a1n , · · · , an1 , an2 , · · · , ann ),
n2 2
K Mn ( R) Óu R . GL n ( R) ÿÀ´ Rn ålÿÀpÿÀ. A =
(aij ), B = (bij ) ∈ Mn ( R),
µ πij
Mn ( R) × Mn ( R) −
→ Mn ( R) −−→ R
Xn
(A, B) 7→ AB 7→ aik bkj .
k=1
§3 ÿÀ+, ;+ · 187 ·
n
X
du (πij µ)(A, B) = aik bkj ´ A, B ¥õª, l πij µ ´ëYN,
k=1
1 6 i, j 6 n, Ïd µ ´ëYN. l µ| GL n ( R) × GL n ( B) ´ëYN.
ν πij
GL n ( R) −−→ GL n ( R) −−→ R
1 ∗ 1
A 7−→ A−1 = A 7−→ Aji ,
|A| |A|
Ù¥ Aji ´ A (i, j) ê{fª, du |A| Ú Aji ?Ñ´ A
õª, |A| = 6 0, Ïd πij ν ´ëY¼ê, 1 6 i, j 6 n. l ν ´ëYN. Ïd
GL n ( R) ¤ÿÀ+.
½Â 2 G ÿÀ+, H ´+ G f+, XJ H ´ÿÀm G 4f8,
@o¡ H ´ÿÀ+ G f+. XJÿÀ+ G f+ N ´+ G 5f+, @o
¡ N ´ÿÀ+ G 5f+.
·K 1 H ´ÿÀ+ G ,f8, H ´+ G f+, 3 H þ G
ÿÀpÿÀ, K H ¤ÿÀ+. AO/, ÿÀ+ G f+ H ´ÿÀ+.
y² y+ H ¦{$Ú¦_$3m H ÿÀ¥´ëY.
a, b ∈ H, ab−1 = c. 3m H ¥ c z W ′ Ñ±´3m G ¥
T
c , W H 8: W ′ = H W . Ï G ´ÿÀ+, ¤±3
a b U V , ¦ U V −1 ⊆ W , Ù¥ V −1 := {x−1 |x ∈ V }. 8
T T
U ′ = H U V ′ = H V ´ a b 3m H ¥. ·k U ′ V ′−1 ⊆ W .
w, U ′ V ′−1 ⊆ H. Ïd U ′ V ′ −1 ⊆ W ′ . l H ¦{$Ú¦_$3m H ¥
´ëY. u´ H ´ÿÀ+.
~ 6 éu+ GL n ( R) f+ SLn ( R), du1ª¼ê det ´lÿÀm
GL n ( R) ÿÀm R ëYN, {1} ´ R 48, Ïd {1} 3 det e
SLn ( R) ´m GL n ( R) 4f8. â½Â 2 , SLn ( R) ´ÿÀ+ GL n ( R)
f+, â·K 1 , SLn ( R) ´ÿÀ+.
S
duÝ
1ª 1 ½ −1, Ïd O(n) u det−1 ({1}) det−1 ({−1}),
Ù¥, det−1 ({1}) L« 1 31ª¼ê det e8. l O(n) ´ÿÀm
GL n ( R) 4f8. â½Â 2 , O(n) ´ÿÀ+ GL n ( R) f+. â·K 1
, O(n) ´ÿÀ+.
aq/y, AÏ+ SO(n) ´ÿÀ+.
~ 7 V ´¢êþ n 5m, r V þ5C A Óu§3
2 2
V ÄeÝ
A, ? Óu Rn :, GL (V ) d Rn ål
ÿÀpÑ5ÿÀ, K GL (V ) ¤ÿÀ+.
·K 2 G1 Ú G2 Ñ´ÿÀ+, + G1 G2 È G1 × G2 ¦ÈÿÀ,
K G1 × G2 ¤ÿÀ+, ¡§´ÿÀ+ G1 G2 È.
y² y+ G1 × G2 ¦{Ú¦_$3ÿÀm G1 × G2 ¥ëY.
a = (a1 , a2 ) b = (b1 , b2 ) ´ G1 × G2 ¥ü, ab−1 = (a1 b−1 −1
1 , a2 b2 ), P
ab−1 = c = (c1 , c2 ). W = (W1 , W2 ) ´m G1 × G2 ¥ c ?, Ù¥
· 188 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
Wi ´m Gi ¥ ci . duÿÀ+ Gi ¥$ëY5, Ïd3 Gi ¥k

ai bi Ui Vi , ¦ Ui Vi−1 ⊆ Wi . N´wÑ, 3m G1 × G2 ¥ a
b U = (U1 , U2 ) V = (V1 , V2 ) ÷v U V −1 ⊆ W . ùy²
+ G1 × G2 ¥
$ëY5, Ïd G1 × G2 ´ÿÀ+.
~ 8 ( C, +) R2 ålÿÀ, ¤ÿÀ+. ( C∗ , ·), $Eê¦
{, R2 ålÿÀ¤ÿÀ+.
~ 9 GL n ( C) 9Ùf+ SLn ( C), U(n), SU(n) Ñ´ÿÀ+.
~ 10 V Éêþ n 5m, K GL (V ) ´ÿÀ+.
~ 11 ¡w¤´üü (1 ¥¡) ¦Èm, ¦ÈÿÀ+
È(, l ¡¤ÿÀ+.
~ 12 3 ¥¡ S 3 w¤óêm H Sü ¥¡ (H ÿÀm
´ R4 , äkoêê(), +$óê¦{. ±y²¦{$Ú¦
_$Ñ´ëYN, l S 3 ´ÿÀ+.
3.2 ÿÀ+Ó!Ó
duÿÀ+¦+¦{$´ëYN, ÏdÿÀ+ G ÿÀ+ G e Ó

f g,¦'+Óõ^: f ´ G G e ëYN. u´ÚÑe¡½Â.
e e XJ´ÿÀm G G
½Â 3 G Ú G Ñ´ÿÀ+, +Ó f : G → G e
ëYN, @o¡ f ´ÿÀ+ G ÿÀ+ Ge Ó. ÿÀ+ G G e Ó f XJ
´mN, @o¡ f ´mÓ. XJ+Ó f : G → G e ´ÿÀm G Ge Ó
e
N, @o¡ f ´ÿÀ+ G G ÓN, d¡ÿÀ+ G ÿÀ+ G Ó. e
~X, V ´¢êþ n 5m, KÿÀ+ GL (V ) GL n ( R) Ó.
G ´ÿÀ+, é?¿½ a ∈ G, d a (½²£ La : x 7→ ax ´ G
gV. P y = ax. ? y Wy , du¦{$ µ ´ëYN, Ï
d µ−1 (Wy ) ´ G × G m8. l 3 a Ua Ú x Vx , ¦
Ua × Vx ⊆ µ−1 (Wy ). u´ µ(Ua × Vx ) ⊆ Wy , Ïd Ua Vx ⊆ Wy , a ∈ Ua , u´
aVx ⊆ Wy , = La (Vx ) ⊆ Wy . l La ´ëYN. du La _N´ La−1 , Ïd
La _N´ëYN. l La ´ÿÀ+ G gÓN. aq/, ÿÀ
+ G m²£ Ra : x 7→ xa ´ÿÀ+ G gÓN.
ÿÀ+ G (m) ²£Ñ´ÿÀm G gÓN, ù¦ÿÀm
G ´à5, =éu G ?¿ü x y, 3ÓN Lyx−1 (½ Rx−1 y ) r
x N¤ y. duÿÀm G ´à5, Ïd3 G z:, lÛÜ5w¥yÑ
ÓÿÀ(. u´éu G ÛÜ5Ié G , (~~ G ü
e) uy¢Ò±
.
½n 1 G Ú G e Ñ´ÿÀ+, f ´+ G + G e Ó.
(1) XJéu G e ¥ü ee zm U e , 3k G ü e m
e e
U , ¦ f (U ) ⊆ U , @o f ´ G G ëYN, l f ´ÿÀ+ G ÿÀ
+G e Ó;
§3 ÿÀ+, ;+ · 189 ·
(2) XJéu G ü e zm V , 3k G e ü e e m

Ve , ¦ f (V ) ⊇ Ve , @o f ´ G G e mN.
y² (1) a ∈ G, f (a) = e f ´ e
a, W a ?m. u´ W fe
a−1 ´¹ü
ee m8 (ù´Ïm²£ Rea−1 ´ÿÀm G e gÓN). â®
^, 3kü e m U , ¦ f (U ′ ) ⊆ W ′ fe a−1 . - U = U ′ a, K U ´
¹k a m8. u´ U ¹ a m W . ·k
fe
f (W ) ⊆ f (U ) = f (U ′ a) = f (U ′ )f (a) ⊆ W a−1 e
a=W f.
Ïd f ´ G G e ëYN.
(2) a ∈ G, f (a) = ea, W ´ a ?m. u´ W a−1 ´¹ü e
m8. â®^, 3kü ee m Ve ′ , ¦ f (W a−1 ) ⊇ Ve ′ . -
Ve = Ve ′ e
a, K Ve ´¹k e a m8, u´ Ve ¹ e a m W f . ·k
f ⊆ Ve = Ve ′ e
W a ⊆ f (W a−1 )f (a) = f (W ).
Ïd f ´ G G e mN.
X( ÿÀm , P ´ X y©, = )
T [

P = Pα ⊆ X Pα 6= ∅, α ∈ I; Pα 6= Pβ k Pα Pβ = ∅, Pα = X .

α∈I
π ´ X P N, §r X z: x N P ¥,¤
Pα , Ù
¥ x ∈ Pα . D P ÿÀ´¦ π ëYÿÀ. u´ P f8 W m8
= W π −1 (W ) ´ X m8. ùÿÀ¡ P þÅÜÿÀ, P ¤
ÿÀm, ¡ P X ÅÜm. ·±r P w¤´lm X Ñu, r
áu P z¤
Pα ¤k:ÅÜ: /¤m (5: P ±w¤´ X
éu,d'Xû8, π Ò´ X û8 P g,N).
·K 3 X Ú Z Ñ´ÿÀm, P ´ X ÅÜm, f ´ P Z N,
π f
=X− →P − → Z.
(1) e f ´ëYN, K f π ´ X Z ëYN;
(2) e f π ´ëYN, f ´÷, K f ´ëYN.
y² (1) du π ´ X P ëYN, Ïd f π ëY.
(2) ? Z ¥ z, du f ´ P Z ÷, Ïd3 Pα ∈ P, ¦
f (Pα ) = z. x ∈ X ¦ π(x) = Pα , K (f π)x = z. ? z U , du f π
´ X Z ëYN, Ïd3 x V , ¦ (f π)(V ) ⊆ U . ^ V ∗ L«
Pα , §d¤k÷veã^ Pβ |¤: π(y) = Pβ , y ∈ V . Ï f (π(V )) ⊆ U ,
¤±éu V ∗ ¥? Pβ , k f (Pβ ) = f (π(y)) ∈ U . l f (V ∗ ) ⊆ U . Ïd f ´
ëYN.
½n 2 G ÿÀ+, H ÿÀ+ G f+, éu H 3 G ¥mû8 G/H
ÅÜÿÀ, K G/H ¤ÿÀm, g,N π : x 7→ Hx ´ÿÀm G
ÿÀm G/H ëYmN.
y² âÅÜÿÀ½Â, π ´ÿÀm G ÿÀm G/H ëYN. e
¡5y π ´mN.
· 190 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
? G ¥ a U , /X Hx(x ∈ U ) ¤km8|¤8Ü U e

´ G/H ¥ Ha . ·k π(U ) = U. e u´ U e ⊆ π(U ). Ïd π ´mN.
½n 3 G ÿÀ+, N ÿÀ+ G 5f+, 3û+ G/N ¥ÅÜ
ÿÀ, K G/N ÿÀ+.
y² Iyû+ G/N ¦{$ µ : G/N × G/N → G/N Ú¦_$ ν :
G/N → G/N Ñ´ëYN.
? aN, bN ∈ G/N . - cN = (aN )(bN )−1 = (ab−1 )N . ? cN
Wf, K W f ´/X xN ¤k8|¤8Ü, Ù¥ x ∈ W , W G ¥ ab−1
,. du G ¥¦{$Ú¦_$´ëYN, Ïd3 a U Ú b
V , ¦ U V −1 ⊆ W . /X yN (y ∈ U ) ¤k8|¤8ÜP U e , §´
aN ; /X zN (z ∈ V ) ¤k8|¤8ÜP Ve , §´ bN . ·
k (yN )(zN )−1 = yz −1 N ∈ Wf (Ï yz −1 ∈ U V −1 ⊆ W ). Ïd U e Ve −1 ⊆ W
f . l
G/N éu¦{$Ú¦_$Ñ´ëY. u´ G/N ¤ÿÀ+.
½n 4 G G e Ñ´ÿÀ+, f ´ÿÀ+ G ÿÀ+ G e ÷mÓ§Ó
f Ø N , K N ÿÀ+ G 5f+, ÿÀ+ G e ÿÀ+ G/N Ó.
y² ·®² N ´+ G 5f+. du N ´ÿÀ+ G e
ee 3ëYN f e, Ïd N ´ÿÀm G 48. l N ´ÿÀ+ G
5f+.
du f ´+ G + G e ÷Ó, Ïd+ G/N + G e Ó, ÙÓN σ
σ(xN ) = f (x), ∀x ∈ G.
π σ e e ëYN, Ïd σ ´
Ïd σπ = f . du G − → G/N − → G, f = σπ ´ G G
G/N G e ëYN.
y35y σ−1 ´ G e G/N ëYN. ? e a ∈ G,e du f ´ G G e ÷,
−1
Ïd3 a ∈ G ¦ f (a) = e a. u´ σ (e a) = aN . ? aN 3 G/N ¥
U ∗ , du G G/N g,N π ´ëY, Ïd U ∗ d¤k/X xN 8|¤,
Ù¥ x ∈ U , U ÿÀm G ¥,½. du f ´ G G e mN, Ïd
3 e a Ve ¦ f (U ) ⊇ Ve . ? ye ∈ Ve , Kk y ∈ U ¦ f (y) = ye. Ïd
σ −1 (e
y ) = σ −1 (f (y)) = yN ∈ U ∗ .
l σ−1 (Ve ) ⊆ U ∗ . u´ σ−1 ´ G e G/N ëYN. ÏdÿÀ+ G/N ÿÀ
+G e Ó.
1 i2πx
~X, ÿÀ+ R ÿÀ+ S N f (x) = e ´÷mÓ, Ó f Ø
1
Z, ÏdÿÀ+ R/ Z S Ó.
3.3 ;+
½Â 4 ÿÀ+ G ¡;+, XJÿÀm G ´;.

~ 13 lÑÿÀ?¿k+´;+. ndXe: duk+ G
´lÑÿÀ, Ïd G zf8Ñ´m8. du G kkõ, Ïd G
?mCX7½kkfCX. l ÿÀm G ´;.
§3 ÿÀ+, ;+ · 191 ·
~ 14 ;+ G ?f+´;+. ndXe: â½Â 2, ÿÀ+ G f+´

4f8. âÙ §2 ·K 3 , ;+ G ?4f8´;, Ïd;+ G
?f+´;+.
2 2
~ 15 + O(n) ´;+. ndXe: r Mn ( R) Óu Rn , du Rn
2
f8´;=§´k.48, Ïdy O(n) Óu Rn k.4
8. A = (aij ) ∈ O(n). du AA′ = I, Ïd
Xn
aik ajk = δij , 1 6 i, j 6 n. (1)
k=1
½ÂN fij : Mn ( R) → R
n
X
fij (A) = aik ajk , (2)
k=1
du fij r A N¤ A õª, Ïd fij ´ Mn ( R) R ëYN. du
A ∈ O(n) = A ÷v (1) ª, Ïd O(n) é¤k8Ü8:
fij−1 (0), 1 6 i, j 6 n, i 6= j,
fii−1 (1), 1 6 i 6 n.
du {0}, {1} ´ R 48, fij ´ëYN, Ïdþãz8ÜÑ´ Mn ( R) 4
2
8, l O(n) ´ Mn ( R) 48. u´ O(n) ´ Rn 48. qÝ
A ÷v
n
X
a2ij = 1, 1 6 i 6 n,
j=1
Ïd
|aij | 6 1, 1 6 i, j 6 n.
2
l O(n) ´ Rn k.8. ùy²
O(n) ´;. Ïd O(n) ´;+.
~ 16 AÏ+ SO(n) ´;+, ndXe: du1ª¼ê
det : O(n) → R
´l O(n) R ëYN, {1} ´ R 48, SO(n) = det−1 ({1}), Ïd
SO(n) ´ O(n) 48. u´ SO(n) ´ÿÀ+ O(n) f+. â~ 14 , SO(n)
´;+.
~ 17 j+ U(n) ÚAÏj+ SU(n) Ñ´;+. âqu~ 15 {y²:
j+ U(n) ´;+. âqu~ 16 {y²: AÏj+ SU(n) ´;+.
~ 18 1 ¥¡ S 1 ´;+, ndXe: 3 [28] 1 777 ~ 14 y²
AÏ
+ SO(2) j+ U(1) Ó. du
U(1) = { e iθ |0 6 θ < 2π},
Ïd U(1) Óu 1 ¥¡ S 1 . u´ SO(2) = ∼ S 1 , Ù¥ÓN f
!
cos θ − sin θ
7→ e iθ , 0 6 θ < 2π.
sin θ cos θ
5¿ sin θ Ú cos θ Ñ´ëY¼ê, Ïd±y² f ´ëYN, f −1 ´ëYN
. l f ´ÓN. u´ÿÀ+ SO(2) S 1 Ó. Ïd S 1 ´;+.
· 192 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
~ 19 3 ¥¡ S 3 ´;+. ndXe: 3 [28] 1 778 ~ 15 y²

SU(2)
? A /X !
cos θ · e iθ1 − sin θ · e− iθ2 π
A= , 0 6 θ 6 , 0 6 θj < 2π, j = 1, 2.
sin θ · e iθ2
cos θ · e − iθ1 2
α = cos θ · e iθ1 , β = − sin θ · e− iθ2 , K!
α β
A= , |α|2 + |β|2 = 1.
−β α
P a1 = cos θ cos θ1 , a2 = cos θ sin θ1 , a3 = − sin θ cos θ2 , a4 = sin θ sin θ2 , K
a21 + a22 + a23 + a24 = 1.
l (a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 ) ∈ S 3 . - σ : A 7→ (a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 ), K σ ´ SU(2) S 3 N
h πi
. w, σ ´ü. ? (a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 ) ∈ S 3 , du a21 +a22 +a23 +a24 = 1, Ïd3 0,
2
3 θ, ¦ cos2 θ = a21 + a22 , sin2 θ = a23 + a24 , , d a1 = cos θ cos θ1 , a2 =
cos θ sin θ1 )Ñ θ1 . aq/)Ñ θ2 . u´jÝ
A. Ïd σ ´÷. l¡ σ
´ SU(2) S 3 V.
!
γ δ
B= ,
−δ γ
Ù¥ γ = b1 + ib2 , δ = b3 + ib4 , |γ|2 + |δ|2 = 1. K
!
αγ − βδ αδ + βγ
AB = ,
−βγ − αδ αγ − βδ
Ù¥ αγ − βδ = (a1 b1 − a2 b2 − a3 b3 − a4 b4 ) + i(a1 b2 + a2 b1 + a3 b4 − a4 b3 ), αδ + βγ =
(a1 b3 − a2 b4 + a3 b1 + a4 b2 ) + i(a1 b4 + a2 b3 − a3 b2 + a4 b1 ), u´ AB 3 σ e
(a1 b1 − a2 b2 − a3 b3 − a4 b4 , a1 b2 + a2 b1 + a3 b4 − a4 b3 ,
a1 b3 − a2 b4 + a3 b1 + a4 b2 , a1 b4 + a2 b3 − a3 b2 + a4 b1 ).
3
3 S ¥, (a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 ) (b1 , b2 , b3 , b4 ) ¦È
(a1 + a2 i + a3 j + a4 k)(b1 + b2 i + b3 j + b4 k)
= (a1 b1 − a2 b2 − a3 b3 − a4 b4 ) + (a1 b2 + a2 b1 + a3 b4 − a4 b3 ) i
+(a1 b3 − a2 b4 + a3 b1 + a4 b2 ) j + (a1 b4 + a2 b3 − a3 b2 + a4 b1 ) k.
Ïd σ ±¦{$, l σ ´+ SU(2) S 3 ÓN.
σ π
SU(2) −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ S 3 −−−−−−i−−−→ R
!
a1 + a2 i a3 + a4 i
A= 7→ (a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 ) 7→ ai ,
−a3 + a4 i a1 − a2 i
du πi σ ´ëYN (i = 1, 2, 3, 4), Ïd σ ´ëYN.
σ−1 πij
S 3 −−−−−−−−−−→ SU(2) −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ C
!
a1 + a2 i a3 + a4 i
(a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 ) 7→ A = 7→ A(i, j),
−a3 + a4 i a1 − a2 i
ý πij σ−1 ´ëYN (1 6 i, j 6 2), Ïd σ−1 ´ëYN. l σ ´ SU(2)
§3 ÿÀ+, ;+ · 193 ·
S 3 Ó. ÏdÿÀ+ SU(2) S 3 Ó. u´ S 3 ´;+.

G ´ÿÀ+, H Ú K ´ G ;f8, K HK ´;. nd´: du
H Ú K ;, ÏdÿÀÈ H × K ´;. df+ G ¦{$´ G × G G
ëYN, Ïd§3 H × K þ´ëY. du;mëY´;
, Ïd HK ´;.
G ´ÿÀ+, H ÿÀ+ G f+. XJm G ´;, @om G/H
´;. nd´: dug,N π : G → G/H ´ëY, Ïd G/H ´;.
ddeã~ 20 (Ø.
~ 20 G ´;+, N ´ÿÀ+ G 5f+, Kû+ G/N ´;+.
G ÿÀ+, H §;f+. XJ G/H f8 A ´;, @o
B = π −1 (A) ´;, AO/, XJ G/H ´;, @o G ´;+, y²ëw
[12] 1 120 — 121 .
;+ G ÿÀ+ G e ÷ÓN½´mN. nd´: |^ [12] 1 127
½n 12.
T
G ;+, H ´ÿÀ+ G f+, N ´ÿÀ+ G 5f+, K H N ´ÿ
T
À+ H 5f+, ¿ÿÀ+ HN/N ÿÀ+ H/(H N ) Ó. ndXe: d
u H ´;+ G f+, Ïd H ´;+. + H HN/N k÷Ó τ : h 7→ hN ,
T
Ó τ Ø H N , ´wÑ τ ´ëYN, Ïd τ ´;+ H ÿÀ+ HN/N
÷Ó. âþã(Ø, τ ´mN. u´ÿÀ+ H HN/N k÷
T
mÓ τ . l â!½n 4 , H N ´ÿÀ+ H 5f+, ÿÀ+
T
H/(H N ) ÿÀ+ HN/N Ó.
GL n ( R) Ø´;+, nd´: GL n ( R) ´1ªN det e R∗ . du
S
R∗ = (−∞, 0) (0, +∞), Ïd R∗ ´ R m8. du det ´ëYN, Ïd GL n ( R)
2 2
´ Mn ( R) m8. Mn ( R) Óu Rn , Rn f8´;=§´
k.48, Ïd GL n ( R) Ø´;.
SK 6.3
1. G ´ÿÀ+, F ´ G 48, y²: éu?¿ a ∈ G, F a, aF, F −1 Ñ´4

8, Ù¥ F −1 = {b−1 |b ∈ F }.
2. G ´ÿÀ+, U ´ G m8, y²: éu G ?¿f8 P , Ñk U P, P U, U −1
´m8.
3. G ´ÿÀ+, A, B ´ G f8, y²: A B ⊆ AB.
4. G ÿÀ+. y²: e H + G f+, K H ´+ G f+; e N
´+ G 5f+, K N ´+ G 5f+.
5. + G lÑÿÀ¤¤ÿÀ+¡lÑ+. y²;lÑ+½´k
+.
6. H ÿÀ+ G lÑf+ (= H + G f+, ¿fm
· 194 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
ÿÀ H ´lÑm), éÑ G ü e 3 G S N , ¦²£

hN = Lh (N ), h ∈ H, pØ.
T
7. e K ÿÀ+ G ;f8, H G lÑf+, y² H K k8.
8. y²: 1 ¥¡ S 1 ?Û²lÑf+´kÌ+.
9. y²: R (+$\{) ?Û²lÑf+´ÃÌ+.
10. y²: ÿÀ+ GL n ( R) ØëÏ.
11. y²: ÿÀ+ O(n) ØëÏ.
12. y²: ÿÀ+ O(2) ²lÑf+½kÌ+, ½¡N+.
13. G ´ÿÀ+, H ´+ G f+. y²: XJ H ´m G m8, @o H
½´48.
14. G ´ÿÀ+, H ´+ G kkêf+. y²: XJ H ´m G
48, @o H ½´m8.
15. G ´ÿÀ+, H ´+ G f+. y²: XJ H ¹ü e
, @o H ´m8.
§4 ÿÀ+5L«
ØAO(², !¥ K Eê C ½¢ê R.

½Â 1 V ´ K þk5m, ÿÀ+ G ÿÀ+ GL (V ) ?
Ó ϕ ¡ÿÀ+ G 5L« ({¡ G K-L«), V ¡L«
m½ö G-m, V ê¡L« ϕ gê.
ÿÀ+ G 5L«'Ä+ G 5L«O\
“ϕ ´ëYN” ¦,
ÏdÿÀ+ G 5L«¡+ G ëYL«.
XJ (ϕ, V ) ´ÿÀ+ G K-L«, K+ G 3 V þ5^, ¿
ýù^´ëY, =d (g, v) 7→ ϕ(g)v ½ÂN G × V → V ´ëYN.
ù¡ V ´ëY G-.
, G ´ÿÀ+, XJ K þk5m V ´ëY G- (= G 3 V þ
këY5^), K V Jø
ÿÀ+ G K-L«.
½Â 2 V ´ K þÃ5m, XJ V þ½Â
ÿÀ¤ÿ
Àm, ¿ V \{$Úêþ¦{$Ñ´ëYN, @o¡ V ´ÿÀ
5m. G ´ÿÀ+, XJ (ϕ, V ) ´+ G 5L«, ¿ G × V V
N: (g, v) 7−→ ϕ(g)v ´ëYN, @o¡ (ϕ, V ) ´ÿÀ+ G Ã
5L«.
½Â 3 ÿÀ+ G ÿÀ+ GL n (K) Ó Φ ¡ÿÀ+ G n
gÝ
L«.
Φ ´+ G n gÝ
L«, Φ(g) = (aij (g)), ∀g ∈ G. w,, aij ´ G þ
¼ê, 1 6 i, j 6 n, ¡§ Φ Ý
½I¼ê.
XJ Φ ´ÿÀ+ G n gÝ
L«, KÝ
aij (1 6 i, j 6 n) ´ëY¼ê.
§4 ÿÀ+5L« · 195 ·
2
ÙndXe: r Mn (K) Óu K n , éu A ∈ Mn (K), ÝKN πij : Mn (K) → K
ò A N§ (i, j) . Ï πij ´ëY, ¤±§3 GL n (K) þ´ëY
. qÏ Φ ´ G GL n (K) ëYN, ¤± πij Φ ´ G K ëYN.
(πij Φ)(g) = aij (g), ∀g ∈ G, ¤± aij = πij Φ G þëY¼ê.
, G ´ÿÀ+, Φ ´Ä+ G n gÝ
L«. XJÝ
aij (1 6
i, j 6 n) ´ G þëY¼ê, @o Φ ´ÿÀ+ G n gÝ
L«. ndXe: Φ ë
Y, =¤kÜ¤N
Φ πij
G− → GL n (K) −−→ K
ëY. dK, πij Φ = aij ëY, ¤± Φ ëY.
lþ¡üã{wÑ: ÿÀ+ G n gÝ
L«'Ä+ G n gÝ
L«T
Ðõ
^¦: “Φ Ý
´ G þëY¼ê”.
~f
1. Ä+ G z K-L«´lÑÿÀ+ G K-L«.
2. G = GL n (K), V = Mn (K), ϕ ½ÂXe:
ϕ(A)X = (A−1 )′ XA−1 , A ∈ GL n (K), X ∈ Mn (K).
ýéuz A ∈ GL n (K), ϕ(A) ´5m V þ5C, ¿´_
. ý ϕ ´ G GL (V ) +Ó. Ïd ϕ ´+ GL n (K) n2 g5
L«, e¡?Úy² ϕ ´ÿÀ+ GL n (K) n2 g5L«, ùI2y ϕ ´
GL n (K) GL (V ) ëYN. ÄA n2 gÝ
L« Φ. 3 V ¥Ä:
E11 , · · · , E1n , E21 , · · · , E2n , · · · , En1 , · · · , Enn . éu A ∈ GL n (K), A, A−1 (i, j)
©O aij , e aij , K
ϕ(A)Eij = (A−1 )′ Eij A−1
=e
ai1 e
aj1 E11 + · · · + e
ai1 e
ajn E1n
+···+e ain e
aj1 En1 + · · · + e
ain e
ajn Enn .
1
u´ Φ Ý
/X e ajl . qdu A−1 =
aik e A∗ , A∗ ´ A
detA
õª, detA ´ A õª, detA 6= 0, Ïd Φ Ý

´ G þëY¼ê, l Φ ´ÿÀ+ GL n (K) n2 gÝ
L«.
1Ùù
§¢L«!²L«!ÌL« (½ü L«) !L«d!G Ø
Cfm!fL«!L«Ú!ØL«!L«!L«!L«J
,©)!ÝL«!_ÚL«VgÚk'(Ø, ù
(vk\þ “k+”
^) éuÿÀ+Ñ·^ (ÿÀ+ÃØL«L«1Ù
ù+ØL«L«ÑkØÓ, ©OwÙ §9 ½Â 14 Ú½Â
26). d , 1Ù §5 ¥ “5L«Ú+ÓÜ¤” éuÿÀ+5`, Aò “+Ó
” U¤ “ÿÀ+Ó”; aq/,“ÏL+gÓLL«” ¥ “+gÓ” ?U¤
“ÿÀ+gÓ”.
1Ù §4 ½n 1 éuÿÀ+¤á, =·k: Abel ÿÀ+zk
ØEL«Ñ´ 1 g.
· 196 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
1oÙ §2 “L«ÜþÈ” éuÿÀ+E,·^, =e (φ, V ) Ú (ψ, W ) ´

ÿÀ+ G ü5L«, U1oÙ §2 ù{Ä+ G ÜþÈL«
(ϕ ⊗ ψ, V ⊗K W ). l ϕ ⊗ ψ JøÝ
L«wÑ, Ý
´ G þëY¼ê,
l ϕ ⊗ ψ ´ÿÀ+ G L«.
31Ù §4 ¥·®²w Schur Ún3ïÄk+kØL«¥
å
~^. Ó/, 3ïÄÿÀ+ (AO´;+) kØL«¥,
Schur ÚnåX'^. ·31Ù §4 ù Schur Ún¦^´ó,
3SK 2.4 1 2 K·^+L«óQã
Schur Ún, y3Ñ5¿^+
L«ó2y²H.
Schur Ún (ϕ, V ) Ú (ψ, W ) ´+ G üØ K-L«, Ù¥ K ´
ê4. σ ´ K þk5m V W 5N¦
ψ(g)σ = σϕ(g), ∀g ∈ G, (1)
(i) XJ ϕ Ú ψ Ød, K σ = 0;
(ii) XJ V = W ¿ ϕ = ψ, K σ = λ1V , Ù¥ λ ´ K ¥,.
y² Ïé g ∈ G k ψ(g)σ = σϕ(g), ¤± Ker σ ´ V G ØCf
m, Im σ ´ W G ØCfm. du (ϕ, V ) Ú (ψ, W ) ÑØ, ¤±kü
«U/:
(1) Ker σ = 0, ¿ Im σ = W ;
(2) Ker σ = V , ¿ Im σ = 0.
3/ (1), σ ´ V W þÓ. 3/ (2), σ = 0.
(i) e σ 6= 0, K σ ´ V W þÓ, qd (1) ª, ϕ ≈ ψ.
(ii) e V = W ¿ ϕ = ψ, K σ ´ V þ5C. Ï K ´ê4, ¤±
σ kA λ. d (1) ª, σ áu λ Afm Vλ ´ G ØCfm. du
(ϕ, V ) Ø, Ïd Vλ = V , l
σ = λ1V .
5¿, Schur Ún (i) éu?¿ K Ñ¤á.
3Ù §6 ·òw Schur ÚnéuïÄ;+kØL«
^.
1nÙùL«JøAIVgéuÿÀ+ K-L«E,·^. éuÿ
À+ G, AI´ G þëY¼ê. 1nÙ §1 ùAIÄ5éuÿÀ+
K-L«E¤á, Ø\
“k+” ^. 1oÙ §2 ùÜþÈL«AI
5éuÿÀ+¤á.
+L«ØÄ¯K´£±½+3½þ¤kk
5L«. du+ G kL«½©)¤kõØfL«
Ú, Ïd, XJ+ G zk5L«Ñ´{, @oÒr¯K8(
ïÄ+ G ¤kØL«. 31Ù §3 ·y²
k+ G 3AØUØ
|G| þzk5L«´ (= Maschke ½n). ·òrù
(Øí2;+þ. 5¿ Maschke ½ny²'´ “3 G þ²þ”. y
§5 ;+þØCÈ© · 197 ·
3;+Ñ´Ã+, g,{´ò “3 G þ²þ” ^ “3 G þÈ©”

O. 3e!·ò3;+þïá«ØCÈ©.
SK 6.4
1. G = GL n (K), V = Mn (K), ϕ ½ÂXe:

ϕ(A)X = AXA−1 ,
A ∈ GL n (K), X ∈ Mn (K).
y²: ϕ ´ÿÀ+ GL (n, K) n2 g5L«.
2. y²: ÿÀ+ G K-L« (ϕ, V ) fL«´ëY.
§5 ;+þØCÈ©
·, k.4«mþzëY¼êÑk½È©. k.4«mí2´

ÿÀm;f8. dd·ßÿ½Â3;+ G þzëY¢¼êÑkÈ
©. l½È©55Ú½5Ééu, ;+ G þëY¼êÈ©Aäk
55Ú½5, Ød , ¦äkØC5Ú55. ¦;+ G þÈ©äk
ØC5´
¦;+ G zkE (¢) 5L« (ϕ, V ), Ñk V þ
G ØCSÈ, l (ϕ, V ) ; ±9
¦;+ G kØEA
Iäk'X. ddÚÑeã½Â.
½Â 1 G ;+, XJéuz½Â3 G þëY¢¼ê f éAk
Z Z
¢ê, P f (x) dx, ¦N f 7→ f (x) dx äke5:
Z G Z G Z
(1) (a1 f1 (x) + a2 f2 (x)) dx = a1 f1 (x) dx + a2 f2 (x) dx (55);
G G G
Z
(2) XJ f ?K Øðu", @ok f (x) dx > 0 (½5);
Z Z G Z
(3) éuz g ∈ G, k f (gx) dx = f (xg) dx = f (x) dx (!mØC5);
Z G G G
(4) 1 dx = 1 (55);
G
@o·¡3;+ G þïá
ØCÈ©.
!?Ø;+ÿÀmÑ´ Hausdorff m, Ø2zg(².
~f
1. k+ G þØCÈ©de¡úª½Â
Z
1 X
f (x) dx = f (x).
G |G|
x∈G
2. 1 ¥¡ S 1 þØCÈ©de¡úª½Â
Z Z 2π
1
f (x) dx = f ( e iθ ) dθ.
S1 2π 0
3. Ï;+ SU(2) Óu S 3 , ¤3 SU(2) þØCÈ©±½Â¤3 3 ¥
¡þéuÏ~ÿÝÈ©¦± (2π2 )−1 .
· 198 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
4. G ´;+, N ´ G 5f+. âÙ §3 1nÜ©~ 8 , û+

G/N ´;+. G/N þØCÈ©U
ÏL
Z Z G þØCÈ©5½Â
f (y) dy = fe(x) dx,
G/N G
Ù¥ f ´ G/N þëY¢¼ê, fe ½Â
fe(x) := f (xN ), ∀x ∈ G.
|^ù{·U
½Â SO(3) þØCÈ©, Ï·3 [28] 1 781 ~ 5 y
²
: SO(3)∼
=SU(2)/{I, −I}.
!Ì(J´Xe½n.
½n 1 3z;+ G þ±ïáØCÈ©, k«{ïáØCÈ
©.
·òÏLAÚn5¤ù½ny².
4«m [a, b] þëY¼ê f (x) ½È©´ÏLr [a, b] ©¤eZ°, 3z
«mþ^Ý/¡ÈCqO>F/¡È, , ¦Ú!4. ddÉ
éu, ¿Ä½Â 1 ¦È©äk55ÚØC5, ·ÚÑeãVg.
f ½Â3;+ G þëY¢¼ê; A = {a1 , a2 , · · · , am } ´ G ¥
|, 3ù
¥±kÓ. -
Xm
f (xai )
M (A, f ; x) = . (1)
i=1
m
dª (1) ¤½ÂCþ x ∈ G ¼ê M (A, f ; x) (±e{P M (A, f )) ´ëY
, §´ G þØCÈ©(Ä:. du G ´;m, ¤±âÙ §2 íØ 5
M (A, f ) 3 G þÚ. ^ K(M (A, f )) L«¼ê M (A, f )
, ± L(M (A, f )) L«. - S(M (A, f )) = L(M (A, f )) − K(M (A, f )), ¡§
´¼ê M (A, f ) Ì. ëY¼ê f !!ÌÂÎÒ K(f ),
L(f ), S(f ) L«. Nýe'Xª¤á:
K(M (A, f )) > K(f ), (2)
L(M (A, f )) 6 L(f ), (3)
S(M (A, f )) 6 S(f ). (4)
Ný, e A = {a1 , a2 , · · · , am } B = {b1 , b2 , · · · , bn } G ¥ü|, K
M (A, M (B, f )) = M (AB, f ), (5)
Ù¥ AB = {ai bj |i = 1, 2, · · · , m; j = 1, 2, · · · , n} ´ G ¥|.
Ún 1 G ;+, f ´½Â3 G þ~êëY¢¼ê, K3 G ¥
3k| A, ¦
S(M (A, f )) < S(f ). (6)
y² k, l ©O¼ê f !. dK k < l. Ï f ëY, ¤

±3 G Sm8 U , ¦ x ∈ U k
k < f (x) < h < l.
§5 ;+þØCÈ© · 199 ·
/X U a−1 (a ∈ G) ¤km88ÜCX G, du G ;, ¤±3 G ¥k

| A = {a1 , a2 , · · · , am }, ¦m8| U a−1 i (i = 1, 2, · · · , m) CX G. éz x ∈ G,
−1
3 j ¦ x ∈ U aj , u´ xaj ∈ U , l f (xaj ) < h. Ïd
1
M (A, f ; x) < [(m − 1)l + h] < l.
m
ddÑ L(M (A, f )) < l. qk K(M (A, f )) > k, u´ (6) ª¤á.
ÿÀ+ G |¤ÿÀm, Ïd±?Ø½Â3 G þëY¢¼ê. ,
G +ù¯¢¦·UrëY5½nØÓ:.
G ÿÀ+, M G ,f8. ½Â3m M þ¢¼ê f 3:
a ∈ M ?ëY¿©7^´: éu?ê ε, 3 G ü V , ¦
x ∈ M, xa−1 ∈ V , ðk |f (x) − f (a)| < ε.
½Â 2 M ÿÀ+ G ,f8, f ½Â3 M þ¢¼ê. XJ
ézê ε, 3kü V , ¦ xy −1 ∈ V ¿ x, y ∈ M , ðk
|f (x) − f (y)| < ε, @o¡ f ëY¼ê.
½Â 2′ f ½Â3ÿÀ+ G f8 M þ¢¼ê. XJéuzê
ε, 3kü V ′ , ¦ x−1 y ∈ V ′ ¿ x, y ∈ M , ðk |f (x) − f (y)| <
ε, @o¡ f ëY¼ê.
'uëY¼êþãü½Â`´Ød, , 3¤k¹
e, §´d. w,, ëY¼ê´ëY¼ê.
·K 1 G ÿÀ+, M §;f8, @o½Â3 M þëY¼ê f
gÄ/´3þãü«¿ÂeëY¼ê.
y² ε ?¿ê. Ï f ëY, ¤±éu M ¥z: a 3k G
ü Va , ¦ xa−1 ∈ Va ¿ x ∈ M , k |f (x) − f (a)| < ε/2. Ï
ee = e, ¤±éu e Va , 3 e Wa , ¦ Wa Wa ⊆ Va . w,, /X
Wa a(a ∈ M ) ¤km8|¤8Ü M CX. du M ´;, ·±lù
CX¥ÀÑkm8CX M . Ïd3 M ¥k a1 , a2 , · · · , an ¦m
8| Wai ai (i = 1, 2, · · · , n) CX M . ± V L«¤km8 Wai 8, K V ´ e
. xy −1 ∈ V x, y ∈ M . Ïm8| Wai ai CX M , ¤±3ê k, ¦
ya−1
k ∈ Wak . u´ |f (y) − f (ak )| < ε/2. Ùg, ·k xak = xy
−1 −1
ya−1
k ∈ V Wak ⊆
Wak Wak ⊆ Vak , ¤± |f (x) − f (ak )| < ε/2. ddÑ |f (x) − f (y)| < ε. ùÒy²
f ´½Â 2 ¿ÂeëY¼ê. aq/y f ´½Â 2′ ¿ÂeëY¼

ê.
½Â 3 M ÿÀ+ G ,f8. ∆ ½Â3 M þ¢¼ê,
8Ü. XJéu?ê ε 3k G ü V , ¦ xy −1 ∈ V ¿
x, y ∈ M , éu ∆ ¥z¼ê f ðk |f (x) − f (y)| < ε, @o¡ ∆ ëY
¼ê|. w,3ëY¼ê|¥z¼êÑ´ëY. XJé¼ê| ∆
3ê m, ¦ x ∈ M, f ∈ ∆ , ðk |f (x)| < m, K¡ ∆ k..
½Â 4 fn (n = 1, 2, · · · ) ½Â38Ü M þ¢¼êS, f ½Â3
8Ü M þ¢¼ê. XJéuzê ε 3g,ê m, ¦ n > m ,
· 200 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
|f (x) − fn (x)| < ε éu?Û x ∈ M Ñ¤á, @o¡¼êS fn Âñu¼ê f .

½Â38Ü M þ¢¼êS fn (n = 1, 2, · · · ) Âñ¿^´: é
uzê ε 3k¿©g,ê m, ¦ p > m, q > m , |fp (x) − fq (x)| < ε
éz x ∈ M Ñ¤á.
XJëY¢¼êSÂñ, K§4¼ê´ëY¼ê.
·K 2 M ÿÀ+ G ;f8. ½Â3 M þÂñëY¢
¼êS f1 , f2 , · · · ½´ëY, ´k..
y² f S f1 , f2 , · · · 4¼ê. Ï M ´;, ¤±l f ëY
Ñ f ëY. Ïdéu?ê ε, 3k G ü V , ¦
xy −1 ∈ V ¿ x, y ∈ M , k |f (x) − f (y)| < ε/3. ,¡, dK, 3¿©
ê p, ¦ n > p , k
|f (x) − fn (x)| < ε/3, |f (y) − fn (y)| < ε/3.
−1
ddÑ, x, y ∈ M, xy ∈ V ±9 n > p , k |fn (x) − fn (y)| < ε. Ùg, ±
Vi (i = 1, 2, · · · , p) L«÷ve^ü : x, y ∈ M ¿ xy −1 ∈ Vi
, k |fi (x) − fi (y)| < ε(Ï fi ëY, ¤±§ëY). , ± U L«¤k
V, V1 , · · · , Vp 8, u´ x ∈ M, y ∈ M, xy −1 ∈ U , ðkØª
|fj (x) − fj (y)| < ε, j = 1, 2, · · · .
ÏdS f1 , f2 , · · · ´ëY. §k.5´du n > p , k |fn (x)| <
|f (x)| + ε/3, ¼ê f, f1 , f2 , · · · , fp ´k..
·K 3 G ÿÀ+, M G ;f8. ∆ ½Â38Ü M þ
k.ëY¼ê|, K3 ∆ z¼êS¥o±ÑÂñfS
.
y² ε ?ê, Vε G ¥ü , §÷v: x, y ∈ M, xy −1 ∈
Vε , f ∈ ∆ , k
|f (x) − f (y)| < ε. (7)
Ùg, ∆′ ∆ ,Ãf8, q a ∈ M . u´3 ∆′ Ãf8 ∆′a , ¦

x ∈ M, x ∈ Vε a, f ∈ ∆′a , g ∈ ∆′a , k
|f (x) − g(x)| < 3ε. (8)
′
ùÚnd: du ∆ k.5, d8Ü¥z¼ê3 a :¼êÑ½
3k.«mþ, ¤±3 ε «m I, ¦ ∆′ ¥kÃf8 ∆′a , 3 ∆′a
¥¤k¼ê3 a :¼êÑáu I. Ïd f ∈ ∆′a , g ∈ ∆′a , k
|f (a) − g(a)| < ε. (9)
′ ′
d , du (7), x ∈ M, x ∈ Vε a, f ∈ ∆a , g ∈ ∆a , k
|f (x) − f (a)| < ε, |g(x) − g(a)| < ε. (10)
l (9) Ú (10) Ñ (8).
a H M , /X Vε a ¤km8¤¤8ÜCX M . du M ;, ¤±
±l¥ÀÑkCX Vε a1 , · · · , Vε ar . dc¡¤y(J, a = a1 , ∆′ ¥
3Ãf8 ∆′a1 ÷v^ (8). Ó, 3 ∆′a1 ¥ÑÃf8 ∆′a1 ,a2 , §÷v:
§5 ;+þØCÈ© · 201 ·
x ∈ M, x ∈ Vε a2 , f ∈ ∆′a1 ,a2 , g ∈ ∆′a1 ,a2 , k

|f (x) − g(x)| < 3ε.
UYùL§, ·±8Ü ∆′a1 ,a2 ,··· ,ar , §÷v: x ∈ M, f ∈ ∆′a1 ,a2 ,··· ,ar ,
g ∈ ∆′a1 ,a2 ,··· ,ar , k
|f (x) − g(x)| < 3ε. (11)
P ∆′ε = ∆′a1 ,a2 ,··· ,ar .
y3 f1 , f2 , · · · , fn , · · · ´ ∆ ¥,¼êS. ± ∆′ L«ùS¥¤k¼
ê¤¤8Ü. bX ∆′ ´k, @o·Kw,¤á (l ∆′ ¥¼ê|¤
fS, KùfSÂñ§g). e ∆′ ´Ã8, ¿ÑÂñu"
êS ε1 , ε2 , · · · , εn , · · · . dþ¡¤y, l ∆ ¥±ÑÃf8 ∆′ε1 = ∆′1 ,
ε = ε1 , §÷v^ (11). Ó, l ∆′1 ¥±ÀÑÃf8 ∆′2 , §÷v^:
x ∈ M, f ∈ ∆′2 , g ∈ ∆′2 , k |f (x) − g(x)| < 3ε2 .
UYùL§, ·ÑS
∆′1 % ∆′2 % · · · % ∆′n % · · · ,
ù
∆′n Ñ´ ∆′ Ãf8, ÷v^:
x ∈ M, f ∈ ∆′n , g ∈ ∆′n , k
|f (x) − g(x)| < 3εn , n = 1, 2, · · · . (12)
′ ′
y3·l ∆1 ¥?¿Ñ¼ê g1 ; l ∆2 ¥?¿Ñ¼ê g2 , ØL¦ g2 3
S f1 , f2 , · · · , fn , · · · ¥eIL g1 eI; l ∆′3 ¥?¼ê g3 , Ùe
IL g2 eI; ±daí. ù¤S g1 , g2 , g3 , · · · ´SfS, d
u (12), §´÷vÂñ^.
M ;ÿÀm. XJ½Â3 M þëY¢¼êS f1 , f2 , · · ·
Âñu¼ê f , @o·k
lim K(fn ) = K(f ), lim L(fn ) = L(f ), lim S(fn ) = S(f ).
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
G ;+, 3¤k½Â3 G þëY¢¼ê|¤8Ü C(G) ¥±g
,/Ú\ål. f, g ´ G þëY¢¼ê, K |f (x) − g(x)| E´ G þëY¼
ê. du G ´;, Ïd |f (x) − g(x)| k. -
d(f, g) = max|f (x) − g(x)|,
x∈G
ý d(f, g) ÷vål¼ên^. u´ C(G) ¤Ýþm.
y3·£;+þïáØCÈ©¯K.
½Â 5 f ´½Â3;+ G þëY¢¼ê. XJ¢ê p äke5:
ézê ε 3 G k| A, ¦é? x ∈ G, k
|M (A, f ; x) − p| < ε, (13)
@o¡ù«ê p ¼ê f m²þê.
Ún 2 z½Â3;+ G þëY¢¼êÑkm²þê.
y² f G þëY¢¼ê. A G ¥?k|, ^ ∆
L«/X M (A, f ) ¤k¼ê8Ü. l'Xª (2) Ú (3) Ñ, ∆ ´k.;
·5y ∆ ´ëY.
· 202 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
Ï G ;, d f ëYíÑ f ëY. Ïdézê ε 3kü

V , ¦ xy −1 ∈ V , k |f (x) − f (y)| < ε. XJ xy −1 ∈ V , @o
(xai )(yai )−1 = xy −1 ∈ V ; ¤±k |f (xai ) − f (yai )| < ε. ddÑ
|M (A, f ; x) − M (A, f ; y)| < ε.
−1
xy ∈ V ±9 A ?¿k|, Øªo´¤á. Ïd, ∆ ´
ëY¼ê|.
^ s L« ∆ ¥¤k¼êÌe(.. 3 ∆ ¥3¼êS
f1 , f2 , · · · , fn , · · · , (14)
¦ lim S(fn ) = s. Ï ∆ ´k.ëY, â·K 3, lS (14) ¥
n→∞
±ÀÑÂñfS
g1 , g2 , · · · , gn , · · · , (15)
¿± g L«TS4. Ï lim S(gn ) = S(g), ¤± S(g) = s. ·5y g

n→∞
~¼ê, ½öy s = 0.
XJ g Ø´~¼ê, âÚn 1, 3 G k| A, ¦
S(M (A, g)) = s′ < s. (16)
′
s−s
ε= . ÏS (15) Âñu g, ¤±3g,ê k, ¦ |g(x) − gk (x)| <
3
ε, é x ∈ G. ddÑ
|M (A, g; x) − M (A, gk ; x)| < ε. (17)
′
l (16) Ú (17) Ñ S(M (A, gk )) 6 s + 2ε < s. du gk áu ∆, Ïd gk L«¤
M (B, f ), éu G ¥,k| B. u´ M (A, gk ) = M (A, M (B, f )). d'Xª
(5), ¼ê M (A, gk ) ´áu ∆ , ù ∆ ¥¤k¼êÌe(. s gñ. l
g ´~¼ê, = g(x) ≡ p.
ÏS (15) Âñu g, ¤±ézê ε 3g,ê n, ¦ |gn (x)−p| <
ε. gn ∈ ∆, Ïdézê ε 3 G ¥k| A ÷vØª (13).
f ´½Â3;+ G þëY¢¼ê; B = {b1 , b2 , · · · , bn } ´ G |.
-
Xn
′ f (bj x)
M (B, f ; x) = , (18)
j=1
n
KCþ x ∈ G #¼ê M ′ (B, f ). ±y

M (A, M ′ (B, f )) = M ′ (B, M (A, f )). (19)
XJ¢ê q äke5: éuzê ε, 3 G ¥k| B, ¦
|M ′ (B, f ; x) − q| < ε é?¿ x ∈ G Ñ¤á, K¡ q ¼ê f ²þê. z
½Â3;+ G þëY¢¼êk²þê.
y²ù:, 3 G ¥
±kÿÀ, Ú\#¦{$: a × b = ba, #ÿÀ+ G′ . ØJwÑ,
é G′ óm²þê´é G ó²þê; Ïm²þê3®y; ¤±ù
Òy²
²þê3.
§5 ;+þØCÈ© · 203 ·
Ún 3 éu½Â3;+ G þëY¢¼ê f , 3m²þê, ¿

3²þê, ùü²þê. ù¤²þê¡
¼ê f ²þê, P M (f ).
y² p ¼ê f ,m²þê, q f ,²þê. u´÷v'X
ª (13) Ú |M ′ (B, f ; x) − q| < ε. 3'Xª (13) ¥± bj x O x, U j l 1 \ n,
2Ø± n, =
|M ′ (B, M (A, f ); x) − p| < ε. (20)
aq{
|M (A, M ′ (B, f ); x) − q| < ε. (21)
l (20) !(21) Ú (19) |p − q| < 2ε. dØªéê ε Ñ¤á, ¤± p = q. Ï

dzm²þêuz²þê. ùÒ`²
f !m²þêÑk.
Ún 4 f Ú g ´½Â3;+ G þüëY¢¼ê, K
M (f + g) = M (f ) + M (g). (22)
y² Äky²éu G ¥?¿k| B = {b1 , b2 , · · · , bn }, k
M (M (B, f )) = M (f ). (23)
M (f ) = p. u´ p ´ f ²þê. éu?ê ε, 3 G ¥k| C
¦ |M ′ (C, f ; x) − p| < ε. 3d'Xª¥± xbj O x, , U j l 1 \ n, 2Ø
± n, =
|M (B, M ′ (C, f ); x) − p| < ε.
â (19),
|M ′ (C, M (B, f ); x) − p| < ε.
Ïd, p ´¼ê M (B, f ) ²þê, ¤± (23) ª¤á.

y3 M (g) = q. u´ q ´ g m²þê, é?ê ε, 3 G ¥k
| B, ¦ |M (B, g; x) − q| < ε. lùØªÑ |M (A′ , M (B, g); x) − q| < ε, Ù
¥ A′ ?¿k|. du (5) ª,
|M (A′ B, g; x) − q| < ε. (24)
du (23) ª, p ´¼ê M (B, f ) ²þê, =3 G ¥k| A, ¦
|M (A, M (B, f ); x) − p| < ε,
du (5),
|M (AB, f ; x) − p| < ε. (25)
'Xª (24) Ú (25) A′ = A Ñ

|M (AB, f + g; x) − (p + q)| < 2ε.
Ïd p + q ´¼ê f + g m²þê, ùÒy²
'Xª (22).
Ún 5 f ½Â3;+ G þëY¢¼ê, a G ¥?. -
f ′ (x) = f (xa), f ′′ (x) = f (ax), @o
M (f ′ ) = M (f ), M (f ′′ ) = M (f ).
· 204 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
y² Ï
m m
′ 1 X ′ 1 X
M (A, f ; x) = f (xai ) = f (xai a)
m i=1 m i=1
= M (Aa, f ; x), ∀x ∈ G.
¤± M (A, f ) = M (Aa, f ). dd'Xª±Ñ, ¼ê f ′ f m²þê´
′
, Ïd M (f ′ ) = M (f ). Ón, |^²þê±y² M (f ′′ ) = M (f ).

Ún 6 f ´½Â3;+ G þëY¢¼ê, ´KØðu"
, K M (f ) > 0.
y² Ï G ;, f ëY, ¤± f k.Uþe(.. À h ¦ h > 0
h u f þ(.. u´3m8 U $ G, ¦ x ∈ U k f (x) > h > 0. /
X U a−1 (a ∈ G) ¤km8|¤ G CX, du G ;, ±l¥ÀÑkCX,
=3k| A = {a1 , a2 , · · · , am }, ¦ U a−1 i (i = 1, 2, · · · , m) CX G. é
uz x ∈ G k f (x) > 0; é?Û x ∈ G, 3 k ¦ x ∈ U a−1 k , = xak ∈ U , Ï
d f (xak ) > h. l M (A, f ; x) > h/m, = M (f ) = M (M (A, f )) > h/m, ùp|^
(23) ªÚ (1) ª.
½n 1 y² éuz½Â3;+ Z G þëY¢¼ê f , ·-
f (x) dx := M (f ) (26)
Z G
È© f (x) dx ½Â.

G
k ∈ R, K
m
1 X
M (A, kf ; x) = kf (xai ) = kM (A, f ; x).
m i=1
M (f ) = p, Kéuzê ε, 3 G ¥k| A, ¦ |M (A, f ; x) − p| < ε,
é x ∈ G ¤á. l k
|M (A, kf ; x) − kp| = |k||M (A, f ; x) − p| < |k|ε.
Ïd kp ´¼ê kf m²þê, = M (kp) = kM (f ). 2dÚn 4, =È©½Â 1
¥^ (1) ¤á.
dÚn 6 ½5. dÚn 5 ØC5. w, M (1) = 1, =^ (4) ¤á.
Z ∗
bX^,{½Â
È© f (x) dx, §÷v½Â 1 ¥^ (1) — (4). ·
Z ∗ G
5y f (x) dx = M (f ).
G
p ¼ê f m²þê, u´ézê ε, 3 G ¥k| A, ¦
|M (A, f ; x) − p| < ε é x ∈ G ¤á, =
−ε < M (A, f ; x) − p < ε.
Z ∗
|^ØCÈ© f (x) dx 55Ú½5±955,
G Z ∗
−ε < M (A, f ; x) dx − p < ε,
G
§5 ;+þØCÈ© · 205 ·
Z ∗

= M (A, f ; x) dx − p < ε. |^mØC5Ú55
G
Z ∗ Z ∗Xm
f (xai )
M (A, f ; x) dx = dx
G G i=1 m
Xm Z Z ∗
1 ∗
= f (xai ) dx = f (x) dx.
i=1
m G G
Z ∗ Z ∗

u´k f (x) dx − p < ε, dudØªé?Ûê ε Ñ¤á, ¤± f (x) dx =
G G
p = M (f ). ùÒy²
G þØCÈ©5.
íØ 1 ;+ G þØCÈ©÷v
Z Z
f (x−1 ) dx = f (x) dx. (27)
G G
y² éu G þ?ëY¢¼ê
Z ∗ fZ, -
f (x) dx := f (x−1 ) dx.
Z ∗
G G
·5y f (x) dx ÷v55!½5!mØC5Ú55, l d½n 1 y

Z ∗G Z
²L§, 7k f (x) dx = f (x) dx, u´ (27) ªy.
G G
du¼ê f (x−1 ) ´¼ê f (u) ¼ê u = x−1
Z EÜ¼ê, ¿ x H G ¥ ∗
, x−1 H G ¥, ÏdNý f (x) dx äk55!½5Ú5
G
′
5. y35y§äkmØC5
Z ∗ Z ∗ . éuZ a ∈ G, f (x) Z = f (xa). ·k
′ ′ −1
f (xa) dx = f (x) dx = f (x ) dx = f (x−1 a) dx
G G G G
Z Z Z ∗
= f ((a−1 x)−1 ) dx = f (x−1 ) dx = f (x) dx,
G Z G G
Ù¥ê1Ò|^
È© f (x) dx ØC5. d½n 1 ¥®y²
Z Z G
5, = f (x−1 ) dx = f (x) dx.

G G
íØ 2 ;+ G þØCÈ©÷v
Z Z

f (x) dx 6 |f (x)| dx. (28)

G G
y² w, |f (x)| ´ G þëY¼ê. Ï |f (x)| − f (x) > 0, ¤±
Z Z Z
[|f (x)| − f (x)] dx > 0, l |f (x)| dx > f (x) dx. Ï |f (x)| + f (x) > 0,
G Z G Z G Z
¤± [|f (x)| + f (x)] dx > 0, l f (x) dx > − |f (x)| dx. Ïd (28) ª¤á.
G G G
½Â3 G þE¼ê±¤ h = f + ig, Ù¥ f g Ñ´½Â3 G þ
¢¼ê. XJ f g ÑëY, K¡ h = f + ig ëYE¼ê.
éu½Â3;+ GZ þëYE¼ê Z h = f +Z ig, ·^ª
h(x) dx := f (x) dx + i g(x) dx
G G G
· 206 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
h(x) È©½Â. Ný, ëYE¼êÈ©÷v55!ØC5!5

5±9eã'Xª
Z Z

h(x) dx 6 |h(x)| dx. (29)

G G
Z Z
·5y (29) ª. P f (x) dx = a, g(x) dx = b. ·k
G G
Z 2 Z Z

h(x) dx = a2 + b2 = a f (x) dx + b g(x) dx

G G G
Z
= [af (x) + bg(x)] dx
ZG p p
6 a2 + b2 f (x)2 + g(x)2 dx
G
p Z
= a2 + b 2 |h(x)| dx,
G
dd= (29) ª.
ëYE¼êÈ©÷v
Z Z
−1
h(x ) dx = h(x) dx, (30)
G G
Z Z
h(x) dx = h(x) dx. (31)
G G
·Ø=éCþ¼ê^È©, éüCþ¼ê^È©, ùp
7Ly², È©(JÈ©gSÃ'.
Ún 7 G H ´ü;+, f üCþ x ∈ G y ∈ H ëY¢¼
Z
ê. y ½, f Ò´ x ëY¼ê, u´kÈ© f (x, y) dx = g(y), K g ´½
G
Â3 H þëY¼ê.
y² P P = G × H, ¼ê f ±w¤Cþ z = (x, y) ∈ P ëY¼ê. Ï
+ P ´;, ¤± f 7ëY¼ê, Ïdéu?ê ε, 3k P ü
W , ¦ z ′ z −1 ∈ W , k |f (z ′ ) − f (z)| < ε. W ´¤k (x, y)
ùé¤|¤, Ù¥ x ∈ U, y ∈ V , U V + G H ü
. ÏdXJ x′ x−1 ∈ U, y ′ y −1 ∈ V , @o |f (x′ , y ′ ) − f (x, y)| < ε. AO/,
y ′ y −1 ∈ V , k |f (x, y ′ ) − f (x, y)| < ε. ddÑ
Z

|g(y ′ ) − g(y)| = [f (x, y ′ ) − f (x, y)] dx
ZG
6 |f (x, y ′ ) − f (x, y)| dx
G
Z
< ε dx = ε.
G
Ïd, g(y) ´ëY¼ê.
½n 2 G H ü;+, P §È, f üCþ x ∈ G
§6 ;+5L« · 207 ·
y ∈ H ëY¢¼ê
Z Z , f (x, y)
= f (z), = (x, y) ∈ P ,K·k
Z zZ Z
f (x, y) dx dy = f (x, y) dy dx = f (z) dz,
H ZGZ G H P
rþãÈ©P f (x, y) dx dy.

G×H
Z Z Z
y² ·5y f (x, y) dx dy = f (z) dz. d-
HZ
∗
G Z Z P
f (z) dz := f (x, y) dx dy.
Z P H G
∗
ýÈ© f (z) dz äk55, ½5, 55. e¡y§äkmØC5:
P
Z b), a ∈ G, b ∈Z H;Zu´|^Ún 7
c ∈ P, c = (a,
∗ Z Z
f (zc) dz = f (xa, yb) dx dy = f (x, yb) dx dy
P H G H G
Z Z Z ∗
= f (x, y) dx dy = f (z) dz.
H G P
duØCÈ©5, ZB
Z Z
f (x, y) dx dy = f (z) dz.
Z Z H G Z P
Óny f (x, y) dy dx = f (z) dz.

G H P
XJ+ G + H , @o¼ê f (x, y) ´½Â3 G þüCþëY¼
ê. ù/´.
SK 6.5
1. G H ü;+, P §È, f üCþ x ∈ G y ∈ H

ëYE¼ê. f (x, y) = f (z), z = (x, y) ∈ P . f (x, y) = f1 (x, y) + if2 (x, y),
Ù¥ f1 (x, y) f2 (x, y) ´üCþëY¢¼ê. y ½, ±kÈ©
Z
f (x, y) dx = g(y). y²:
G
(1) g(y) ´ H þëYE¼ê;
Z Z Z Z Z
(2) f (x, y) dx dy = f (x, y) dy dx = f (z) dz,
H G G H P
ZZ
rùÈ©P f (x, y) dx dy.
G×H
§6 ;+5L«
6.1 ;+L«5
3ù!·y²;+þzkE (½¢) 5L«Ñ´
· 208 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
. l
£±½;+ G Eê (½¢ê) þ¤kk5
L«, ÒïÄ G ¤kØL«.
£ÁL«½Â: + G 3 K þ5L« (ϕ, V ) ¡´
, XJéu V z G ØCfm U , Ñ3 V G ØCfm W ¦
V = U ⊕ W . ,éu V zfmÑ3Öm, ´ G ØCfm U
ÖmØ½´ G ØC. XJ V ´î¼m, = V þ½
SÈ, @
o V ?fm§ÖÚTÐ´ V . éu V G ØCfm U , ·
F"§Ö U ⊥ ´ G ØC, =é?¿ α ∈ U ⊥ , F"é g ∈ G k
ϕ(g)α ∈ U ⊥ , ùÒ´¦é β ∈ U k (ϕ(g)α, β) = 0. Ï U ´ G ØC, ¤
± ϕ(g −1 )β ∈ U . P β ′ = ϕ(g −1 )β, K ϕ(g)β ′ = β. l (ϕ(g)α, β) = (ϕ(g)α, ϕ(g)β ′ ).
du (α, β ′ ) = 0, XJUk (ϕ(g)α, ϕ(g)β ′ ) = (α, β ′ ), @o ϕ(g)α ∈ U ⊥ . ùL²: XJ
V þ3ùSÈ, U
¦ (ϕ(g)x, ϕ(g)y) = (x, y) é g ∈ G, x, y ∈ V
Ñ¤á, @ol U ´ G ØC±Ñ U ⊥ ½´ G ØC. l (ϕ, V ) B´
. þã5¿Xéu V þùSÈ, é g ∈ G, ϕ(g) ÑĆ
. ¡äkù5SÈ G ØCSÈ, ùL« (ϕ, V ) ¡ G L«.
nþ¤ã, `²;+ G k¢5L« (ϕ, V ) ´, '´: é
V þ G ØCSÈ, ¦ (ϕ, V ) ´L«.
½n 1 ;+ G zk¢5L« (ϕ, V ), Ñ3 V þ G Ø
CSÈ, éuùSÈ, ϕ(g) ¤C, ∀g ∈ G; l (ϕ, V ) ¤ G L
«, u´ (ϕ, V ) ´.
y² (ϕ, V ) ´;+ G k¢5L«. f ´ V þSÈ.
½ α, β ∈ V , ·5`² f (ϕ(g)α, ϕ(g)β) Ćþ g ∈ G ëY¼ê. d3 V ¥
IOÄ ε1 , ε2 , · · · , εn , α = (ε1 , ε2 , · · · , εn )X, β = (ε1 , ε2 , · · · , εn )Y .
ϕ 3ùÄeJøÝ
L«´ Φ, K
ϕ(g)α = (ε1 , ε2 , · · · , εn )Φ(g)X,
ϕ(g)β = (ε1 , ε2 , · · · , εn )Φ(g)Y.
u´
f (ϕ(g)α, ϕ(g)β) = (Φ(g)X)′ (Φ(g)Y ) = X ′ Φ(g)′ Φ(g)Y.
du ϕ ´ÿÀ+ G 5L«, ¤± ϕ Ý
´ G þëY¼ê. l
f (ϕ(g)α, ϕ(g)β) ´½Â3 G þëY¼ê, Ïd§3 G þ±È©. -
Z
fe(α, β) := f (ϕ(g)α, ϕ(g)β) dg,
G
ùÑ
V þ#¼ê. Ný§äkV55!é¡5. y35
y§äk½5: Ï f ´ V þSÈ, ¤± f (ϕ(g)α, ϕ(g)α) > 0, ¿Ò¤á
Z
e
= ϕ(g)α = 0, = α = 0, Ïd f (α, α) = f (ϕ(g)α, ϕ(g)α) dg > 0, ¿Ò¤
G
á= f (ϕ(g)α, ϕ(g)α) ðu" (∀g ∈ G), = α = 0. ¤± fe ´ V þq
§6 ;+5L« · 209 ·
SÈ. ·5y²§´ G ØC: é?¿ h ∈ G, ·k (|^È©mØC5):

Z
fe(ϕ(h)α, ϕ(h)β) = f (ϕ(g)ϕ(h)α, ϕ(g)ϕ(h)β) dg
G
Z
= f (ϕ(gh)α, ϕ(gh)β) dg
ZG
= f (ϕ(g)α, ϕ(g)β) dg = fe(α, β),
G
ùL² fe ´ G ØCSÈ, =éu V SÈ fe, é h ∈ G, ϕ(h) Ć, l
ϕ ´L«. â!1ã, (ϕ, V ) ´.
ÓnyXe½n.
½n 2 ;+ G zkE5L« (ϕ, V ), Ñ3 V þ G Ø
CSÈ,éuùSÈ, ϕ(g) ¤jC, ∀g ∈ G; d (ϕ, V ) ¡ G jL«, u
´ (ϕ, V ) ´.
6.2 'X
ù!·5?Ø;+kØEL«Ý
m'X,
AO/òAI'X. 3Ù §4 ·®Ñ: ïÄ;+kØ
EL«kåóä´ Schur Ún. y3·^Ý
ór Schur ÚnQãH.
Schur Ún Φ Ú Ψ ©O´+ G n gÚ m gØEÝ
L«.
C = (cij ) Éêþ m × n Ý
, ¦
Ψ (g)C = CΦ(g), ∀g ∈ G. (1)
(i) XJ Φ Ψ Ød, K C = 0;
(ii) XJ Φ = Ψ , K C = λI, Ù¥ λ ´,Eê.
5 Schur Ún¥ (i) éu¢ê/¤á.
n E (¢) Ý
A(g) = (aij (g)) z aij (g) ´;+ G þëY¼
Z Z
ê, ·^PÒ A(g) dg L«ùÝ
, § (i, j) aij (g) dg. N´w
G G
Ñ, e C = (cij ) ´ n E (¢) Ý
, Kk
Z Z
C · A(g) dg = C A(g) dg,
G G
Z Z
A(g)C dg = A(g) dg C.
G G
½n 3 Φ Ú Ψ ´;+ G n gÚ m gØEÝ
L«, Φ(g) =
(aij (g)), Ψ (g) = (bij (g)), ∀g ∈ G.
(i) e Φ Ψ Ød, K
Z
bij (g)alk (g −1 ) dg = 0, 1 6 i, j 6 m, 1 6 k, l 6 n. (2)
G
· 210 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
(ii) e Φ = Ψ , KZ
1
aij (g)aji (g −1 ) dg = , 1 6 i, j 6 n; (3)
n
ZG
aij (g)alk (g −1 ) dg = 0, i 6= k ½ö j 6= l. (4)
G
y² ? m × n EÝ
Z C = (cij ), -
e :=
C Ψ (g)CΦ(g)−1 dg. (5)
G
Kéu?¿ x ∈ G, ·k Z
e
Ψ (x)CΦ(x)−1
= Ψ (xg)CΦ(xg)−1 dg
G
Z
= e
Ψ (g)CΦ(g)−1 dg = C.
G
e = 0. AO/, C = Ejl , ¿5
(i) e Φ Ψ Ød, d Schur Ún (i) , C
−1 −1
¿ Φ(g) = Φ(gZ ), ·
bij (g)alk (g −1 ) dg = 0, 1 6 i 6 m, 1 6 k 6 n.
G
du j 1, 2, · · · , m, l 1, 2, · · · , n, Ïd (2) ª¤á.
(ii) e Φ = Ψ , d Schur Ún (ii) , C e = λI, Ù¥ λ ´,Eê.
û½
λ, 3 Ce = λI ü>,
X n Z
e
λn = tr (C) = [Φ(g)CΦ(g)−1 ]ii dg
i=1 G
Z (X
n
)
−1
= [Φ(g)CΦ(g) ]ii dg
G i=1
Z
= tr (Φ(g)CΦ(g)−1 ) dg
G
Z
= tr (C) dg = tr (C),
G
1
dd= λ = tr (C). C = Ejl (1 6 j, l 6 n), aqu (i) ¥O¿5¿
n
tr (Ejl ) = δjl , · Z
1
aij (g)alk (g −1 ) dg = δjl δik . (6)
G n
dd= (3) Ú (4) ª.
5 ½n 3 (i) éu¢ê/¤á.
íØ 1 Φ Ψ ©O´;+ G n gÚ m gØjÝ
L«, Φ(g) =
(aij (g)), Ψ (g) = (bij (g)), ∀g ∈ G.
(i) e Φ ΨZ Ød, K
bij (g)akl (g) dg = 0, 1 6 i, j 6 m, 1 6 k, l 6 n; (7)
G
(ii) e Φ = Ψ ,ZK
1
aij (g)akl (g) dg = δjl δik , 1 6 i, j, k, l 6 n. (8)
G n
§6 ;+5L« · 211 ·
y² Ï Φ(g) ´jÝ
, ¤± Φ(g)−1 = Φ(g)′ . l aij (g −1 ) = aji (g), 1 6
i, j 6 m. d½n 3 =(Ø.
½n 4 ϕ ψ ´;+ G ükØEL«, χϕ , χψ ©O´§
JøAI.
(i) e ϕ ψ Ød, K Z
χψ (g)χϕ (g) dg = 0; (9)
G
(ii) e ϕ = ψ, K
Z
χϕ (g)χϕ (g) dg = 1. (10)
G
y² ϕ, ψ JøjÝ
L«©O Φ, Ψ .
(i) e ϕ ψ
Z Ød, Kd½n Z3
χψ (g)χϕ (g) dg = χψ (g)χϕ (g −1 ) dg
G G
Z X
m n
X
= bii (g) · ajj (g −1 ) dg
G i=1 j=1
m X
X n Z
= bii (g)ajj (g −1 ) dg = 0.
i=1 j=1 G
(ii) e ϕ = ψ, K·k
Z n Z
n X
X
χϕ (g)χϕ (g) dg = aii (g)ajj (g −1 ) dg
G i=1 j=1 G
Xn Z
= aii (g)aii (g −1 ) dg = 1.
i=1 G
íØ 2 ϕ ψ ´;+Z G ØdkØ¢L«, K
χψ (g)χϕ (g) dg = 0.
G
y² ½n 4 (i) y{.
·^ C(G, C) L«;+ G þ¤këYE¼ê|¤8Ü, w,§É
5m. éu f1 , f2 ∈ C(G, C), ·½Â
Z
(f1 , f2 ) := f1 (x)f2 (x) dx, (11)
G
ýùÉ5m C(G, C) SÈ. du;+ G þEL«Ý
´
ëY¼ê, Ïd|^ (11) ª½ÂSÈPÒ±r½n 3 Ú½n 4 QãXe.
½n 3′ ϕ ψ ©O´;+ G n gÚ m gØEL«, §Jø
jÝ
L«©OP Φ Ψ . Φ(g) = (aij (g)), Ψ (g) = (bij (g)).
(i) e ϕ ψ Ød, K
(bij , akl ) = 0, 1 6 i, j 6 m, 1 6 k, l 6 n;
(χψ , χϕ ) = 0.
· 212 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
(ii) e ϕ = ψ, K
1
(aij , akl ) = δjl δik , 1 6 i, j, k, l 6 n;
n
(χϕ , χϕ ) = 1.
′
d½n 3 wÑ, ;+ G ¤kpØdkØEL«JøAI
|¤8Ü Irr (G, C) ÉSÈm C(G, C) 58. ;+ G ¤kpØ
dkØEL«jÝ
|¤8Ü ∆ ´ C(G, C) 8, l §
´5Ã', ¿ G ØEL« ϕ jÝ
aij (1 6 i, j 6 n) ÷v
1
(aij , aij ) = ,
n
Ù¥ n ´ ϕ gê.
aq/, ;+ G þ¤këY¢¼ê|¤8Ü, P C(G, R), ´¢5m.
½Â Z
(f1 , f2 ) := f1 (x)f2 (x) dx, ∀f1 , f2 ∈ C(G, R),
G
ýù´ C(G, R) SÈ. u´íØ 2 ±Qã¤: ϕ ψ ´;+ G

ØdkØ¢L«, K (χψ , χϕ ) = 0, u´ Irr (C, R) ´¢SÈm
C(G, R) 8.
|ÂI'X, ·±
(J.
·K 1 G ´;+, ϕ ´ G ?kEL«, ϕi ´ G ?kØ
EL«, K ϕi 3 ϕ ¥êu (χϕ , χi ), Ù¥ χi ´ ϕi JøAI.
y² ϕ ≈ m1 ϕ1 +̇m2 ϕ2 +̇ · · · +̇ms ϕs , Ù¥ ϕ1 , ϕ2 , · · · , ϕs ´ G
*d
ØdØEL«. dd
χϕ = m 1 χ1 + m 2 χ2 + · · · + m s χs ,
3dªü>^ χi SÈ
(χϕ , χi ) = mi .
½n 5 ;+ G ükEL«d¿©7^´§JøA
IÓ.
y² 75´w,.
¿©5. ϕ Ú ψ ´ G ükEL«. XJ χϕ = χψ , Kéu G z
kØEL« ϕi k (χϕ , χi ) = (χψ , χi ). l ϕ ≈ ψ.
½n 6 ;+ G kEL« ϕ Ø¿©7^´ (χϕ , χϕ ) = 1.
y² 75. d½n 4 .
¿©5. χϕ = m1 χ1 + · · · + ms χs , {χ1 , χ2 , · · · , χs } ⊆ Irr (G, C). dK¿
s
X
|^·K 1 , 1 = (χϕ , χϕ ) = m2i . u´3 l ¦ ml = 1, Ù{
i=1
mi = 0. Ïd ϕ ≈ ϕl .
½n 7 ;+ G ük¢L«d¿©7^´§JøA
IÓ.
§6 ;+5L« · 213 ·
y² Iy¿©5. ϕ, ψ ´ G k¢L«, ¿÷v χϕ = χψ .

s
X s
X
χϕ = m i χ i , χψ = m′i χi , Ù¥ {χ1 , χ2 , · · · , χs } ⊆ Irr (G, R). u´k (χϕ , χj ) =
i=1 i=1
mj (χj , χj ), (χψ , χj ) = m′j (χj , χj ). l mj = m′j . ¤± ϕ ≈ ψ.
31oÙ §2 ·®Ñ+ G üAI¦ÈEÁI. k+ G ¤k
kØE (¢) AIXê5|Ü/¤8Ü, P char (G, C)( char (G,
R)), ´ C(G, C)(C(G, R)) f, §ü ´ G ÌAI, ¡ùf´ G
2ÂAI. char (G, C)( char (G, R)) µ ´ G AI= µ ´
Irr (G, C)( Irr (G, R)) ¥KXê5|Ü. ù
(Øéu;+¤á, Ù
¥5|Üþn)¤kõØAI5|Ü.
6.3 ØL«|5, Peter-Weyl ½n

3þ!·QÑ, ;+ G ¤k*dØdkØEL«j
Ý
|¤8Ü ∆ ´ G þ¤këYE¼ê|¤ESÈm C(G, C) (Ù
SÈdþ! (11) ª½Â) 8, ¿?¿ùÝ
gCS
1
Èu , Ù¥ n ´éAØL«gê.
n
ù!·?ÚÑ, ∆ ´ C(G, C) 8. e¡kÑ “5”
½Â.
½Â 1 G ´;+, ESÈm C(G, C) ê½k8 f1 ,
f2 , · · · ¡´, XJ§)¤5fmìdSÈ¤½ÂÿÀ (Ï
k
SÈ, Ò½Âål, l C(G, C) ¤Ýþm) 3 C(G, C) ¥´È, =
C(G, C) ¥z f ±L«¤ Fourier ?ê:
X (f, fk )
f= ak fk , Ù¥ ak = , (12)
(fk , fk )
k
d¡ f1 , f2 , · · · ´ C(G, C) Ä.
~ 1 {üÃ;+~f´ 1 ¥¡ S 1 = {z ∈ C| |z| = 1}. Ï§´
Abel +, ¤±§ØEL«Ñ´ 1 g. w,, ϕn : z 7→ z n ´ S 1 1 gE
L«, Ù¥ n ∈ Z. Ïd S 1 kÃõØEL«. ¼ê ϕn (n = 0, ±1, ±2, · · · )
)¤5fmd¤k±L«¤ z Ú z õª¼ê|¤8Ü W
(5¿|^ z = z −1 ). du S 1 ´ R2 ;f8, l S 1 ´ R2 k.4f
8, Ïdâ!ÖáíØ 2 , W 3ESÈm C(S 1 , C) ¥È. ùy²
ϕn (n = 0, ±1, ±2, · · · ) ´ C(S 1 , C) 8. qâþ!, §´8.

u´|^ (12) ª, ϕn (n = 0, ±1, ±2, · · · ) ´ S 1 ÜØEL«. 3Ù §7
·K 4 y²
ϕn (n = 0, ±1, ±2, · · · ) ´ S 1 ÜØEL«.
/, ·ke¡(J.
½n 8 G ´;+, K G ¤k*dØdkØEL«jÝ
|¤8Ü ∆ ÉSÈm C(G, C) 8. ?¿ù

1
Ý
gCSÈu , Ù¥ n ´éAØL«gê.
n
· 214 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
5®²3½n 3′ ¥y², ey´5. ½n 8 5Ü©¡

Peter-Weyl ½n, ·3Ù §9 ½n 26 Ñ
Peter-Weyl ½ny². (Ùy
²ëw [12] 1 246 — 250 . , , [3] 1 82 — 83, éu;5+y²
½n 8 5Ü©.)
aq/, ·kXe½n.
½n 9 G ´;+, K G ¤k*dØdkØEL«AI
|¤8Ü Irr (G, C) ´ G ëYa¼êm (ESÈm C(G, C) fm)
58.
½n 9 55Ü©®3½n 3′ ¥y², 5Ü©y²ëw [12]
1 251 — 253 .
Peter-Weyl ½níØ, ke¡(J.
íØ 3 éu;+ G zü a, 3 G kØEÝ
L« Φ, ¦ Φ(a) Ø´ü Ý
.
y² ^y{. bXùíØØ¤á, K3 G ü a, ¦éu
G zkØEÝ
L« Φ Ñk Φ(a) uü Ý
, u´ Φ(a) = Φ(e),
Ù¥ e ´ G ü . Ïdéu ∆ ¥¤k¼ê Φij Ñk Φij (a) = Φij (e). Ï
a 6= e, âÙ §8 Urysohn Ún, 3 G þëY¼ê f , ¦ f (a) 6= f (e).
´â Peter-Weyl ½n, ∆ 3 C(G, C) ¥´, l Ñ f (a) = f (e), gñ.
l½n 8 ±e¡(J.
½n 10 G Ã;+, K G ¤k*dØdkØEL«
|¤8ÜÄêuÿÀm G .
y² â [12] 1 232 ~ 53, ;+ G þ¼ê8ÄêØLÿ
Àm G . â [12] 1 253 ~ 57, ; Hausdorff m R þ¼
ê8ÄêØuTm R . â½n 8, ;+ G ¤k*dØdk
ØEL«jÝ
|¤8Ü ∆ ÉSÈm C(G, C) 8, Ï
d, ∆ ÄêuÿÀm G . l~ 57 y²L§¥, du G ´Ã,
Ïd8Ü ∆ ´Ã. l G ¤k*dØdkØEL«|¤
8Ü´Ã (ÄK, ∆ ò´k8), u´T8ÜÄêu8Ü ∆ Äê,
ÒúÿÀm G .
6.4 SU(2) Ú SO(3) ØEL«
ù!·5E SU(2) Ú SO(3) ÜØdkØEL«.

Vn ´üØ½ x Ú y n gàgõª|¤E5m. ÄÿÀ+
SL(2, C) ÿÀ+ GL (Vn ) N Φn :
Φn : SL(2, C) → GL (Vn ),
A 7→ Φn (A),
§6 ;+5L« · 215 ·
Ù¥
(Φn (A)f )(x, y) = f ((x, y)A)
= f (a11 x + a21 y, a12 x + a22 y), (13)
ùp f ∈ Vn , A = (aij ). Ný Φn (A) ´ Vn 5C¿´_ (Ï
Φn (A)Φn (A−1 ) = Φn (A−1 )Φn (A) = 1Vn ), ¤± Φn ´ SL(2, C) GL (Vn ) N
. ý Φn (AB) = Φn (A)Φn (B), ¤± Φn ´ SL(2, C) GL (Vn )+Ó.
y² Φn ´ÿÀ+ SL(2, C) ÿÀ+ GL (Vn ) Ó, ey² Φn ´ëYN

. d·kw Vn êÚÄ: Ï Vn ¥? f ±¤
Xn
f (x, y) = bk xk y n−k , (14)
k=0
¿ x0 y n , x1 y n−1 , · · · , xn y 0 ´5Ã', ¤±
x0 y n , x1 y n−1 , · · · , xk y n−k , · · · , xn y 0 (15)
´ Vn Ä, l Vn ´ n + 1 . Ä Φn (A) 3Ä (15) eÝ
, du
Φn (A)(xk y n−k ) = (a11 x + a21 y)k (a12 x + a22 y)n−k , (16)
Ïd Φn Ý
´ a11 , a12 , a21 , a22 õª, l ´ SL(2, C) þëY¼ê.
ùÒy²
Φn ´ÿÀ+ SL(2, C) L«. Ä Φn 3f+ SU(2) þ, K
SU(2) L«, E^ÓÎÒ Φn .
½n 11 SU(2) þãL« Φn (n = 0, 1, 2, · · · ) ´Ø.
y² 3Ù §3 1nÜ©~ 7 ¥·®Ñ SU(2) ?kXe/
ª
!
α β
, |α|2 + |β|2 = 1. (17)
−β α
Ä SU(2) ¥déÝ
!
α 0
A(α) = , |α| = 1, α ∈ C (18)
0 α
|¤f+ L. ·Äk5û½ Vn 3f+ L eØCfm. O
Φn (A(α))xk y n−k = (αx)k (αy)n−k = α2k−n xk y n−k . (19)
k n−k
l (19) ªwÑ, Vn Ä (15) zþ x y ´5C Φn (A(α)) Aþ,
∀A(α) ∈ L. ¤±z hxk y n−k i ´ Vn 3 L e 1 ØCfm, k = 0, 1, · · · , n. u
´ Vn ´ù n + 1 1 L-ØCfmÚ. Ný L 3ù
1 ØCfm
þfL«´üüØd. ·äó, Vn ?¿ L-ØCfm U ½´þ
ã,
1 L-ØCfmÚ. ndXe: du U ´, l U ´
4
ØCfmÚ. ÏdÄ U ´4ØCfm/. Pk ´ U 3
hxk y n−k i þÝK, ý Pk ´Ø C[L]- U Ø C[L]- hxk y n−k i
Ó. â1Ù §4 Ún 1, XJ U hxk y n−k i Ø´Ó, K Pk = 0. 5¿
hxk y n−k i(k = 0, 1, · · · , n) ´üüØÓ, ¿§Ú´m Vn , Ï
d U TÐ,, X` hxy n−1 i Ó, Ù{ Pk = 0(k = 0, 2, · · · , n). Ïd
· 216 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
U = hxy n−1 i. ùy²

: Vn ?¿ L-ØCfm U ½´,
hxk y n−k i
Ú.
y3 W ´ Vn ?¿" SU(2)-ØCfm. §,´ L-ØCf
r n−r
m. âþã ! , W ¹,fm hx y i. ? SU(2) ¥éÝ
α β
A= , Ù¥ α 6= 0 ¿ β 6= 0, ·k
−β α
f := Φn (A)xr y n−r = (αx − βy)r (βx + αy)n−r ,
f ¥ αr β n−r xn Xê αr β n−r 6= 0. Ï W ´ SU(2)-ØCfm, ¤±
f ∈ W . du W ´
/X hxk y n−k i fmÚ, Q, f ∈ W ¿ f k
αr β n−r xn , Ïd W ¹fm hxn i. aq/, ·Ä
n
X
g := Φn (A)xn = (αx − βy)n = Cnk αk (−β)n−k xk y n−k , (20)
k=0
Ï g ∈ W ¿¤kXê Cnk αk (−β)n−k 6= 0, ¤± W ¹fm hxk y n−k i(k =
0, 1, · · · , n), = W = Vn . ùy²
Φn Ø.
|^ SU(2) þãXØEL« Φn (n = 0, 1, · · · ), ± SO(3)
XØEL«. dI|^·3 [28] 1 781 ~ 5 y²(Ø: SU(2)
SO(3) k÷Ó, ÓØ´ {±I}, Ù¥ I ´ 2 ü Ý
, u´keã
+Ó:
SO(3) ∼
= SU(2)/{±I}. (21)
l [28] 1 781 ~5 y²L§  ,SU(2) SO(3) Ó Φ

ϕ
i cos ϕ − sin ϕ 0
e 2 0   
bϕ = 
 ϕ  →
7 B ϕ = 
 sin ϕ cos ϕ 0  ,
−i
0 e 2 0 0 1
   
θ θ 1 0 0
cos i sin

cθ =  2 2  7→ C =  
 0 cos θ − sin θ  ,
 θ  
θ θ
i sin cos 0 sin θ cos θ
2 2
bϕ cθ bψ 7→ Bϕ Cθ Bψ .
â [28] 1 778 ~ 3 , SU(2) ?/¤ bϕ cθ bψ ù«/ª,
Ù¥ 0 6 θ 6 π, 0 6 ϕ < 2π, 0 6 ψ < 2π. N´wÑ: N ϕ 7→ bϕ , θ 7→ cθ Ñ´ëYm
N, l N bϕ 7→ ϕ, cθ 7→ θ ´mN, ´ëYN. aq/, ϕ 7→ Bϕ , θ 7→ Cθ
´ëYmN. Ïdþã üaNÜ¤ bϕ 7→ Bϕ , cθ 7→ Cθ ´ëYmN. u
´ SU(2) SO(3) Ó Φ ´÷mÓ. ÏdâÙ §3 ½n 4 , ÿÀ
+ SO(3) ÿÀ+ SU(2)/{±I} Ó. u´l SU(2)/{±I} ØEL«
SO(3) ØEL«.
¦ SU(2)/{±I} ØEL«, ·l SU(2) þ
ãØEL« Φn (n = 0, 1, 2, · · · ) ÏLé5f+ N = {±I} ©). d
¦ Ker Φn ⊇ {±I}. du
(Φn (−I)f )(x, y) = f ((x, y)(−I)) = f (−x, −y) = (−1)n f (x, y),
§6 ;+5L« · 217 ·
Ïd
−I ∈ Ker Φn ⇐⇒ n óê.
u´k Φ2m (m = 0, 1, 2, · · · ) âUé5f+ N {±I} ©) SU(2)/{±I} Ø

EL«. P N = {±I}. -
Φ 2m (AN ) = Φ2m (A), ∀A ∈ SU(2),
K Φ 2m (m = 0, 1, 2, · · · ) ´ SU(2)/{±I} ØEL«.
â [28] 1 778 ~ 4, SO(3) ?L«¤ Bϕ Cθ Bψ ù«/
ª, Ù¥ Bϕ , Cθ 3c¡®Ñ. u´ SO(3) SU(2)/{±I} ÓN:
Bϕ Cθ Bψ 7→ (bϕ cθ bψ )N . dùÓN Φ 2m Ü¤B SO(3) Ø
EL« Ψ2m :
Ψ2m (Bϕ Cθ Bψ ) = Φ2m (bϕ cθ bψ ), (22)
m = 0, 1, 2, · · ·
e¡·5y²Xe½n.
½n 12 SU(2) þãØEL« Φn (n = 0, 1, 2, · · · ) ´ SU(2) ÜØ
dkØEL«. l SO(3) þãØEL« Ψ2m (m = 0, 1, 2, · · · ) ´
SO(3) ÜØdkØEL«.
y² XJ·Uy² SU(2) ØEL« Φn (n = 0, 1, 2, · · · ) JøA
I χn (n = 0, 1, 2, · · · ) |¤ SU(2) ëYa¼êm8, @o SU(2) z
ØEL«½du Φn (n = 0, 1, 2, · · · ) ¥, (éu§AIA^
(12) ª), l ½n 12 òy. 5d!½n 3′ , ey5.
Äk, ·5y SU(2) ?a¼ê f §3déÝ
A(α) |¤f+ L
þû½, ¿
f (A(α)) = f (A(α−1 )).
? B ∈ SU(2). Ï? 2 jÝ

½jquéÝ
, ÙÌé
e iθk (k = 1, 2), ¤±3jÝ
T1 ¦
T1−1 BT1 = diag { e iθ1 , e iθ2 }.
Ï det B = 1, ¤± det(T1−1 BT1 ) = 1, = e iθ1 · e iθ2 = 1, dd e iθ2 = e− iθ1 . P
1
α = e iθ1 , K T1−1 BT1 = diag {α, α−1 } = A(α). - T = (det T1 )− 2 T1 , K det T = 1,
′
¿k T T = I. Ïd T ∈ SU(2). w,k
T −1 BT = T1−1 BT1 = A(α).
Ïd B A(α) 3 SU(2) ÓÝa¥. du f á¼ê, Ïd f (B) = f (A(α)).
ùy²
SU(2) ?a¼ê f §3 L þû½. Ï
!−1 ! ! !
0 1 α 0 0 1 α−1 0
= ,
1 0 0 α−1 1 0 0 α
¤± diag {α, α−1 } diag {α−1 , α} 3 SU(2) ÓÝa¥. Ïd f (A(α)) =
f (A(α−1 )).
· 218 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
Ùg, ·5O SU(2) ØEL« Φn AI χn 3 L þ.

A(α) = diag {α, α}, α ∈ C, |α| = 1. â (19) ª,
X n n
X αn+1 − α−(n+1)
χn (A(α)) = α2k−n = α−n α2k = . (23)
α − α−1
k=0 k=0
-
ξn (α) = χn (A(α)), α ∈ C, |α| = 1. (24)
w,k ξn (α) = χn (A(α)) = χn (A(α)) = ξn (α).

^ W L«½Â3 1 ¥¡ S 1 þ¤k÷veü^¼ê ξ |¤8
Ü: ξ L«¤ α α õª, ¿ ξ(α) = ξ(α). w, W Éêþ5
m. Ï
ξ0 (α) = 1, ξ1 (α) = α + α,
ξ2 (α) = α2 + α2 + 1, ξ3 (α) = (α2 + α2 )(α + α), (25)
············
¤± hξ0 , ξ1 , ξ2 , · · · i ⊆ W . du W ¥ ξ ´ α Ú α õª¿÷v ξ(α) = ξ(α),
Ïd ξ ´ α Ú α é¡õª. âé¡õªÄ½n, 3 2 õª
g(y1 , y2 ) ¦ ξ(α, α) = g(α + α, αα). 5¿ α + α = ξ1 (α), αα = ξ0 (α), Ïdl (25)
ª´Ñ ξ ∈ hξ0 , ξ1 , ξ2 , · · · i(5¿l (25) ªÑ: ξ12 = ξ2 + ξ0 , ξ13 = ξ3 + 2ξ1 , · · · ).
ùy²
: W = hξ0 , ξ1 , ξ2 , · · · i, = W ξ0 , ξ1 , ξ2 , · · · )¤5fm.
â!ÖáíØ 2 , S 1 þ¤k÷v h(α) = h(α) ëY¼ê|¤m
C0 (S 1 , C) ¥?d W ¥%C, Ïd W 3m C0 (S 1 , C) ¥È
. l ξ0 , ξ1 , ξ2 , · · · ´ C0 (S 1 , C) 8.
SU(2) þ?ëYa¼ê f 3f+ L þ f (A(α)) ´ S 1 þëY¼ê
¿÷v f (A(α)) = f (A(α)), Ïd f (A(α)) ∈ C0 (S 1 , C). qdu ξn (α) = χn (A(α)),
¤±lþã, f (A(α)) ±d hχ0 (A(α)), χ1 (A(α)), χ2 (A(α)), · · · i ¥
%C. qdu SU(2) þ?a¼ê§3f+ L þû½, Ïd f ±
d hχ0 , χ1 , · · · i ¥%C. ùy²
χ0 , χ1 , χ2 , · · · ´ SU(2) ëYa¼ê
m¥8.
â1Ù §5 ·K 2 , Φ 2m (m = 0, 1, 2, · · · ) ´ SU(2)/{±I} ÜØ
dØEL«. u´ Ψ2m (m = 0, 1, 2, · · · ) ´ SO(3) ÜØdØE
L«.
Öá
õª¼êäkNõÐ5, ~X, N´¦ê, N´È©, 3kõ:þ

¼ê 0, . Ïd·F"éu?k.4«m [a, b] þëY¢¼ê f (t)
U
^õª¼ê%C, =? ε > 0, 3õª¼ê p, ¦
|f (t) − p(t)| < ε, ∀t ∈ [a, b]. (1)
§6 ;+5L« · 219 ·
d/, 3õª¼êS p1 , p2 , · · · , §3 [a, b] þÂñ f .

y²ù
U, kyA½nÚÚn.
d R þõª p(x) = x põª¼ê¡ð¼ê, P 1 R , =
1 R (t) = t, ∀t ∈ R.
½n 1 (fn ) ´k.4«m I þëY¢¼êS, ¿ (fn ) ´üN
S (=½ö fn (t) 6 fn+1 (t), ∀n ∈ N, t ∈ I; ½ö fn (t) > fn+1 (t), ∀n ∈ N, t ∈ I). X
J (fn ) :ªÂñëY¼ê f , @o (fn ) 3 I þÂñ f .
y² e (fn ) ´üNþ,¼êS, - gn = f − fn ; e (fn ) ´üNeü,
- gn = fn − f . K (gn ) ´üNeüëY¼êS, lim gn (t) = 0, ∀t ∈ I.
n→∞
·5y² (gn ) 3 I þÂñ 0, ùdu {fn } 3 I þÂñ f .
Mn = sup{gn (t)|t ∈ I}. N´wÑ, Mn+1 6 Mn , ∀n ∈ N. (gn ) Âñ 0 d
u lim Mn = 0. du4«mþëY¢¼êU, Ïd3 tn ∈ I ¦
n→∞
gn (tn ) = Mn . â Bolzano-Weierstrass ½n, éuk.ê (tn ) 73f
(tnk ) Âñ, t∗ ∈ I. du lim gn (t∗ ) = 0, Ïd3 m ∈ N∗ ¦é
n→∞
n > m Ñk gn (t∗ ) < ε. Ï gm (t) ´ëY¼ê, ¤±3 t∗ U , ¦
gm (t) < ε, ∀t ∈ U . ÀJ k ¦ tnk ∈ U , nk > m, K gnk (tnk ) 6 gm (tnk ) < ε, =
Mnk < ε. ddÑ, Mn < ε, ∀n > nk . u´ lim Mn = 0. l (gn ) 3 I þÂ
n→∞
ñ 0.
½n 2 f ´k.4«m I þëY¢¼ê, K f 3 I þ´ëY.
y² bX f 3 I þØ´ëY, K3 ε > 0, ¦éuz δ > 0 Ñ
k s, t ∈ I |s − t| < δ, ´ |f (s) − f (t)| > ε. AO/, éz n ∈ N∗ 3
1
sn , tn ∈ I ¦ |sn − tn | < |f (sn ) − f (tn )| > ε. â Bolzano-Weierstrass ½n,
n
éuk.ê (sn ) kÂñf (snk ). du I ´4«m, Ïd lim snk = s ∈ I.
k→∞
1 1
du |tnk − snk | < < , Ïd lim tnk = s. du f 3 s ?ëY, Ïdéuþ
nk k k→∞
ã ε, 3 δ1 > 0, ¦éu t ∈ I |t − s| < δ1 , Ñk |f (t) − f (s)| < ε. du

lim snk = s, Ïd3 k0 ¦éuz k > k0 , Ñk |snk − s| < δ1 . ddÑ,
k→∞
|f (snk ) − f (s)| < ε, ∀k > k0 . l lim f (snk ) = f (s). Ón lim f (tnk ) = f (s). ù
k→∞ k→∞
|f (snk ) − f (tnk )| > ε gñ. Ïd f 3 I þëY.
½n 3 f ´k.4«m I þëY¢¼ê, Kéu? ε > 0, 3©ã
5ëY¼ê g, ¦
|f (t) − g(t)| < ε, ∀t ∈ I.
y² du f ´k.4«m I þëY¢¼ê, Ïdâ½n 2 , f 3 I

þëY. l éu? ε > 0, 3 δ > 0, ¦ s, t ∈ I |s − t| < δ, Òk
|f (s) − f (t)| < ε.
· 220 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
b−a
b I = [a, b], ÀJê n > ,-
δ
k
xk = a + (b − a), k = 0, 1, 2, · · · , n.
n
u´ a = x0 < x1 < x2 < · · · < xn = b,
b−a
xk − xk−1 = < δ, 1 6 k 6 n.
n
½Â g ´©ã5¼ê¦ g(xk ) = f (xk ), 0 6 k 6 n, =-
f (xk ) − f (xk−1 )
g(t) = f (xk−1 ) + (t − xk−1 )
xk − xk−1
xk − t t − xk−1
= f (xk−1 ) + f (xk ) ,
xk − xk−1 xk − xk−1
éu xk−1 6 t 6 xk , 1 6 k 6 n. y3éu? t ∈ I, 3, k ¦ t ∈ [xk−1 , xk ].
e f (xk ) > f (xk−1 ), K f (xk−1 ) 6 g(t) 6 f (xk ); e f (xk ) 6 f (xk−1 ), K f (xk ) 6
g(t) 6 f (xk−1 ). âëY¼ê¥m½n, 3 s ∈ [xk−1 , xk ], ¦ f (s) = g(t). d
u s − t 6 xk − xk−1 < δ, Ïd |f (s) − f (t)| < ε. l
|g(t) − f (t)| < ε, ∀t ∈ I.
Ún 1 3õª¼êS (qn ), §3 [−1, 1] þÂñ |1 R |.
y² q0 = 1, 8B/½Â
1
qn+1 = (12R + 2qn − qn2 ), n > 0. (2)
2
w,, z qn ´õª¼ê. XJ |t| 6 qn (t) 6 1, ∀t ∈ [−1, 1], @o ∀t ∈ [−1, 1], k
1 1
qn (t) − qn+1 (t) = [qn2 (t) − 12R (t)] = [qn2 (t) − t2 ] > 0,
2 2
1 2
qn+1 (t) − |t| = [t − 2|t| + 2qn (t) − qn2 (t)]
2
1
= [(1 − |t|)2 − (1 − qn (t))2 ] > 0,
2
l k
|t| 6 qn+1 (t) 6 qn (t) 6 1, ∀t ∈ [−1, 1]. (3)
du q0 = 1, Ïd |t| 6 q0 (t) 6 1. l n = 0 ,(3) ª¤á. ^êÆ8B{y

, é n ∈ N, k
|t| 6 qn+1 (t) 6 qn (t), ∀t ∈ [−1, 1]. (4)
?¿½ t ∈ [−1, 1], (4) ªL² (qn (t)) ´üNeüke.ê, Ïd (qn (t)) Â
ñ. lim qn (t) = q(t). 3 (2) ªü>- n → ∞, 4
n→∞
1
q(t) = [t2 + 2q(t) − q 2 (t)], t ∈ [−1, 1].
2
ddÑ q 2 (t) = t2 , t ∈ [−1, 1]. du q(t) > 0, Ïd q(t) = |t|, t ∈ [−1, 1]. l
q = |1 R |. du (qn ) ´3 [−1, 1] þëY¢¼êS, (qn ) ´üNeüS,
Ïdâ½n 1 , (qn ) 3 [−1, 1] þÂñ |1 R |.
Ún 2 ? c ∈ R, 3õª¼êS (pn ), §3?k.4«m [a, b] þ
Âñ¼ê f , Ù¥ f (t) = |t − c|.
§6 ;+5L« · 221 ·

y² âÚn 1, éuz n ∈ N∗ , kõª¼ê qn ¦ qn (t) − |t| <
1
, ∀t ∈ [−1, 1]. -
n2
t−c
pn (t) = nqn ,
n
K

pn (t) − |t − c| = nqn t − c − |t − c| = n qn t − c − t − c .
n n n
∀t ∈ [a, b], k |t| 6 max{|a|, |b|}. P r = max{|a|, |b|}. K n > r+|c| > |t|+|c| > |t−c|

t − c
, < 1, l k
n

pn (t) − |t − c| < 1 , ∀t ∈ [a, b].
n
ddÑ, õª¼êS (pn ) 3 [a, b] þÂñ¼ê f , Ù¥ f (t) = |t − c|.
k.4«m [a, b] þ¤këY¢¼ê|¤8ÜP C([a, b]).
½n 4 (Weierstrass õª%C½n) õª¼ê3ÿÀm C([a, b]) ¥´
È, =éuk.4«m [a, b] þ?ëY¢¼ê f , ? ε > 0, 3õ
ª¼ê p, ¦ |p(t) − f (t)| < ε, ∀t ∈ [a, b]; d/, 3õª¼êS (pn ), 3
[a, b] þÂñ f .
y² V ´ R þäkeã5¤k¢¼ê f |¤8Ü: ? ε > 0,
3õª¼ê p, ¦ |f (t) − p(t)| < ε, ∀t ∈ [a, b]. ý V éu¼ê\{
Ú¢ê¼êêþ¦{¤¢5m.
1
éu?¿ u ∈ R, - u+ = (u + |u|). ? c ∈ R, âÚn 2, ¼ê h(t) =
2
|t − c| ∈ V . w,¼ê k(t) = t − c ∈ V . u´¼ê l(t) = (t − c)+ ∈ V .
g ´ [a, b] þ©ã5ëY¼ê, K3 [a, b] y© {[c0 , c1 ),
[c1 , c2 ), · · · , [cn−1 , cn ]}, Ù¥, c0 = a, cn = b, ±9 kj ∈ R, j = 1, 2, · · · , n, ¦
g(t) = f (cj−1 ) + kj (t − cj−1 ), ∀t ∈ [cj−1 , cj ], j = 1, 2, · · · , n.
l ^êÆ8B{y
Xn
g(t) = f (a) + k1 (t − a) + (kj − kj−1 )(t − cj−1 )+ , ∀t ∈ [a, b].
j=2
u´ g ∈ V .
f ´ [a, b] þ?ëY¢¼ê. ? ε > 0, â½n 3 , 3©ã
5ëY¼ê g, ¦
ε
|f (t) − g(t)| < , ∀t ∈ [a, b].
2
du g ∈ V , Ïd3õª¼ê p, ¦
ε
|p(t) − g(t)| < , ∀t ∈ [a, b].
2
l
|f (t) − p(t)| < ε, ∀t ∈ [a, b].
· 222 · 18Ù Ã+5L«

r Weierstrass õª%C½ní2;ÿÀm X þ¤këY¢
¼ê|¤8Ü C(X) ¥, ·5ïÄÿÀm C(X) f8Èf8
¿
©^, ÄkÚ?
Vg.
½Â 1 a, b ∈ R, ·- a ∨ b = max{a, b}, a ∧ b = min{a, b}. f, g ´ X
þ¢¼ê, ·ÏLeª½Â f ∨ g Ú f ∧ g:
(f ∨ g)(t) := f (t) ∨ g(t), t ∈ X;
(f ∧ g)(t) := f (t) ∧ g(t), t ∈ X.
½n 5 (Stone) X ´;ÿÀm, L ´ C(X) äke5
f8:
1◦ L ´¢5m;
2◦ e f, g ∈ L , K f ∨ g ∈ L f ∧ g ∈ L ;
3◦ éu?¿ x, y ∈ X x 6= y, 3 f ∈ L ¦ f (x) 6= f (y);
4◦ z~¼êáu L .
K L 3 C(X) ¥´È.
y² ·ÄkÑ^ 1◦ , 3◦ , 4◦ %¹eã¯¢: e x, y ∈ X x 6= y, e
a, b ∈ R, K3 f ∈ L ¦ f (x) = a f (y) = b. ndXe: â^ 3◦ ,
3 g ∈ L ¦ g(x) = α g(y) = β. Ù¥ α 6= β. â^ 1◦ , 4◦ , éu?
¿ s, t ∈ R, ·k sg + t ∈ L . N´wÑ, ±ÀJ s Ú t, ¦ f = sg + t ÷v
f (x) = a f (y) = b.
f ∈ C(X), ? ε > 0, ·é g ∈ L ¦ |f (z)−g(z)| < ε, ∀z ∈ X. $^
þãy²¯¢, éuzé x, y ∈ X, x 6= y, 3 gxy ∈ L ¦ gxy (x) = f (x)
gxy (y) = f (y). du f Ú gxy ´ X þëY¼ê, Ïd3 y m
Uxy , ¦ gxy (z) < f (z) + ε, ∀z ∈ Uxy . du X ´;, Ïd3 y1 , y2 , · · · , yn
[n
¦ X = Uxyj . ·- gx = gxy1 ∧ gxy2 · · · ∧ gxyn , K$^þ¡¯¢Ú^
j=1
◦
2 gx ∈ L , gx (x) = f (x), gx (z) < f (z) + ε, ∀z ∈ X. Ï f Ú gx ´ëY¼
ê, ¤±3 x m Vx ¦ gx (z) > f (z) − ε, ∀z ∈ Vx . du X ´;
[m
, Ïd3 x1 , x2 , · · · , xm ¦ X = Vxj . ½Â g = gx1 ∨ gx2 ∨ · · · ∨ gxm , K
j=1
g ∈ L , g(z) < f (z) + ε, ∀z ∈ X; g(z) > f (z) − ε, ∀z ∈ X. u´

|f (z) − g(z)| < ε, ∀z ∈ X.
Ïd L 3 C(X) ¥´È.
l½n 5 ±íÑ,%C½n, ¡ Stone-Weierstrass ½n, §¹
Weierstrass õª%C½nAÏ/.
½n 6 (Stone-Weierstrass ½n) X ´;ÿÀm, A ´ C(X) E
äke5f8:
1◦ A ´¢5m;
§6 ;+5L« · 223 ·
2◦ e f, g ∈ A, K f g ∈ A;
3◦ éu?¿ x, y ∈ X, x 6= y, 3 f ∈ A ¦ f (x) 6= f (y);
4◦ z~¼êáu A.
K A 3 C(X) ¥´È.
y² w, A 3 C(X) ¥4 A ÷v½n 6 ¥ 4 ^, Ïd·
±b A ´48. ·5¿^ 1◦ !3◦ !4◦ ½n 5 ¥A^Ó, Ï
dy²:“e f, g ∈ A, K f ∨ g ∈ A f ∧ g ∈ A”, ÒÑ A 3 C(X) ¥È.
(,, du a ∨ b = −(−a) ∧ (−b), Ïdy “f ∨ g ∈ A” “f ∧ g ∈ A” ¥
). du
a + b |a − b| a + b |a − b|
a∨b= + , a∧b= − ,
2 2 2 2
|a| = a ∨ (−a), Ïd½n 5 ¥^ 1◦ Ú 2◦ du 1◦ Ú^: “e f ∈ L ,
K |f | ∈ L ”. ½n 6 ^ 1◦ Ú 2◦ %¹: “e g ∈ A p ´¢Xêõª, K
p(g) ∈ A”.
? f ∈ A. du f ´;m X þëY¢¼ê, Ïd f 3 X þ
Ú. l 3¢ê M , ¦ |f (x)| 6 M, ∀x ∈ X. âÚn 2, ·U
éõª¼êS (Pn ), §3k.4«m [−M, M ] þÂñ |1 R |, =?
ε > 0, 3 m ∈ N∗ , ¦ n > m Òk
|Pn (t) − |t|| < ε, ∀t ∈ [−M, M ].
l k
|Pn (f (x)) − |f (x)|| < ε, ∀x ∈ X.
ddÑ, Pn (f ) 3 X þÂñ |f |. du Pn (f ) ∈ A, A ´48, Ïd

|f | ∈ A. u´ A ÷v½n 5 ¥¤k^, l A 3 C(X) ¥´È. qdu A
´48, Ïd A = A = C(X).
n
íØ 1 K ´ R k.4f8, ¤k¢Xê n õª¼ê|¤8ÜP
P (K), K P (K) 3 C(K) ¥´È.
y² w, P (K) ´¢5m, P (K) é¦{µ4. w,z~¼
êáu P (K). éu?¿ (a1 , a2 , · · · , an ), (b1 , b2 , · · · , bn ) ∈ K §Ø, 3
p ∈ P (K) ¦ p(a1 , a2 , · · · , an ) 6= p(b1 , b2 , · · · , bn ). ~X, p(x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ) =
(x1 − a1 )2 + (x2 − a2 )2 + · · · + (xn − an )2 , K p(a1 , a2 , · · · , an ) = 0, p(b1 , b2 , · · · , bn ) > 0.
u´ P (K) ÷v½n 6 4 ^. qdu Rn k.4f8´;, Ïdâ
½n 6 , P (K) 3 C(K) ¥´È.
f ´ X þëYE¼ê, K f ±¤ f = f1 + if2 , Ù¥ f1 , f2 ´ X þ
¢¼ê, N´wÑ f1 , f2 ´ X þëY¼ê. g ´ X þëYE¼ê,
g = g1 + ig2 , Ù¥ g1 , g2 ´ X þëY¢¼ê, ·k
|f (x) − g(x)|2 = |f1 (x) − g1 (x)|2 + |f2 (x) − g2 (x)|2 .
u´íØ 1 ±í2Xe.
· 224 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
íØ 2 K ´ Rn k.4f8, K þ¤këYE¼ê|¤8ÜP
C(K, C), ¤kEXê n õª¼ê|¤8ÜP P (K, C), K P (K, C) 3
C(K, C) ¥´È.
y² ? f ∈ C(K, C). f = f1 + if2 , f1 , f2 ´ K þëY¢¼ê. âí
1
Ø 1 , ? ε > 0, 3 p1 , p2 ∈ P (K), ¦ |f1 (x) − p1 (x)| < √ ε, |f2 (x) − p2 (x)| <
2
1
√ ε, ∀x ∈ K. P p = p1 + ip2 , K p ∈ P (K, C). lþª
2
|f (x) − p(x)|2 = |f1 (x) − p1 (x)|2 + |f2 (x) − p2 (x)|2 < ε2 , ∀x ∈ K.
ddíÑ, P (K, C) 3 C(K, C) ¥´È.
SK 6.6
1. éuÿÀ+ ( R, +), ?¿½Eê a, -

ϕa (t) = e iat , t ∈ R.
(1) `² ϕa ´ÿÀ+ ( R, +) 1 gEL«;
(2) y²: ϕa ´jL«= a ∈ R;
(3) `²ÿÀ+ ( R, +) z 1 gjL«Ñäk ϕa /ª, Ù¥ a ∈ R.
2.
ÿÀ+ ( R, +) ÿÀ+ SO(2) N !
cos t − sin t
f : t 7→ .
sin t cos t
(1) y²: f ´ÿÀ+ ( R, +) ÿÀ+ SO(2) þÓ, ¿ Ker f = {2πm|m ∈
∼ R/2π Z.
Z}, SO(2) =
(2) y²: ;+ SO(2) zkØjL«´ 1 g.
(3) Φ ´;+ SO(2) ØjL« !! , -
e + 2πm) = Φ cos t − sin t
Φ(t , Ù¥ 0 6 t < 2π, m ∈ Z.
sin t cos t
y²: Φ e ´ÿÀ+ ( R, +) ØjL«, ¿ Φ(2π) e e
= Φ(0) = 1.
e
, Φ ´ÿÀ+ ( R, +) ØjL«¿÷v e
Φ(2πm) = 1, ∀m ∈ Z. -
!!
cos t − sin t e
Φ = Φ(t), 0 6 t < 2π.
sin t cos t
`² Φ ´ SO(2) ØjL«.
þã`²;+ SO(2) ØjL«|¤8ÜÿÀ+ ( R, t) ÷v
e
“Φ(2πm) = 1 é m ∈ Z” ØjL« Φ e |¤8ÜmkéA.
(4) y²: SO(2) zØjL«äk/ª !!
cos t − sin t
Φn = e int , 0 6 t 6 2π, n ∈ Z.
sin t cos t
(5) y²:
Z 2π
1
e ikt · e ilt dt = δkl .
2π 0
§7 ÛÜ;+jAI+ · 225 ·
3. XJ Φ ´+ G jL«, §JøAIP χ, Kéu?¿ g ∈ G k

Φ(g −1 ) = Φ(g)∗ , Ù¥ Φ(g)∗ ´ Φ(g) C; ¿ Φ ´kL«,
χ(g −1 ) = χ(g).
4. f Ú f0 ´kE5m V üSÈ, K3 V þ
5C σ ¦
f (α, β) = f0 (σα, β)
é α, β ∈ V ¤á.
5. (ϕ, V ) ´+ G kØjL«, K V G ØCSÈ3~
êÏf¿Âþ´.
6. G∗ = ( R, +), N ¤kê|¤f+, - G = G∗ /N, ϕn (t + N ) =
i2πnt
e , n ∈ Z. y²: {ϕn |n ∈ Z} ´ G ÜØjL«.
§7 ÛÜ;+jAI+
7.1 ÛÜ;+
ÿÀm X ¡ÛÜ;, XJ§z:Ñk´;.
ÿÀ+ G XJÿÀm´ÛÜ;, @o¡ G ´ÛÜ;+.
~ 1 lÑ+ (=lÑÿÀ?¿+) ´ÛÜ;+. ndXe: G ´lÑ
+. ? g ∈ G, K {g} ´ g (Ï {g} ´m8, g ∈ {g} ⊆ {g}). w,,
{g} ?mCX7kkfCX. Ïd {g} ´;. l G ´ÛÜ;.
~ 2 ÿÀ+ ( R, +) ´ÛÜ;+. ndXe: ? x ∈ R, ½ δ > 0, K
[x − δ, x + δ] ´ x (Ï x ∈ (x − δ, x + δ) ⊆ [x − δ, x + δ]). du
[x − δ, x + δ] ´ R k.48, Ïd [x − δ, x + δ] ´;. u´ R ´ÛÜ;,
l ( R, +) ´ÛÜ;+.
~ 3 ÿÀ+ ( Rn , +) ´ÛÜ;+, ndXe: ? α ∈ Rn , ½ δ > 0, ±

α ¥%!δ »4¥ A = {β ∈ Rn |β − α| 6 δ} ´ α (Ï

α ∈ {γ ∈ Rn |γ − α| < δ} ⊆ A). du A ´ Rn k.48, Ïd A ´;, l
Rn ´ÛÜ;. u´ ( Rn , +) ´ÛÜ;+.
~ 4 ÛÜ;+ G ?f+ H ´ÛÜ;+, Ù¥ÿÀm G ´ Hausdorff
m. ndXe: ? h ∈ H, du G ´ÛÜ;+, Ïd3 h U ´;
T
. âÙ §2 ·K 4 , U ´ G 48. qdu H ´ G 48, Ïd H U
´ G 48. U ÿÀm G fm, §m8´ G m8 U 8, N
T
´wÑ, H U 3 U ¥Ö8u H 3 G ¥Ö8 U 8. du H ´ G
T
4f8, Ïd H 3 G ¥Ö8´ G mf8. l H U ´ U 4f8. du U
T
´ G ;f8, ÏdâÙ §2 ·K 3 , H U ´;. du U ´ h 3
T
G ¥, Ïd3 G mf8 Vh , ¦ h ∈ Vh ⊆ U.H Vh ´ H m
T T T
8, h ∈ H Vh ⊆ H U , Ïd H U ´ h 3 H ¥. u´ H ´ÛÜ
;, l ÿÀ+ H ´ÛÜ;+.
· 226 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
~ 5 G ´ÛÜ;+, H ´ÿÀ+ G 5f+, K G/H ´ÛÜ;+, Ù

¥ÿÀm G ´ Hausdorff m. ndXe: y G/H ü eH k
´;Ò±
. du G ´ÛÜ;, Ïd G ü e k U ´;
. e¡5y π(U ) ´ G/H ü eH ;. ky π(U ) ´;.
? π(U ) mCX: [
Wα ⊇ π(U ).
α∈I
!
[ [
du π −1
(π(U )) = U H, Ïd π −1
Wα ⊇ U H, = π −1 (Wα ) ⊇ U H ⊇ U . u
α∈I ! α∈I
m
[ m
[ m
[
´ π −1 (Wi ) ⊇ U . l π π −1 (Wi ) ⊇ π(U ), Ïd Wi ⊇ π(U ). ùy²
i=1 i=1 i=1

π(U ) ´;. 2y π(U ) ´ eH . du U ´ e , Ïd3
G mf8 Ve , ¦ e ∈ Ve ⊆ U . l eH ∈ π(Ve ) ⊆ π(U ). du π : G → G/H
´mN, Ïd π(Ve ) ´ G/H mf8. l π(U ) ´ eH . nþ¤ã.
G/H ´ÛÜ;.
~ 6 GL n ( R) ´ÛÜ;+. ndXe: duÿÀ+ÿÀm´à5, Ï
d·y  n ( R) ü I 3´;Ò±
: GL  . -

 1 + δ 0 · · · 0 

 1 


  

 0 1 + δ 2 · · · 0  1 1 
 
U=  . . .  δi ∈ − , ,1 6 i 6 n .

  .. .. ..  2 2 


  


 

0 0 · · · 1 + δn
2
Ný U ´ I , ? U ¥Ý
A, r A Óu Rn ¥þ,
K A Ý²u 2
2 2 2 3
(1 + δ1 ) + (1 + δ2 ) + · · · + (1 + δn ) 6 n .
2
2 1 1 1 3
Ïd U w¤´ Rn k.f8. du δi ∈ − , , Ïd 6 1 + δi 6 . l
2 2 2 2

1 3 1 3 1 3 1 3
U , × {0} × · · · × {0} × , × {0} × · · · × {0} × , . du , , {0}
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2
Ñ´ R 48, Ïd U ´ Rn 48. l U ´ Rn k.48. u´ U ´;
, Ïd GL n ( R) ´ÛÜ;+.
~ 7 SLn ( R) ´ÛÜ;+. ndXe: du SLn ( R) ´ÛÜ;+ GL n ( R)
f+, Ïdâ~ 4 , SLn ( R) ´ÛÜ;+.
aq/y: ( C, +), GL n ( C), SLn ( C) Ñ´ÛÜ;+.
~ 8 kõÛÜ;+ÈE´ÛÜ;+. ndXe: G1 , G2 , · · · , Gm
Ñ´ÛÜ;+, K Gi ü ei k Ui ´;. G1 ×G2 ×· · ·×Gm ¦
ÈÿÀ¤ÿÀm. N´wÑ U1 ×U2 ×· · ·×Um ´§ü (ei , e2 , · · · , em )
. âÙ §2 3öìÅ½n, U1 × U2 × · · · × Um ´;. l ÿÀ
§7 ÛÜ;+jAI+ · 227 ·
m G1 × G2 × · · · × Gm ´ÛÜ;. u´ÿÀ+ G1 × G2 × · · · × Gm ´ÛÜ

;+.
7.2 +jAI+Vg
ù!·5ïÄÛÜ;+E5L«. ·?ØÿÀ+ÿÀ
mÑ´ Hausdorff m, Ø2zg`².
·31Ù §4 ®y²:Abel +kØEL«Ñ´ 1 g. 1 gEL
«JøAI´ùEL«g, r Abel + G ¤k 1 gEL«JøAI
|¤8ÜP Ĝ. ·®y²
: éuk Abel +, Ĝ éu¼ê¦{¤
+, Ĝ ∼ = G, ¡ Ĝ ´ G EAI+. @o, éuÃ Abel + G, Ĝ éu¼ê
¦{´Ä¤+? ϕ1 , ϕ2 ´ G ü 1 gEL«, §JøAI©OP
χ1 , χ2 . ? g, h ∈ G, ·k
(χ1 χ2 )(gh) = χ1 (gh)χ2 (gh) = χ1 (g)χ1 (h)χ2 (g)χ2 (h)
= (χ1 χ2 )(g)(χ2 χ2 )(h).
∗
Ïd χ1 χ2 ´+ G C Ó, u´ χ1 χ2 ´+ G 1 gEL«. l
χ1 χ2 ∈ Ĝ. Ïd¼ê¦{´ Ĝ «$. Ný Ĝ éu¼ê¦{¤
+, ¡ Ĝ ´ G EAI+, ·g,¯: Ĝ G ´ÄÓ? ù¯K'å
k Abel +/E,õ.
?Øe, ·ÄÃ Abel + G ¤k 1
gjL«JøAI|¤8Ü, P G∗ . χ ∈ G∗ , Ké?¿ g ∈ G, k χ(g)
´ 1 ?jÝ
, Ïd χ(g) ´ 1 Eê. w, G∗ éu¼ê¦{¤
+. ¡ G∗ ´ G jAI+, §¡ G jAI. G jAI
χ Ò´+ G + S 1 Ó. ·r+jAIVg?Úí2ÿÀ+
þ, ÚÑeãVg.
½Â 1 ÿÀ+ G ÿÀ+ S 1 Ó χ ¡ G jAI, G
¤kjAI|¤8Ü G∗ éu¼ê¦{¤+, ¡ G∗ ´ G j
AI+.
7.3 + G ÿÀ¤ÿÀ+{
·ÿÀ+ G jAI+ G∗ ÿÀ, ¦ G∗ ¤ÿÀ+.

dÄkéu?¿+ G, ?ØXÛ G ÿÀ, âU¦ G ¦{$Ú¦
_$Ñ´ëYN, l ¦ G ¤ÿÀ+. lÿÀm X ½Â, 8Ü X
ÿÀ T ÒIÑ X =
f8´m8, ¿y²§÷vÿÀm½
Â¥'uÿÀn^. XJÑ
X ÿÀÄ B, @o X zm
8Ñ±¤ B ¥¤
¿8. Ïd8Ü X ÿÀÒIÑ X
ÿÀÄ B. y35&¢XÛÑ X ÿÀÄ B. k©ÛÿÀÄ7^
. X ´ÿÀm, B ´ X ÿÀÄ, Kéu X ?m8 W , 3 B
f8 B1 , ¦ W B1 ¥¤k¤
¿8. éu?¿ a ∈ W , K a áu B1 ¥
,¤
U . l a ∈ U ⊆ W . ùy²
: e B ´ÿÀm X ÿÀÄ, Ké
· 228 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
u X ?m8 W 9áu W ?: a, 3 B ¥m8 U ¦ a ∈ U ⊆ W .

y35yù^´ B ¤ÿÀÄ¿©^. B ´÷vþã^m8
8Ü, ? X m8 [
A. d®^, éu A ¥z x 3m8 Ux ∈ B,
[ [
¦ x ∈ Ux ⊆ A. u´ Ux ⊆ A. w, A ⊆ Ux . Ïd A = Ux . ùy²
x∈A x∈A x∈A

B ´ X ÿÀÄ. l B ´ X ÿÀÄ¿©7^w:
Ñ X
ÿÀÄ B, Ñ X ¥z: x
m|¤8Ü, ¦éuz
¹ x m8 A, 3ù8Ü¥k¤
Ux ⊆ A. ddÚÑeãVg.
½Â 2 X ´ÿÀm, ? x ∈ X, x
m|¤8Ü¡ x
|, XJéuz¹ x m8 A, 3 x ù|¥3
Ux , ¦ Ux ⊆ A.
l½Â 2 9Ùþ¡ã©Û, Ñ
ÿÀm X z: [
|, Òû½
X ¤km8. ù´Ïéu X ?m8 A, k A = Ux ,
x∈A
Ù¥ Ux ´ x |¥¤
, Ux ⊆ A. ùL²·±ÏLÑ X
z:|5Ñ X ÿÀ, =éu8Ü X, Ñz:|´
o, ¿5½ X ?m8 A ´§¤¹z:|¥,¤
¿8.
y3·?Ú&?3+ G ¥XÛÿÀ¦ G ¤ÿÀ+. Äk G
´ÿÀ+, ·úßÿÑ
G ü e ,| Be , Òk
U G ÿÀÄ.
M ´3 G ¥Èf8, -
B = {U x|U ∈ Be , x ∈ M },
K B ´ÿÀm G ÿÀÄ, y²Xe.
? U x ∈ B, du U ∈ Be , Ïd U ´m8, âSK 6.3 1 2 K, U x ´
m8, u´ B ¥z¤
Ñ´m8. W ´ÿÀm G ?m8, éu?¿
a ∈ W , k W a−1 ´¹ü e m8. du ee−1 = e, G ¦{$Ú¦_$
Ñ´ëYN, Ïd3¹ e m8 Ve , ¦ Ve Ve−1 ⊆ W a−1 . â½Â 2, 3 Be
¥3 e Ue , ¦ Ue ⊆ Ve . u´ Ue Ue−1 ⊆ W a−1 . Ï M ´ G ¥
Èf8, ¤± M = G, =¹ M ¤k4f8u G. du¦_Ú¦{$
´ëYN, Ïd¹ aM −1 ¤k4f8u G. l aM −1 = G, =
aM −1 3 G ¥È, u´ e ∈ aM −1 . e e ∈ aM −1 , K aM −1 Ue Ñ¹k e. e
e∈/ aM −1 , K e ´ aM −1 à:. âà:½Â, éu e Ue , 3 d Ó
áu Ue Ú aM −1 . u´Ø+=«¹, Ñ3Óáu Ue Ú aM −1 d.
d d ∈ aM −1 d−1 a ∈ M , Ïd Ue d−1 a ∈ B. du d ∈ Ue Ue Ue−1 ⊆ W a−1 ,
Ïd Ue d−1 ⊆ W a−1 . l Ue d−1 a ⊆ W . du ed ∈ Ue , Ïd e ∈ Ue d−1 . l
a ∈ Ue d−1 a. ù·y²
: éu?m8 W 9áu W ?: a, 3 B ¥
m8 Ue d−1 a, ¦ a ∈ Ue d−1 a ⊆ W . Ïd B ´ G ÿÀÄ.
·±y²: ÿÀ+ G ü e | Be ÷veãÊ^:
§7 ÛÜ;+jAI+ · 229 ·
1◦ Be ¥¤k8Ü8¹ e;
2◦ Be ¥?¿ü8Ü8¹ Be ¥,1n8Ü;
3◦ éu Be ¥z8Ü U , 3 Be ¥8Ü V , ¦ V V −1 ⊆ U ;
4◦ éu Be ¥z8Ü U Úz a ∈ U , 3k Be ¥8Ü V , ¦
V a ⊆ U;
5◦ U ´ Be ¥,8Ü, a ´+ G ?, K3 Be ¥8Ü V , ¦
a−1 V a ⊆ U .
y²Xe.
1◦ du G ´ Hausdorff m, Ïd?ü:8´48. b(6= e) ´ Be ¥,
8Ü, K G\{b} ´m8. du G\{b} ¹ e, Ïdâ½Â 2, 3 Be ¥3
Ue , ¦ Ue ⊆ G\{b}. l b ∈
/ Ue . Ïd Be ¥¤k8Ü8¹ e.
◦
T
2 U1 , U2 ´ Be ¥?¿ü8Ü, K U1 U2 ´¹ e m8. â½Â 2, 3
T
Be ¥38Ü V , ¦ V ⊆ U1 U2 .
3◦ du ee−1 = e, G ¦{$Ú¦_$Ñ´ëYN, Ïdéu Be ¥
zm8 U (§¹ e), 3¹ e m8 V1 , ¦ V1 V1−1 ⊆ U . â½Â 2, Be ¥
38Ü V , ¦ V ⊆ V1 , l V V −1 ⊆ U .
4◦ du a ∈ U , Ïd e ∈ U a−1 . u´ U a−1 ´¹ e m8, â½Â 2, Be ¥
38Ü V , ¦ V ⊆ U a−1 . l V a ⊆ U .
5◦ du e ∈ U , Ïd e ∈ aU a−1 . u´ aU a−1 ´¹ e m8, â½Â 2, Be ¥
38Ü V ⊆ aU a−1 . l a−1 V a ⊆ U .
âþãéÿÀ+ G ü |©Û, ·uy
éu+ G
ÿÀ¦ G ¤ÿÀ+{, =·±y²eã½n.
½n 1 G +. Be ´¹ü e
f8|¤8Ü, Be ÷v
þãÊ^, K38Ü G ¥± ´/Ú?ùÿÀ, ¦ G ¤ÿÀ
+, ¦ Be ü e |.
y² - B = {U g|U ∈ Be , g ∈ G}.
5½ B ¥¤
Ñ´m8
[
, B ¥?¿õ¤
¿8´m8. 5½8´m8.
w,k G = U g, Ïd G ´m8. éu B ¥?¿ü¤
U a, V b, Ù¥
g∈G,U ∈Be
T T
U, V ∈ Be , a, b ∈ G, ·5y² U a V b ´ B ¥
¤
¿8, l U a V b ´
m8. ddíÑkõm88´m8. l 38Ü G ¥Ú?
ÿÀ,
T
B ´ G ÿÀÄ. éu?¿ c ∈ U a V b, c = ua = vb, Ù¥ u ∈ U, v ∈ V , d
^ 4◦ , 3 U1 , V1 ∈ Be , ¦ U1 u ⊆ U, V1 v ⊆ V . u´ U1 c = U1 ua ⊆ U a, V1 c ⊆ V b.
T
d^ 2◦ , 3 W ∈ Be ¦ W ⊆ U1 V1 . l
T
W c ⊆ U a V b.
T T
c H U a V b ¤k, dþªÑ, U a V b ´ B ¥
¤
¿8.
e¡5y G 3þãÿÀe¤ÿÀ+, =y² ϕ : (a, b) 7→ a−1 b ´ëY
N. âÙ §2 íØ 2, Iyéu G ÿÀÄ B z¤
U g, k ϕ−1 (U g)
· 230 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
´ G × G m8. a−1 b = ug, u ∈ U . d^ 4◦ , 3 V ∈ Be ¦ V u ⊆ U . d^

5◦ , 3 W ∈ Be , ¦ a−1 W a ⊆ V . d^ 3◦ , 3 Z ∈ Be , ¦ Z −1 Z ⊆ W .
l a−1 Z −1 Za ⊆ V . u´ a−1 Z −1 Zaug ⊆ U g, = (Za)−1 (Zb) ⊆ U g. U g ¥?
ug 3 ϕ e´÷v a−1 b = ug é (a, b) |¤8Ü, þãíL²
ùé (a, b) ÷v (Za)−1 (Zb) ⊆ U g. Ïd ϕ−1 (U g) ´/X (Za) × (Zb) ¿
8, Ù¥ a−1 b = ug, u ∈ U, Z ´ Be ¥,¤
(§÷vþãíL§¥¦), d
u Za, Zb ∈ B, Ïd (Za) × (Zb) ´ G × G ÿÀÄ¤
, l ϕ−1 (U g) ´
G × G m8.
y35y Be ´ e |, ?¹ e m8 A, K A ´ B ¥
¤
¿8. bXù
¤
Ñ´Ø¹ e U g, @où
¤
¿8Ø¹ e. l A
Ø¹ e, gñ. Ïdù
¤
¥7k¹ e U g. u´ U g ⊆ A. d e ∈ U g g −1 ∈ U .
d^ 4◦ , 3 V ∈ Be , ¦ V g −1 ⊆ U , u´ V ⊆ U g ⊆ A. qdu e ∈ V , Ïd
â½Â 2 , Be ´ e |.
y3·5y: e+ G ®²k,ÿÀ T , ùÿÀ±r Be ü
e |, @oùÿÀ T d B Ú?ÿÀ´. dy B
±ÿÀ T ÿÀÄ. d®^, Be ´3ÿÀ T ¥ü e
|, Ïd Be ¥¤k¤
3ÿÀ T ¥Ñ´m8. u´ B ¥¤k¤
Ñ´m8. y
3 W ´3ÿÀ T ¥¹: a ?m8, u´ W a−1 ¹ e. d W a−1 ´m8,
Be ´ ė |, Ïd3 Be ¥3 U ¦ U ⊆ W a−1 . l U a ⊆ W .
âc¡ÑÿÀm X ¥ÿÀÄ¿©^, B ´3ÿÀ T eÿ
ÀÄ.
k
~ 9 G ê\+. p ê, ^ Uk L« p \ Ø¤kê|
¤8Ü, Ù¥ k = 1, 2, · · · . - B0 = {Uk |k = 1, 2, · · · }. w,, Uk = {0}. ?
k>1
T
Uk , Ul , Ø l > k. u´ m ∈ Uk Ul ⇐⇒ pk |m pl |m ⇐⇒ pl |m ⇐⇒ m ∈ Ul . l
T
Uk Ul = Ul , Ù¥ l > k. ? Uk ∈ B0 . éu Uk ¥?ê a, Uk−1 ¥?ê
−b, Ù¥ b ∈ Uk , w,k a + (−b) ∈ Uk , Ïd Uk Uk−1 ⊆ Uk . ? Uk ∈ B0 , éu?¿
a ∈ Uk , w,k Uk a ⊆ Uk (Ïéu?¿ c ∈ Uk , k c + a ∈ Uk ). éu?ê n, w
,k (−n)Uk n ⊆ Uk . Ïd B0 ÷v½n 1 ¥Ê^. l ê\+¤ÿÀ+.
~ 10 G = GL n( C). -
1

Uk = A ∈ GL n ( C)|(A − I)(i; j)| < , 1 6 i, j 6 n .
k
- BI = {Uk |k = 1, 2, · · · }. N´wÑ Uk % Uk+1 , k = 1, 2, · · · . 5¿
1 1
A ∈ Uk ⇐⇒ |(A − I)(i; j)| < ⇐⇒ |A(i; j)| < δij + .
k k
±y² BI ÷v½n 1 ¥Ê^, l 3+ GL n ( C) ¥Ú?
ÿÀ, ¦
GL n ( C) ¤ÿÀ+.
7.4 ÛÜ;+jAI+
y3·éuÛÜ;+ G jAI+ G∗ , ^þã½n 1 ¥{
§7 ÛÜ;+jAI+ · 231 ·
ÿÀ. G∗ ü ´ G ÌAI χ0 , χ0 (g) = 1, ∀g ∈ G. ·3 G∗ ¥Ï

éü χ0 |. du G∗ χ ´ÿÀ+ G S 1 Ó, Ïd·
Ä G∗ ¥¹ χ0 Xef8: éu G ?¿;f8 K Ú ε > 0,

U (K, ε) = χ ∈ G∗ |χ(y) − 1| < ε, ∀y ∈ K .
- B0 = {U (K, ε)|K ´ G ;f8, ε > 0}.
·5y B0 ÷v½n 1 ¥Ê^.
'u 1◦ . χ1 ∈ U (K1 , ε1 ) χ1 6= χ0 , Ù¥ K1 ´ G ;f8. du χ1 ´
G þëY¼ê, Ïd χ1 |K1 ´ K1 þëY¼ê. du;f8þëY¼êÙ

7Ú, Ïd max{|χ(y) − 1|y ∈ K1 } = a. du χ1 6= χ0 , Ïd
a > 0. ε2 < a ε2 > 0, K χ1 ∈ / U (K1 , ε2 ). u´ B0 ¥¤k¤
8¹ χ0 .
'u 2◦ . ? B0 ¥ü¤
U (K1 , ε1 ), U (K2 , ε2 ), Ø ε1 6 ε2 . ´wÑ
S S
K1 K2 E´ G ;f8, éu χ ∈ U (K1 K2 , ε1 ), k |χ(y) − 1| < ε1 , ∀y ∈
S T
K1 K2 . l χ ∈ U (K1 , ε1 ) U (K2 , ε2 ). Ïd
S T
U (K1 K2 , ε1 ) ⊆ U (K
1 , ε1 ) U (K2 , ε2 ).
1
'u 3◦ . éu U (K, ε) ∈ B0 . Ä U K, ε . é?¿ g ∈ G, k
2
1 = χ0 (g) = (χχ−1 )(g) = χ(g)χ−1 (g).
du χ(g) ´ 1 Eê, Ïd χ−1 (g) = [χ(g)]−1 = χ(g). l éu χ1 , χ2 ∈

1
U K, ε , k
2
|(χ1 χ−1
2 )(y) − 1| = |χ1 (y)χ2 (y) − 1| = |χ1 (y)χ2 (y) − χ2 (y)χ2 (y)|
= |χ1 (y) − χ2 (y)| |χ2 (y)| = |χ1 (y) − 1 + 1 − χ2 (y)|

1 1
< ε + ε = ε,
2 2
∀y ∈ K. l χ1 χ−1
2 ∈ U (K, ε). Ïd
−1
1 1
U K, ε · U K, ε ⊆ U (K, ε).
2 2
'u 4◦ . ? U (K, ε) ∈ B0 . ? χ ∈ U (K, ε). du χ ´ëYN, K ´ G
;f8, Ïd
max{|χ(y) − 1|y ∈ K} = a < ε.
Ä V = U (K, ε − a). éu χ1 ∈ V , k
|(χ1 χ)(y) − 1| = |χ1 (y)χ(y) − χ(y) + χ(y) − 1|
6 |χ1 (y) − 1||χ(y)| + |χ(y) − 1| = |χ1 (y) − 1| + |χ(y) − 1|
< (ε − a) + a = ε,
∀y ∈ K. l χ1 χ ∈ U (K, ε). Ïd V χ ⊆ U (K, ε).
'u 5◦ . du G ´, Ïd 5◦ w,¤á.
nþ¤ã, B0 ÷v½n 1 ¥Ê^, l G∗ ¤ÿÀ+, B0 ´
G∗ ü χ0 |.
½n 2 G ´ÛÜ;+, K G jAI+ G∗ ´ÛÜ;+.
· 232 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
y² þ¡®3 G∗ ¥ïá
ÿÀ, ¦ G∗ ¤ÿÀ+, B0 ´ G∗
ü χ0 |. e¡5y G∗ ´ÛÜ;. duÿÀ+ÿÀm
´à5, Ïdy G∗ ü χ0 k´;Ò±
.
B0 ¥¤
U (K, ε) ´d÷v “|χ(y) − 1| < ε, ∀y ∈ K” AI χ |¤8
Ü, du χ(y) ∈ S 1 , Ïd |χ(y) − 1| < ε, ùL² χ(y) áu S 1 ¥ü 1
. -

i2πa 1
Wn = e |a| < ,
3n
K Wn ´ S 1 ¥ü 1 . éu G ?¿;f8 K, -
U (K, Wn ) = {χ ∈ G∗ |χ(K) ⊆ Wn },
K U (K, Wn ) ∈ B0 .
du G ´ÛÜ;, Ïd3 G ü e 4 Ke ´;. 3
1
S ¥ü 1 4 W W ⊆ W1 . -
U (Ke , W ) = {χ ∈ G∗ |χ(Ke ) ⊆ W },
K U (Ke , W ) ´ χ0 . ·5y U (Ke , W ) ´ G∗ ;f8.
1Ú. 3+ G ¥Ú\lÑÿÀ, lÑ+P G, e G
e jAI+P
e ∗
G . ·5y G ´;+.e ∗
Ge ∗ χ e´G e S 1 ±$N, lÙ §2 ½Â 17 Ééu, ·

r G e I8, éuz x ∈ G, e IP S 1 Sx1 (Sx1 ¢SþÒ´ S 1 ), , ù
Y [
x8Ü {Sx1 |x ∈ G} e (kÈ Sx1 , §ÒŃ f : G e→ Sx1 , ¦
x∈G e
x∈G
Y Y
f (x) ∈ Sx1 . u´ χ
e∈ Sx1 . e∗ ´
l G Sx1 f8:
Ge
x∈

e
x∈G 
 Y 
e∗ = 1 e .
G f∈ Sx f (xy) = f (x)f (y), ∀x, y ∈ G
 
e
x∈G
Y
3 Sx1 ¥D¦ÈÿÀ¤ÿÀm. du S 1 ´;, Ïdâ3öìÅ½
e
x∈G
Y Y Y
n, Sx1 E´;. Sx1 éu¼ê¦{¤+, u´ Sx1 ´;+.
e
x∈G e
x∈G e
x∈G
Y Y
e∗ ´ÿÀ+
G e ∗ ´ÿÀm
Sx1 f+. Ïd G Sx1 4f8. u´âÙ
e
x∈G e
x∈G
e ∗ ´;+.
§2 ·K 3 , G
1Ú. - Ue (Ke , W ) = {χ
e∈G e ∗ |e e (Ke , W ) = U (Ke , W ).
χ(Ke ) ⊆ W }, ·5y U
e´G
χ e jAI. Ïd χ e ´Ä+ G jAI. y² U e (Ke , W ) =
U (Ke , W ), Òyéu÷v χ e(Ke ) ⊆ W χ e ´ÿÀ+ G S 1 ëYN,
l χ e ´ÿÀ+ G jAI. é?¿ê n, G ü V , ¦
n
V ⊆ Ke . du W ⊆ W1 , Ïdéu?¿ x ∈ V , k χ e(x) ∈ W1 , χ
e(xx) ∈ W1 ,
1
= [eχ(x)]2 ∈ W1 , · · · , [e
χ(x)]n ∈ W1 . u´ [eχ(x)]n = e i2πa , Ù¥ |a| < . ddÑ
3
§7 ÛÜ;+jAI+ · 233 ·
e(x) ∈ Wn . ù·éuÿÀ+ S 1 ü Wn , é

ÿÀ+ G ü
χ
V , ¦ χ e(V ) ⊆ Wn , Ïd χe ´ÿÀ+ G S 1 ëYN. l χ e ∈ G∗ ,
u´ U e (Ke , W ) ⊆ U (Ke , W ). ? χ ∈ U (Ke , W ), du G
e ÿÀ´lÑÿÀ, Ïd
χ 7½´ÿÀ+ G e S 1 ëYN, l χ ∈ G e∗ . Ïd U (Ke , W ) ⊆ U
e (Ke , W ). l
U (Ke , W ) = U e (Ke , W ).
1nÚ. y² U(K e e, W ) ´ G e ∗ ;f8. du G e ∗ ´;+, Ïdy
e (Ke , W ) ´ G
U e 48. ½ x ∈ G,
∗ e -
Y
πx : Sz1 → Sx1
e
z∈G
f 7→ f (x),
K πx ´ÝKN, l πx ´ëYN, u´ πx |G e∗ ´ G e∗ S 1 ëYN. du
x
W ´ Sx1 48, Ïd W 3 πx |G e ∗ e (πx |G e∗ )−1 (W ) = {χ e∗ |e
e∈G χ(x) ∈ W }
\
´Ge∗ 48. l Ue (Ke , W ) = e ) (W ) ´ G
(πx |G ∗ −1 e∗ 48. Ïd U e (Ke , W )
x∈Ke
e∗ ;f8.
´G
1oÚ. y²l G∗ G e ∗ ¤pÑ8Ü U(K e e , W ) ÿÀ´. 3l
T
m G∗ ¤pÑ U e (Ke , W ) ÿÀ¥, χ ∈ U e (Ke , W ) /X U (K, Wn )χ
e (Ke , W ), Ù¥ K ´m G ;f8, n ê. 3lm G
U e∗ ¤pÑ
T
ÿÀ¥, d χ /X U e (A, Wm )χ U(Ke e , W ), Ù¥ A m G e ;
f8, m ê, U(A, e Wm ) = {χ e∈ Ge∗ |e
χ(A) ⊆ Wm }. du G e ´lÑ+, Ï
d G e ;f8 A 7k8. éum G ó, kf8 A 7 G ;
f8, Ïd1«/ªzÑ¹k1«/ª,. y35y: z
1«/ªÑ¹k1«/ª,. ùÒy²
üÿÀd5.
Te
?¿½1«/ª U (K, Wn )χ U (Ke , W ), = K, n ½. 3ù
e
¥? ψχ, K ψχ ∈ U (Ke , W ). l é?¿ x ∈ Ke , k (ψχ)(x) ∈
1 e (Ke , W ), Ïd
W ⊆ W1 . u´ (ψχ)(x) = e i2πa , Ù¥ |a| < . qdu χ ∈ U
3
1 2
χ(x) = e i2πb , Ù¥ |b| < . l ψ(x) = e i2π(a−b) , |a − b| 6 |a| + |b| < . u´
3 3
e
ψ ∈ U(Ke , W 12 ), y3·À G ü V , ¦ V ′ ′2n
⊆ Ke . éu?¿
′
x ∈ V , du ψ ∈ U e (Ke , W 1 ), Ïdk ψ(x) ∈ W 1 , [ψ(x)] ∈ W 1 , · · · , [ψ(x)]2n ∈ W 1 .
2
2 2 2 2
ddÑ ψ(x) ∈ Wn . l ψ(V ′ ) ⊆ Wn . éu?¿ c ∈ K, k V ′ c ´m8. d
u e ∈ V ′ , Ïd {V ′ c|c ∈ K} CX K. du K ´;f8, Ïd±l¥ÀÑk
ù«/ªm85CX K. u´3 K kf8 A, ¦ V ′ A ⊇ K. X
J ψ ∈ U e (A, Wn ), = ψ(A) ⊆ Wn , @o ψ(K) ⊆ ψ(V ′ A). ? x ∈ V ′ , y ∈ A,
k ψ(x) ∈ Wn , ψ(y) ∈ Wn . l ψ(xy) = ψ(x)ψ(y) ∈ W n2 , u´ ψ(K) ⊆ W n2 , =

ψ∈U e K, W n . Ïd U e (A, Wn ) ⊆ U
e (K, W n ). du χ ∈ U
e (Ke , W ) = U (Ke , W ), Ï
2 2
1 e
d χ ´ÿÀ+ G S ëYN. q ψχ ∈ U(Ke , W ), ÏdÓn ψχ ´ÿÀ+ G
S 1 ëYN. ddyÑ ψ ´ÿÀ+ G S 1 ëYN (aqu1Úy² χ e
· 234 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
´ÿÀ+ G S 1 ëYN{). du ψ ∈ G e ∗ , Ïd ψ ´Ä+ G jAI.

y3qy²
ψ ´ÿÀ+ G S ëYN, Ïd ψ ∈ G∗ . du ψ ∈ U
1 e (K, W n ),
2
e
Ïd ψ(K) ⊆ W n2 . l ψ ∈ U (K, W n2 ). u´ U (K, W n2 ) ⊆ U (K, W n2 ). Ïd
T T
e (A, Wn ) ⊆ U (K, W n ). l U(A,
U e Wn )χ U e (Ke , W ) ⊆ U (K, W n )χ U(Ke e , W ). ù
2 2
y²
?¿½1«/ª, Ñ¹k1«/ª,. nþ¤ã,
éu8Ü U e (Ke , W ), lÿÀ+ G∗ pÿÀlÿÀ+ G e ∗ pÿÀ´.
l1nÚ, U(K e e, W ) ´ G e∗ ;f8. y3BÑ, U e (Ke , W ) ´ G e ∗ ;
f8. l1Ú U e (Ke , W ) = U (Ke , W ), Ïd U (Ke , W ) ´ G ;f8l
∗
∗
G ´ÛÜ;+.
∗
íØ 1 (1) e G lÑ+, K G ;+;
(2) e G ;+, K G∗ lÑ+.
y² (1) 3½n 2 y²1Ú®y.
(2) e G ;+, K G∗ ü χ0 | B0 ¥k
U (G, W1 ). χ ∈ U (G, W1 ), K χ(G) ⊆ W1 , =é?¿ x ∈ G, k χ(x) ∈ W1 . ·
k χ(xn ) = [χ(x)]n . éu S 1 ¥ z = e i2πt , e z ∈ W1 , z 2 ∈ W1 · · · z n ∈ W1 ,
KNÓ, z ∈ Wn . u´l χ(x) ∈ W1 , χ(x2 ) ∈ W1 , · · · , χ(xn ) ∈ W1 , Ñ
χ(x) ∈ Wn , ∀n ∈ N∗ . Ïd χ(x) = 1, ∀x ∈ G. l χ = χ0 . u´ U (G, W1 ) = {χ0 }.
Ïd {χ0 } ´ G∗ m8. ddÑ G∗ ÿÀÄ
B = {{χ0 }χ|χ ∈ G∗ } = {{χ}|χ ∈ G∗ }.
l G∗ z8ÜÑ´m8. Ïd G∗ ´lÑ+.
âSK 6.3 1 5 K, ;lÑ+½´k+, Ïd G ´ÃlÑ
+, du G∗ ´;+, ÏdÿÀ+ G ÿÀ+ G∗ ØÓ (Ï G Ø´;+).
Ón, G ´Ã;+, du G∗ ´lÑ+, ÿÀ+ G ÿÀ+ G∗ ØÓ
(Ï G ØU´lÑ+).
7.5 ÛÜ;+VjAI+
G ´ÛÜ;+, â½n 2 , G∗ ´ÛÜ;+. u´ G∗ jA

I+ (G∗ )∗ ({P G∗∗ ) ´ÛÜ;+, k¡ G∗∗ ´ G VjAI+.
líØ 1 , e G ´lÑ+, K G∗ ;+, l G∗∗ ´lÑ+;
e G ´;+, K G∗ lÑ+. l G∗∗ ´;+, ùr¦·ßÿ: Û
Ü;+ G G∗∗ ´ÄÓQ? Äk¯: XÛïá G G∗∗ NQ?
=? x ∈ G, XÛ G∗ jAI ωx Q? ωx A´ G∗ S 1 Ó
. g,-
ωx : G∗ → S 1
χ 7→ χ(x).
·5y²: ωx ∈ G . Äky ωx ±$: éu χi , χ2 ∈ G∗ , K χ1 χ2 ∈ G∗ , ·
∗∗
k
ωx (χ1 χ2 ) = (χ1 χ2 )(x) = χ1 (x)χ2 (x) = ωx (χ1 )ωx (χ2 ),
§7 ÛÜ;+jAI+ · 235 ·
u´ ωx ´+ G∗ S 1 Ó. Ùgy ωx ´ G∗ S 1 ëYN. éuÿÀ

+ S 1 ü 1 ? Wn , Ä G∗ ü χ0 U ({x}, Wn ) =
{χ ∈ G∗ |χ(x) ∈ Wn }, u´éu? χ ∈ U ({x}, Wn ), k ωx (χ) = χ(x) ∈ Wn . l
ωx [U ({x}, Wn )] ⊆ Wn . Ïd ωx ´ G∗ S 1 ëYN. l ωx ´ÿÀ+ G∗
jAI, = ωx ∈ G∗∗ .
·K 1 G ´ÛÜ;+, -
ω : G → G∗∗
x 7→ ωx ,
K ω ´ÿÀ+ G G Ó, ¡ ω ´ÛÜ;+ G G∗∗ g,Ó.
∗∗
y² ky ω ´+ G G∗∗ Ó. éu x, y ∈ G, ? χ ∈ G∗ , ·k

ωxy (χ) = χ(xy) = χ(x)χ(y) = ωx (χ)ωy (χ)
= (ωx ωy )(χ),
Ïd ωxy = ωx ωy , = ω(xy) = ωxy = ωx ωy = ω(x)ω(y). l ω ´+ G G∗∗
Ó.
2y ω ´ÿÀ+ G G∗∗ ëYN. ÿÀ+ G∗∗ ü ωe ?
V = U (Φ, Wn ) = {ωx ∈ G∗∗ |ωx (Φ) ⊆ Wn }, Ù¥ Φ ´ G∗ ;f8. ?ÛÜ;+
G ü e m U0 , ¦ U 0 ´ G ;f8. U (U 0 , W2n ) ´ G∗ ü
χ0 . /X U (U 0 , W2n )χ(χ ∈ Φ) m8, |¤ Φ CX. du Φ ´
;, Ïd±3ùCX¥Ñkm8CX U (U 0 , W2n )χ1 , U (U 0 , W2n )χ2 , · · · ,
U (U 0 , W2n )χr . Ui ´+ G ü , §÷v χi (Ui ) ⊆ W2n , i = 1, 2, · · · , r.
T T T T
- U = U0 U1 U2 · · · Ur . e χ ∈ Φ, K3eI i(1 6 i 6 r), ¦ χ = ξχi , Ù
¥ ξ ∈ U (U e , W2n ). ? x ∈ U , k χ(x) = ξ(x)χi (x). du χi (x) ∈ W2n , ξ(x) ∈ W2n ,
Ïd χ(x) ∈ Wn . l χ(U ) ⊆ Wn . Ïd x ∈ U , ωx (χ) = χ(x) ∈ Wn , l
ωx (Φ) ⊆ Wn , u´ ωx ∈ V . ùy²
ω(U ) ⊆ V . l ω ´ G G∗∗ ëYN
. Ïd ω ´ÿÀ+ G G∗∗ Ó.
7.6 ÛÜ;+û+f+jAI+
?Ú·ïÄ ω ´Ø´ÿÀ+ G G∗∗ Ó? ÄkïÄÛÜ;
+ G û+Úf+jAI+óf.
½Â 3 G ÛÜ;+, H ´ G f8. -
H ⊥ := {χ ∈ G∗ |χ(h) = 1, ∀h ∈ H},
⊥ ∗
¡ H ´ H 3 G ¥"zf.
Ný, H ⊥ ´ÿÀ+ G∗ f+. âÙ §3 ½Â 2, ÿÀ+f+
´4f8, Ïd H ⊥ ´ÿÀm G∗ 4f8.
e H ´ÿÀ+ G f+, K H ⊥ d G äkeã5jAI χ |
¤: χ|H ´ H ÌAI, Ò´ G EL« χ Ø Ker χ ⊇ H. u´â1Ù
§5, G ùEL« χ é5f+ H ©) χ ´û+ G/H EL«,
l χ Ò´û+ G/H jAI; ¿N σ : χ 7→ χ ´+ H ⊥ (G/H)∗
· 236 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
V. é?¿ χ1 , χ2 ∈ H ⊥ , k χ1 χ2 ∈ H ⊥ . u´é?¿ gH ∈ G/H, k

χ1 χ2 (gH) = (χ1 χ2 )(g) = χ1 (g)χ2 (g) = χ1 (gH)χ2 (gH) = (χ1 χ2 )(gH).
l χ1 χ2 = χ1 χ2 , = σ ´+ H ⊥ (G/H)∗ Ó. u´ σ ´+ H ⊥
(G/H)∗ Ó. e¡5y: e χ ∈ H ⊥ , K χ ´ÿÀ+ G/H jAI, =
y χ ´ÿÀ+ G/H S 1 ëYN. ^ π L«+ G û+ G/H g,Ó,
= π(g) = gH, ∀g ∈ G. ué χ ∈ H ⊥ , K χ = χπ. âÙ §3 ½n 2, π ´ÿ
À+ G G/H mÓ. ®+ S 1 ü 1 Wn (!½n 2
y²). du χ ´ G S 1 ëYN, Ïd3 G ü e m U ÷v
χ(U ) ⊆ Wn . du π ´ G G/H mÓ, Ïd π(U ) ´ G/H ü eH m
, χ(π(U )) = χ(U ) ⊆ Wn . ùy²
χ ´ G/H S 1 ëYN, = χ ´ÿ
À+ G/H jAI.
y3·y σ ´ÿÀ+ H ⊥ ÿÀ+ (G/H)∗ ëYN, ùy σ−1 ´
ÿÀ+ (G/H)∗ H ⊥ mN. ? (G/H)∗ ü χ0 U (K, e Wn ),
Ù¥ K e ´ G/H ü eH ; (du G ´ÛÜ;+, Ïdâ
!~ 5 G/H ´ÛÜ;+. l eH k;). ·5E G ;f
8 K, ¦ π(K) ⊇ K. e du G ´ÛÜ;+, Ïd± G ü e äk;
4m U . u´éu?¿ g ∈ G, gU ´ G ;f8. du K e ´ G/H ;
[m
f8, Ïd3kõm8. π(gi U )(i = 1, 2, · · · , m) CX K, e =K e⊆ π(gi U ).
i=1
m
[
e y3 χ ∈ H ⊥
T
-K= gi U, K K ´ G ;f8, π(K) ⊇ K. U (K, Wn ),
i=1
K χ(K)e ⊆ χ(π(K)) = χ(K) ⊆ Wn . Ïd χ ∈ U (K, e Wn ), = σ(χ) ∈ U (K,

e Wn ). l
T
e Wn )). Ïd H ⊥ U (K, Wn ) ⊆ σ −1 (U (K,
χ ∈ σ −1 (U (K, e Wn )). du U (K, Wn ) áu
T
G ü χ0 | B0 (!½n 2 y²), Ïd H ⊥ U (K, Wn ) á
∗
u H ⊥ ü χ0 |. u´ σ−1 (U (K, e Wn )) ´ H ⊥ ü χ0

. l σ−1 ´ (G/H)∗ H ⊥ mN, nþ¤ã·y²
eã½n 3.
½n 3 G ´ÛÜ;+, H ´ÿÀ+ G f+, KkÿÀ+Ó:
(G/H)∗ ∼ = H ⊥.
½n 3 ¦·±¦ÑÛÜ;+ G û+ G/H jAI+ (G/H)∗ .
e¡5&¢ G mf+ H (= H ´+ G f+, H ´ÿÀm G m8)
jAI+ H ∗ óf. du

H ⊥ = {χ ∈ G∗ χ|H ´ H ÌAI},
Ïdúßÿ G∗ /H ⊥ H ∗ kUÓ. y35[©Û. ? χ ∈ G∗ , K χH ⊥ ∈
G∗ /H ⊥ . Ä χ|H, K χ|H ´f+ H jAI. -
τ : G∗ /H ⊥ → H ∗
χH ⊥ 7→ χ|H.
ky τ Ń. χ1 H ⊥ = χ2 H ⊥ , K χ1 χ−1 ⊥
2 ∈ H . l é?¿ h ∈ H, k
−1 −1
1 = (χ1 χ2 )(h) = χ1 (h)χ2 (h) = χ1 (h)[χ2 (h)]−1 .
§7 ÛÜ;+jAI+ · 237 ·
u´ χ1 (h) = χ2 (h). Ïd χ1 |H = χ2 |H. ùy²

τ Ń. e τ (χ1 H ⊥ ) =
τ (χ2 H ⊥ ), K χ1 |H = χ2 |H. rþãíí£, B χ1 H ⊥ = χ2 H ⊥ . l τ ´
ü. du
τ ((χ1 H ⊥ )(χ2 H ⊥ )) = τ ((χ1 χ2 )H ⊥ ) = (χ1 χ2 )|H = (χ1 |H)(χ2 |H)
= τ (χ1 H ⊥ )τ (χ2 H ⊥ ),
Ïd τ ´+ G∗ /H ⊥ H ∗ Ó. g,¯ τ ´Ø´÷? =, f+ H ?
jAI µ UØU*¿¤+ G ,jAI? 31ÊÙ §2, éu H 3 G ¥
ê [G : H] k/, y²
l H AI µ ± G AI µG . e
?Ø´ [G : H] Ã/.
r H 3 G ¥¤k8|¤8Ü, âÀJún, ±Ó/lz8
¥]Ñ, §|¤ H 3 G ¥8LX W = {ai |i ∈ I}, Ù¥ I Í
8. âûS½n, W ¥3ûS, ^ “6” L«A S. G ü e ´
S
W , P¤ a1 . Ú?PÒ a∞ , 5½ ai < a∞ , ∀i ∈ I. ai (i ∈ I {∞})
cã W (ai ) = {al |al < ai }. -
Hi = hH, W (ai )i, i ∈ I.
S
w,, e ai < aj , K Hi $ Hj . - Ω = {Hi |i ∈ I {∞}}, Ω ¥ S´8Ü¹'
X. -
σ:W →Ω
ai 7→ Hi .
w, σ Ń!÷. e¡y σ ´ü. Hi = Hj , bX ai < aj , K Hi $ Hj , g
ñ. bX aj < ai , gñ. Ïd ai = aj , l σ ´ü, Ïd σ ´V. u´l W
´ûS8ÜÑ Ω ´ûS8Ü. w,, H1 = H, H∞ = G. ·5y²: 3 Ω z
S
Hi (i ∈ I {∞}). þÑ3l Hi S 1 +Ó µi , µi |H = µ. â
8BE{n (Ù §1), ·Xe?1: éu H1 , - µ1 = µ. béu¤k
Hl $ Hi , l Hl S 1 +Ó µl ®²Ñ, µl |H = µ. ·5û½ Hi S 1
+Ó µi . ©ü«/?Ø.
/ 1 W (ai ) ¥vk. u´ W (ai ) ¥zÑáu, W (al ),
Ù¥ W (al ) $ W (ai ) (ÄK, W (ai ) ¥3, ak Øáu¤k W (al ) $ W (ai ),
[
u´ ak > al , ∀al < ai . l ak ´ W (ai ) . gñ). Ïd Hi ⊆ Hl . ?
al <ai
y ∈ Hi , Ä Ω f8: {Hl |y ∈ Hl }. du Ω ´ûS8Ü, Ïdùf8k

, Hm . - µi (y) = µm (y), K Hi S 1 +Ó µi û½, µi |H = µ.
/ 2 W (ai ) ¥k ak . du ak < ai , Ïd Hk $ Hi . â8B
b, 3 Hk S 1 +Ó µk , µk |H = µ. ·5û½ Hi S 1 +Ó µi ,
d Hi ´ Hk U (=Ø3 Hl ÷v Hk $ Hl $ Hi ), u´ Hi z
±¤ y = xark , Ù¥ x ∈ Hk , r ∈ Z.
/ 2.1. k r = 0 ark ∈ Hk . dý Hi ¥z±/
¤ y = xark , x ∈ Hk , r ∈ Z. e iθ ´ S 1 ,, - µi (y) = µk (x) e irθ , K µi ´
· 238 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
Hi S 1 N. ý µi ±$, l µi ´+Ó. w, µi |H = µ.

/ 2.2. 3 r 6= 0, ¦ ark ∈ Hk . r ´¦ ark ∈ Hk ê, ´
y Hi ¥z±/¤ y = xatk , Ù¥ 0 6 t 6 r. du ark ∈ Hk , Ïd
θ
µk (ark ) = e iθ , é, θ(0 6 θ < 2π). - µi (y) = µk (x) e i r t , K µi ´ Hi S 1
N. ý µi ±$, Ïd µi ´ Hi S 1 +Ó. w, µi |H = µ.
â8BE{n, kkl Hi S 1 +Ó µi ,
µi |H = µ. AO/, i = ∞ , Br µ *¿¤
G S 1 +Ó µ∞ , P
µG . l τ ´÷. Ïd τ ´ G∗ /H ⊥ H ∗ V. q®y τ ´+Ó, Ïd
τ ´+ G∗ /H ⊥ H ∗ Ó.
H ´ G mf+, Kþãl H jAI µ *¿¤+ G jAI µG
7½´ G S 1 ëYN. ndXe: ? S 1 m8 V , du µG |H = µ,
T
µ ´ H S 1 ëYN, Ïd µ−1 (V ) ´ H m8. µ−1 (V ) = (µG )−1 (V ) H. d
u H ´ G m8, Ïd, (µG )−1 (V ) ´ G m8. l µG ´ G S 1 ëYN,
= µG ´ÿÀ+ G S 1 Ó. u´ µG ´ÿÀ+ G jAI.
f ´+ G∗ + H ∗ N: f (χ) = χ|H. þ¡®y f ´÷. w, f ´+
Ó. eUy f ´ G∗ H ∗ ëYN´mN, KâÙ §3 ½n 4 ,
ÿÀ+ G∗ /H ⊥ ÿÀ+ H ∗ Ó.
y35y f ´ G∗ H ∗ ëYN, ? H ;f8 C Ú ε > 0,
-

V (C, ε) = {µ ∈ H ∗ |µ(x) − 1| < ε, ∀x ∈ C},
K V (C, ε) ´ H ∗ ¥¹ü χ0 . du f (χ) = χ|H, ∀χ ∈ G∗ , Ïd

f −1 [V (C, ε)] = {χ ∈ G∗ |χ(x) − 1| < ε, ∀x ∈ C}
= U (C, ε).
du C ´ G ;f8, Ïd U (C, ε) ´ G∗ ¥¹ü χ0 . l f
´ G∗ H ∗ ëYN.
e¡y f ´ G∗ H ∗ mN, e¡½n 4 w·, éu2
aÿÀ+, ÷ÓNgÄ/´mN.
½n 4 G ÛÜ;+, §m±L«¤ê;f8¿, G e ´Û
e
Ü;+, XJ f ´ÿÀ+ G ÿÀ+ G ÷Ó, @o f ´mN.
y² âÙ §3 ½n 1, y: éu G ü e ?m U ,
3Ge ü ee m U e , ¦ f (U ) ⊇ U
e.
du G ´ÛÜ;+, Ïd·±À G ü e m V , ¦ V ´;
−1 P
, V V ⊆ U. P F = V . ´m G ;f8|¤ê8, §
P
¿8Ò´m G. éu?¿ E ∈ , m8| V x(x ∈ E) CX8Ü E. du E ´;
P
f8, Ïd3/X V x(x ∈ E) m8¤|¤8Ü E kCX. du ¹k
ê;f8, Ïd3+ G ¥3S a1 , a2 , · · · , ¦ Fi = F ai , i = 1, 2, · · · ,
CXm G. P Fei = f (Fi ). du f ´ G G e ÷, Ïd Fe1 , Fe2 , · · · CXm G.
e
§7 ÛÜ;+jAI+ · 239 ·
·5y: 8Ü f (F ) ¹m G e m8. beØ,, K?Û8Ü Fei ÑØ

¹m G e m8. ·5Ñ, ù´ØU. W f0 ´m G e ¥4;
e
? (du G ´ÛÜ;). du8Ü F1 Ø¹ G m8, Ïd3 W e e f1 ,
§4´;, §4¹u8Ü W f0 \Fe1 ¥. du8Ü Fe2 Ø¹ G e
m8, Ïd3 W f2 , §4´;, §4¹u8Ü W f1 \Fe2 ¥, UY
?1ùL§, ·ÃS W0 , W1 , W2 , · · · , §Ñäk;4, f f f
÷v^ (W fi ) ⊆ W fi−1 \Fei , i = 1, 2, 3, · · · . du¤k48 (W fi ) ´;8,
f0 ) ⊇ (W
(W f1 ) ⊇ · · · , ÏdÙ¥?kõ488Ø´8. l ¤kù
4
88Ø´8 (ndXe: ^ Ω L«/X (W fo )\(Wfi ) ¤km8|¤8Ü.
bXþã¤k488´8, @o Ω Ò´ (W fo ) m8CX. du (W fo ) ´;
, Ïdl Ω ¥±ÀÑkCX (W fo )\(W fj1 ), (W
fo )\(W
fj2 ), · · · , (W
fo )\(W
fjs ). u
´ (W fj1 ), (W fj2 ), · · · , (W
fjs ) 8´8. gñ.), ù8Øáu8Ü Fei (i =
1, 2, · · · ) ¿8. ´ Fe1 , Fe2 , · · · , CXm G, e l Fei (i = 1, 2, · · · ) ¿8u G, e
Ïdù´ØU. ùÒy²
: 8Ü f (F ) ¹m G e ,m8 Ve .
e a ∈ Ve , du f (F ) ⊇ Ve , Ïd3 a ∈ F , ¦ f (a) = e a. du F F −1 ⊆ U , Ï
d F a−1 ⊆ U . l
a−1 ⊇ Ve e
f (U ) ⊇ f (F a−1 ) = f (F )e a−1 .
w, Ve e e ¥¹kü ee m8, l Ve e
a−1 ´+ G a−1 ´ G e ü ee m
. ùÒy²
f ´mN.
∗ ∗
y35y f ´ G H mN. du H ´ÿÀ+ G mf+, Ïdâ
ÙSK 6.3 1 13 K, H ´ G 4f8. u´ H ´ÿÀ+ G f+. l H
´ÛÜ;. u´3 H ü e m V äk;4 V , éu G ;
f8 V , -
U (V , W1 ) = {χ ∈ G∗ |χ(V ) ⊆ W1 },

1
Ù¥ W1 = e i2πa |a| < , K U (V , W1 ) ´ G∗ ü χ0 m. r
3
U (V , W1 ) P U . -
U1 (V , W1 ) = {µ ∈ H ∗ |µ(V ) ⊆ W1 },
K U1 (V , W1 ) ´ H ∗ ü χ0 |H m, {P U1 . du G∗ , H ∗ Ñ´ÛÜ;
+, Ïd U Ú U1 Ñk;4. w, U −1 = U, U1−1 = U1 (d¡ U Ú U1 Ñ´é
¡m). du f (χ) = χ|H, Ïd f (U ) = U1 . -
S S S
G∗1 = U U 2 U 3 · · · ,
S S S
H1∗ = U1 U12 U13 · · · .
du f (U ) = U1 , Ïd f (G∗1 ) = H1∗ . du U −1 = U , ÏdNý G∗1 ´+ G∗ f
+, du U ´ G∗ m8, Ïd G∗1 ´ G∗ mf+. l G∗1 ´ G∗ 4f+. u
n
´ G∗1 ´ÛÜ;+. du U (n = 1, 2, · · · ) ´;, Ïdm G∗1 ±L«¤ê
n
;f8 U (n = 1, 2, · · · ) ¿8. Ón H1∗ ´ H ∗ mf+, l H1∗ ´ÛÜ;
+. du f ´ÿÀ+ G∗ ÿÀ+ H ∗ ÷Ó, f (G∗1 ) = H1∗ , Ïd f |G∗1 ´ÿÀ
· 240 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
+ G∗1 ÿÀ+ H1∗ ÷Ó, â½n 4 , f |G∗1 ´ G∗1 H1∗ mN.

T
? G∗ ü χ0 m A, du G∗1 ´ G mf+, Ïd A G∗1 ´ G∗1
ü χ0 m. du f |G∗1 ´ G∗1 H1∗ mN, Ïd3 H1∗ ü
T T
χ0 |H m B, ¦ f (A G∗1 ) ⊇ B. u´ f (A) ⊇ f (A G∗1 ) ⊇ B. w, B ´
H ∗ ü χ0 |H m. âÙ §3 ½n 1 , f ´ G∗ H ∗ mN.
nþ¤ã, ·y²
eã½n.
½n 5 G ´ÛÜ;+, H ´ G mf+, KkÿÀ+Ó:
G∗ /H ⊥ ∼= H ∗.
l½n 2 !½n 3 !½n 5 Ú·K 1 XeíØ.
íØ 2 G ´ÛÜ;+, H ´ G mf+, K
(H ⊥ )⊥ ∼
= (H ∗ )∗ ,
ω|H ´ÿÀ+ H ÿÀ+ (H ⊥ )⊥ Ó.
y² du G ´ÛÜ;+, Ïd G∗ ´ÛÜ;+, H ⊥ ´ÿÀ+ G∗
f+. é G∗ Ú H ⊥ ^½n 3
(G∗ /H ⊥ )∗ ∼
= (H ⊥ )⊥ .
du H ´ G mf+, Ïdâ½n 5
G∗ /H ⊥ ∼= H ∗.
l±þüª (H ⊥ )⊥ ∼ = (H ∗ )∗ .
l½n 5 y²L§, éu?¿ µ ∈ H ∗ , ±r µ *¿¤ G jAI

µG , µG |H = µ. Ïd H ∗ = {χ|H χ ∈ G∗ }. ? h ∈ H, â·K 1 ωh ∈ G∗∗ ,
Ù¥ ωh (χ) = χ(h), ∀χ ∈ G∗ . du χ|H ∈ H ∗ . Ïd ωh (χ|H) = (χ|H)(h). l
ωh ∈ (H ∗ )∗ . u´ ω|H : h 7→ ωh ´ÿÀ+ H ÿÀ+ (H ∗ )∗ Ó. q (H ∗ )∗
(H ⊥ )⊥ kÓN. Ïd ω|H w¤´ÿÀ+ H ÿÀ+ (H ⊥ )⊥ Ó.
7.7 Ð+jAI+ÚVjAI+
l·K 1 , e G ´ÛÜ;+, K ω ´ÿÀ+ G ÿÀ+ G∗∗

Ó. ·?ÚïÄ ω ´Ø´ÿÀ+ G G∗∗ Ó. d·ké
ä
N+y² ω ´Ó. , é?ÛÛÜ;+y² ω ´Ó.
Ù §3 ~ 6 ®Ñ,1 ¥¡ S 1 ´;+. ·5ïÄ S 1 jAI+ (S 1 )∗ .
dkïÄ S 1 f+k=
.
·K 2 ÿÀ+ S 1 zf+ H ½ö S 1 Ü, ½ö´k+. 3
2π
/, H ´Ì+, §)¤´ e i r , Ù¥ r ´ H .
y² / 1 H ´Ã+. du S 1 = { e i2πx |0 6 x 6 1}. Ïd A := {x ∈
i2πx
[0, 1] e ∈ H} ´ [0, 1] Ãf8. ·3Ù §2 ®²y² “k.4«m¥z
Ãf8Ñkà:”, Ïd A kà: c. l H kà: e i2πc , =3 A ¥kS
(an ), ¦ lim an = c. l 3 H ¥kS ( e i2πan ), ¦ lim e i2πan = e i2πc .
n→∞ n→∞
? e i2πb ∈ S 1 , XJ e i2πb ∈
/ H, y e i2πb ´ H à:. ? e i2πb
i2πy
U . - B = {y ∈ [0, 1] e ∈ U }. ê ε ¦ (b − ε, b + ε) ⊆ B. du
§7 ÛÜ;+jAI+ · 241 ·
lim an = c, Ïd3 N ¦ n > N Ú m > N , Òk |an − am | < ε. ½u

n→∞
N ê n Ú m, Ø an > am . P d = an − am K 0 < d < ε. ·äó3
ê r, ¦ rd ∈ (b − ε, b + ε) (bX ∀r ∈ Z+ k rd ∈ / (b − ε, b + ε), K d > 2ε, g
i2πrd
ñ.). l rd ∈ B. u´ e ∈ U . du an , am ∈ A, Ïd e i2πan , e i2πam ∈ H. l
r
e i2πrd = e i2πr(an −am ) = e i2πan e− i2πam ∈ H.
T
u´ H (U \{ e i2πb }) 6= ∅. ùy²
e i2πb ´ H à:, u´ S 1 ⊆ H. l S 1 = H.
qâÙ §3 ½Â 2, ÿÀ+ S 1 f+´m S 1 48, Ïd H = H, u´
S 1 = H.
/ 2 H ´k+. H Éê C ¦{+ C∗ kf+. Ný²:
? F ¦{+ F ∗ kf+½´Ì+ (y²{aqu [24] 1 37
2π
½n 12 y{), Ïd H ´Ì+. H r, K H )¤ e i r .
ÙgïÄ S 1 gÓk=
. w,, ðNÚ¦_N τ : e i2πx 7→ e− i2πx
Ñ´ S 1 gÓ. ?Ú·±y²eã·K 3.
·K 3 ÿÀ+ S 1 gÓkü: ðNÚ¦_N τ : e i2πx 7→ e− i2πx ,
∀x ∈ [0, 1].
y² σ ´ÿÀ+ S 1 ?gÓ, σ Ø´ðN. S 1 2 )¤
2 f+, â·K 2 , ù 2 e iπ = −1, Ïd S 1 k 2
−1. du σ r 2 N¤ 2 , Ïd σ(−1) = −1. S 1 4 )¤ 4 f
2π
+, â·K 2 , e i 4 = i ´§)¤. l i3 = − i ´ 4 . Ïd S 1
4 Tkü: i Ú − i. du σ r 4 N¤ 4 , Ïdkü«U
/: σ( i) = i ½ σ( i) = − i.
/ 1 σ( i) = i. d σ(− i) = − i. S 1 8 )¤ 8 f+, â·
2π
K 2 , e i 8 = e i 4 ´§)¤. l S 1 8 Tk ϕ(8) = 4 , §
π
3π 5π 7π
´ e i 4 , e i 4 , e i 4 , e i 4 . duÿÀ+gÓ´ÓN, Ïd σ 7L± S 1 þ
π
ÌgS. du S 1 þ: 1, e i 4 , i, −1 U_Ì, Ïd§3 σ e

π
1, σ( e i 4 ), i, −1 U_Ì½öU^Ì. du 1, i, −1 Ú
π
_Ì, ÏdUćö, u´ σ( e i 4 ) = e i 4 . UYÓ?Ø, ±y²:

π π
σ( e i 2n ) = e i 2n , ∀n ∈ N∗ . du h σ ±¦{ m i , Ïdé?¿ê m < 2n , k

π π
mπ
h im mπ
σ( e i 2n ) = σ e i 2n = σ( e i 2n ) = e i 2n .
π π
duÿÀ+gÓ´ëYN, Ïd|^þª, σ( e i2πx ) = e i2πx , ∀x ∈ [0, 1].

u´ σ ´ðN.
/ 2 σ( i) = − i, d σ(− i) = i. S 1 þ: 1, e i 4 , i, −1, − i 3 σ e 1,
π
σ( e i 4 ), − i, −1, i AU_Ì½öU^Ì. du 1, − i, −1, i ´

π
7π
U^Ì, ÏdU´ ö. u´ σ( e i 4 ) = e i 4 = e− i i . aqu/ 1
π π
?Ø, y σ( e i2πx ) = e− i2πx , ∀x ∈ [0, 1]. Ïd σ = τ .

1 1 ∗
y3·±5û½ S jAI+ (S ) .
?ÿÀ+ S 1 jAI χ, §´ÿÀ+ S 1 gÓ. du
Ker χ ´ S 1 f+, Ïdâ·K 2 , Ker χ = S 1 ½ö Ker χ ´kÌ+.
· 242 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
XJ Ker χ = S 1 , @o χ( e i2πx ) = 1, ∀x ∈ [0, 1], l χ u S 1 ÌAI χ0 . X

J Ker χ ´kÌ+, @o S 1 / Ker χ ´Ã+. du S 1 / Ker χ ∼ = Im χ, Im χ
1 1 1
´ S f+, Ïdâ·K 2 Im χ = S . u´ S / Ker χ = S , Ù¥ÓN ψ ∼ 1
2π
ψ(g Ker χ) = χ(g), ∀g ∈ S 1 . Ker χ r, K Ker χ = h e i r i, rù χ P
χr , éA ψ P ψr . â·K 3, ÿÀ+ S 1 gÓkü: ðNÚ¦_
N τ . du S 1 / Ker χ S 1 ÓN S 1 gÓÜ¤E´ S 1 / Ker χ S 1
ÓN, Ïdéu S 1 / Ker χr S 1 ÓN ψr , ± S 1 / Ker χr
S 1 ÓN: τ ψr . é?¿ g ∈ S 1 k
τ ψr (g Ker χr ) = τ [χr (g)] = [χr (g)]−1 = χ−1
r (g).
du
g ∈ Ker χ−1 −1
r ⇐⇒ χr (g) = 1 ⇐⇒ [χr (g)]
−1
= 1 ⇐⇒ χr (g) = 1
⇐⇒ g ∈ Ker χr ,
Ïd Ker χ−1
r= Ker χr .
nþ¤ã, ÿÀ+ S 1 jAI+ (S 1 )∗
∗
(S 1 )∗ = {χ0 , χr , χ−1
r |r ∈ N }.
I?ÚïÄ´: ? g ∈ S 1 , χr (g) =?
?¿½ê m, -
µm (g) = g m , ∀g ∈ S 1 .
du µm (gh) = (gh)m = g m hm = µn (g)µm (h), |g m | = |g|m = 1, Ïd µm ´ S 1
g+Ó. w, µm ´ëYN. Ïd µm ´ÿÀ+ S 1 gÓ
. l µm ´ÿÀ+ S 1 jAI. u´ µm ∈ (S 1 )∗ . ddÑ
χ0 = µ0 , χr = µr , χ−1 r = µ−r , r ∈ N∗ .
Ïd
(S 1 )∗ = {µm |m ∈ N}.
- σ : (S 1 )∗ → ( Z, +)
µm 7→ m,
1
w,, σ ´V, dué?¿ g ∈ S , k
(µn µm )(g) = µn (g)µm (g) = g n g m = g n+m = µn+m (g),
Ïd µn µm = µn+m . l σ(µn µm ) = σ(µn+m ) = n + m = σ(µn ) + σ(µm ). u´ σ
´+ (S 1 )∗ ê\+ ( Z, +) Ó. ( Z, +) lÑÿÀ, ¤ÿÀ+. ´
wÑ, σ ´ÿÀ+ (S 1 )∗ ÿÀ+ ( Z, +) ÓN, ÏdÿÀ+ (S 1 )∗ ÿÀ+
( Z, +) Ó. u´·y²
eã·K 4.
·K 4 ÿÀ+ S 1 jAI+ (S 1 )∗
(S 1 )∗ = {µm |m ∈ Z},
Ù¥ µm (g) = g m , ∀g ∈ S 1 ; ¿ÿÀ+ S 1 jAI+ (S 1 )∗ ê\+ ( Z, +)
Ó.
y35?ØÃÌ+ (lÑÿÀ) jAI+. duÃÌ+ÑÓ
uê\+ ( Z, +), Ïd·k5û½ÿÀ+ ( Z, +) jAI+ Z∗ . ?¿½
§7 ÛÜ;+jAI+ · 243 ·
ξ ∈ S1, -
νξ : Z → S 1
m 7→ ξ m .
w,, νξ ´ ( Z, +) S 1 +Ó, νξ ´ëYN, Ïd νξ ´ ( Z, +)
jAI. u´
Z∗ ⊇ {νξ |ξ ∈ S 1 }.
, ? µ ∈ Z∗ , K µ ´ ( Z, +) S 1 +Ó. P µ(1) = ζ, K ζ ∈ S 1 . d

ué?¿ m ∈ Z, k
µ(m) = µ(m1) = µ(1)m = ζ m ,
Ïd µ = νζ . l
Z∗ = {νξ |ξ ∈ S 1 }.
- σ : Z∗ → S 1
νξ 7→ ξ,
1
w,, σ ´V. duéu ξ, ζ ∈ S , ∀m ∈ Z, k
(νξ νζ )(m) = νξ (m)νζ (m) = ξ m ζ m = (ξζ)m = νξζ (m),
Ïd νξ νζ = νξζ . l σ(νξ νζ ) = σ(νξζ ) = ξζ = σ(νξ )σ(νζ ). Ïd σ ´ Z∗ S 1
+Ó, ´wÑ, σ ´ÿÀm Z∗ S 1 ÓN. Ïd σ ´ÿÀ+ Z∗
S 1 Ó. u´ÿÀ+ Z∗ S 1 Ó. ddÑeã·K 5.
·K 5 ?ÃÌ+ (lÑÿÀ¤ÿÀ+) jAI+Óu S 1 .
y² G ´ÃÌ+, a ´ G )¤, K am 7→ m ´ G ( Z, +)
+Ó, ´ëYN. - νeξ (am ) = νξ (m) = ξ m , K νeξ ´ G jAI,
νξ |ξ ∈ S 1 }. du G ∼
G∗ = {e = Z, Ïd G∗ ∼ = Z∗ , qdu Z∗ ∼ = S 1 , Ïd G∗ ∼
= S 1 .
íØ 3 ?ÃÌ+ G (lÑÿÀ) VjAI+ G∗∗ Óu G g
; ;+ S 1 VjAI+ (S 1 )∗∗ Óu S 1 g.
y² â·K 5, G∗ ∼ = S 1 . â·K 4, (S 1 )∗ ∼ = G, Ïd (S 1 )∗ ∼
= Z. q Z ∼ = G.
l
G∗∗ = (G∗ )∗ = ∼ (S 1 )∗ =
∼ G,
(S 1 )∗∗ = [(S 1 )∗ ]∗ ∼
= G∗ ∼
= S1.
y35û½kÌ+ (lÑÿÀ/¤ÿÀ+) H jAI+ H ∗ .
H = hbi n, K bn = e. l éu H ? 1 gEL«JøAI χ, k
1 = χ(e) = χ(bn ) = [χ(b)]n . u´ χ(b) ∈ S 1 . ùL² H ? 1 gEAI χ ´ H
jAI. ´w,, Ïd H ∗ = H. b du H = H, Ïd H ∗ ∼
b ∼ = H. w,ù+
Ó´ÿÀ+Ó. u´·y²
eã·K 6.
·K 6 kÌ+ H(lÑÿÀ) jAI+ H ∗ Óu H g, l
H ∗∗ ∼
= H.
y35ïÄ¢ê\{+ ( R, +) ålÿÀ¤¤ÿÀ+jAI+ R∗ .
· 244 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
aqu1Ù §2 ~ 2, ?¿½¢ê a, -
µa : R → S 1
x 7→ e i2πax ,
K µa ´ ( R, +) AI. w, µa ´ëYN, Ïd µa ´ÿÀ+ ( R, +)
jAI. w,, µ0 ´ÌAI. ·k
{µa |a ∈ R} ⊆ R∗ .
y3? χ ∈ R∗ , K χ ´ÿÀ+ ( R, +) S 1 Ó. u´
R/ Ker χ ∼= Im χ.
du Im χ ´ÿÀ+ S f+, Ïdâ!·K 2 , Im χ = S 1 ½ö Im χ
1
´kÌ+. e Ker χ = R, K χ = µ0 . e¡ Ker χ $ R. du χ ´ ( R, +)

S 1 N, S 1 /X e i2πθ , Ù¥ θ ∈ R, Ïd
χ(x) = e i2πθ(x), ∀x ∈ R.
du χ(x1 + x2 ) = χ(x1 )χ(x2 ), Ïdé?¿ x1 , x2 ∈ R, k
θ(x1 + x2 ) = θ(x1 ) + θ(x2 ) + k, k ∈ Z.
du χ(0) = 1, Ïd θ(0) = l, é, l ∈ Z. Ø θ(0) = 0. u´lþ¡ªf,
θ(x1 ) = θ(x1 ) + k. l k = 0. Ïd θ(x1 + x2 ) = θ(x1 ) + θ(x2 ), ∀x1 , x2 ∈ R. '~
x
¼êäk±\{5. u´ θ(x) = , Ù¥ b ´¢ê, §´~ê. Ïd
x
b
χ(x) = e i2π b , u´ χ = µ 1b . ·k
x
x ∈ Ker χ ⇐⇒ e i2π b = 1
x
⇐⇒ 2π = 2kπ, k ∈ Z
b
⇐⇒ x = kb, k ∈ Z
⇐⇒ x ∈ hbi,
Ïd Ker χ = hbi. bX Im χ ´ r Ì+, K
R/hbi = hc + hbii = {hbi, c + hbi, 2c + hbi, · · · , (r − 1)c + hbi}.
u´
S S S S
R = hbi (c + hbi) (2c + hbi) · · · ((r − 1)c + hbi).
þªm>´ê8, R ´Øê8, gñ. Ïd Im χ = S 1 . u´ R/hbi ∼

= S 1, ù
pÓN ψ
ψ(x + hbi) = χ(x).
â!·K 3, ÿÀ+ S 1 gÓkü: ðNÚ¦_N τ , Ïd τ ψ ´

R/hbi S 1 ÓN.
τ ψ(x + hbi) = τ (χ(x)) = [χ(x)]−1 = χ−1 (x).
´ Ker χ−1 = Ker χ = hbi,
x
χ−1 (x) = e− i2π b = µ− 1b (x), ∀x ∈ R.
Ïd χ−1 = µ− 1b . u´
R∗ = {µa |a ∈ R}.
§7 ÛÜ;+jAI+ · 245 ·
- σ : R∗ → R
µa 7→ a,
w, σ ´V. du
(µa µc )(x) = µa (x)µc (x) = e i2πax e i2πcx = e i2π(a+c)x
= µa+c (x), ∀x ∈ R,
Ïd µa µc = µa+c . l
σ(µa µc ) = σ(µa+c ) = a + c = σ(µa ) + σ(µc ).
∗
Ïd σ ´¦{+ R \{+ R Ó. w, σ ´ÓN. Ïd σ ´ÿÀ
+ R∗ ÿÀ+ ( R, +) Ó. u´·y²
eã·K 7.
·K 7 ¢ê\{+ ( R, +) (ålÿÀ) jAI+ R∗ = {µa |a ∈ R},
Ù¥ µa (x) = e i2πax , ∀x ∈ R; R∗ ∼ = R, R∗∗ ∼= R.
y3·5?ØkÛÜ;+ÈjAI+.
·K 8 G1 , G2 , · · · , Gn ´ n ÛÜ;+, §ÈP G, = G =
G1 × G1 × · · · × Gn (ù´+ G1 , G2 · · · , Gn È¦ÈÿÀ¤¤ÿÀ+, â
!~ 8, G ´ÛÜ;+). G∗i ´ÿÀ+ Gi jAI+, i = 1, 2, · · · , n,
KÛÜ;+ G jAI+ G∗
G∗ = G∗1 × G∗2 × · · · × G∗n .
y² P G e = G∗ × G∗ · · · × G∗n .G
e ¥? µ = (µ1 , µ2 , · · · , µn ), Ù¥
1 2
µi ∈ G∗i , i = 1, 2, · · · , n. u´é?¿ xi ∈ Gi , k µi (xi ) ∈ S 1 , i = 1, 2, · · · , n. éu G
? x = (x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ), -
µ(x) = µ1 (x1 )µ2 (x2 ) · · · µn (xn ),
K µ(x) ∈ S . u´ µ ´+ G S 1 N. Ný µ ±$, Ïd µ
1
´+ G S 1 Ó. l µ ´+ G jAI. 3 G e ¥,

ν = (ν1 , ν2 , · · · , νn ). -
ν(x) = ν1 (x1 )ν2 (x2 ) · · · νn (xn ),
K ν ´+ G jAI. XJ µ Ú ν ´ G jAI, @o µ[(e1 , · · · ,
ei−1 , xi , ei+1 , · · · , en )] = ν[(e1 , · · · , ei−1 , xi , ei+1 , · · · , en )], Ù¥ ej ´ Gj ü ,
j = 1, 2, · · · , n. l µi (xi ) = νi (xi ), ∀xi ∈ Gi . u´ µi = νi , i = 1, 2, · · · , n. Ïd
µ = (µ1 , µ2 , · · · , µn ) = (ν1 , ν2 , · · · , νn ) = ν. ùy²
G e ¥ØÓÑ
+ G
ØÓjAI. y35y G e Ñ
G ¤kjAI. ?+ G
jAI χ, K χ ´ G = G1 × G2 × · · · × Gn S 1 Ó. -
fi : Gi 7→ G
xi 7→ (e1 , · · · , ei−1 , xi , ei+1 , · · · , en ),
w, fi ´+ Gi G üÓ. éu G ¥? x = (x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ), k
x = f1 (x1 )f2 (x2 ) · · · fn (xn ). u´
χ(x) = χ(f1 (x1 ))χ(f2 (x2 )) · · · χ(fn (xn ))
= (χf1 )(x1 )(χf2 )(x2 ) · · · (χfn )(xn ).
· 246 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
du χfi ´ Gi S 1 Ó, Ïd χfi ∈ G∗i . u´

e
µ = (χf1 , χf2 , · · · , χfn ) ∈ G.
du µ(x) = (χf1 )(x1 )(χf2 )(x2 ) · · · (χfn )(xn ) = χ(x), ∀x ∈ G, Ïd χ = µ. u´ G e
Ñ
+ G ¤kjAI.
+Ge G∗ , G∗ , · · · , G∗ Èäk¦{$, + G e ´+ G jA
1 1 n
I, jAIk¦{$, ky²
ùü«$´, âUr G e + G
jAI+. µ = (µ1 , µ2 , · · · , µn ), ν = (ν1 , ν2 , · · · , νn ) ´ G e ¥ü, éu
G ? x = (x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ), k
µ(x)ν(x) = µ1 (x1 )µ2 (x2 ) · · · µn (xn )ν1 (x1 )ν2 (x2 ) · · · νn (xn )
= (µ1 ν1 )(x1 )(µ2 ν2 )(x2 ) · · · (µn νn )(xn ).
e
G È, §¦{$ µν = (µ1 ν1 , µ2 ν2 , · · · , µn νn ); µ, ν G jAI,
§¦{$ (µν)(x) = µ(x)ν(x). du
(µν)(x) = (µ1 ν1 )(x1 )(µ2 ν2 )(x2 ) · · · (µn νn )(xn ) = µ(x)ν(x).
e
Ïd+ G È¦{ G jAI¦{. u´ G e Ò´+ G jA
I+.
e¯K´: G e ÿÀ+ G∗1 , G∗2 , · · · , G∗n Èäk¦ÈÿÀ, r G e
ÛÜ;+ G jA+, G e ÿÀÚì!½n 1 ¥{
, ky²
ùü«ÿÀ´, âUr G e ÛÜ;+ G jAI

1
+. Ki ´ÛÜ;+ Gi ?;f8, Wk = e i2πa |a| < ,-
3k
Ui (Ki , Wk ) = {µi ∈ G∗i |µi (Ki ) ⊆ Wk },
K Ui (Ki , Wk ) ´ G∗i ÌAI µi0 , i = 1, 2, · · · , n. u´ U1 (K1 , Wk ) ×
U2 (K2 , Wk ) × · · · × Uk (Kn , Wk ) ´ G e È G∗ × G∗ × · · · × G∗ ü (µ10 ,
1 2 n
µ20 , · · · , µn0 ) , P U (K1 , K2 , · · · , Kn ; Wk ). ù«/ª¤k|¤
8Ü Be0 ´+ G e ( G∗ , · · · , G∗ Èü |. r G
1 n
e
ÛÜ;+ G jAI+, + G e ü | B0 ´d¤k/ª
U (K, Wk ) |¤, Ù¥ K G ?¿;f8. ·5y: 3 B e0 z
¥¹k B0 ; , 3 B0 z¥¹ B0 . X e
Jy²
ùü:, @o3+ G e ¥¤Äü«ÿÀ´. Äk, ? B e0
U (K1 , · · · , Kn ; Wk ), du fi ´ Gi G üÓ, Ïd fi (Ki ) ´ G
S S S
;f8, l f1 (K1 ) f2 (K2 ) · · · fn (Kn ) ´ G ;f8, r§P K.
µ = (µ1 , · · · , µn ) ∈ U (K; Wk ), K µ(K) ⊆ Wk . du
µi (Ki ) = (µfi )(Ki ) = µ[fi (Ki )] ⊆ µ(K) ⊆ Wk ,
Ïd µi ∈ U (Ki , Wk ), i = 1, 2, · · · , n. l
µ = (µ1 , µ2 , · · · , µn ) ∈ U (K1 , · · · , Kn ; Wk ).
u´ U (K; Wk ) ⊆ U (K1 , · · · , Kn ; Wk ). Ùg, ? B0 U (K, Wk ), ^ πi
L« G Gi ÝK. - Ki = πi (K). 3Ù §2 ®Ñ, ÝKN πi ´ëYN.
u´âÙ §2 ·K 5 , Ki ´ Gi ;f8. µ = (µ1 , µ2 , · · · , µn ) ∈
§7 ÛÜ;+jAI+ · 247 ·
U (K1 , · · · , Kn ; Wnk ), K x ∈ K , k
µ(x) = µ1 (x1 )µ2 (x2 ) · · · µn (xn ) = µ1 π1 (x)µ2 π2 (x) · · · µn πn (x)
∈ µ1 (K1 )µ2 (K2 ) · · · µn (Kn ) ⊆ Wnk Wnk · · · Wnk ⊆ Wk ,
Ïd µ(K) ⊆ Wk . l µ ∈ U (K, Wk ). u´
U (K1 , · · · , Kn ; Wnk ) ⊆ U (K, Wk ).
e
ùy²
+ G ´ÛÜ;+ G jAI+ G∗ , =
G∗ = G∗1 × G∗2 × · · · × G∗n .
G1 , G2 , · · · , Gn ´ n ÛÜ;+, Kâ!½n 2 , Gi jAI
+ Gi ´ÛÜ;+. â·K 8 , ÛÜ;+ G = G1 × G2 × · · · × Gn
jAI+ G∗ G∗ = G∗1 × G∗2 × · · · × G∗n . 2é G∗1 , G∗2 , · · · , G∗n ^·K 8 , ÛÜ
;+ G∗ jAI+ G∗∗
G∗∗ = G∗∗ ∗∗ ∗∗
1 × G2 × · · · × Gn .
- ωi : Gi → G∗∗ i
xi 7→ (ωi )xi ,
Ù¥ (ωi )xi (µi ) = µi (xi ), ∀µi ∈ G∗i . â!·K 1 , wi ´ÛÜ;+ Gi
G∗∗
i g,Ó. -
ω : G → G∗∗
x 7→ ωx ,
Ù¥ ωx (µ) = µ(x), ∀µ ∈ G . Eâ!·K 1 , ω ´ÛÜ;+ G G∗∗
∗
g,Ó. du ωi (xi ) = (ωi )xi ∈ (G∗i )∗ = G∗∗ i , i = 1, 2, · · · , n, Ïd

(ω1 (x1 ), ω2 (x2 ), · · · , ωn (xn )) ∈ G∗∗ .
qk ω(x) = ωx ∈ G∗∗ . ? µ = (µ1 , µ2 , · · · , µn ) ∈ G∗ , k
[ω(x)](µ) = ωx (µ) = µ(x) = µ1 (x1 )µ2 (x2 ) · · · µn (xn ).
l·K 8 y²¥ (é (G∗i )∗ × · · · × (G∗n )∗ 5^)
((ω1 )x1 , · · · , (ωn )xn )(µ) = (ω1 )x1 µ1 · · · (ωn )xn (µn ) = µ1 (x1 ) · · · µn (xn ),
= (ω1 (x1 ), ω2 (x2 ), · · · , ωn (xn ))(µ) = µ1 (x1 )µ2 (x2 ) · · · µn (xn ), Ïd
ω(x) = (ω1 (x1 ), ω2 (x2 ), · · · , ωn (xn )).
u´·y²
eã·K 9.
·K 9 G1 , G2 , · · · , Gn ´ n ÛÜ;+, - G = G1 × G2 × · · · × Gn .
ω ´ÛÜ;+ G G∗∗ g,Ó, ωi ´ÛÜ;+ Gi G∗∗ i g,
Ó, i = 1, 2, · · · , n, Ké?¿ x = (x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ) ∈ G, k
ω(x) = (ω1 (x1 ), ω2 (x2 ), · · · , ωn (xn )),
G∗∗ = G∗∗ ∗∗
1 × G2 × · · · × Gn .
∗∗

l·K 9 Ñ, XJéu i = 1, 2, · · · , n Ñk ωi ´ÛÜ;+ Gi G∗∗ i
Ó, @o ω ´ÛÜ;+ G G∗∗ Ó.
G ´+, ?ê n, -
Gn := G × G × · · · × G .
| {z }
n
· 248 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
^ C L«ÃÌ+ (lÑÿÀ), R L«¢ê\{+ (ålÿÀ), A L«

k+ (lÑÿÀ).
½Â 4 ÿÀ+ (S 1 )n × C m × Rl × A(n, m, l ∈ N) ÓÿÀ+¡Ð+.
w,, Ð+Ñ´ÛÜ;+.
·K 10 Ð+ (S 1 )n ×C m × Rl ×A jAI+Óu (S 1 )m ×C n × Rl ×A;
Ð+ G VjAI+ G∗∗ Óu G g, =Ð+ G G∗∗ g,Ó ω
´Ó.
y² d·K 4 (S 1 )∗ ∼ = Z ∼ = C; d·K 5 C ∗ ∼ = S 1 ; d·K 7
R∗ ∼
= R. duk+ A ±L«¤kõkÌ+È, Ïdâ·K
6 Ú·K 8 A∗ ∼ = A. l â·K 8
[(S 1 )n × C m × Rl × A]∗ = [(S 1 )n ]∗ × (C m )∗ × ( Rl )∗ × A∗
∼
= C n × (S 1 )m × Rl × A
∼
= (S 1 )m × C n × Rl × A.
Ð+ G Óu (S 1 )n × C m × Rl × A, K
G∗ ∼ = (S 1 )m × C n × Rl × A,
G∗∗ = (G∗ )∗ ∼
= (S 1 )n × C m × Rl × A ∼
= G.
∗∗
â·K 9 , G G g,Ó ω ´Ó.
∗
â!íØ 1, lÑ+ G jA+ G ´;+. y3·5&?
3,«¿Âe, G∗ ´Ä±^Ð+5%C.
G lÑ+, W G∗ ü χ0 m. úßÿ: G ¥3
k)¤f+ H ¦ H 3 G∗ ¥"zf H ⊥ ⊆ W . ndXe: -
Ω = {H ⊥ |H ´ G k)¤f+}.
T
H1⊥ , H2⊥ ∈ Ω , Kéu?¿ χ ∈ H1⊥ H2⊥ , â½Â 3
χ(h1 ) = 1, χ(h2 ) = 1, ∀h1 ∈ H1 , h 2 ∈ H2 .
T
l χ(h1 h2 ) = χ(h1 )χ(h2 ) = 1, ∀h1 h2 ∈ H1 H2 . u´ χ ∈ (H1 H2 )⊥ . Ïd H1⊥ H2⊥ ⊆
T T
(H1 H2 )⊥ . , w,k (H1 H2 )⊥ ⊆ H1⊥ H2⊥ , Ïd H1⊥ H2⊥ = (H1 H2 )⊥ . du
T
H1 H2 ´ G k)¤f+, Ïd H1⊥ H2⊥ ∈ Ω . qdu G z a
áu hai, Ïd Ω ¥¤kf+8¹ G∗ ü χ0 . y35y Ω ¥3k
õf+¦§8¹u W . dÄ8Ü
T
Ω ′ = {(G∗ \W ) H ⊥ |H ⊥ ∈ Ω },
T
du Ω ¥¤kf+8 {χ0 }, Ïd Ω ′ ¥¤k8Ü8u (G∗ \W ) {χ0 },
ù´8, =
T ∗ T ⊥
H ⊥ ∈Ω [(G \W ) H ] = ∅.
duÿÀ+f+´4f8, Ïd H ⊥ ´ G∗ 4f8. q W ´ G m8, Ïd

T
G∗ \W ´ G∗ 48. l (G∗ \W ) H ⊥ ´ G∗ 48, -
P T
= {G∗ \[(G∗ \W ) H ⊥ ]|H ⊥ ∈ Ω },
P
K ´d G∗ m8|¤8Ü. du Ω ′ ¥¤k8Ü8´8, Ïd G∗ ¥z
§7 ÛÜ;+jAI+ · 249 ·
P P
½áu ¥,m8. u´ G∗ m8CX. du G∗ ´;
P
+, Ïdl ¥±ÀÑkõm8CX G∗ , §´
T T ⊥
G∗ \[(G∗ \W ) H1⊥ ], · · · , G∗ \[(G∗ \W ) Hm ].
u´ Ω ′ ¥eãkõ8Ü88, =
\m
T
[(G∗ \W ) Hi⊥ ] = ∅.
i=1
þªü>¦Ö8 "m # " #
m
[ m
∗ S ∗ ⊥ S [ ∗ ⊥ S ∗
\
⊥
G = [W (G \Hi )] = W (G \Hi ) = W G \ Hi .
i=1 i=1 i=1
m
\ m
\ m
\
ddÑ, Hi⊥ ⊆ W . du Hi⊥ ∈ Ω , Ïd Hi⊥ ∈ Ω . qdu Hi⊥ =
i=1 i=1 i=1
⊥
(H1 H2 · · · Hm ) , H1 H2 · · · Hm ´ G k)¤f+, Ïd·y²
G ¥
3k)¤f+ H, ¦ H ⊥ ⊆ W . â!½n 5 G∗ /H ⊥ ∼ = H ∗ . du H
´k)¤+, Ïdâ [24] 1 100 ½n 4 H ∼ = Zt × A ∼
= C t × A. l
H∗ ∼ = (S 1 )t × A. u´ G∗ /H ⊥ ∼ = (S 1 )t × A. ù·y²
eã·K 11.
·K 11 G ´lÑ+, W G∗ ü χ0 m, K G ¥
3k)¤f+ H, ¦ H ⊥ ⊆ W , G∗ /H ⊥ ´äk/ª (S 1 )t × A Ð+,
Ù¥ A ´k+.
7.8 ;+ÚlÑ+VjAI+
½n 6 G ;+½lÑ+, G∗ G jAI+, G∗∗ G∗

jAI+ (¡ G∗∗ ´ G VjAI+), KÿÀ+ G G∗∗ g,Ó w ´
Ó, l r G∗∗ G Ó, =r G w¤´ G∗ jAI+, + G x d
'Xª x(χ) = χ(x), χ ∈ G∗ 5(½ G∗ jAI.
y² k G lÑ+. ? G k)¤f+ H. â!
íØ 2, (H ⊥ )⊥ ∼ = (H ∗ )∗ , = (H ⊥ )⊥ H VjAI+ H ∗∗ Ó, u´r
§Ó. r G G∗∗ g,Ó ω H þ, §´ H H ∗∗ g,Ó
. du H ´k)¤+, Ïd H ©)¤kõÌ+È (ë
w [24] 1 100 ½n 4), l H ´Ð+. â!·K 10 , ω|H ´ÿ
À+ H H ∗∗ Ó. Ïd
y² ω ´ÿÀ+ G G∗∗ Ó,
y²: éu?¿é a ∈ G, eb ∈ G∗∗ , Ué G k)¤f+ H, ¦
a ∈ H, eb ∈ H ∗∗ . e¡5éùf+ H. U0 G∗ ü χ0 m

e i2πa 1
, ÷v b(U0 ) ⊆ W1 , Ù¥ W1 = e |a| < . â·K 11 , G ¥3k
3
)¤f+ H1 ¦ H1⊥ ⊆ U0 . r H d H1 Ú a )¤f+ (= H ´
¹ H1 Ú a f+), K H ⊥ ⊆ H1⊥ ⊆ U0 . du eb(H ⊥ ) ⊆ eb(U0 ) ⊆ W1 . Ï
déu?¿ χ ∈ H ⊥ , k eb(χ) ∈ W1 . ·k eb(χn ) = [eb(χ)]n , Ù¥ n ´?¿
ê. du χ ∈ H ⊥ , Ïd χn ∈ H ⊥ . l eb[χn ] ∈ W1 , = [eb(χ)]n ∈ W1 . éu S 1
· 250 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
¥ e i2πa , e z ∈ W1 , z 2 ∈ W1 , · · · , z n ∈ W1 , KNÓ z ∈ Wn . u´l

e e i2πa 1
n
[b(χ)] ∈ W1 b(χ) ∈ Wn , Ù¥ Wn = e |a| < , ∀n ∈ N∗ . ddÑ
3n
eb(χ) = 1, ∀χ ∈ H ⊥ . Ïd eb(H ⊥ ) = {1}. l eb ∈ (H ⊥ )⊥ , = eb ∈ H ∗∗ , ù·¦Ñ

÷v^ a ∈ H, eb ∈ H ∗∗ f+ H, §´k)¤f+. ù·y²
ω ´
ÿÀ+ G G∗∗ Ó.
y3 G ;+. âÙ §6 íØ 3 , éu G zü
a, 3 G jAI χ ¦ χ(a) 6= 1. u´ [w(a)](χ) = wa (χ) = χ(a) 6= 1. Ï
d w(a) Ø´ G∗ ÌAI. l a ∈ / Ker w. ∀a 6= e, Ù¥ e ´ G ü . u
´ Ker w = {e}, ùy²
w ´ü, e¡5y w ´÷, =y w(G) = G∗∗ . d
u G ´;+, Ïd G∗ ´lÑ+. âþãy(Ø, G∗ w¤´
(G∗ )∗ = G∗∗ jAI+, G∗ χ G∗∗ jAI, ÷v'Xª
χ[ω(x)] = ω(x)(χ) = χ(x), ∀x ∈ G,
∗∗
= χ G jAI3 ω(x) ?¼ê, χ G jAI3 x
?¼ê, u´ G∗∗ f+ ω(G) 3 G∗∗ jAI+ (G∗∗ )∗ ¥"zf
ω(G)⊥
ω(G)⊥ = {χ ∈ (G∗∗ )∗ |χ[ω(x)] = 1, ∀ω(x) ∈ ω(G)}
= {χ ∈ G∗ |χ(x) = 1, ∀x ∈ G}
= {χ0 },
Ù¥ χ0 ´ G ÌAI, é G∗∗ Ú§f+ ω(G) ^½n 3 (G∗∗ /ω(G))∗ ∼ =
ω(G)⊥ . du G ´;+, Ïd G∗ ´lÑ+, l G∗∗ ´;+. u´
âÙ §3 1nÜ©~ 8 , G∗∗ /ω(G) ´;+, bX ω(G) 6= G∗∗ , K
G∗∗ /ω(G) ¥¹kü ebω(G) (Ù¥ eb ∈ G∗∗ ). âÙ §6 íØ 3 ,
3 G∗∗ /ω(G) jAI ξ ¦ ξ(ebω(G)) 6= 1. Ïd ξ Ø´ G∗∗ /ω(G) ÌA
I. l (G∗∗ /ω(G))∗ kü, u´ ω(G)⊥ kü, gñ. Ïd
ω(G) = G∗∗ . ùy²
ω ´÷.u´ ω ´;ÿÀm G Hausdorff m G∗∗
éAëYN, âÙ §2 íØ 6 , ω ´ÓN. l ω ´ÿ
À+ G G∗∗ Ó.
∗ ∗∗
½n 6 L²;+ G ±w¤´lÑ+ G jAI+ G ; lÑ
+ G ±w¤´;+ G∗ jAI+. ù«
;+lÑ+
méó'X, ¡½n 6 ´;+lÑ+Äéó½n.
íØ 4 G ´lÑ+, Kéu G zü a, 3 G j
AI χ, ¦ χ(a) 6= 1.
y² du ω ´lÑ+ G G∗∗ Ó, Ïd Ker ω = {e}. l é
u G ¥zü a, Ñk ω(a) Ø´ G∗ ÌAI, u´3 χ ∈ G∗ , ¦
[ω(a)](χ) 6= 1, = χ(a) 6= 1.
⊥ ⊥
½n 7 G ;+½lÑ+, H ´ÿÀ+ G f+, K (H ) = H.
y² H ⊥ ´ G jAI+ G∗ f+. du G w¤´ G∗ jAI+
§7 ÛÜ;+jAI+ · 251 ·
G∗∗ , Ïd
(H ⊥ )⊥ = {x ∈ G|x(χ) = 1, ∀χ ∈ H ⊥ }
= {x ∈ G|χ(x) = 1, ∀χ ∈ H ⊥ }.
qk H ⊥ = {χ ∈ G∗ |χ(h) = 1, ∀h ∈ H}, Ïd H ⊆ (H ⊥ )⊥ . bX H 6= (H ⊥ )⊥ , K
3 b ∈ (H ⊥ )⊥ , ´ b ∈ / H, â½n 3, (G/H)∗ ∼ = H ⊥ . du G ´;+½lÑ
+, Ïd G/H ´;+½lÑ+. du b ∈ / H, Ïd bH ´ G/H
ü , âÙ §6 íØ 3 ½!íØ 4 , 3 G/H jAI ξ 0
¦ ξ 0 (bH) 6= 1. â½n 3 &¢Úy²L§, (G/H)∗ H ⊥ ÓN σ
σ(ξ) = ξ, Ù¥ ξ ´ G jAI, ξ(h) = 1, ∀h ∈ H; ξ(gH) = ξ(g), ∀gH ∈ G/H.
Ïdl ξ 0 (bH) 6= 1 ξ0 (b) 6= 1. du b w¤´ G∗ jAI÷v b(χ) = χ(b), Ïd
b(ξ0 ) = ξ0 (b) 6= 1. du ξ0 ´ G jAI ξ0 (h) = 1, ∀h ∈ H, Ïd ξ0 ∈ H ⊥ . qd
u b ∈ (H ⊥ )⊥ , Ïd ∀χ ∈ H ⊥ k b(χ) = 1, l b(ξ0 ) = 1, gñ. Ïd H = (H ⊥ )⊥ .
!½n 5 Ñ, G ´ÛÜ;+, H ´ G mf+, K H jAI
+ H ∗ G∗ /H ⊥ Ó. y3· G ´;+½lÑ+, KéuÿÀ+ G
?f+ H Ñk H ∗ G∗ /H ⊥ Ó, =keã½n 8.
½n 8 G ;+½lÑ+, G∗ G jAI+, H ´ÿÀ+
G ?f+. éu χH ⊥ ∈ G∗ /H ⊥ , -
(χH ⊥ )(h) := χ(h), ∀h ∈ H,
K χH ⊥ w¤´ H jAI, 3ù¿Âe G∗ /H ⊥ ´ H jAI+
H ∗.
y² 3½n 5 &¢L§m©·ÒÑ
τ : G∗ /H ⊥ → H ∗
χH ⊥ 7→ χ|H
Ń, Ïd5½ (χH ⊥ )(h) = χ(h) ´Ün (=Ø6u8 χH ⊥ L χ
À), l G∗ /H ⊥ ? χH ⊥ w¤´ H jAI. q®y τ ´
ü, Ïd G∗ /H ⊥ ØÓ´ H ØÓjAI. eIy² H ?
jAIÑ±d G∗ /H ⊥ , χH ⊥ Uìþª5½, ù G∗ /H ⊥
Òw¤´ H jAI+
. du H ⊥ ´ G∗ f+, Ïdé G∗ ^½n 3
= (H ⊥ )⊥ . qâ½n 7 (H ⊥ )⊥ = H. Ïd (G∗ /H ⊥ )∗ ∼
(G∗ /H ⊥ )∗ ∼ = H. u´
∗ ⊥ ∗
H w¤´ G /H jAI+. qâ½n 6, G w¤´ G jAI+.
Ïd H ? h Qw¤´ G∗ /H ⊥ jAI, qw¤´ G∗
jAI. l½n 3 &¢y²L§, h G∗ /H ⊥ jAI, k
h(χH ⊥ ) = h(χ), ∀χH ⊥ ∈ G∗ /H ⊥ , q h G∗ jAI, k h(χ) = χ(h), Ï
d
h(χH ⊥ ) = χ(h), ∀χH ⊥ ∈ G∗ /H ⊥ , h ∈ H.
du G ´;+½lÑ+, Ïd G∗ ´lÑ+½;+, l G∗ /H ⊥
´lÑ+½;+, é G∗ /H ⊥ ^½n 6 , G∗ /H ⊥ w¤´ (G∗ /H ⊥ )∗
· 252 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
jAI+, l G∗ /H ⊥ w¤´ H jAI+, Ïd H ?jAI

w¤´ G∗ /H ⊥ χH ⊥ . G∗ /H ⊥ χH ⊥ H jAId'X
ª (χH ⊥ )(h) = h(χH ⊥ ) 5(½. (Üþ¡®y²ª h(χH ⊥ ) = χ(h), B
(χH ⊥ )(h) = χ(h), ∀h ∈ H.
ùy²
H ?jAI±d G∗ /H ⊥ , χH ⊥ Uì (χH ⊥ )(h) = χ(h)
5, ùÒy²
3 (χH ⊥ )(h) = χ(h) ¿Âe, G∗ /H ⊥ ´ H jAI+.
y3·5?Øéu;+½lÑ G, §?f+ H jAI µ
UÄ*¿¤ G jAI.
½n 9 G ;+½lÑ+, H ÿÀ+ G ?f+, a ´ G
,Ø3 H ¥, µ H jAI, K3 G jAI χ, §3
H þu µ, χ(a) 6= 1.
y² â½n 8, G∗ /H ⊥ ´ H jAI+. u´3 χH ⊥ ∈ G∗ /H ⊥ , χH ⊥
H jAI µ Ü, = (χH ⊥ )(h) = µ(h), ∀h ∈ H. 38 χH ⊥ ¥
χ1 , K χ1 H ⊥ = χH ⊥ . l
χ1 (h) = (χ1 H ⊥ )(h) = (χH ⊥ )(h) = µ(h), ∀h ∈ H.
Ïd χ1 |H = µ. XJ χ1 (a) 6= 1, @o χ1 ÒÎÜ¦. XJ χ1 (a) = 1, 3û+ G/H
¥8 aH 6= H. du G/H ´;+½lÑ+, ÏdâÙ §6 íØ 3
Ú!íØ 4 , 3 G/H jAI ξ ¦ ξ(aH) 6= 1. rû+ G/H
jAI ξ J, G jAI ξ, K ξ(a) = ξ(aH) 6= 1, Ker ξ ⊇ H. u´
ξ(h) = 1, ∀h ∈ H. - χ2 = χ1 ξ, K χ2 ∈ G∗
χ2 (a) = (χ1 ξ)(a) = χ1 (a)ξ(a) = ξ(a) 6= 1;
χ2 (h) = (χ1 ξ)(h) = χ1 (h)ξ(h) = χ1 (h) = µ(h), ∀h ∈ H.
Ïd χ2 |H = µ. l χ2 ÎÜ¦.
7.9 ÛÜ;+VjAI+
y35ïÄÛÜ;+ G §VjAI+ G∗∗ ´ÄÓ.
ÄkïÄÛÜ;+(.
½Â 5 G ´ÿÀ+, XJ G ¥3ü V, V äk;4 V ,
¿ V )¤+ G, @o¡ÿÀ+ G äk;)¤ö.
S
·K 12 ÿÀ+ G äk;)¤ö V , - W = V V −1 , K
S S S S
G = W W2 ··· Wn ··· ,
n
z8Ü W Ñ´;, l G ´ê;f8¿8.
y² du G äk;)¤ö V , Ïd V ´ G ü e . du V )¤
+ G, Ïd G ¥z a L«¤ a = bm 1 m2 mt ∗
1 b2 · · · bt , Ù¥ mj ∈ N , bj ∈ W, j =
m m
1, 2, · · · , t; t ∈ N∗ . - n = max{m1 , m2 , · · · , mt }, K bj j = bj j en−mj ∈ W n , j =
1, 2, · · · , t. u´
a = (bm 1 n−m1
e )(bm2 en−m2 ) · · · (bm t n−mt
t e ) ∈ W nt .
S 21S S n2S
ddÑ G = W W ··· W ···.
§7 ÛÜ;+jAI+ · 253 ·
du V äk;4 V , ¦_$´ëYN, ÏdâÙ §2 ·K 5

S
, V −1 äk;4, l W = V V −1 äk;4 W . du
n
W = W × W × ··· × W,
| {z }
n
n
ÏdâÙ §2 3öìÅ½n, W ´;, l G ´ê;f8¿
8.
ÛÜ;+±^äk;)¤öf+ “lSÜ” 5%C, =eã·K 13.
·K 13 G ´ÛÜ;+, F ´ G ?;f8, K G ¥3äk;
)¤ömf+ H, ¦ F ⊆ H.
y² V ´ÛÜ;+ G ü e m, §äk;4 V . -
S S
U = V (V F ), W = U U −1 . du V ´ü e m, e ∈ V ⊆ U , Ïd
U ´ e . l W ´ e . âÙ §2 ·K 4 , G
;f8 F ´48. u´l V äk;4 V Ñ, U äk;4 U . l
S S S S
W k;4 W . - H = W W 2 · · · W n · · · , Kéu?¿ h1 , h2 ∈ H, k
h1 h−1
2 ∈ H. l H ´ G f+. w, H ´d U )¤f+. Ïd H äk
;)¤ö U . du V ´ G m8, ÏdâSK 6.3 1 2 K, V F ´ G m
S
8, l U = V (V F ) ´ G m8. du U = (U −1 )−1 , ¦_$´ëYN,
ÏdâÙ §2 ·K 1, l U ´m8íÑ U 3¦_$e8 U −1 ´m
S
8. u´ W = U U −1 ´m8. lÿÀÈ½Â (Ù §2 ½Â 6) á=Ñ,
S S S S
W n = W × W × · · · × W ´m8. l H = W W 2 · · · W n · · · ´ G m8,
| {z }
n
= H ´ G mf+. w, F ⊆ H.
·K 14 G ´ÛÜ;+, H ´ G äk;)¤ömf+, K G/H
´lÑ+.
y²
y G/H äklÑÿÀ, y G/H zf8Ñ´m8. d
y G/H z aH |¤f8 {aH} ´m8. ùy G/H ü H
|¤f8 {H} ´m8. âÙ §3 ½n 3, û+ G/H ÅÜÿÀ¤ÿÀ
+. âÅÜÿÀ½Â, G/H f8 {H} m8= {H} 3 π e
8 {h|h ∈ H} = H ´ G m8. d®^, H ´ G m8. Ïd {H} ´
G/H m8. l G/H ÅÜÿÀ´lÑÿÀ. u´ G/H ´lÑ+.
l·K 14 Ééu, ·IïÄäk;)¤ö+(, , âk
F")ûÛÜ;+VjAI+(¯K.
½n 10 äk;)¤ö+o±©)¤;f+Ðf+È.
½n 10 y²', ïÆÖöw [12] 1 298 — 300 .
y35ïÄÛÜ;+VjAI+(.
½n 11 G ÛÜ;+, G∗ G jAI+, G∗∗ G∗ jA
I+, ω ÿÀ+ G G∗∗ g,Ó, K ω ´ÿÀ+ G G∗∗ Ó, l
r G∗∗ G Ó, =r G w¤´ G∗ jAI+; + G x d'Xª
· 254 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
x(χ) = χ(x), χ ∈ G∗ 5(½ G∗ jAI.

y² du G ÛÜ;+, Ïdâ·K 13 , G 3äk;)¤ö
mf+ H. H ´ G ?¿äk;)¤ömf+, Kâ·K 14 ,
G/H ´lÑ+. â½n 3, (G/H)∗ ∼ = H ⊥ . u´âíØ 1 , H ⊥ ´;+.
⊥ ⊥ ∼ ∗ ∗ ⊥ ⊥
âíØ 2 (H ) = (H ) , = (H ) w¤´ H VjAI+, ω|H ´
H (H ⊥ )⊥ g,Ó. du H ´äk;)¤ö+, Ïdâ½n 10
, H ©)¤;f+Ðf+È. â½n 6 !·K 10 Ú·K 9

⊥ ⊥

i2πa 1 ∗ ⊥
, ω|H ´ H (H ) Ó. - Wn = e |a| < 3n , n ∈ N . du H ´
G∗ ;f8, Ïd (G∗ )∗ ü m U0 = U (H ⊥ , W1 ), §÷v
eb(H ⊥ ) ⊆ W1 , ∀eb ∈ U0 . u´é?¿ χ ∈ H ⊥ , k eb(χ) ∈ W1 ·k eb(χn ) = [eb(χ)]n .
du H ⊥ ´f+, Ïd χn ∈ H ⊥ . l [eb(χ)]n = eb(χn ) ∈ W1 . ddÑ, eb(χ) ∈
Wn , ∀n ∈ N∗ . Ïd eb(χ) = 1, ∀χ ∈ H ⊥ . u´ eb ∈ (H ⊥ )⊥ . l U0 ⊆ (H ⊥ )⊥ . w
,k (H ⊥ )⊥ ⊆ U0 . Ïd (H ⊥ )⊥ = U0 . u´ (H ⊥ )⊥ ´ G∗∗ mf+. l ω
r G mf+ H N¤ G∗∗ mf+ (H ⊥ )⊥ . âÙ §3 ½n 1 , ω ´ÿÀ
+ G ÿÀ+ G∗∗ mÓ.
·y w ´ÿÀ+ G ÿÀ+ G∗∗ Ó. XJUy²: éu?¿é
c ∈ G∗∗ , 3 G ¥Uéäk;)¤ömf+ H, ¦ a ∈ H, e
a ∈ G, e c ∈ H ∗∗ ,
@o ω ´ G G∗∗ V. qdu ω ´ÿÀ+ G ÿÀ+ G∗∗ mÓ, Ïd ω
r G ?m8N¤ G∗∗ m8. l é ω −1 : G∗∗ → G ^Ù §2 ·K 1 ,
ω −1 ´ G∗∗ G ëYN. Ïd ω ´ÿÀm G G∗∗ ÓN. l ω ´
ÿÀ+ G G∗∗ Ó.
U0 ´ G∗ ü χ0 m, §÷v e c(U0 ) ⊆ W1 . V1 ´ G
ü e , §äk;4 V 1 , ^ H1 L« G ¥d V1 )¤f+. u
´ H1 ´ G äk;)¤öf+. l·K 13 y²L§, H1 ´ G m
f+. u´â·K 14 , G/H1 ´lÑ+, â½n 3 (G/H1 )∗ ∼ = H1⊥ , =
⊥
H1 ´lÑ+ G/H1 jAI+. élÑ+ G/H1 ^·K 11 , G/H1
¥3k)¤f+ H2 /H1 , ¦ H2 /H1 3 (G/H1 )∗ ¥"zf (H2 /H1 )⊥
¹u (G/H1 )∗ ü m. du H1⊥ w¤´ (G/H1 )∗ , Ïd (G/H1 )∗
ü m¤ H1⊥ ü m, = G∗ ü
m U0 . l (H2 /H1 )⊥ ⊆ U0 , (H2 /H1 )⊥ w¤´ H2 /H1 3 H1⊥ ¥"
zf. H2 /H1 )¤ x1 H1 , x2 H1 , · · · , xm H1 . â½n 3 &¢y²L§,
(G/H1 )∗ H1⊥ ÓN σ σ(ξ) = ξ, Ù¥ ξ(gH1 ) = ξ(g), ∀gH1 ∈ G/H1 . ?
ξ ∈ (H2 /H1 )⊥ , K ξ(xi H1 ) = 1, l ξ(xi ) = 1, i = 1, 2, · · · , m. du (H2 /H1 )⊥ w
¤´ H2 /H1 3 H1⊥ ¥"zf, Ïd ξ ∈ H1⊥ , l ξ(h) = 1, ∀h ∈ H1 . du H2 /H1
)¤ x1 H1 , x2 H1 , · · · , xm H1 , Ïd
H2 = {xr11 · · · xrmm h|h ∈ H1 , ri ∈ Z, i = 1, 2, · · · , m}.
u´ ∀ξ ∈ (H2 /H1 )⊥ , k ξ(xr11 · · · xrmm h) = ξ(x1 )r1 · · · ξ(xm )rm ξ(h) = 1, Ïd ξ ∈ H2⊥ .
§8 ÛÜ; Hausdorff ÿÀ+þ Haar ÿÝ · 255 ·
u´ (H2 /H1 )⊥ w¤´ H2⊥ f8. w,, ∀ξ ∈ H2⊥ , k ξ(xi H1 ) = ξ(xi ) = 1, Ï

S
d (H2 /H1 )⊥ = H2⊥ . u´ H2⊥ ⊆ U0 . - V = V1 {x1 , x2 , · · · , xm , a}, du V1 äk
;4 V 1 , Ïd V äk;4 V . ^ H L« G ¥d V )¤f+, K H ´
G äk;)¤ömf+. w, H2 ⊆ H. u´ H ⊥ ⊆ H2⊥ ⊆ U0 . l éu¤
e c ∈ G∗∗ , k e
c(H ⊥ ) ⊆ e c(U0 ) ⊆ W1 . Ïd ∀χ ∈ H ⊥ , k e
c(χ) ∈ W1 . ddíÑ
∗
c(χ) ∈ Wn , ∀n ∈ N . l e
e c(χ) = 1. u´ e c ∈ (H ) . c¡®Ñ, (H ⊥ )⊥ w¤´
⊥ ⊥
H VjAI+ H ∗∗ , Ïd e c ∈ H ∗∗ . ql H {, a ∈ H. ù·

∗∗
y²
w ´ÿÀ+ G G Ó.
íØ 5 G ´ÛÜ;+, Kéu G zü a, 3 G
jAI χ, ¦ χ(a) 6= 1.
y² du ω ´ÛÜ;+ G G∗∗ Ó, Ïd Ker ω = {e}. l é
u G ¥zü a, Ñk ω(a) Ø´ G∗ ÌAI. u´3 χ ∈ G∗ , ¦
[ω(a)](χ) 6= 1, = χ(a) 6= 1.
½n 12 G ÛÜ;+, H ´ÿÀ+ G f+, K
(H ⊥ )⊥ = H.
y² aqu½n 7 y².
∗ ∗ ∼
½n 5 QÑ
ÛÜ;+mf+ H jAI+ H (: H =
G∗ /H ⊥ , e¡½n 13 KÑ
ÛÜ;+?f+jAI+(.
½n 13 G ´ÛÜ;+, H ´ÿÀ+ G ?f+, éu χH ⊥ ∈
G∗ /H ⊥ , -
(χH ⊥ )(h) := χ(h), ∀h ∈ H,
K χH ⊥ w¤´ H jAI, 3ù¿Âe, G∗ /H ⊥ ´ H jA

I+.
y² aqu½n 8 y².
ÛÜ;+?f+jAI*¿+jAI, =·k
e¡½n 14.
½n 14 G ´ÛÜ;+, H ´ÿÀ+ G ?f+, a ∈ G a ∈ / H, µ
H jAI, K3 G jAI χ, ¦ χ|H = µ, χ(a) 6= 1.
y² aqu½n 9 y².
§8 ÛÜ; Hausdorff ÿÀ+þ Haar ÿÝ

ïÄÛÜ;ÿÀ+E5L«, !5ïáÛÜ;ÿÀ+þØCÈ©.
8.1 ÿÝ, ÿ¼ê, È©

3iùÈ©½Â¥IÄ«m [xj−1 , xj ] Ý xj − xj−1 . ddÉ
éu,
éuÿÀ+ G þ¢¼ê½Â§3 G ,f8 A þÈ©, Ò
IéuÿÀm G f8½ÂaquÝVg, ¡ “ÿÝ”. 5¿: e
· 256 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
T S
[a, b] [c, d] = ∅, K [a, b] [c, d] Ýu [a, b] Ý [c, d] ÝÚ. Ïd
éuÿÀm G f8½Â “ÿÝ” Akaqu«mÝù “\” 5
, dÄkI3¤ÄÿÀm G
f8|¤8Ü¥, éu8Ü!
¿!Ön«$µ4. X ´8Ü, A ´ X
f8|¤8Ü, w,¦
A Ø´8, Ïdg,/¦ ∅ ∈ A . A ∈ A , A 3 X ¥Ö8 X\A P
T S
Ac . A, B ∈ A , du A B = (Ac B c )c , Ïd A éu8Ü¿ÚÖü«$
µ4Ò7,éu8Ü$µ4. l A Òk8Ü¿!!Ön«$. a
' F þê A ´äk\{!¦{ÚXþ¦{n«$, u´ÚÑeãVg.
½Â 1 X ´8Ü, A ´ X
f8|¤8Ü, XJ A éu
Ö$Ú¿$µ4, =
(1) e A ∈ A , K Ac ∈ A ;
S
(2) e A ∈ A B ∈ A , K A B ∈A,
@o¡ A ´ê.
A ´ X
f8|¤ê, du A 8, Ïd3 A ∈ A , u
T
´ Ac ∈ A , du A éu$µ4, Ïd A Ac ∈ A . u´ ∅ ∈ A . ? k
X = ∅c ∈ A , Ïd?ê A ¹k X üf8: ∅ Ú X.
du8Ü¿$÷v(ÜÆ, Ïdéuê A , e A1 , A2 , · · · , An ∈ A , K
n
[
Ai ∈ A .
i=1
l¢ê¶þ«mÝäk “\” 5 (½Â 1 þ¡ã{), ÚÑe
ãVg.
½Â 2 A ´8Ü X
f8|¤ê, ½Â A ¢ (
T S
±∞) ¼ê µ XJ÷v: éu A, B ∈ A , A B = ∅, k µ(A B) = µ(A) + µ(B),
@o¡ µ ´ A þk\ (½{ü\) ¼ê.
µ ´ê A þk\¼ê, KN´^êÆ8B{y²: éu A ¥üü
Ø A1 , A2 , · · · , An , k !
n
[ n
X
µ Ai = µ(Ai ). (1)
i=1 i=1
S
l½Â 2 ¥w, ½Âê A k\¼ê µ R {±∞}, P
R, ½ [−∞, +∞], ¡ R *¿
¢ê8. 5½: ∀t ∈ R, k −∞ < t < +∞. ¢
ê8 R k\{Ú¦{$,
¦ R k\{Ú¦{$, ¿Eäk¢ê8 R
k'\{Ú¦{${K, ·5½: ∀t ∈ R,
(1) ±∞ + t = t + ±∞ = ±∞;
(2) +∞ + (+∞) = +∞, (−∞) + (−∞) = −∞;
(3) +∞ + (−∞) ´Ø(½;
(4) e t > 0, K t(±∞) = (±∞)t = ±∞;
e t < 0, K t(±∞) = (±∞)t = ∓∞;
(5) 0(±∞) = (±∞)0 = 0.
þã (1) — (4) Ñ´ég,5½. éu (5) oùo5½Q? ù´Ï·¦

R Eäk¦{é\{©Æ, u´k
0(±∞) = (0 + 0)(±∞) = 0(±∞) + 0(±∞), (2)
(2) ªü>\þ 0(±∞) ê −[0(±∞)],
−[0(±∞)] + 0(±∞) = −[0(±∞)] + 0(±∞) + 0(±∞),
ddÑ
0 = 0(±∞).
Óny
0 = (±∞)0.

U
?n4L§, ·r½Â 1 ^\r, ÚÑeãVg.
½Â 3 A ´8Ü X
f8|¤8Ü, XJ A ÷veü
^:
(1) e A ∈ A , K Ac ∈ A ;
∞
[
(2) e Ak ∈ A , k = 1, 2, · · · , K Ak ∈ A ,
k=1
@o¡ A ´ σ-ê.
½Â 3 L² σ-ê A éu “ê¿” $µ4, éuÖ$µ4, N´
y: !c
∞
\ ∞
[
c
Ak = Ak , (3)
k=1 k=1
Ïd σ-ê A éu “ê” $µ4. du σ-ê A ´ê, Ïd ∅ ∈ A ,

X ∈A.
XJ A ´8Ü X þ σ-ê, @o X ½ (X, A ) ¡ÿm; A
¡ X ÿ8.
ØJwÑ, 8Ü X f8ê (½ σ-ê) |¤8Ü, Ù8E,´
ê (½ σ-ê). AO/, ½8Ü X f8|¤8Ü S , ¹ S
¤kê (½ σ-ê) ¡d S )¤ê (½ σ-ê).
½Â 4 X ´ÿÀm, Kd X ½
4f8)¤ σ-ê¡
Borel ê, ½ö X Borel 8a, §z Borel 8.
u´ÿÀm X z48´ Borel 8, zm8 (§´,48
Ö8) ´ Borel 8. m8zê8´ Borel 8, zU
L«¤ù«
ê8ê¿8´ Borel 8, .
R d/ª (−∞, a] «m)¤ σ-ê B ´ Borel ê. du (a, b] =
T
(−∞, b] (−∞, a]c , Ïd?¿«m (a, b] ∈ B. du?Ûm«m´/X (a, bn ] «m
¿8, Ïd?Ûm«máu B. âÙ §2 ~ 1 , ?Ûm8´m«m¿8,
Ïd?Ûm8áu B. u´z Borel 8 (§U´Ù¦ Borel ê) á
u B.
· 258 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
¢ê¶þ«m [a, b] Ý´K¢ê, (−∞, +∞) Ý´ +∞. ddÉé

u, ÚÑeVg.
½Â 5 A ´8Ü X
f8|¤8Ü, ½Â A !*¿
S
K¢ê8 R+ {+∞} (P R+ ) ¼ê µ XJ÷v: éu A ¥üüØ
8ÜS (Ak ), §¿8áu A , k
∞
! ∞
[ X
µ Ak = µ(Ak ), (4)
k=1 k=1
@o¡ µ ´ A þê\¼ê.
½Â 6 X ´8Ü, A ´ X
f8|¤ σ-ê, K A þ
ê\¼ê µ ¡ X þÿÝ.
(X, A ) ´ÿm. e3 A þ½Â
ÿÝ µ, K¡ (X, A , µ) ´
ÿÝm.
½Â 7 X ´ÿÀm, ½Â X Borel êÿÝ¡
Borel ÿÝ.
5 k©z¥, Borel ÿÝ´3 Borel 8þ½ÂÿÝ, §äk3;8þ
kkÿÝ\5.
XÛäê A þk\¼ê µ ´Ääkê\5Q?
·K 1 µ ´½Â3ê A þk\¼ê, K µ ´ê\=
§k “eëY5”: XJézê n k An ∈ A An ⊆ An+1 , ¿XJ
∞ ∞
!
[ [
An ∈ A , @o µ An = lim µ(An ).
n→∞
n=1 n=1
y² 75. µ ´ê\. -
B1 = A1 , Bn = An \An−1 , n > 1,
n
[
K An = Bk , ¿8Ü B1 , B2 , B3 , · · · ´üüØ, u´
k=1
∞
! ∞
! ∞
[ [ X
µ An =µ Bk = µ(Bk )
n=1 k=1 k=1
n n
!
X [
= lim µ(Bk ) = lim µ Bk = lim µ(An ).
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
k=1 k=1
¿©5. µ ´k\, ¿äk “eëY5”. (An ) ´ A ¥üü

n
[
Ø8ÜS, - Bn = Ak , Kézê n, k Bn ⊆ Bn+1 . P
k=1
∞
[ ∞
[
B= Bn , K B = Ak . du µ äk “eëY5”, µ ´k\, Ïd
n=1 k=1
∞
! n
!
[ [
µ(B) = µ Bn = lim µ(Bn ) = lim µ Ak
n→∞ n→∞
n=1 k=1
n
X ∞
X
= lim µ(Ak ) = µ(Ak ).
n→∞
k=1 k=1
u´
∞
! ∞
[ X
µ Ak = µ(Ak ),
k=1 k=1
= µ äkê\5.
38Ü X þïáÿÝ´(Jó, ù´Ï σ-ê(5`
´éE,. ~X, ½Â²¡þm8¡ÈÒØN´. l²¡þã/¡Èäk

5Ééu, ·ÄkÚ?eãVg.
½Â 8 X ´8Ü, ½Â X ¤kf8|¤8Ü P(X) R+
¼ê µ∗ XJ÷v:
(1) µ∗ (∅) = 0;
(2) e A ⊆ B, K µ∗ (A) 6 µ∗ (B)(üN5);
), ·k
(3) éu X f8?S (An!
∞
[ ∞
X
∗
µ An 6 µ∗ (An ),
n=1 n=1
@o¡ µ∗ ´ X þ ÿÝ.
½Â 8 ¥5 (3) ¡êg\5.
éu²¡þØ5Kã/, ±ÑCXùã/Nõ/, , ^ù
/¡ÈÚ5%CØ5Kã/¡È. ddÉéu, eãÚn 1 £ã
E ÿÝ{.
Ún 1 X ´8Ü. C ´ X
f8|¤8Ü, C ¥kêf
8¿8u X. λ ´½Â C K¢¼ê. XJ µ∗ ´½Â P(X)
¼ê, §÷v µ∗ (∅) = 0, éu( ∞ A ⊆ X, A 6= ∅, k∞ )
X [
∗
µ (A) = inf λ(Cn )Cn ∈ C , Cn ⊇ A , (5)

n=1 n=1
@o µ∗ ´ X þ ÿÝ.
y² du C ¥kêf8¿8u X, Ïd C ¥kf8 C1 , C2 , · · · ,
[∞
¦ Cn ⊇ A. l (5) ªm>8ÜØ´8. du λ ´ C þK¢¼
n=1
ê, Ïd (5) ªm>8Üke. 0. â(.3½n, (5) ªm>8Ü7ke
(., l µ∗ (A) 3, Ù¥ A ⊆ X, A 6= ∅. Ïd µ∗ ´½Â P(X)
R+(¼ê, e A ⊆ B, A 6= ∅, B)6= ∅, (K )
X∞ [∞ X∞ [∞

λ(Cn )Cn ∈ C , Cn ⊇ A ⊇ λ(Dn )Dn ∈ C , Dn ⊇ B ,

n=1 n=1 n=1 n=1
l µ∗ (A) 6 µ∗ (B). du µ∗ (∅) = 0, Ïd µ∗ (∅) 6 µ∗ (A), ùy²
µ∗ äküN
5. e¡5y µ∗ äkêg\5. (An ) ´ X f8?S, ? ε > 0,
· 260 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
∞
[
éuz n, â (5) ª, ·±ÀJ Cn,k ∈ C (k = 1, 2, · · · ), ¦ An ⊆ Cn,k ,
k=1

∞
X ε
λ(Cn,k ) 6 µ∗ (An ) + .
2n
k=1
∞
[ [∞
duêx {Cn,k |n, k = 1, 2, · · · } CX An , Ïdé An ^ (5) ª
! n=1 n=1
[∞ X ∞ X
X ∞
∗
µ An 6 λ(Cn,k ) = λ(Cn,k )
n=1 n,k n=1 k=1
∞
X ∞
X
6 (µ∗ (An ) + ε2−n ) = µ∗ (An ) + ε.
n=1 n=1
l µ∗ äkêg\5. nþ¤ã, µ∗ ´ X þ ÿÝ.
n n
~ 1 E R þ ÿÝ, C ´d R eã/ªf8|¤8Ü:
D = {(x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ) ∈ Rn |ai < xi < bi , i = 1, 2, · · · , n},
Y n
- λ(D) = (bi − ai ).
i=1
|^Ún 1 {EÑ Rn þ ÿÝ m∗ , ¡§ Rn þ Lebesgue
ÿÝ.
y35&?XÛ|^ ÿÝ5EÿÝ.
²¡þØ5Kã/ E XJ±OÑ¡È{, @oéu²¡þ?ã/
T T
A Ñk A ¡Èu A E ¡È A E c ¡ÈÚ. ddÉéu, ÚÑe
ãVg.
½Â 9 X ´8Ü, µ∗ ´ X þ ÿÝ. X f8 E XJ÷
veã^: éuz A ⊆ X, Ñk
T T
µ∗ (A) = µ∗ (A E) + µ∗ (A E c ), (6)
∗
@o¡ E ´ µ -ÿ8.
·K 2 µ∗ ´8Ü X þ ÿÝ. éu X f8 E, e µ∗ (E) = 0, K
E ´ µ∗ -ÿ8.
T
y² µ∗ (E) = 0. ? A ⊆ X. du A E ⊆ E, Ïdd µ∗ üN5
T T
µ∗ (A E) 6 µ∗ (E) = 0. l µ∗ (A E) = 0. d µ∗ g\5ÚüN5
T S T T T
µ∗ (A) = µ∗ [(A E) (A E c )] 6 µ∗ (A E) + µ∗ (A E c )
T
= µ∗ (A E c ) 6 µ∗ (A).
Ïd \ \
µ∗ (A) = µ∗ (A E) + µ∗ (A E c ).
l E ´ µ∗ -ÿ8.
∗ ∗
k
µ -ÿ8Vg, Ò±|^ X þ ÿÝ µ EÑ X þ
ÿÝ, =eã½n 1.
½n 1 µ∗ ´ X þ ÿÝ, X ¤k µ∗ -ÿ8|¤8ÜP U ,

K U ´ σ-ê, ¿ µ∗ U ´ X þÿÝ.
y² Äky² U ´ê. du µ∗ (∅) = 0, Ïdâ·K 2 ∅ ∈ U .
l U 8. e E ∈ U , Kéu?¿ A ⊆ X Ñk
T T
µ∗ (A) = µ∗ (A E) + µ∗ (A E c ).
du (E c )c = E, Ïdlþª E c ∈ U . y3 E ∈ U , F ∈ U , Kéu?¿
A ⊆ X, ·k
T T
µ∗ (A) = µ∗ (A E) + µ∗ (A E c ). (7)
T
du F ∈ U , Ïdé8Ü A E c ^½Â 9 ¥ µ∗ -ÿ8A÷v^
T T T T T
µ∗ (A E c ) = µ∗ (A E c F ) + µ∗ (A E c F c ). (8)
^ (8) ª\ (7) ª
T T T T T
µ∗ (A) = µ∗ (A E) + µ∗ (A E c F ) + µ∗ (A E c F c ). (9)
∗
du µ äkg\5, Ïd
T T T T S T T
µ∗ (A E) + µ∗ (A E c F ) > µ∗ [(A E) (A E c F )]. (10)
$^8Ü!¿$©Æ
T S T T T S T T T S
(A E) (A E c F ) = [(A E) (A F )] [(A E) E c ]
T S T S T S
= [A (E F )] [(A E c ) (E E c )]
T S T S
= [A (E F )] (A E c )
T S
= A (E F ). (11)
r (11) ª\ (10) ª, , \ (9) ª,
T S T S T T
µ∗ (A) > µ∗ [(A E) (A E c F )] + µ∗ (A E c F c )
T S T S
= µ∗ [A (E F )] + µ∗ [A (E F )c ]. (12)
∗
â µ g\5, qk
T S T S
µ∗ (A) 6 µ∗ [A (E F )] + µ∗ [A (E F )c ], (13)
∗ ∗
T S ∗
T S c S ∗
l (12) !(13) ª µ (A) = µ [A (E F )] + µ [A (E F ) ]. Ïd E F ´ µ -
S
ÿ8. l E F ∈ U . ùy²
U ´ê.
e¡5y U 3ê¿$eµ4, ±9 µ∗ U þäkê\5. d
u U ´ê, Ïd U 3k¿$e´µ4. @o, µ∗ U þ´Ääkk
T
\5Q? E1 , · · · , En ∈ U , Ei Ej = ∅, i 6= j. XJUy²: ∀A ⊆ X k
 
n n
T[ X T
µ∗ A Ej  = µ∗ (A Ej ), (14)
j=1 j=1
∗
@o A = X Ò µ äkk\5. ·^êÆ8B{y² (14) ª¤á.
n = 1 , (14) ªw,¤á. béuê n, (14) ª¤á. y35w n + 1
n
[
/. E1 , · · · , En , En+1 ∈ U , §üüØ. - F = Ej , K F ∈ U . u´
j=1
· 262 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
n+1
!
T [
éu A′ = A Ek , d (6) ª
k=1
" n+1
!#
T [ T T
∗
µ A Ek = µ∗ (A′ F ) + µ∗ (A′ F c ). (15)
k=1
!  
n+1
[ n
[ n
T T T T[
du A′ F = A Ek  Ej  = A Ej ,
k=1 j=1 j=1
" n+1
!#
[
′T c T T c T S T T T
A F = A Ek F = A (F En+1 ) F c = A (En+1 F c )
k=1
T
= A En+1 ,
Ïdl (15) ª±9$^8Bb
" !#  
n+1
[ n
[
T T T
µ∗ A Ek = µ∗ A Ej  + µ∗ (A En+1 )
k=1 j=1
n
X n+1
X
T T T
= µ∗ (A Ej ) + µ∗ (A En+1 ) = µ∗ (A Ek ).
j=1 k=1
âêÆ8B{n, (14) ªéê n ¤á. A = X, l (14) ª µ∗
U þäkk\5.
y35y U 3êØ¿$eµ4. (En ) ´üüØ µ∗ -ÿ8S
n
[ ∞
[ T T
. - Fn = Ek , F = En , Kéu?¿ A ⊆ X, du A Fnc ⊇ A F c , Ïd|
k=1 n=1
∗
^ µ üN5±9 (14) ª, ézê n, ·k
T T
µ∗ (A) = µ∗ (A Fn ) + µ∗ (A Fnc )
T T
> µ∗ (A Fn ) + µ∗ (A F c )
Xn
T T
= µ∗ (A Ek ) + µ∗ (A F c ). (16)
k=1
3 (16) ªü>- n → ∞ 4
∞
X T T
µ∗ (A) > µ∗ (A Ek ) + µ∗ (A F c ). (17)
k=1
∞
! ∞
T T [ [ \
du A F =A Ek = (A Ek ), Ïd|^ µ∗ êg\5, l (17)
k=1 k=1
ª
T T
µ∗ (A) > µ∗ (A F ) + µ∗ (A F c ). (18)
T T
qdu µ∗ (A) 6 µ∗ (A F ) + µ∗ (A F c ), Ïd (18) ªÒ, l F ∈ U , ùy²
ê U 3êØ¿$eµ4, ddy: U 3ê¿$eµ4. (Dn )

´ µ∗ -ÿ8S, - E1 = D1 ,
T
E2 = D2 − D1 = {a ∈ X|a ∈ D2 a ∈/ D1 } = D2 D1c , ··· ,
 c
n−1
[ T n−1[
En = Dn − Dj = Dn  Dj  . (19)
j=1 j=1
∞
[ ∞
[ n−1
[
T
ý Ek = Dk , Ei Ej = ∅ i 6= j, du U ´ê, Ïd Dj ∈
k=1 k=1 j=1
 c  c
n−1
[ n−1
[
T
U , l  Dj  ∈ U , ? k En = Dn  Dj  ∈ U , n = 2, 3, · · · . du
j=1 j=1
∞
[ ∞
[
U éêØ¿$µ4, Ïd En ∈ U . l Dk ∈ U . ùy²
U 3
k=1 k=1
ê¿$eµ4, Ïd U ´ σ-ê.
du (18) ªÒ, Ïd (17) ªÒ, =
∞
X T T
µ∗ (A) = µ∗ (A Ek ) + µ∗ (A F c ). (20)
k=1
du (20) ªé?¿ A ⊆ X Ñ¤á. ÏdAO/ A = F ¤á, u´k
∞
! ∞
[ X
∗
µ Ek = µ∗ (F ) = µ∗ (Ek ). (21)
k=1 k=1
ùy²
µ∗ U þäkê\5, u´â½Â 6 , µ∗ U þ´
X þÿÝ.
½n 1 Ñ
|^ X þ ÿÝ µ∗ E X þÿÝ{: Ä
d X ¤k µ∗ -ÿ8|¤8Ü U , K U ´ σ-ê, µ∗ U Ò
´ X þÿÝ. é{`, X z µ∗ -ÿ8 E ÑkÿÝ µ∗ (E).
½Â 10 m∗ ´ Rn þ Lebesgue ÿÝ. Rn m∗ -ÿ8¡ Lebesgue
ÿ8, Rn ¤k Lebesgue ÿ8|¤ σ-êP U , m∗ U ¡
Lebesgue ÿÝ, P m.
Ún 1 Ñ
E8Ü X þ ÿÝ{, y3·rÚn 1 ^
\r
, l (Ø°[
, =eã½n 2.
½n 2 X ´8Ü, C ´ X
f8|¤ê, C ¥kê
f8¿8u X (d¡ C ´ X “CXa”), λ ´ C þê\
¼ê, µ∗ ´^Ún 1 E X þ ÿÝ, Kz E ∈ C ´ µ∗ -ÿ8, ¿
µ∗ (E) = λ(E).
y² E ∈ C , A ⊆ X. ? ε > 0, âÚn 1 (5) ª, 3 Fn ∈
∞
[
C (n = 1, 2, · · · ) ¦ Fn ⊇ A,
n=1
∞
X
∗
µ (A) 6 λ(Fn ) 6 µ∗ (A) + ε. (22)
n=1
· 264 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
n−1
[
- F1′ = F1 , Fn′ = Fn − Fk , n = 2, 3, · · · , K (Fn′ ) ´üüØf8S,
k=1
∞
[ ∞
[
Fn′ = Fn . du C ´ê, Ïd Fn′ ∈ C , n = 1, 2, · · · . du Fn′ ⊆ Fn (n =
n=1 n=1
1, 2, · · · ) λ ´ C þê\¼ê, Ïd
∞
X ∞
X
∗
µ (A) + ε > λ(Fn ) > λ(Fn′ )
n=1 n=1
X∞
T T
= [λ(Fn′ E) + λ(Fn′ E c )]. (23)
n=1
∞
[ ∞
[
du Fn′ = Fn ⊇ A, Ïd
n=1 n=1 !
∞
[ ∞
[
T T T
A E⊆ Fn′ E= (Fn′ E). (24)
T n=1T n=1
du Fn′ E ∈ C , n = 1, 2, · · · , Ïdé A E ^ (5) ª
X∞
T T
µ∗ (A E) 6 λ(Fn′ E). (25)
k=1
∞
[ \
T T T
du Fn′ c
E ∈ C , n = 1, 2, · · · § A E ⊆ c
(Fn′ E c ), Ïdé A E c ^ (5)
n=1
ª
∞
X
T T
µ∗ (A E c ) 6 λ(Fn′ E c ). (26)
n=1
l (23) !(25) !(26) ª

T T
µ∗ (A) + ε > µ∗ (A E) + µ∗ (A E c ). (27)
du ε > 0 ´?¿, Ïdl (27) ª
T T
µ∗ (A) > µ∗ (A E) + µ∗ (A E c ). (28)
du µ∗ ´ ÿÝ, Ïd (28) ªØªw,¤á. l
T T
µ∗ (A) = µ∗ (A E) + µ∗ (A E c ). (29)
u´ E ´ µ∗ -ÿ8.
du E ∈ C , E ⊇ E, Ïdé E ^ (5) ª
µ∗ (E) 6 λ(E). (30)
∞
[
3þã?ØL§¥ A = E, K (Fn′ ) ´ C ¥üüØf8S, Fn′ ⊇
n=1
E. d (23) ª
∞
X ∞
X
T T T
µ∗ (E) + ε > [λ(Fn′ E) + λ(Fn′ E c )] > λ(Fn′ E). (31)
n=1 n=1
du ε > 0 ´?¿, Ïdd (31) ª
∞
X
∗ T
µ (E) > λ(Fn′ E). (32)
n=1
∞
[ T
du Fn′ ⊇ E, Fn′ E, n = 1, 2, · · · , ´ C ¥üüØf8, Ïdl λ äk
n=1
ê\5 "∞ # " ∞ ! #
∞
X [ [
′T ′T ′ T
λ(Fn E) = λ (Fn E) = λ Fn E = λ(E). (33)
n=1 n=1 n=1
u´l (32) !(33) ª, µ∗ (E) > λ(E). l
µ∗ (E) = λ(E).
½n 2 Ñ
l X þê C þê\¼ê λ Ñu, EÑ¹ C
σ-ê (X þ¤k µ∗ -ÿ8|¤ σ-ê) þê\¼ê (µ∗
ù σ-êþÒ´ê\¼ê) {.
y3m©?Ø'uÈ©ØK. a'3?ØiùÈ©, ïÄ=
¼êí
ùÈ, ·5N=
¼êU
kò½ÂÈ©. (X, A , µ) ´ÿÝ
m, 3'uÈ©?Ø¥Ø2zg(²ù
ÎÒ¿Â.
½Â 11 f : X → R. XJ f ÷ve^:
(1) f −1 (+∞) ∈ A , f −1 (−∞) ∈ A ;
(2) éu R zm8 U Ñk f −1 (U ) ∈ A ,
@o¡ f ´ A -ÿ¼ê, ½ö{¡ÿ¼ê.
/, X ´ÿm, Y ´ÿÀm, f ´ X Y N.
XJéu Y ¥zm8 V Ñk f −1 (V ) ´ X ¥ÿ8, @o¡ f ´ÿN
.
·K 3 f : X → R, K R f83 f e8äke5:
(1) e A ⊆ B, K f −1 (A) ⊆ f −1 (B);
(2) f −1 (B c ) = [f −1 (B)]c ;
(3) f −1 (A − B) = !f ∞
−1
(A) − f −1 (B);
\∞ \
(4) f −1 An = f −1 (An );
n=1 ! n=1
[∞ [∞
(5) f −1 An = f −1 (An );
n=1 n=1
y² y=.
5 X, Y ´?¿ü8Ü, f : X → Y , K Y f83 f e8äk
·K 3 ¥¤5, y²{.
Ún 2 éu f : x → R, e·Kd:
(1) f ´ A -ÿ¼ê;
(2) {x|f (x) > t} ∈ A , ∀t ∈ R;
(3) {x|f (x) 6 t} ∈ A , ∀t ∈ R;
(4) {x|f (x) < t} ∈ A , ∀t ∈ R;
(5) {x|f (x) > t} ∈ A , ∀t ∈ R;
(6) f −1 (B) ∈ A , Ù¥ B ´ R p Borel 8, ½ö B = {+∞}, ½ B = {−∞}.
· 266 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
y² (1)⇒(2). du
S
{x|f (x) > t} = f −1 (+∞) f −1 ((t, +∞)),
Ïd
{x|f (x) > t} ∈ A , ∀t ∈ R.
(2)⇔(3). ù´Ï {x|f (x) 6 t} = {x|f (x) > t}c .

(3)⇒(4). y²
[∞
1
{x|f (x) < t} =
x f (x) 6 t − .
n=1
n
du A éê¿$µ4, Ïdl (3) íÑ (4).
(4)⇔(5). ù´Ï {x|f (x) > t} = {x|f (x) < t}c .
(5)⇒(6). du
\∞
f −1 (+∞) = {x|f (x) > n},
n=1
" ∞
#c
[
−1
f (−∞) = {x|f (x) > −n} ,
n=1
Ïd f −1 (+∞) ∈ A , f −1 (−∞) ∈ A . -
C = {G ⊆ R|f −1 (G) ∈ A },
G ∈ C , K f −1 (G) ∈ A . â·K 3 f −1 (Gc ) = [f −1 (G)]c ∈ A . Ïd
Gc ∈ C . G1 , G!2 , · · · ´ C ¥êf8, K f −1 (G1 ), f −1 (G2 ), · · · Ñáu A .
∞
[ [∞ ∞
[
du f −1 Gn = f −1 (Gn ) ∈ A , Ïd Gn ∈ C . ùy²
C ´
n=1 n=1 n=1
σ-ê. l (5) , z«m [t, +∞) ∈ C . u´d/X [t, +∞) «m)¤ σ-ê
B ⊆ C . â½Â 4 e¡1ãÆØ, z Borel 8áu B, l áu C . Ï
d·K (6) ¤á.
(6)⇒(1). du R zm8Ñ´ Borel 8, Ïdl·K (6) ¤áá=Ñ·
K (1) ¤á.
dÚn 2 : e f ´~¼ê, = f (x) = a, ∀x ∈ X, K f ´ A -ÿ¼ê.
ù´Ï:
{x|f (x) > t} = ∅, t > a;
{x|f (x) > t} = X, t < a,
∅, X ∈ A , l f ´ A -ÿ¼ê.
Ún 3 XJ f ´ÿ¼ê, @o |f |, f 2 ´ÿ¼ê. XJ f Ú g ´ÿ¼
ê, @o f + g, f g ´ÿ¼ê. XJ f1 , f2 , · · · Ñ´ÿ¼ê, @o sup fn , inf fn ,
lim sup fn , lim inf fn Ñ´ÿ¼ê, Ù¥
n→∞ n→∞
(sup fn )(x) := sup{f1 (x), f2 (x), · · · };
lim sup fn := inf sup fm = lim sup fm ;
n→∞ n m>n n→∞ m>n
lim inf fn := sup inf fm = lim inf fm .

n→∞ n m>n n→∞ m>n
~~^ÎÒ lim {P lim sup, ^ lim {P lim inf, ©O¡þ4Úe4.
ØJwÑ:
lim inf(−fn ) = − lim sup fn .
n→∞ n→∞
y² ye¯¢, , |^Ún 2 =Ún 3.

(1) {x|f (x)| < t} = {xf (x) ∈ (−t, t)};
√ √
(2) {xf 2 (x) < t} = {xf (x) ∈ (− t, t)}, Ù¥ t > 0;
[
(3) {x(f + g)(x) < t} = {xf (x) < t − q, g(x) < q};
q∈Q
1
(4) f g = [(f + g)2 − (f − g)2 ];
4
∞
[

(5) {x supn fn (x) > t} = {xfn (x) > t};
n=1
∞
[

(6) x inf n fn (x) < t = {xfn (x) < t};
n=1
(7) lim sup fn = inf n supm>n fm , lim inf fn = supn inf m>n fm .
n→∞ n→∞
lÚn 3 : z:ªÂñ¢ (E) ÿ¼êS4´ÿ.
f : x → R, - (
+ f (x), f (x) > 0,
f (x) = (34)
0, f (x) < 0;
(
− 0, f (x) > 0,
f (x) = (35)
−f (x), f (x) 6 0.
du
1 1
f+ = (f + |f |), f − = − (f − |f |),
2 2
ÏdXJ f ´ÿ¼ê, @o f + , f − Ñ´ÿ¼ê.
½Â 12 éu X zf8 A,(-
1, x ∈ A,
1A (x) = (36)
0, x ∈
/ A,
K¡ 1A ´ A A¼ê½I¼ê.
du
{x|1A (x) > t} = ∅, t > 1;
{x|1A (x) > t} = A, 0 6 t < 1;
t < 0,
{x|1A (x) > t} = X,
ÏdâÚn 2 , 1A ´ A -ÿ¼ê= A ∈ A .
½Â 13 X þ¢¼ê f XJkkõØÓ, @o¡ f ´ü
¼ê.
· 268 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
N´wÑ, f ´ü¼ê= f UL«¤kõA¼ê5|Ü; e

n
X
c1 , · · · , cn ´ f ØÓ, Aj = {x|f (x) = cj }, K f = cj 1Aj ´ùL
j=1
ª, ¡§ f IOL« (canonical representation). w,, f ´ÿ¼ê=
3 f IOL«pz Aj ∈ A . du c1 , c2 , · · · , cn üüØÓ, Ïd A1 , A2 , · · · , An
üüØ.
Ún 4 f ´Kÿ¼ê, K3Kÿü¼êS (fn ), ¦
0 6 fn (x) 6 fn+1 (x) 6 f (x), ∀n ∈ N∗ , ∀x ∈ X,
¿¦
lim fn (x) = f (x), ∀x ∈ X.
n→∞
n
y² ?ê
r [0,
n, n] ©¤
«m
n2 :n
1 1 2 2 3 n2 − 1 n2n
0, n , n , n , n , n , · · · , , n .
2 2 2 2 2 2n 2
- ( )
k − 1 k

An,k = x n 6 f (x) < n , k = 1, 2, · · · , n2n ; (37)
2 2
Bn = {x|f (x) > n}, (38)
K An,1 , An,2 , · · · , An,n2n , Bn üüØ. -
n2n
X k−1
fn = 1An,k + n1Bn , (39)
2n
k=1
K 
 k − 1, x ∈ An,k ,
fn (x) = 2n (40)
 n, x ∈ Bn ,
Ù¥ k = 1, 2, · · · , n2n .
du fn kõØÓ, Ïd fn ´ü¼ê. du f ´ A -ÿ¼ê, Ï
d An,k ∈ A , Bn ∈ A . du fn ´ 1An,1 , · · · , 1An,n2n , 1Bn 5|Ü, Ïd fn ´
A -ÿ¼ê. w, fn (x) > 0, ∀x ∈ X. u´ (fn ) ´Kÿü¼êS.
y3éu?¿½ê n, ·5' fn (x) fn+1 (x).
/ 1 f (x) > n + 1 , x ∈ Bn+1 , x ∈ Bn . u´
fn+1 (x) = n + 1 > n = fn (x).
/ 2 n 6 f (x) < n + 1 , x 6∈ Bn+1 , du

(n2n+1 + 1) − 1 n2n+1 + 1 S (n2n+1 + 2) − 1 n2n+1 + 2
[n, n + 1) = , ,
2n+1 2n+1 2n+1 2n+1
n+1 n+1

S S (n + 1)2 − 1 (n + 1)2
··· , ,
2n+1 2n+1
Ïd
(n+1)2n+1
[
{x|n 6 f (x) < n + 1} = An+1,k .
k=n2n+1 +1
l n 6 f (x) < n + 1 , é, k ∈ {n2n+1 + 1, · · · , (n + 1)2n+1 }x ∈ An+1,k . u

´
k−1 (n2n+1 + 1) − 1
fn+1 (x) = n+1 > = n.
2 2n+1
qdu f (x) > n, Ïd x ∈ Bn , l fn (x) = n. u´k
fn+1 (x) > fn (x).
/ 3 0 6 f (x) < n, du
1 S 1 2 S S n2n − 1 n2n
[0, n) = 0, n , · · · , ,
2 2n 2n 2n 2n
Ïd n
n2
[
{x|0 6 f (x) < n} = An,k .
k=1
du ( )
k − 1 k

An,k = x n 6 f (x) < n
2 2
( ) ( )
2k − 2 2k − 1 S 2k − 1 2k

= x n+1 6 f (x) < n+1 x n+1 6 f (x) < n+1
2 2 2 2
S
= An+1,2k−1 An+1,2k ,
Ïd x ∈ An,k , k
(2k − 1) − 1 k−1
fn+1 (x) > = = fn (x).
2n+1 2n
0 6 f (x) < n , du x áu, An,k , Ïdk
fn+1 (x) > fn (x).
nþ¤ã
fn (x) 6 fn+1 (x), ∀x ∈ X, ∀n ∈ N∗ .
y3·5y² lim fn (x) = f (x).
n→∞
e f (x) = +∞, K ∀n ∈ N∗ , k f (x) > n. l x ∈ Bn . u´ fn (x) = n. Ïd
lim fn (x) = f (x).
n→∞
f (x) < +∞, K f (x) 6 n , â/ 3 ©Û, x áu, An,k . l
k−1 k−1 k
fn (x) = , n 6 f (x) < n . u´
2n 2 2
1
0 6 f (x) − fn (x) < n . (41)
2
ddÑ, fn (x) 6 f (x), lim fn (x) = f (x).
n→∞
íØ 1 XJ f ´ÿ¼ê, @o3ÿü¼êS, dSÅ:Âñ
f ; f k., 3ÿü¼êSÂñ f .
y² du f + , f − Ñ´Kÿ¼ê, ÏdâÚn 4 , ©O3K
ÿü¼êS (gn ), (hn ), ¦ lim gn (x) = f + (x), lim hn (x) = f − (x). ·k
n→∞ n→∞
f + − f − = f . - fn = gn − hn , K (fn ) ´ÿü¼êS,
lim fn (x) = lim [gn (x) − hn (x)] = f + (x) − f − (x) = f (x).
n→∞ n→∞
· 270 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
e f ´k., Kê n > sup f ,

{x|f + (x) > n} = ∅, {x|f − (x) > n} = ∅.
âÚn 4 y² ã (41) ª
1 1
0 6 f + (x) − gn (x) < n , 0 6 f − (x) − hn (x) < n .
2 2
l
f (x) − fn (x) = [f + (x) − f − (x)] − [gn (x) − hn (x)]
= [f + (x) − gn (x)] − [f − (x) − hn (x)]
1 1
< n − 0 = n,
2 2
1 1
f (x) − fn (x) > 0 − n = − n .
2 2
1
Ïdé n > sup f k |f (x) − fn (x)| 6 n . l S (fn ) Âñ f .
2
½Â 14 éuz x ∈ X, P (x) ´·K. XJ8Ü F = {x|P (x) ´b} ∈
A µ(F ) = 0, @o¡ P (x) A??¤á ( ¤ a.e.), ½ö¡ P (x) éuA¤
k x ¤á ( ¤ a.a.x). XJkõuÿÝ'5, @o·P a.e. (µ)
½ µ–a.a.x.
·K 4 Y Ú Z ´ÿÀm, g : Y → Z ´ëYN.
(1) e X ´ÿÀm, f : X → Y ´ëYN, h = g ◦ f , K h : X → Z ´ë
YN;
(2) e X ´ÿm, f : X → Y ´ÿN, h = g ◦ f , K h : X → Z ´
ÿN.
y² V ´ Z ¥m8, du g : Y → Z ´ëYN, Ïd g −1 (V ) ´ Y ¥
m8.
e f : X → Y ´ëYN, K f −1 (g −1 (V )) ´ X ¥m8, l h = g ◦ f ´
ëYN.
e f : X → Y ´ÿN, K f −1 (g −1 (V )) ´ X ¥ÿ8, l h = g ◦ f ´
ÿN.
2
·K 5 g, h ´ÿm X þ¢ÿ¼ê, Φ ´ R ÿÀm Y
ëYN. ½Â
f (x) = Φ(g(x), h(x)), ∀x ∈ X,
K f : X → Y ´ÿN.
y² - q(x) = (g(x), h(x)), K q ´ X R2 N: du f = Φ ◦ q, Ï
dâ·K 4 , Iy ε ´ÿN.
D ´ R2 (w¤²¡) þ?m/, §>²1uI¶, K D ´ü
^ã I1 Ú I2 (kÈ, ¿
T
q −1 (D) = g −1 (I1 ) h−1 (I2 ).
du g, h ´ X þ¢ÿ¼ê, Ïd g −1 (I1 ), h−1 (I1 ) Ñ´ X ¥ÿ8, l
q −1 (D) ´ÿ8. ²¡þzm8 V ´ù/ ! Di ê¿8, du

∞
[ ∞
[
q −1 (V ) = q −1 Di = q −1 (Di ),
i=1 i=1
Ïd q −1 (V ) ´ÿ8. l q ´ÿN.
·K 6 X ´ÿm.
(1) f = f1 + if2 , Ù¥ f1 , f2 Ñ´¢ÿ¼ê, K f ´ X þEÿ
¼ê;
(2) XJ f = f1 + if2 ´ X þEÿ¼ê, @o f1 , f2 , |f | Ñ´ X þ¢
ÿ¼ê;
(3) XJ f, g Ñ´ X þEÿ¼ê, @o f + g, f g ´ X þEÿ
¼ê;
(4) XJ f ´ X þEÿ¼ê, @o3 X þEÿ¼ê
q, ¦ |q| = 1 f = q|f |.
y² (1) -
Φ((a, b)) = a + b i, ∀(a, b) ∈ R2 ,
K Φ ´ R2 ÿm C ëYN. du
f (x) = f1 (x) + if2 (x) = Φ(f1 (x), f2 (x)),
f1 , f2 ´ X þ¢ÿ¼ê, Ïdâ·K 5 , f ´ X þEÿ¼ê.
(2) f = f1 + if2 , K f1 = Re f, f2 = Im f , ® f ´ X C ÿN
. - g(z) = Re z, ∀z ∈ C, K g ´ C R ëYN. u´â·K 4
, g ◦ f ´ X R ÿN, = f1 ´ X þ¢ÿ¼ê. aq/, ©O
g(z) = Im (z), g(z) = |z|, Óny f2 , |f | ´ X þ¢ÿ¼ê.
(3) f = f1 + if2 , g = g1 6= ig2 ´ X þEÿ¼ê, K f1 , f2 , g1 , g2 Ñ´
X þ¢ÿ¼ê. l âÚn 3
f1 + g 1 , f2 + g 2 , f1 g 1 − f2 g 2 , f1 g 2 + f2 g 1
Ñ´ X þ¢ÿ¼ê. u´
f + g = (f1 + g1 ) + i(f2 + g2 ), f g = (f1 g1 − f2 g2 ) + i(f1 g2 + f2 g1 )
Ñ´ X þEÿ¼ê.
(4) E = {x ∈ X|f (x) = 0}, -
z
ϕ(z) = , ∀z ∈ C\{0};
|z|
q(x) = ϕ(f (x) + 1E (x)), ∀x ∈ X.
f (x)
e x ∈ E, K q(x) = 1; e x ∈ / E, K q(x) = . N´wÑ, ϕ ´ C\{0} gë
|f (x)|
YN. du {0} ´ C 48, Ïd {0}c = C\{0} ´ C m8, du f ´ X C
ÿN, Ïd f −1 ({0}c) ´ X ¥ÿ8, l [f −1 ({0}c)]c ´ X ¥ÿ8.
â·K 3 9Ùe¡5, f −1 ({0}c) = [f −1 ({0})]c = E c . Ïd E = [f −1 ({0}c )]c . l
E ´ X ¥ÿ8. u´ 1E ´ÿ¼ê. l f + 1E ´ÿ¼ê. â·K 4
, ϕ ◦ (f + 1E ) ´ÿ¼ê, = q ´ÿ¼ê. w, |q| = 1, f = q|f |.
· 272 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
y3·5½Â,
¼êÈ©. l¼ê f (x) ã x ¶9²1u y
¶
¤¤ã/¡ÈO (l¼êÑu) Ééu, ÚÑeãVg.
n
X
½Â 15 f ´Kÿü¼ê, XJ§IOL« f = ck 1Ak , @o·
k=1
½Â
Z n
X
f dµ = ck µ(Ak ). (42)
k=1
éu A ∈ A , ·½Â Z Z
f dµ = 1A f dµ. (43)
A
(42) ªÑ
Kÿü¼ê f 3 X þÈ©. (43) ªÑ
f 3 X
ÿ8 A þÈ©. Z
du f ´K¼ê, Ïd ck > 0, k = 1, 2, · · · , n. l f dµ > 0. w,
Z
f dµ 6 +∞.
Z
f dµ = 0 ⇐⇒ éz ck 6= 0, k µ(Ak ) = 0
⇐⇒ f = 0 (a.e.),
Z
f dµ < +∞ ⇐⇒ éz ck 6= 0, k µ(Ak ) < +∞.
Ún 5 f Ú g Ñ´Kÿü¼ê, e·K¤á:
Z Z
(1) e f 6 g (= f (x) 6 g(x), ∀x ∈ X), K f dµ 6 g dµ;
Z Z Z
(2) (f + g) dµ = f dµ + g dµ;
Z Z
(3) (tf ) dµ = t f dµ, ∀t > 0;
(4) - τ :A → ZR+
E 7→ f dµ, (44)
E
K τ ´ A þÿÝ.
y² f g IOL«©O
m
X n
X
f= aj 1 Aj , g= bk 1Bk .
j=1 k=1
du a1 , · · · , am üüØÓ, Ïd A1 , A2 , · · · , Am üüØ. Óndu b1 , · · · , bn ü
üØÓ, Ïd B1 , B2 , · · · , Bn üüØ. du f a1 , a2 , · · · , am ù m , Ï
m
[ [n
d Aj = X. Ón Bk = X. u´
j=1 k=1
Z m m
" n
!#
X X T [
f dµ = aj µ(Aj ) = aj µ Aj Bk
j=1 j=1 k=1
m
" n
# m n
X [ T X X T
= aj µ (Aj Bk ) = aj µ(Aj Bk )
j=1 k=1 j=1 k=1
Xm X n
T
= aj µ(Aj Bk ). (45)
j=1 k=1
aq/, k
Z n X
X m
T
g dµ = bk µ(Aj Bk ). (46)
k=1 j=1
T
(1) f 6 g, K Aj 6 Z∅ , kZaj 6 bk . u´
Bk =
f dµ 6 g dµ.
(2) f + g ØÓ {c1 , c2 , · · · , cr }, K
Z r
X
(f + g) dµ = ci µ({x|f (x) + g(x) = ci })
i=1
 
r
X [ T
= ci · µ  (Aj Bk )
i=1 aj +bk =ci
r
X X T
= ci µ(Aj Bk )
i=1 aj +bk =ci
m X
X n
T
= (aj + bk )µ(Aj Bk )
j=1 k=1
Xm X n m X
X n
T T
= aj µ(Aj Bk ) + bk µ(Aj Bk )
j=1 k=1 j=1 k=1
Z Z
= f dµ + g dµ.
m
X
(3) ? t > 0, K tf ´Kÿü¼ê, tf IOL« tf = taj 1Aj .
j=1
u´
Z m
X m
X Z
(tf ) dµ = taj µ(Aj ) = t aj µ(Aj ) = t f dµ.
j=1 j=1
m
X
(4) du f = aj 1Aj , Ïd, x ∈ Aj f (x) = aj , j = 1, 2, · · · , m. l éu
j=1
E ∈A, k ( T
aj , x∈E Aj , j = 1, 2, · · · , m,
(1E f )(x) = 1E (x)f (x) =
0, Ù¦.
Ïd
m
X
1E f = aj 1 E T Aj
. (47)
j=1
· 274 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
l
Z Z m
X T
f dµ = 1E f dµ = aj µ(E Aj ). (48)
E j=1
Ïd τ ´ A R+ N.
y τ ´ A þÿÝ, y τ äkê
[∞
\5. (Ek ) ´ A ¥üüØf8S, - E = Ek , K
" ∞ ! # k=1
Z m
X [ T
τ (E) = f dµ = aj µ Ek Aj
E j=1 k=1
m
" ∞
# m ∞
X [ T X X T
= aj µ (Ek Aj ) = aj µ(Ek Aj )
j=1 k=1 j=1 k=1
Xm Xn Xm X
n
T T
= lim aj µ(Ek Aj ) = lim aj µ(Ek Aj )
n→∞ n→∞
j=1 k=1 j=1 k=1
n X
X m ∞ X
X m
T T
= lim aj µ(Ek Aj ) = aj µ(Ek Aj )
n→∞
k=1 j=1 k=1 j=1
∞ Z
X ∞
X
= f dµ = τ (Ek ).
k=1 Ek k=1
Ïd τ äkê\5. l τ ´ A þÿÝ.
|^Kÿü¼êÈ©±5½Â?Kÿ¼êÈ©.
½Â 16
Z f ´Kÿ¼êZ , K·½Â

f dµ = sup g dµ0 6 g 6 f, g ´ÿü¼ê . (49)
éu A ∈ A , ·½Â
Z Z
f dµ = 1A f dµ. (50)
A
(49) ªÚ (50) ªà©O¡ f 3ÿm X þÚÿ8 A þéuÿÝ

µ LebesgueZ È©.
w,, 0 6 f dµ 6 +∞. Ný²:
f1 Ú f2 Ñ´Kÿ¼ê
Z Z , A ∈ AZ, e f1 6 fZ2 , K
f1 dµ 6 f2 dµ, f1 dµ 6 f2 dµ. (51)
A A Z
f ´Kÿü¼ê, ½Â 16 ¥ (49) ªÑ f dµ ½Â 15 ¥ (42)

Z
ªÑ f dµ .
·K 7 XJ f > 0Z´ÿ¼ê, @o
f dµ = 0, ⇐⇒ f = 0 (a.e.). (52)
Z y² ¿©5Z. f = 0 (a.e.), K 0 6 g 6 f , k g = 0 (a.e.). l

g dµ = 0. u´ f dµ = 0.
Z
75. f dµ = 0. - E = {x|f (x) > 0}, éuzê n, - En =
∞
[
1 1
x f (x) > ,KE= En . - gn = 1En , K gn ´ÿü¼ê, 0 6 gn 6 f .
n n=1
n
u´
Z Z
1
µ(En ) = gn dµ 6 f dµ = 0.
n
∞
X
∗
l éz n ∈ N , k µ(En ) = 0. Ïd µ(E) = µ(En ) = 0. u´ f = 0 (a.e.).
n=1

rÚn 5 ¥·K (4) í2?¿Kÿ¼êþ, ·k5y²½
n.
½n 3 A ´8Ü X þ σ-ê, M ´½Â3 A þÿÝ|¤
8Ü. b M äkeã5: é?¿ µ1 , µ2 ∈ M , 3 µ3 ∈ M , ¦ µ1 6 µ3
µ2 6 µ3 . éu E ∈ A , ½Â
ν(E) = sup{µ(E)|µ ∈ M }, (53)
K ν ´ A þÿÝ.
y² w, ν ´ A R+ N.
y² ν ´ A þÿÝ, 7
Ly² ν äkê\5. (An ) ´ A üüØf8S, Kéz
µ ∈ M , ·k
∞
! ∞ ∞
[ X X
µ An = µ(An ) 6 ν(An ). (54)
n=1 n=1 n=1
Ïdl (54) ªÚ (53) ª !

∞
[ ∞
X
ν An 6 ν(An ). (55)
n=1 n=1
½ê n, éuz k(1 6 k 6 n), À ck ¦ ck < ν(Ak ). l (53) ª, éu
z k, 3, µk ∈ M ¦ µk (Ak ) > ck . âéu M b¿^8B{
í2: éu µ1 , µ2 , · · · , µn ∈ M , 3 µ ∈ M ¦ µk ! · · , n. u´
6 µ, k = 1, 2, · !
Xn X n Xn n
[ [n
ck < µk (Ak ) 6 µ(Ak ) = µ Ak 6 ν Ak . (56)
k=1 k=1 k=1 k=1 k=1
du ck ´÷vu ν(Ak ) ?¿ê, Ïdl (56) ª !
n
X n
[
ν(Ak ) 6 ν Ak . (57)
k=1 k=1
l (53) ªN´Ñ: e E ⊆ F , K ν(E) 6 ν(F
! ). Ïdl ! ª
(57)
n
X n
[ ∞
[
ν(Ak ) 6 ν Ak 6 ν Ak . (58)
k=1 k=1 k=1
· 276 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
duézê n Ñk (58) ª, Ïd !
X∞ [∞
ν(Ak ) 6 ν Ak . (59)
k=1 ! k=1
∞
[ X∞
l (55) ªÚ (59) ª ν Ak = ν(Ak ). Ïd ν äkê\5, l ν ´
k=1 k=1
A þÿÝ.
y3|^½n 3 ±y²Ún 5 ¥·K (4) í2, =eã½n 4.
½n 4 f ´?Kÿ¼ê, -
ν : A → R+
Z
A 7→ f dµ, (60)
A
K ν ´ A þÿÝ.
y² - S ´¤k÷v 0 6 g 6 f ÿü¼ê8Ü Z . âÚn 5 ¥·K
(4), éuz g ∈ S , k A þÿÝ τg : A 7→ g dµ.
A
e 0 6 g 6 1A f , K x ∈ A , k g(x) 6 f (x); x 6∈ A , k 0 6 g(x) 6 0,
l g(x) = 0. u´éu÷v 0 6Zg 6 1A f Zÿü¼ê g, k
g dµ = g dµ;
A
¿k 0 6 g 6Z f . u´kZ
f dµ = 1A f dµ
A
Z

= sup g dµ0 6 g 6 1A f, g ´ÿü¼ê
Z

= sup g dµ0 6 g 6 1A f, g ´ÿü¼ê
ZA

= sup g dµ0 6 g 6 f, g ´ÿü¼ê ,
A
Ïd Z
ν(A) = f dµ = sup{τg (A)|g ∈ S }. (61)
A
-
M = {τg |g ∈ S }, (62)
K
ν(A) = sup{τg (A)|τg ∈ M }. (63)
e g, h ∈ S , g 6 h, KéuzZ A ∈Z A , k
τg (A) = g dµ 6 h dµ = τh (A),
A A
l τg 6 τh . Ný: e g, h ∈ T , K max{g, h} ∈ T . u´ M ÷v½n 3 ¥¤
Ñ5. l â½n 3 , ν ´ A þÿÝ.
½n 4 L²: Kÿ¼ê f 3ÿ8þÈ©´ÿÝ.

l¼êiùÈ©AÛ¿ÂÉéu, e¡Ñÿ¼ê (Ø½´
Kÿ¼ê) È©½Â.
½Â 17 f ´ÿ¼ê
Z , ·½Â
Z Z
f dµ = f + dµ − f − dµ, (64)
Z
XJm>kÈ©´k. XJm>üÈ©Ñ´k, ¦ f dµ ´
¢ê, @o¡ f ´È (integrable) ½öÚ (summable), P f ∈ L(µ).

ïÄ=
ÿ¼ê´È, ·k5y²üNÂñ½n, §´ Beppo Levi
ÄkJÑ.
½n 5 (üNÂñ½n) XJ (fn ) ´üNþ,Kÿ¼êS (= 0 6
fn 6 fn+1 ), @o
Z Z
lim fn dµ = lim fn dµ. (65)
n→∞ n→∞
Z
y² âÚn 3, f = sup fn ´ÿ¼ê. Ïd f dµ ½Â. du fn 6
Z Z Z
fn+1 , Ïd fn dµ 6 fn+1 dµ. l lim fn dµ 3 (3 R+ ¥). duéz
n→∞
Z Z
n k fn 6 f , Ïd lim fn dµ 6 f dµ. e¡5yØª.
n→∞
g ´ÿü¼ê, 0 6 g 6 f . ½ ε, 0 < ε < 1. -

An = {x|fn (x) > (1 − ε)g(x)}, (66)
∗
duS (fn ) üNþ,, Ïd An ⊆ An+1 , ∀n ∈ N . du lim fn = sup fn = f > g,
n→∞
Ïdéu?¿½ x ∈ X, ½3ê m, ¦ fm (x) > (1 − ε)g(x), l
∞
[
x ∈ Am . Ïd X = An . l k
Z n=1 Z Z Z
fn dµ > fn dµ > (1 − ε)g dµ = (1 − ε) g dµ. (67)
An An An
Z ∞
!
[
âÚn 5, τ : E 7→ g dµ ´ A þÿÝ. u´â·K 1 , τ An =
E n=1
lim τ (An ), =
n→∞
Z Z
g dµ = lim g dµ. (68)
n→∞ An
3 (67) ªü>- n → ∞ 4Z, |^ (68) ª Z

lim fn dµ > (1 − ε) g dµ. (69)
n→∞
du (69) ªéz ε > 0 Ñ¤áZ, Ïd Z
lim fn dµ > g dµ. (70)
n→∞
· 278 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
du g ´?¿÷v g 6 f Kÿü¼ê
(Z , )
Z

f dµ = sup g dµ0 6 g 6 f, g ´ÿü¼ê ,

Ïdl (70) ª
Z Z
lim fn dµ > f dµ. (71)
n→∞
ù·y²
ØªZ. l Z Z
lim fn dµ = f dµ = lim fn dµ.
n→∞ n→∞
íØ 2 f Ú g Ñ´Kÿ¼ê
Z Z, K Z
(f + g) dµ = f dµ + g dµ. (72)
y² âÚn 4, 3Kÿü¼êS (fn ), ¦ 0 6 fn 6 fn+1 ,

lim fn = f ; 3Kÿü¼êS (gn ), ¦ 0 6 gn 6 gn+1 lim gn = g. u
n→∞ n→∞
´ fn + gn ´Kÿü¼ê, lim (fn + gn ) = f + g. âÚn 5
Z n→∞ Z Z
(fn + gn ) dµ = fn dµ + gn dµ.
- n → ∞ 4, â½n
Z 5 Z Z
(f + g) dµ = f dµ + g dµ.
íØ 3 (X, A , µ) ´ÿÝm Z , f ´ X þKÿ¼ê, -

ν(A) = f dµ, ∀A ∈ A , (73)
A
K ν ´ A þÿÝ, ¿éu
Z X þzKÿ¼ê
Z g, k
g dν = gf dµ. (74)
y² ½n 4 ®²y² ν ´ A þÿÝ. y35y² (74) ª¤á.

? A ∈ A , l (43)
Z ª!(73) ªÚ Z Z g = 1A k
(42) ª, éu
1A f dµ = f dµ = ν(A) = 1A dν.
A
X n
g ´Kÿü¼ê, §IOL« g = b k 1 Ak , K
k=1
Z X
n
! n Z X n Z
X
bk 1Ak f dµ = bk 1Ak f dµ = bk 1Ak dν
k=1 k=1 k=1
Z n
!
X
= b k 1 Ak dν.
k=1
y3 g ´?Kÿ¼ê. âÚn 4, 3Kÿü¼êS (gn ), ¦
0 6 gn (x) 6 gn+1 (x) 6 g(x), ∀n ∈ N∗ , ∀x ∈ X,
lim gn (x) = g(x), ∀x ∈ X.
n→∞
$^üNÂñ½n
Z Z Z Z
g dν = lim gn dν = lim gn dν = lim gn f dµ
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
Z Z
= lim (gn f ) dµ = gf dµ.
n→∞
íØ 3 1(Øk¤eã/ª
dν = f dµ. (75)
·vkÎÒ dν Ú dµ ?ÛÕá¿g, (75) ª¿gÒ´ (74) ªéuz
Kÿ¼ê g ¤á.
+ − + −
Z 5 éuZ X þÿ¼ê g, k g = g − g , Ù¥ g , g ´Kÿ¼ê, e
g + dν g − dν k´k, Kd½Â 17 ÚíØ 2 ±9íØ 3 , (74)
ªéu X þù«ÿ¼ê g ¤á.
e¡½n 6 Ñ
:ª4È©'X.
½n 6 (Fatou ÚnZ) XJ (fn ) ´Kÿ¼êS
Z , @o
lim inf fn dµ 6 lim inf fn dµ. (76)
n→∞ n→∞
y² éu?ê n, gn = inf m>n fm , âÚn 3 , gn ´Kÿ¼
ê, w, gn 6 gn+1 , ¿ lim gn = lim inf m>n fm = lim inf fn . u´âüNÂ
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
ñ½n Z Z Z
lim inf fn dµ =
lim gn dµ = lim gn dµ. (77)
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
Z Z Z
´éu?¿ m > n, ·k gn 6 fm . u´ gn dµ 6 fm dµ. l gn dµ ´
(Z )

8Ü fm dµm > n e., Ïd

Z Z
gn dµ 6 inf fm dµ. (78)
m>n
l Z Z Z
lim gn dµ 6 lim inf fm dµ = lim inf fn dµ. (79)
n→∞ n→∞ m>n n→∞
d (77) ªÚ (79) ª= (76) ª.

y3·5?Øÿ¼êÈO{. Z
·K 8 f ´ÿ¼ê, K f ´È= |f | dµ < +∞. XJ
f ´È, g ´ÿ¼ê, |g| 6 |f |, @o g ´È.
y² du |f | = f + + f −
Z, ÏdâíØ 2 Z
+
f ∈ L(µ) ⇐⇒ f dµ < +∞ f − dµ < +∞.
Z Z Z
⇐⇒ |f | dµ = f + dµ + f − dµ < +∞.
Z Z
e f ∈ L(µ), g ´ÿ¼ê, ÷v |g| 6 |f |, K |g| dµ 6 |f | dµ < +∞. Ïd
g ∈ L(µ).
· 280 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
·K 9 ¤kÈ¼ê|¤8Ü L(µ) ´¢êþ5m, ¿È©

´ L(µ) þ5¼êZ, =é?¿ f, gZ∈ L(µ), aZ∈ R, k
(f + g) dµ = f dµ + g dµ,
Z Z
(af ) dµ = a f dµ.
y² ?
Z f, g ∈ L(µ),Z du |f + g| 6 |fZ| + |g|, Ïd
Z
|f + g| dµ 6 (|f | + |g|) dµ = |f | dµ + |g| dµ < +∞.
l f + g ∈ L(µ). ?
Z a ∈ R, Zdu |af | = |a||fZ|, Ïd
|af | dµ = |a||f | dµ = |a| |f | dµ < +∞,
l af ∈ L(µ). w, L(µ) ÷v5m 8 ^{K, Ïd L(µ) ¤¢êþ
5m.
+ −
Z a > 0, K Zaf = af − af . l
e Z Z
(af ) dµ = (af − af ) dµ = af dµ − af − dµ
+ − +
Z Z Z Z Z
+ − + −
= a f dµ − a f dµ = a f dµ − f dµ = a f dµ.
e a <Z 0, K af = Z(af )+ − (af )− = − +

Z (−a)f − (−a)f . Zl Z
(af ) dµ = (−a)f − dµ − (−a)f + dµ = (−a) f − dµ − (−a) f + dµ
Z Z
+ −
= a (f − f ) dµ = a f dµ.
du f + g = (f + g)+ − (f + g)− = f + − f − + g + − g − , Ïd
(f + g)+ + f − + g − = (f + g)− + f + + g + .
u´âíØ
Z 2 Z Z Z Z Z
(f + g)+ dµ + f − dµ + g − dµ = (f + g)− dµ + f + dµ + g + dµ.
l
Z Z Z Z

(f + g) dµ = (f + g)+ − (f + g)− dµ = (f + g)+ dµ − (f + g)− dµ
Z Z Z Z Z Z
= f + dµ − f − dµ + g + dµ − g − dµ = f dµ + g dµ.
y3·5?ØEÿ¼êÈ©.
(X, A ) ´ÿm, µ ´ A þ?¿ÿÝ. f ´ XZ þE
ÿ¼ê, Kâ·K 6 , |f | ´ X þ¢ÿ¼ê, l |f | dµ k½
Â. ·k L1 (µ) L«÷v
Z
|f | dµ < +∞
X
¤kEÿ¼ê f |¤8Ü. L1 (µ) ¤

¡ Lebesgue È¼ê (éu
µ) ½öÚ¼ê.
½Â 18 f = f1 + if2 , Ù¥ f1 , f2 ´ X þ¢ÿ¼ê, XJ f ∈ L1 (µ),

@oéz A ∈ A , ·½ÂZ Z Z
f dµ = f1 dµ + i f2 dµ. (80)
A A A
du |f1 | 6 |f |, |f2 | 6 |f |, Ïdâ·K 8 , f1 , f2 Ñ´È. l (80) ª
>È©Éê.
·K 10 L1 (µ) Éêþ5m, ¿È©´ L1 (µ) þ5
¼ê, =é?¿ f, g ∈ L1 (µ), Z c ∈ C, k Z Z
(f + g) dµ = f dµ + g dµ, (81)
ZX Z X X
(cf ) dµ = c f dµ. (82)

X X
y² f, g ∈ L1 (µ), c ∈ C. â·K 6 , f + g, cf Ñ´ X þEÿ¼
ê. du |f Z+ g| 6 |f | + |g|, Z|cf | = |c| |f |, ÏdZ Z
|f + g| dµ 6 (|f | + |g|) dµ = |f | dµ + |g| dµ < +∞,
ZX Z X Z X X
|cf | dµ = |c| |f | dµ = |c| |f | dµ < +∞,

X X X
l f + g, cf ∈ L1 (µ). Ïd L1 (µ) É5m.
f = f1 + if2 , g = g1 + ig2 , du f, g ∈ L1 (µ), Ïd f1 , f2 , g1 , g2 Ñ´¢È
¼ê, l â½Â Z 18 Ú·K 9 Z
(f + g) dµ = [(f1 + g1 ) + i(f2 + g2 )] dµ
X
ZX Z
= (f1 + g2 ) dµ + i (f2 + g2 ) dµ
ZX Z X
= f dµ + g dµ.
X X
c = a + ib, Ù¥ a,Zb ∈ R, K cf Z 2 + bf1 ). â·K 9
Z = (af1 − bf2 ) + i(af
cf dµ = (af1 − bf2 ) dµ + i (af2 + bf1 ) dµ
X X X
Z Z
= (a + ib) f1 dµ + i(a + ib) f2 dµ
X X
Z
=c f dµ.
X
·K 11 XJ f ∈ L1 (µ), @o Z Z

f dµ 6 |f | dµ. (83)

R X X
y² - z = X f dµ. du z Éê, Ïd3 1 Eê α, ¦
αz = |z|. g = Re (αf ), K g 6 |αf | = |f |. Ïd
Z Z Z

f dµ = |z| = αz = α f dµ = αf dµ

X
Z Z X X
= g dµ 6 |f | dµ.
X X
· 282 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
Z Z
þã Ò¤á´Ï αf dµ ´¢ê, l Im (αf ) dµ = 0.
X X
d½Â 18 ÚíØ 3 5¿á=XeíØ:
íØ 4 (X, A , µ) ´ÿÝm, f ´ X þKÿ¼ê, K
íØ 3 ¥ (74) ªéu X þ÷v g ∈ L1 (ν) Eÿ¼ê g ¤á.
e¡3È©Òe4½n¡ Lebesgue Âñ½n.
½n 7 (Lebesgue Âñ½n) (fn ) ´ X þEÿ¼êS, ¦
lim fn = f , ¿é n ∈ N∗ k |fn | 6 g, Ù¥ g ´È¼ê, K f ´ Lebesgue
n→∞
È, ¿ Z Z
f dµ = lim fn dµ. (84)
n→∞
y² ? ε > 0, du lim fn = f , Ïd3 m ∈ N∗ , ¦ n > m Òk

n→∞
|fn − f | < ε. l
|f | < |fn | + ε 6 g + ε. (85)
du ε > 0 ´?¿, Ïdl (85) ª, |f | 6 g. du g ∈ L(µ), Ïdâ·K 8
|f | ∈ L(µ), l f ∈ L1 (µ).
du |fn − f | 6 |fn | + |f | 6 2g, Ïd 2g − |fn − f | > 0. du lim fn = f , Ïd
n→∞
lim |fn − f | = 0. l lim inf |fn − f | = 0. u´é 2g − |fn − f | ^ Faton Ún
n→∞ Z n→∞ Z
2g dµ 6 lim inf (2g − |fn − f |) dµ
n→∞
Z Z
= 2g dµ + lim inf − |fn − f | dµ
n→∞
Z Z
= 2g dµ − lim sup |fn − f | dµ. (86)
n→∞
Z
du 2g dµ < +∞, Ïdl (86) ª
Z
lim sup |fn − f | dµ 6 0. (87)
n→∞
XJK¢êSØÂñ 0, @o§þ47½´ê Z . Ïdl (87) ª
lim |fn − f | dµ = 0. (88)
Z n→∞ Z

â·K 11 (fn − f ) dµ 6 |fn − f | dµ, u´l (88) ª
Z Z

lim
(fn − f ) dµ 6 lim |fn − f | dµ = 0. (89)
n→∞ n→∞
Z
l lim (fn − f ) dµ = 0, ddÑ
n→∞
Z Z
lim fn dµ = f dµ.
n→∞
8.2 ÛÜ; Hausdorff ÿÀ+þ Haar ÿÝ

ly3m©·5éuÛÜ; Hausdorff ÿÀ+ G ïáØCÈ©.
X ´ÿÀm, f ´ X þE¼ê, r X f8

{x ∈ X|f (x) 6= 0}
4¡¼ê f | 8, P supp (f ). -
Cc (X) := {f : X → C|f ëY, supp (f ) ´ X ;f8}.
w,, e f ∈ Cc (X), Ké?¿ a ∈ C, k af ∈ Cc (X). f, g ∈ Cc (X), K f, g
´ X þëYE¼ê, l f + g ´ X þëYE¼ê, ¿ýk
S
supp (f + g) ⊆ supp (f ) supp (g).
T
ndXe: ? x ∈ supp (f )c supp (g)c , K f (x) = 0, g(x) = 0, l (f +g)(x) =
0, u´ x ∈ supp (f + g)c . ùL²
T
supp (f )c supp (g)c ⊆ supp (f + g)c .
S
l k supp (f +g) ⊆ supp (f ) supp (g). du supp (f ) supp (g) Ñ´;8, k
S
õ;8¿8E´;8, Ïd supp (f ) supp (g) ´;8. qdu supp (f + g)
´48, ÏdâÙ §2 ·K 3 , supp (f + g) ´;8. u´ f + g ∈ Cc (X). w
,, "¼êáu Cc (X). Ïd Cc (X) Éêþ5m.
e¡y²e X ´ÛÜ; Hausdorff m, K Cc (X) Ø´"m. dÄké
ÛÜ; Hausdorff ÿÀm;f85
&?, , 5y² Cc (X) 6= {0}.
·K 12 X ´ Hausdorff m, K ´ X ;f8, y ∈ K c , K3üØ
m8 U Ú W , ¦ y ∈ U , K ⊆ W .
y² ? x ∈ K, du X ´ Hausdorff m, y ∈ K c , Ïd3Øm
8 Ux Ú Vx , ¦ y ∈ Ux x ∈ Vx . du K ´;8, Ïd3 x1 , · · · , xn ∈ K, ¦
S S
K ⊆ Vx1 · · · Vxn .
- T T S S
U = Ux1 · · · Uxn , W = Vx1 · · · Vxn ,
T T S T
K K ⊆ W, y ∈ U , U W = (U Vx1 ) · · · (U Vxn ) = ∅. \

·K 13 X ´ Hausdorff m, {Ki |i ∈ I} ´ X x;f8, Ki =
i∈I
∅, K {Ki |i ∈ I} k,kf8Ù88.
\
y² - Vi = Kic , i ∈ I. ½ {Ki |i ∈ I} ¤
K1 , du Ki = ∅, Ï
\ i∈I
d ∀x ∈ K1 , k x 6∈ Ki , l
i∈I !c
\ [ [
x∈ Ki = Kic = Vi ,
i∈I i∈I i∈I
S S
Ïd {Vi |i ∈ I} ´ K1 mCX. du K1 ´;8, Ïd K1 ⊆ Vi1 ··· Vin . u
S S
´ ∀x ∈ K1 , Ñk x ∈ Vi1 · · · Vin , l
S S T T T T
x 6∈ (Vi1 · · · Vin )c = Vic1 · · · Vicn = Ki1 · · · Kin .
ddÑ
T T T
K1 Ki1 · · · Kin = ∅.
|^·K 12 Ú·K 13 ±Ñeã(Ø.

· 284 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
½n 8 X ´ÛÜ; Hausdorff m, U ´ X m8, K ´ X ;8

K ⊆ U , K3m8 V , Ù4 V ;8, ¦
K ⊆ V ⊆ V ⊆ U.
y² ? x ∈ K, du X ´ÛÜ;, Ïd x km Vx , Ù4 V x
´;8. du K ´;8, Ïd3kõù«m (Ù4´;8), §¿
8CX K, =
S S
K ⊆ Vx1 · · · Vxn .
S S
P E = Vx1 · · · Vxn . e U = X, V = E, K V ´m8,
K ⊆ V ⊆ V ⊆ X.
S S
du V = E ⊆ V x1 · · · V xn , Ïd V ´;8.
e¡ U & X. P C = U c , ? x ∈ C, du K ⊆ U , Ïd K c ⊇ U c , l
T T
x ∈ K c . â·K 12, 3m8 Wx , ¦ K ⊆ Wx x 6∈ W x . w,, C E W x
T T T T
´48, du E ´;8, Ïd C E W x ´;8. l {C E W x |x ∈ C} ´
\ T T \ T T
X x;f8. bX (C E W x ) 6= ∅, K3 y ∈ (C E W x ), l
x∈C \ x∈C
T T
y ∈ C y ∈ W y , gñ. Ïd (C E W x ) = ∅. â·K 13 k
Tx∈CT T T
C E W y1 · · · W ym = ∅.
-
T T T
V = E Wy1 · · · Wym ,
T T T
K V ´m8, du V ⊆ E W y1 · · · W ym , Ïd V ´;8. ? x ∈ V , K
T T T
x ∈ E W y1 · · · W ym , l x 6∈ C, u´ x ∈ C c = U . Ïd V ⊆ U . w,
K ⊆V.
y3éÛÜ;m5
&?.
·K 14 (1) ÛÜ; Hausdorff m4fm´ÛÜ;;
(2) X ´ÛÜ;m, Y ´ÿÀm. XJ f ´ X Y ëYN, ´m
N!÷, @oY Y ´ÛÜ;;
(3) X = Xi ´ÿÀm¦È, Xi 6= ∅, ∀i ∈ I, K X ´ÛÜ;=
i∈I
éz i ∈ I Ñk Xi ´ÛÜ;, Øk i , Xi ´;.

y² (1) Ù §7 ~ 4 ®²y²
ù·K.
(2) é? y ∈ Y , du f ´÷, Ïd3 x ∈ X, ¦ f (x) = y. du X ´
ÛÜ;, Ïdk x 3 X ¥; U . du f ´ X Y ëYN, Ïdâ
Ù §2 ·K 5 , f (U ) ´ Y ¥;f8. qdu f ´mN, y ∈ f (U ), Ïd
f (U ) ´ y ;. l Y ´ÛÜ;.
(3) ¿©5. Xi ´ÛÜ; (∀i ∈ I), Ø
k Xi Ñ´;, Ké?
¿ x = (xi ) ∈ X, éz i, 3 Ui ⊆ Xi , §´ xi ;, éA¤k i, k
Y
Ui = Xi . âÙ §2 3öìÅ½n, Ui ´ x ;.
i∈I
Y
75. X = Xi ´ÛÜ;, duÝKN πi : X → Xi ´ëYmN
i∈I
, ´÷, Ïdâ·K (2) , z Xi Ñ´ÛÜ;. x ∈ X k;

U , KâÙ §2 ½Â 18 , Øk i , Ñk πi (U ) = Xi , ÏdØk
i , Xi Ñ´;.
·K 15 X ´ÛÜ; Hausdorff m, K X ?mf8Ñ´ÛÜ;.
y² Y ´ X mf8. éu? x ∈ Y , du X ´ Hausdorff m, Ïd
ü:8 {x} ´48. l â·K 14 , {x} ´ÛÜ;. {x} ¥ x ;U
´ {x}, Ïd {x} ´;8. du Y ´ {x} m, Ïdâ½n 8 , 3m8
V , Ù4;8, {x} ⊆ V ⊆ V ⊆ Y , =3 x ; V ⊆ Y . l Y ´ÛÜ
;.
y3·5y²Ún, §L²: e X ´ÛÜ; Hausdorff m, K Cc (X)
Ø´"m.
Ún 6 (Urysohn (Uryson) Ún) X ´ÛÜ; Hausdorff m,
C ⊆ U ⊆ X, C ;8, U m8, K73ëY¼ê f : X → R, ¦
(1) f (x) = 1, ∀x ∈ C;
(2) f (x) = 0, ∀x 6∈ U ;
(3) 0 6 f (x) 6 1, ∀x ∈ X;
(4) supp (f ) ´;, supp (f ) ⊆ U .
y² du U ´m8, C ´ X ;f8, C ⊆ U , Ïdâ½n 8 , 3m

1
8 V1 , V 1 ´;8, ¦ C ⊆ V1 ⊆ V 1 ⊆ U . P C = C(1), V 1 = C . é U Ú V1
2
^½n 8 , 3m8 V0 , V 0 ´;8, ¦ V 1 ⊆ V0 ⊆ V 0 ⊆ U . P V 0 = C (0), =3

1
C(0) Ú C(1) m3 C ; C . Ón e?1, é V0 Ú V 1 ^½n 8
2

1 1
, 3 C(0) Ú C m3 C ;, P C ; é V1 Ú C ^½n 8 ,
2 4

1 3
3C Ú C(1) m3 C ;, P C ; . UYdL§, ·
2 4
i
X C(θ), θ = n , 0 6 i 6 2n . âÙ §2 ·K 4, ù
C(θ) Ñ´48. é
2
u 0 6 α 6 1, ½Â
\
C(α) = C(θ),
θ6α
i
Ù¥ θ /X , K C(α) E´48. du C(α) ⊆ C(0), C(0) ´;8, Ïd C(α)
2n
´;8. r C(α) ½Â*¿ R ( þ, -
X, α < 0,
C(α) =
∅, α > 1.
w,, e 0 6 α < β < 1, K C(α) ⊇ C(β). l X ⊇ C(0) ⊇ C(β) ⊇ C(1) ⊇ ∅. y3
· 286 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
½Â¼ê f : X → R:
f (x) = sup{α|x ∈ C(α)}. (90)
e x 6∈ C(0), K x 6∈ C(β), ∀β > 0, l f (x) = 0. e x ∈ C = C(1), K x ∈ C(β), ∀β 6
1, l f (x) = 1. é x ∈ X, Ñk 0 6 f (x) 6 1. u´ supp (f ) ⊆ C(0). du
supp (f ) ´48, C(0) ´;8, Ïd supp (f ) ´;8.
e¡5y² f ëY. du R ¤km«m|¤8Ü´ÿÀm R ÿ
ÀÄ, ÏdâÙ §2 íØ 2, y: éu?¿ü¢ê γ < β, 8Ü
V = {x ∈ X|γ < f (x) < β}
m8. V ¤
T
V = {x|f (x) > γ} (X\{x|f (x) > β}). (91)
y3©Oy² (91) ªm>ü8ÜÑ´m8. du

\
f (x) > β ⇐⇒ sup{α|x ∈ C(α)} > β ⇐⇒ x ∈ C(α),
α<β
\
C(α) ´48, Ïd C(α) ´48, = {x|f (x) > β} ´48, u´§Ö8´m
α<β
8.
f (x) > γ ⇐⇒ sup{α|x ∈ C(α)} > γ
⇐⇒ 3 α > γ ¦ x ∈ C(α)
⇐⇒ 3 α′ > γ ¦ x ∈ C(α′ ) SÜ.
ddÑ, {x|f (x) > γ} ´m8. Ïd f ëY¼ê.
lÚn 6 wÑ, éuÛÜ; Hausdorff m X ?;f8 C,
C S8 (= C ¤kS:|¤8Ü) , Kk"¼ê f , ¦ supp (f ) ⊆ K,
Ù¥ K ⊇ C. ·P
Cc (X, K) = {f ∈ Cc (x)| supp (f ) ⊆ K}. (92)
Ný, Cc (X, K) ´ Cc (X) fm. e K ´;f8, KâÙ §2 íØ 5,
·±3 Cc (X, K) þ½Âê: f ∈ Cc (X, K), ½Â
kf kK := sup |f (x)|, (93)
x∈K
éudê, Cc (X, K) ¤ÿÀm. ('uê½ÂwÙ §9 ½Â 3.)
·½: “z ∈ C, z > 0” ¿g´ “z ∈ R, z > 0”. -
Cc+ (X) = {f ∈ Cc (X)|f > 0 f 6= 0}, (94)
Cc+ (X, K) = {f ∈ Cc+ (X)| supp (f ) ⊆ K}. (95)
(X, A , µ) ´ÿÝm. â·K 9, ¤kÈ¼ê|¤8Ü L(µ) ´
¢êþ5m, ¿È©´ Z L(µ) þ5¼ê. lKÿ¼ê
È©½Â ( (49) ª) wÑ f dµ > 0. lù
Ééu, ÚÑeãVg.
½Â 19 X ´ÛÜ; Hausdorff m, Eêþ5m Cc (X) þ
5¼ê ν XJ÷v: éu f > 0, k ν(f ) > 0, @o ν ¡ X þÿÝ,
Z Z Z
ν(f ) ¡ f 3 X þéu ν È©, P f (x) dν(x), ½ f (x) dx, ½ f dν.
X X X
È©mØ´Úå· , ±ò§ÑØ.
½Â 19 ´84
È©äk55ÚK5. I¯´: ½Â 19 or
5m Cc (X) þ5¼ê ν (§÷v: éu f > 0 k ν(f ) > 0) ¡ X
þÿ .Ý . Q? §·3Ù §8 1Ü©¥ùÿÝko'XQ? e¡
½n 9 £
ù¯K.
½n 9 (Riesz L«½n) X ´ÛÜ; Hausdorff m, ν ´ X þ
ÿÝ, K3 X f8|¤ σ-ê A , §¹ X ¤k Borel 8, ¿
3 A þÿÝ µ, ¦éu fZ∈ Cc (X), k
ν(f ) = f dµ; (96)
¿XJ K ´ X ;f8, @o Z
µ(K) = dµ < +∞. (97)
K
½n 9 y²w [14] 1 42 — 49 .
l½n 9 Ú·K 11 Ñ, e ν ´ÛÜ; Hausdorff m X þÿ
Ý, Kéu f ∈ Cc (G), k
|ν(f )| 6 ν(|f |). (98)
X ´ÛÜ; Hausdorff m, ν ´ X þÿÝ, â Riesz L«½

n, 3 σ-ê A , §¹ X ¤k Borel 8, K X þ?EëY¼ê f Ñ´
A -Eÿ¼ê. ndXe: éuE²¡þ?m8 U , du f ëY, Ïd f −1 (U )
´ X m8, l f −1 (U ) ´ X Borel 8, u´ f −1 (U ) ∈ A , Ïd f −1 (U ) ´ X
ÿ8, l f ´ÿ¼ê.
3ÛÜ; Hausdorff ÿÀ+ G þÈ©AäkØC5 (½mØC5),
=éz s ∈ G, k Z Z
f (sx) dx = f (x) dx (ØC5), (99)
G G
Z Z
f (xs) dx = f (x) dx (mØC5). (100)
G G
ddÚÑeãVg.
½Â 20 G ´ÛÜ; Hausdorff ÿÀ+, G þÿÝ ν XJ
Z s ∈ G, k Z
÷v: é?¿f ∈ Cc (G),
f (sx) dx = f (x) dx, (ØC5),
G G
@o¡ ν ´() Haar ÿÝ, ½() ØCÿÝ, ½ Haar È©, ½ØCÈ©.
aq/, éuÛÜ; Hausdorff ÿÀ+ G, ½Â (m) Haar ÿÝ½ (m) ØC
ÿÝ, ¡ Haar È©, ½ØCÈ©.
G ´ÛÜ; Hausdorff ÿÀ+, G ü P e, ½Â G×Cc (G) Cc (G)
· 288 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
éA{K:
G × Cc (G) → Cc (G)
(s, f ) 7→ sf,
Ù¥
(sf )(x) := f (s−1 x). (101)
Ný: sf ∈ Cc (G),
ef = f, ∀f ∈ Cc (G), (102)
(st)f = s(tf ), ∀s, t ∈ G, ∀f ∈ Cc (G), (103)
Ïd (101) ª½Â
+ G 38Ü Cc (G) þ^, ¡§ G 3 Cc (G) þ
²£.
G ´ÛÜ; Hausdorff ÿÀ+, K G þ () Haar ÿÝ ν ´
ÿÝ, 3²£eØC, =
ν(sf ) = ν(f ), ∀s ∈ G, ∀f ∈ Cc (G). (104)
!(Ø´Xe½n.
½n 10 (Haar) 3ÛÜ; Hausdorff ÿÀ+ G þ3 Haar ÿÝ
ν, ν 6= 0, ¿Ø
¢êÏf , ν ´.

y²½n 10, ·IXOó.
·K 16 X ´ÛÜ; Hausdorff ÿÀm, ν ´½Â3 Cc+ (X) þ
¼ê, ±\{Úê¦ (^ê¦), K ν ±/*¿¤ X þÿÝ.
y² ? f ∈ Cc (X), f ´¢¼ê, f 6= 0, k f = f + − f − . w,
f + , f − Ñ´¢ëY¼ê, supp (f + ) ⊆ supp (f ), supp (f − ) ⊆ supp (f ). du
supp (f + ), supp (f − ) Ñ´48, supp (f ) ´;8, Ïd supp (f + ), supp (f − ) Ñ´
;8, l f + , f − ∈ Cc+ (X). -
ν(f ) = ν(f + ) − ν(f − ), ν(0) = 0, (105)
+
K ν *¿
X þ¢ëY¼êþ. du ν 3 Cc (X) þ±\{Úê¦ (^
ê¦), Ïdaqu·K 9 y{y: ν 3 Cc (X) ¥¢¼ê|¤f8þ
±\{Úê¦.
y3Ä?¿ f ∈ Cc (X), f = f1 + if2 . aqu·K 6 y{, $^·K 4
, f1 , f2 Ñ´¢ëY¼ê. w, supp (fi ) ⊆ supp (f ), i = 1, 2. u´ ν(fi ) d (105)
ª½Â, i = 1, 2. -
ν(f ) = ν(f1 ) + iν(f2 ), (106)
aqu·K 10 y{, ν ´ Cc (X) þ5¼ê. l ν ÏL (105) ªÚ

(106) ª®*¿¤ Cc (X) þ5¼ê. du ν ´ Cc+ (X) þ¼ê, Ïd
ν ÷v: éu f > 0, k ν(f ) > 0. u´ ν ¤ X þÿÝ. 5´w,
(l (105) ªwÑ).
·K 17 G ?¿ÿÀ+, f ∈ Cc (G), K f 3 G ¥ëY.
y² f = f1 + if2 , K fi ´ G þ¢ëY¼ê, supp (fi ) ´ G ;

f8, ÏdâÙ §5 ·K 1 , fi 3 supp (fi ) þ´ëY. l fi 3 G
þ´ëY (Ï fi 3 G\ supp (fi ) þ¼ê 0). u´ f 3 G ¥ë
Y.
·K 18 G ´ÛÜ; Hausdorff ÿÀ+, Kéu f, F ∈ Cc+ (G), 3¢
ê a1 , · · · , an ±9 x1 , · · · , xn ∈ G, ¦
X n
ai (xi F ) > f. (107)
i=1
y² du F ∈ Cc+ (G), Ïd F > 0 F 6= 0, l 3 t ∈ G, ¦ F (t) > 0.
1
- b = F (t). du F ´ G þëY¼ê, Ïd3 G ü e m V , ¦
2
x ∈ tV , k F (x) > b.
supp (f ) = K. du {kV |k ∈ K} ´ K CX, K ´;f8, Ïd3
n
[
k1 , k2 , · · · , kn ∈ K, ¦ K ⊆ ki V . x 6∈ K , f (x) = 0, l (107) ªw,¤
i=1
á. e¡ x ∈ K, K3 j ∈ {1, 2, · · · , n} ¦ x ∈ kj V . Ïd kj−1 x ∈ V , l
tkj−1 x ∈ tV , u´
F (tkj−1 x) > b.
- xj = kj t−1 , Kk (xj F )(x) = F (x−1 −1

j x) = F (tkj x) > b. qdu f ´ G þ¢
ëY¼ê, K ´ G ;f8. ÏdâÙ §2 ·K 5 , f (K) = {f (x)|x ∈ K}
´ R ;f8. 2âÙ §2 íØ 4 , f (K) ´k.48. M Ùþ., K
Xn
M M
(xi F )(x) > (xj F )(x) > M > f (x).
i=1
b b
l
n
X M
(xi F ) > f.
i=1
b
íØ 5 G ´ÛÜ; Hausdorff ÿÀ+, F ∈ Cc+ (G), Ké Haar ÿ

Ý ν, k ν(F ) > 0 (= Haar ÿÝäk½5).
y² ? G þ Harrr ÿÝ ν. f ∈ Cc+ (G), ¦ ν(f ) 6= 0, K
ν(f ) > 0. â·K 18, 3¢ê a1 , · · · , an ±9 x1 , · · · , xn ∈ G, ¦
Xn
ai (xi F ) > f.
! i=1
Xn n
X X n
u´, ν(f ) 6 v ai (xi F ) = ai ν(xi F ) = ai ν(F ). l k
i=1 i=1 i=1
ν(f )
ν(F ) > n > 0.
X
ai
i=1
· 290 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
½Â 21 (f, F ∈ Cc+ (G), ½Â )

Xn n
X

(f : F ) = inf ai ai > 0, 3 xi ∈ G, 1 6 i 6 n, ¦ ai (xi F ) > f .

i=1 i=1
l·K 18 , (f : F ) 3, y²§´ê (e¡·K 19). líØ 5
y²L§, é?¿ Haar ÿÝ ν, k
ν(f ) 6 (f : F )ν(F ). (108)
+
·K 19 f, fi , F, g ∈ Cc (G), K
(1) (f : F ) > 0;
(2) é? x ∈ G, (xf : F ) = (f : F );
(3) (f1 + f2 : F ) 6 (f1 : F ) + (f2 : F );
(4) e a > 0, K (af : F ) = a(f ; F );
(5) (f : F ) 6 (f : g)(g : F ). !
n
X Xn
y² (1) f 6 ai (xi F ) =⇒ sup(f ) 6 ai sup(F )
i=1 i=1
n
X
sup(f )
=⇒ ai > > 0 =⇒ (f : F ) > 0.
i=1
sup(F )
n
X X n
(2) f 6 ai (xi F ) ⇐⇒ f (y) 6 ai (xi F )(y), ∀y ∈ G
i=1 i=1
n
X
⇐⇒ f (x−1 y) 6 ai (xi F )(x−1 y), ∀y ∈ G
i=1
n
X
⇐⇒ (xf )(y) 6 ai (xxi F )(y), ∀y ∈ G
i=1
n
X
⇐⇒ xf 6 ai (xxi F ),
i=1
Ïd
(f : F ) = (xf : F ).
n
X Xm
(3) e f1 6 ai (xi F ), f2 6 bj (yj F ), K
i=1 j=1
Xn m
X
f1 + f2 6 ai (xi F ) + bj (yj F ).
i=1 j=1
u´
n
X m
X
(f1 + f2 : F ) 6 ai + bj .
i=1 j=1
r
X r
X
du (f1 + f2 : F ) ´÷v cl (zi F ) > f1 + f2 cl |¤8Üe(., y3
l=1 l=1
n
X m
X n
X n
X
ai + bj áuù8Ü; q (f1 : F ) ´÷v ai (xi F ) > f1 ai |¤8
i=1 j=1 i=1 i=1
Üe(., (f2 : F ) aq, Ïdk

(f1 + f2 : F ) 6 (f1 : F ) + (f2 : F ).
(4) e a > 0, K
Xn Xn
f6 ai (xi F ) ⇐⇒ af 6 (aai )(xi F ),
i=1 i=1
Ïd
(af : F ) = a(f : F ).
n
X m
X
(5) f 6 ai (xi g), g 6 bj (yj F ), K ∀x ∈ G, k
i=1 j=1
" n #  
X n
X n
X m
X
f (x) 6 ai (xi g) (x) = ai g(x−1
i x) 6 ai  bj (yj F ) (x−1
i x)
i=1 i=1 i=1 j=1
 
n X
X m Xn X
m
= ai bj F (yj−1 x−1
i x) =
 ai bj (xi yj F ) (x).
i=1 j=1 i=1 j=1
l
n X
X m
f6 ai bj (xi yj F ).
i=1 j=1
Ïd
n X
m n
! m 
X X X
(f : F ) 6 ai b j = ai  bj  .
i=1 j=1 i=1 j=1
ddÑ
(f : F ) 6 (f : g)(g : F ).
½Â 22 ½ Cc+ (G) ¥ü f ∗ Ú F , éu?¿ f ∈ Cc+ (G), ½Â
νF (f ) = (f : F )/(f ∗ : F ), (109)
K¡ νF ´ G þCqÿÝ.
â·K 19, (f ∗ : F ) > 0, Ïd (109) ªk¿Â.
·K 20 νF ´ G þCqÿÝ, f, f1 , f2 ∈ Cc+ (G), K
(1) νF (f ) > 0;
(2) νF (f ) = νF (sf ), ∀s ∈ G;
(3) νF (f1 + f2 ) 6 νF (f1 ) + µF (f2 );
(4) e a > 0, K νF (af ) = aνF (f );
(5) e f1 6 f2 , K νF (f1 ) 6 νF (f2 );
1
(6) ∗ 6 νF (f ) 6 (f : f ∗ ).
(f : f )
y² (1) d·K 19 (1) á= νF (f ) > 0.
(2) d·K 19 (2) , ∀s ∈ G, k
(sf : F ) (f : F )
νF (sf ) = ∗ = ∗ = νF (f ).
f :F f :F
· 292 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
(3) d·K 19 (3) á=.

(4) d·K 19 (4) á=.
(5) d·K 19 (5)
(f1 : F ) 6 (f1 : f2 )(f2 : F ). (110)
e f1 6 f2 , K (f1 : f2 ) ½Âª¥m>8Ü¹k 1, l (f1 : f2 ) 6 1. u´d
(110) ª, (f1 : F ) 6 (f1 : f2 )(f2 : F ) 6 (f2 : F ). l k νF (f1 ) 6 νF (f2 ).
(6) d·K 19 (5) (f : F ) 6 (f : f ∗ )(f ∗ : F ). l k
νF (f ) 6 (f : f ∗ ).
qd (f ∗ : F ) 6 (f ∗ : f )(f : F )
1
νF (f ) > ∗ .
(f : f )
Ïd
1
∗
6 νF (f ) 6 (f : f ∗ ).
(f : f )
e¡·K 21 ·K 20 (3) (Üå5L²: F | 8ªuü ,

νF Ću±\{.
·K 21 G ´ÛÜ; Hausdorff ÿÀ+, f1 , f2 ∈ Cc+ (G), Ké?
ε > 0, 3ü e V , ¦ supp (F ) ⊆ V , k
νF (f1 + f2 ) > νF (f1 ) + νF (f2 ) − ε. (111)
S
y² - C = supp (f1 ) supp (f2 ), K C ;f8. l âÚn 6 , 3
ëY¼ê q ∈ Cc+ (G), éu x ∈ C k q(x) = 1, éu x ∈ G, k 0 6 q(x) 6 1.
a > 0, P
p(x) = f1 (x) + f2 (x) + aq(x), (112)
½Â
(
fi (x)/p(x), p(x) 6= 0,
hi (x) = (113)
0, p(x) = 0,
Ù¥ i = 1, 2. p(x) = 0 , d (112) ª f1 (x) = f2 (x) = 0. Ïd h1 (x), h2 (x) ´

ëY¼ê, supp (hi (x)) ⊆ supp (p(x)), i = 1, 2. du Cc (G) Éêþ5
m, Ïd p(x) ∈ Cc (G), l supp (p(x)) ´;f8. du supp (hi (x)) ´48, Ïd
supp (hi (x)) ´;f8. ddÑ hi (x) ∈ Cc (G). qdu hi (x) > 0, ∀x ∈ G, hi (x)
Ø´"¼ê, Ïd hi (x) ∈ Cc+ (G), i = 1, 2. q p(x) 6= 0 , k
f1 (x) + f2 (x) f1 (x) + f2 (x) + aq(x)
h1 (x) + h2 (x) = 6 = 1,
p(x) p(x)
Ïd 0 6 h1 + h2 6 1. d·K 17 , hi (x) 3 G ¥ëY. u´3ü
V , ¦ xy −1 ∈ V ½ x−1 y ∈ V , Òk
a
|hi (x) − hi (y)| < , i = 1, 2. (114)
2
éu?¿| 83 V ¥ëY¼ê F ∈ Cc+ (G), â·K 18, 3¢ê b1 , b2 , · · · ,
bn ±9 x1 , · · · , xn ∈ G, ¦
n
X
bj (xj F ) > p. (115)
j=1
t 6∈ xj V , x−1 −1
j t 6∈ V . l (xj F )(t) = F (xj t) = 0. t ∈ xj V , k xj t ∈ V .
−1
l â (114) ª
a
|hi (xj ) − hi (t)| < , i = 1, 2, j = 1, 2, · · · , n. (116)
2
u´ t ∈ xj V , k
a
hi (t) < hi (xj ) + , i = 1, 2. (117)
2
u´l (113) ª, (115) ªÚ (117) ª
X n Xn h ai
f i = hi p 6 bj hi (xj F ) 6 bj hi (xj ) + (xi F ), i = 1, 2. (118)
j=1 j=1
2
ddÑ
n
X h ai
(fi : F ) 6 bj hi (xj ) + , i = 1, 2. (119)
j=1
2
Ïd
n
X n
X
(f1 : F ) + (f2 : F ) 6 bj [h1 (xj ) + h2 (xj ) + a] 6 (1 + a) bj . (120)
j=1 j=1
(Ü (115) ªÚ (p : F ) ½Âª, ±9·K 19 (4)

(f1 : F ) + (f2 : F ) 6 (1 + a)(p : F ). (121)
l (121) ª!(109) ª!(112) ª, ±9·K 20 (3) !(4) !(6)
νF (f1 ) + νF (f2 ) 6 (1 + a)νF (p) = (1 + a)νF (f1 + f2 + aq)
6 (1 + a)[νF (f1 + f2 ) + aνF (q)]
= νF (f1 + f2 ) + a[νF (f1 + f2 ) + (1 + a)νF (q)]
6 νF (f1 + f2 ) + a[(f1 + f2 : f ∗ ) + (1 + a)(q : f ∗ )]. (122)
éu½ f1 , f2 , ½ q, éu? ε > 0, a u 1, ¿©:
a < ε/[(f1 + f2 : f ∗ ) + 2(q : f ∗ )], (123)
Kl (122) ª
νF (f1 ) + νF (fν ) 6 νF (f1 + f2 ) + ε.
y3·5y²½n 10 35Ü©.
·K 22 G ´ÛÜ; Hausdorff ÿÀ+, K G þ3 Haar ÿÝ.
y² P D = Cc+ (G). ½ f ∗ ∈ D. éu f ∈ D, P J(f ) R ¥4«m
[1/(f ∗ : f ), (f : f ∗ )]. âÙ §2 íØ 4, J(f ) ´;. ¦Èm
Y
J= J(f ). (124)
f ∈D
âÙ §2 3öìÅ½n, J ´;m. éu?¿ F ∈ D, â·K 20 (6)
, νF (f ) TÐ3 J(f ) ¥. Ïd aF = {νF (f )|f ∈ D} ´ J ¥. é G ü
· 294 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
z V , J ¥f8
AV = {{νF (f )|f ∈ D}| supp F ⊆ V }. (125)
w, AV 6= ∅. âÙ §7 1nÜ©¥ùÿÀ+ G ü | Be
÷v 5 ^¥1^, éuü ?¿ü V1 , V2 , 73ü
T
V ⊆ V1 V2 , l
T
AV ⊆ AV1 AV2 . (126)
\
ddíÑ, J ¥3áu¤k AV 4, ndXe: y AV 6= ∅,
!c V
\ [ c [ c
y AV 6= J, dy AV 6= J. bX AV = J, du J ´;
V V V
c c
m, Ïd3 AV1 , · · · , AVn , §´ J kCX. d (126) ª, 73
n
\ [n
c c
AVj ⊆ AVk . l AVj ⊇ AVk = J. u´ AVj ⊆ ∅, = AVj = ∅. ùz
k=1 k=1
AV 6= ∅ gñ. Ïd J ¥3áu¤k AV 4, rùP
{ν(f )|f ∈ D}. du {ν(f )|f ∈ D} áuz AV , Ïd {ν(f )|f ∈ D} ´z AV
:½ AV à:. ddÑ: é?k¼ê f1 , · · · , fm ∈ D, ? ε > 0, ?¿
½ü V , 73 F ∈ D, supp (F ) ⊆ V , ¦
|ν(fi ) − νF (fi )| < ε, i − 1, 2, · · · , m. (127)
é f, f1 , f2 ∈ D, b > 0, s ∈ G, â·K 20 (2) !(4) !(3) ±9·K 21,
|ν(sf ) − ν(f )| 6 |ν(sf ) − νF (sf )| + |νF (f ) − ν(f )|, (128)
|ν(bf ) − bν(f )| 6 |ν(bf ) − νF (bf )| + |bνF (f ) − bν(f )|, (129)
|ν(f1 + f2 ) − [ν(f1 ) + ν(f2 )]|
6 |ν(f1 + f2 ) − νF (f1 + f2 )|
+|νF (f1 + f2 ) − [νF (f1 ) + νF (f2 )]| + |νF (f1 ) − ν(f1 )| + |νF (f2 ) − ν(f2 )|
6 |ν(f1 + f2 ) − νF (f1 + f2 )| + ε1 + |νF (f1 ) − ν(f1 )| + |νF (f2 ) − ν(f2 )|. (130)
ε1 ?¿ê, supp (F ) ¿©. Ïd/Ïu| 8¿©¼ê F ∈
D, |^ (127) ª, l (128) ª!(129) ª!(130) ªy
ν(sf ) = ν(f ), (131)
ν(bf ) = bν(f ), (132)
ν(f1 + f2 ) = ν(f1 ) + ν(f2 ). (133)
(133) ªL² ν ±\{, (132) ªL² ν ±ê¦ (^¢ê¦). l J EÚ
{ν(f )|f ∈ D} {
ν(f ) > 1/(f ∗ : f ) > 0. (134)
Ïd ν ´ Cc+ (G) þ¼ê. â·K 16 , ν ±*¿¤ G þÿÝ.

(131) ªL²: éu Cc+ (G) ¥¼ê, ν äk3²£eØC5. l·K 16 y
²L§ (105) ªÚ (106) ªwÑ, ν *¿ , éu Cc (G) ¥¼êäk3²£

eØC5. Ïd ν G þ Haar ÿÝ.

y² Haar ÿÝ5, ·I
Oó.
X ´ÛÜ; Hausdorff m, X þÿÝ ν |8 supp (ν) ´÷v
e^48 S:
f ∈ Cc (G) supp (f ) ⊆ X\S =⇒ ν(f ) = 0.
·K 23 G ´ÛÜ; Hausdorff ÿÀ+, H ´ÿÀ+ G f+, α ´ H
þÿÝ, f ´ G þEëY¼ê
Z , supp (f ) ½ supp (α) ´;8, K
s 7→ f (st) dα(t) (135)
H
±9 Z
s 7→ f (ts) dα(t) (136)
H
Ñ´ G þëY¼ê.
y² âÿÀ+ G f+½Â, G f+ H ´48. du G ´ÛÜ
; Hausdorff m, Ïdâ·K 14 (1) , H ´ÛÜ;. ? s ∈ G. P
fes (t) = f (st), K fes ´ H þëY¼ê. é (135) ª½Â G þ¼êy²§´ë
Y¼ê. y: éu s0 ∈ G, s0 ; V0 9? ε > 0, 3 s0 ;
V ⊆ V0 , ¦é¤k s ∈ V , Ñk Z

[f (st) − f (s0 t)] dα(t) < ε. (137)

H
T
e K = supp (f ) ´;8, K f ∈ Cc (G). L = V0−1 K H, Kéu H y,
e y 6∈ L, K y 6∈ V0−1 K, l s0 y 6∈ K, é¤k s ∈ V , k sy 6∈ K. u´ f (s0 y) = 0,
f (sy) = 0, ∀s ∈Z V . Ïd Z
[f (st) − f (s0 t)] dα(t) = [f (st) − f (s0 t)] dα(t). (138)
H L
â·K 17, f 3 G ¥ëY. Ïd3ü e W , ¦é¤k t ∈
H, (st)(s0 t)−1 = ss−1
0 ∈ W, k
Z |f (st) − f (s0 t)| 6 ε/α(L), (139)

Ù¥ α(L) L« dα(t). du H ´ÛÜ; Hausdorff m, α ´ H þÿ
L
Ý, Ïdâ Riesz L«½n, 3 H f8|¤ σ ê A , ±9 A þ
Z
ÿÝ m, ¦éu g ∈ Cc (H), k α(g) = g dm, duý L ´;8, Ï
Z Z Z
d m(L) = dm < +∞. du (α|L)(1) = dα(t), (α|L)(1) = dm, Ïd
Z ZL L L
dα(t) = dm < +∞. u´ α(L) ´¢ê. l (139) ª´k¿Â. â

L L
Riesz L«½nÚ (51)
Z ª, l (139) ª Z
|f (st) − f (s0 t)| dα(t) 6 ε/α(L) dα(t) = ε. (140)
L L
· 296 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
T
V = V0 WZ, K ∀s ∈ V , â (138) ª! Z(98) ªÚ (140) ª

[f (st) − f (s0 t)] dα(t) = [f (st) − f (s0 t)] dα(t)

H
ZL
6 |f (st) − f (s0 t)| dα(t) 6 ε. (141)
L
Ïd (137) ª¤á. l e supp (f ) ´;8, K (135) ª½Â G þ¼ê´ëY
¼ê.
,¡, XJ Z C = supp (α) ´;8, @oâ
Z supp (α) ½Â
[f (st) − f (s0 t)] dα(t) = [f (st) − f (s0 t)] dα(t). (142)
H C
XJ t ∈ C, s ∈ V0 , @o st 3;8 V0 C ¥. âÙ §5 ·K 1 (í2Eë
Y¼êþ) , ¼ê f 3 V0 C þ´ëY. Ïdü W1 , ¦é
u t ∈ C, ss−1
0 ∈ W1 , Bk
Z |f (st) − f (s0 t)| 6 ε/α(C), (143)

T
Ù¥ α(C) = dα(t). V = V0 W1 , K ∀s ∈ V , Ñk (137) ª¤á. Ïde
C
supp (α) ´;8, Kk (135) ª½Â G þ¼ê´ëY¼ê.
aq/y, (136) ª½Â G þ¼ê´ëY¼ê.
G ´ÛÜ; Hausdorff ÿÀ+. f, g ∈ Cc (G). éu?¿½ x ∈ G,
-
fex (y) := f (y)g(y −1 x), ∀y ∈ G. (144)
w, fex (y) ´ G þëY¼ê. XJ f (y) = 0, @o fex (y) = 0. Ïd
supp (fex ) ⊆ supp (f ). (145)
e e
l supp (fx ) ´;8, Ïd fx ∈ Cc (G). u´Ú\eãVg.
½Â 23 G ´ÛÜ; Hausdorff ÿÀ+, ν ´ G þ Haar ÿÝ, f, g ∈
Cc (G). - Z
(f ∗ g)(x) = f (y)g(y −1 x) dν(y), ∀x ∈ G, (146)
G
K¡ f ∗ g ´ f g òÈ.
|^ (144) ª½Â¼ê fex′ , K Z (146) ªL«¤
(f ∗ g)(x) = fex (y) dν(y), ∀x ∈ G. (147)
G
du fex ∈ Cc (G), Ïd (147) ªmà´k¿Â. l ^ (146) ª½Â f g
òÈ f ∗ g ´3.
éu x ∈ G, e g(y −1 x) = 0, ∀y ∈ G, K (146) ªmàÈ©u 0, l
(f ∗ g)(x) = 0. Ïde (f ∗ g)(x) 6= 0, K3 y ∈ G, ¦ g(y −1 x) 6= 0, l éù
yk
supp (f ∗ g) ⊆ supp (g(y −1 x)). (148)
â (101) ª, g(y −1 x) = (yg)(x). Ïd
supp (g(y −1 x)) = supp (yg). (149)
du
y supp (g) = {yt ∈ G|g(t) 6= 0} = {z ∈ G|g(y −1 z) 6= 0},
Ïd
supp (g(y −1 x)) = supp (yg) ⊆ y supp (g). (150)
du g ∈ Cc (G), Ïd supp (g) ´;8, l y supp (g) ´;8. du supp (f ∗g) ´

48, supp (f ∗ g) ⊆ y supp (g), Ïd supp (f ∗ g) ´;8. q supp (f (y)g(y −1 x)) =
supp (feα ) ´;8, Ïdâ·K 23 , f ∗ g ´ G þëY¼ê. l f ∗ g ∈ Cc (G).
=òÈ´ Cc (G) × Cc (G) Cc (G) N.
·K 24 X ´ÛÜ; Hausdorff m, ν ´ X þÿÝ, f ´ X þ¢
ëY¼ê, α ∈ X, Ké? ε > 0, 3 α V , ¦éu g ∈ Cc+ (X, V )
Z
9 g dν = 1, k
X Z

f g dν − f (α) 6 ε. (151)

X
y² du f ëY, Ïdéu? ε > 0, 3 α V , ¦

Z − f (α)| 6 ε, ∀y ∈ V.
|f (y) (152)
u´âÿÝ ν 55±9 g dν = 1
Z Z Z Z
f g dν − f (α) = f g dν − f (α)g dν = [f − f (α)]g dν. (153)
X X X X
du supp (g) ⊆
Z V , Ïd y 6∈ V Z , k g(y) = 0. l dZ(153) ªÚ (98) ª

f g dν − f (α) 6 |f (y) − f (α)|g dν 6 εg dν = ε.

X X X
éu g ∈ Cc (G), ½Â¼ê ge Xe:
g(x) := g(x−1 ), ∀x ∈ G.
e (154)
w, ge ∈ Cc (G).
·K 25 G ÛÜ; Hausdorff ÿÀ+, ν ´ G þ Haar ÿÝ Z ,f ∈
+
Cc (G), Ké? ε > 0, 3ü e m V , ¦e g ∈ Cc (G, V ), g dν =
G
1, K
|(f ∗ ge)(x) − f (x)| 6 ε, ∀x ∈ G. (155)
Z Z
y² (f ∗ ge)(x) = f (y)e −1
g(y x) dν(y) = f (y)g(x−1 y) dν(y)
ZG G
= f (xy)g(y) dν(y). (156)

G
þãí Ú|^
ν ØC5.
du f ∗ ge ∈ Cc (G), f ∈ Cc (G), Ïdâ·K 17 , f ∗ ge Ú f 3 G ¥ë
Y. u´é? ε > 0, 3ü m U , ¦ x = x′ U , Òk
|(f ∗ e g)(x′ )| 6 ε/3,
g )(x) − (f ∗ e (157)
|f (x) − f (x′ )| 6 ε/3. (158)
· 298 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
n
[
supp (f ) = C, Kd C ;5, 3 x1 , · · · , xn ∈ C, ¦ (xi U ) ⊇ C. éz
i=1
Z
xi , |^·K 24, 3ü m Vi , ¦e g ∈ Cc+ (G, Vi ) g dν = 1,
G
K Z

f (xi y)g(y) dν(y) − f (xi ) 6 ε/3. (159)

G
T T T
V = U V1 · · · Vn . é?¿ x ∈ C, 7k j, ¦ x ∈ xj U . g ∈ Cc+ (G, V ),
Z
g dν = 1, Kl (157) ª!(156) ª!(159) ªÚ (158) ª, ∀x ∈ C, k
|(f ∗ ge)(x) − f (x)| 6 |(f ∗ e
g)(x) − (f ∗ ge)(xi )|
+|(f ∗ ge)(xi ) − f (xi )| + |f (xi ) − f (x)|
6 ε. (160)
x 6∈ C , (160) ªà 0, Ïd (160) ªE¤á.
·K 26 ν ÛÜ; Hausdorff m X þÿÝ, K X ¥;
8, Kéuê k · kK , ν éu Cc (X, K) ¥¢¼ê^´ëY, =éu
g ∈ Cc (X, K) g ´¢¼ê, k
lim ν(g) = 0. (161)
kgkK →0
y² l½n 8 , éu;f8 K, 3m8 V , Ù4 V ;8, ¦ K ⊆

V ⊆ V . 2âÚn 6 , 3¢ëY¼ê f , ÷v:
f (x) = 1, x ∈ K;
f (x) = 0, x 6∈ V ;
0 6 f (x) 6 1, ∀x ∈ X;
supp (f ) ´;8,
supp (f ) ⊆ V.
éu?¿¢¼ê g ∈ Cc (X, K), du kgkK = sup |g(x)|, supp (g) ⊆ K, Ïd
x∈K
x ∈ K , k
g(x) 6 |g(x)| 6 kgkK = kgkK f (x); (162)
g(x) > −|g(x)| > −kgkK = −kgkK f (x). (163)
x 6∈ K , k x 6∈ supp (g), l k g(x) = 0. Ïd
−kgkK f 6 g 6 kgkK f. (164)
+ −
du g = g − g , Ïdl (164) ª
g + 6 g − + kgkK f, (165)
− +
g 6 g + kgkK f. (166)
â Riesz L«½nÚ (51) ª, ±9 ν 55, l (165) ª!(166) ª©O
ν(g + ) 6 ν(g − ) + kgkK ν(f ), (167)
ν(g − ) 6 ν(g + ) + kgkK ν(f ). (168)
du ν(g) = ν(g + ) − ν(g − ), Ïdl (167) ª!(168) ª

−kgkK ν(f ) 6 ν(g) 6 kgkK ν(f ), (169)
= |ν(g)| 6 kgkK ν(f ), (170)
ddÑ lim ν(g) = 0.

kgkk →0
½Â 24 ÿÝm (X, A , µ) ¡´ σ-k, XJ3êüüØ
∞
[
8Ü Kn , ¦ X = Kn , ¿ µ(Kn ) < +∞, n = 1, 2, · · · .
n=1
(X, A , µ), (Y, B, ν) Ñ´ σ-kÿÝm, A × B ½Â3 X ∈ Y þ
¹zÿ/ (= A × B, Ù¥ A ∈ A , B ∈ B) σ-ê. ±
y²: f ´ X × Y þ A × B-ÿ¼ê, Kéz x ∈ X, fx (y) := f (x, y) ´ Y
þ B-ÿ¼ê; éz y ∈ Y , f y (x) := f (x, y) ´ X þ A -ÿ¼ê. éuE
²¡?m8 V , -
Q = {(x, y)|f (x, y) ∈ V },
Qx = {y|fx(y) ∈ V }, Qy = {x|f y (x) ∈ V },
Qy ∈ A . ±y²Z:
K Q ∈ A × B, Qx ∈ B, Z
ν(Qx ) dµ(x) = µ(Qy ) dν(y). (171)
X Y
u´·½Â Z Z
(µ × ν)(Q) := ν(Qx ) dµ(x) = µ(Qy ) dν(y),
X Y
¡ µ × ν ´ÿÝ µ Ú ν ¦È. ±y² µ × ν ´ A × B þê\¼ê, Ïd
µ × ν ´ X × Y þÿÝ. þã(Øy²ëw [14] 1 145 — 151 . 'u¦
ÈÿÝ, ke¡½n.
½n 11 (Fubini ½n) (X, A , µ), (Y, B, ν) Ñ´ σ-kÿÝm, f ´
X × Y þ A × B-ÿ¼ê.
Z Z
(1) e f ´Kÿ¼ê, K f (x, y) dν(y) ´ A -ÿ¼ê, f (x, y) dµ(x)
Y X
´ B-ÿ¼ê, Z ¿
Z Z
f (x, y) dν(y) dµ(x) = f (x, y) d(µ × ν)
X Y X×Y
Z Z
= f (x, y) dµ(x) dν(y). (172)
Y X
Z
(2) f É¼ê, XJ |f (x, y)|d(µ × ν) < +∞, @oéA¤k y,
X×Y
k Z
|f (x, y)| dµ(x) < +∞, (173)
X
Z Z

f (x, y) dµ(x) dν(y) < +∞; (174)

Y X
· 300 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
éA¤k x, k Z
|f (x, y)| dν(y) < +∞, (175)
ZY Z

f (x, y) dν(y) dµ(x) < +∞; (176)

X Y
¿k Z Z Z Z
f (x, y) dµ(x) dν(y) = f (x, y) dν(y) dµ(x)
Y X
ZX Y
= f (x, y)d(µ × ν). (177)
X×Y
(3) f É¼ê. XJéA¤k
Z x, k (175) ªÚ (176) ª¤á, @ok
|f (x, y)|d(µ × ν) < +∞. (178)
X×Y
Fubini ½ny²ëw [14] 1 150 — 151 .
y35y Haar ÿÝ5.
·K 27 G ´ÛÜ; Hausdorff ÿÀ+, µ, ν ´ G þü Haar ÿ
Ý, K7k a > 0, ¦
µ = aν.
y² Ø3 f0 ∈ Cc+ (G), ¦
µ(f0 ) = ν(f0 ) = 1. (179)
(ÄK, ^ µ/µ(f0 ) O µ, ^ ν/ν(f0 ) O ν =). ·5y² µ = ν.
é?¿ f, g ∈ Cc (G), Ä h = f ∗ ge ∈ Cc (G). |^ Riesz L«½nÚ Fubini ½
n, ±9 µ ØC5Ú55
Z ,Z Z
h(x) dµ(x) = g(y −1 x) dν(y) dµ(x)
f (y)e
G G G
Z Z
−1
= f (y)e
g(y x) dµ(x) dν(y)
G G
Z Z
−1
= f (y) g(y x) dµ(x) dν(y)
e
G
Z ZG
= f (y) g(x) dµ(x) dν(y)
e
ZG G
Z
= ge(x) dµ(x) f (y) dν(y). (180)
G G
Z â·K 25, é? ε1 > 0, 3ü m V , ¦ g ∈ Cc+ (G, V )
g dν = 1, K
G
kh − f k = sup{|h(x) − f (x)|x ∈ G} 6 ε1 . (181)
du h, f ∈ Cc (G), Ïd h − f ∈ Cc (G). ·®²
S
supp (h − f ) ⊆ supp (h) supp (f ). (182)
S
P K = supp (h) supp (f ), K K ´;8, u´ h − f ∈ Cc (G, K). éu |h − f | ^·
K 26 lim µ|h − f | = 0. Ïd|^ (98) ª, é? ε2 > 0, ε1 ¿©
kh−f k→0
§9 ÛÜ; Hausdorff ÿÀ+jL« (½L«) · 301 ·
, Òk Z Z

h dµ − f dµ = |µ(h − f )| 6 µ(|h − f |) < ε2 . (183)

G G
Z Z
d¤, f0 dµ = f0 dν = 1. - f = f0 , l (180) ª
G G Z Z
h dµ = ge dµ. (184)
G G Z
Ón, é·ü m V1 , g ∈ Cc+ (G, V1 ) g dµ = 1, é |h − f0 | ^
G
·K 25 Ú·K 26 Z Z

h dµ − f dµ < ε3 . (185)
0
G G
l (184) ªÚ (185) ª Z

ge dµ − 1 < ε3 . (186)

G
Z

é?¿ f ∈ Cc (G), f dν 6 M , K3þãêk
Z Z G Z Z Z Z

f dµ −
f dν 6 f dµ −
h dµ + h dµ − f dν

G G G G G
Z Z Z G

< ε2 + ge dµ f dν − f dν
ZG GZ G

= ε2 + f dν ge dµ − 1

G G
6 ε2 + M ε3 . (187)
Ïd |µ(f ) − ν(f )| ?¿, l
µ(f ) = ν(f ), ∀f ∈ Cc (G),
= µ = ν.
d·¤
½n 10 Üy².
þãy²ém Haar ÿÝ´·^.
§9 ÛÜ; Hausdorff ÿÀ+jL« (½L«)
½Â 1 + G 3jm (½¢SÈm) V þE (¢) 5L« (ϕ, V ) XJ

é g ∈ G Ñk ϕ(g) ´ V þjC (½C), @o¡ (ϕ, V ) ´ G 3 V
þjL« (½L«).
ù!·5ïÄÛÜ; Hausdorff ÿÀ+þjL« (½L«).
9.1 Hilbert m©)ÚëY5¼ê
Äk·ÑXÛ¦jm (½¢SÈm) V ¤ÿÀm. jm (½

¢SÈm) V ¥½
SÈ, Ïdzþ α kÝ |α| = (α, α). α Ý
· 302 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
P¤ kαk. éu α, β ∈ V , ½Â§ål d(α, β) := kα − βk. ù½Â d

÷vål¼ên^5 (½5!é¡5Ún/Øª), Ïd§´ V þ
Ýþ. u´ V ¤Ýþm. ùålÿÀ, jm (½¢SÈm) V B
¤ÿÀm. duI3jm (½¢SÈm) V ¥?14$, Ïd
¦ V ¥z Cauchy SÑÂñ (ù5¡5). jm (½¢SÈ
m) V ÝþmXJ´, @o¡ V ´ Hilbert m. âÙ §2
·K 7, Ýþm X fm A ´= A ´ X 4f8. Ïd
·3?Ø Hilbert m V fm, Ï~ V 4fm, ¦ùfmä
k5.
½Â 2 E (¢) 5m V f8 E ¡´à (convex), XJ E ke
ãAÛ5: z α ∈ E, β ∈ E, 0 < t < 1, K:
γt = (1 − t)α + tβ (1)
áu E.
w,, V zfm´à.
XJ E ´ V à8, @o E ²£
E + α = {β + α|β ∈ E} (2)
´à8.
·K 1 V ´ Hilbert m, Kéu?¿½ β ∈ V, V þ¼ê
βR : α 7→ (α, β), βL : α 7→ (β, α), f : α 7→ kαk
Ñ´ëY¼ê.
y² éu?¿ α1 , α2 ∈ V , k
|βR (α1 ) − βR (α2 )| = |(α1 , β) − (α2 , β)| = |(α1 − α2 , β)|
6 kα1 − α2 k kβk. (3)
ddÑ, βR ´ V þëY¼ê, ´ëY¼ê. Ón, βL ´ V þ
ëY¼ê.
n/Øª%¹
kα1 k = kα1 − α2 + α2 k 6 kα1 − α2 k + kα2 k, (4)
l
f (α1 ) − f (α2 ) = kα1 k − kα2 k 6 kα1 − α2 k. (5)
é α1 α2 , dþª
f (α2 ) − f (α1 ) 6 kα1 − α2 k. (6)
l (5) ªÚ (6) ª
|f (α1 ) − f (α2 )| 6 kα1 − α2 k
Ïd f : α 7→ kαk ´ëY.
V ´ Hilbert m, éu α ∈ V , -
α⊥ := {β ∈ V |(α, β) = 0}. (7)
w,, α⊥ ´ V fm. l (7) ªwÑ, α⊥ = α−1 L ({0}). du αL ´ëY¼ê,

{0}´ C 48, Ïd α⊥ ´ V 48, l α⊥ ´ V 4fm. ? V
f8 S, du
\
S ⊥ = {β ∈ V |(α, β) = 0, ∀α ∈ S} = α⊥ , (8)
α∈S
Ïd S ⊥ ´ V 48, l S ⊥ ´ V 4fm.
½n 1 V ´ Hilbert m, K V z4à8 E ¹
Ýáþ, =3þ α0 ∈ E, ¦
kα0 k 6 kαk, ∀α ∈ E.
y² NÓ: éu?¿ α, β ∈ V , k
kα + βk2 + kα − βk2 = 2kαk2 + 2kβk2 . (9)
1 1
δ = inf{kαk|α ∈ E}. ? α, β ∈ E, é α Ú β ^ (9) ª
2 2 2 22 2
1 1
α + β + α − β = 2 1 α + 2 1 β ,
1 1
2 2 2 2 2 2
l
1 1 1 α + β 2
kα − βk2 = kαk2 + kβk2 −
2 .
(10)
4 2 2
1
du E ´à8, Ïd (α + β) ∈ E. l
2
kα − βk2 6 2kαk2 + 2kβk2 − 4δ 2 ,
α, β ∈ E. (11)
XJk kαk = kβk = δ, @ol (11) ª, α = β. ùy²
5.
d δ ½Â, 3 E ¥S (βn ), ¦
lim kβn k = δ.
n→∞
^ βn Ú βm O (11) ª¥ α Ú β, K n → ∞ Ú m → ∞ , (11) ªmàª
u 0. ùL² (βn ) ´ Cauchy S. Ï V ´, ¤±3 α0 ∈ V , ¦
lim βn = α0 , =
n→∞
lim kβn − α0 k = 0. (12)
n→∞
du βn ∈ E E ´48, Ïd α0 ∈ E. du f : α 7→ kαk ´ëY¼ê, Ïd

kα0 k = lim kβn k = δ.
n→∞
½n 2 W ´ Hilbert m V 4fm, K V ¥?þ α 3 W
þÑkZ%C α0 , = α0 ∈ W , ¦
d(α, α0 ) 6 d(α, γ), ∀γ ∈ W,
l
V = W ⊕ W ⊥.
y² ? α ∈ V . du W ´4fm, Ïd W ´à8, l α + W ´48

´à8. â½n 1 , α + W ¥3Ýáþ, P α e, K α − α
e ∈ W.
P α0 = α − α e = α − α0 . ? γ ∈ W , K α − γ ∈ α + W . u´
e, K α
αk 6 kα − γk, ∀γ ∈ W.
kα − α0 k = ke
· 304 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
Ïd α0 ´ α 3 W þZ%C.
â [25] eþ1 471 — 472 ~ 6 Ú~ 9, ±91 521 — 522 ~ 22 9
Ù:µ
V = W ⊕ W ⊥.
3½n 2 ¥, r V ¥zþ α éA α0 N P ¡ V 3 W þ

ÝK. â [25] eþ1 522 ~ 24, V 3 W þÝK P ´ V þ
5C, Ker P = W ⊥ , Im P = W .
â [25] eþ1 435 ~ 4 9Ù:µ, éukjm (½¢SÈm)
V , β H V ¥¤kþ, βR ÒH V þ¤k5¼ê, βL H V þ
¤k5¼ê. l éuk Hilbert m V , (Ü·K 1 , β H V ¥¤
kþ, βR ÒH V þ¤këY5¼ê, βL H V þ¤këY5¼
ê. éuÃ Hilbert m V , β H V ¥¤kþ, βR H V þ¤k
ëY5¼ê; βL ù, =·ke¡½n.
½n 3 f ´ Hilbert m V þ?ëY5¼ê, K3 β ∈ V ,
¦ f = βR , =
f (α) = (α, β), ∀α ∈ V. (13)
y² e f = 0, K β = 0, Òk βR = f . e¡ f 6= 0. P W = Ker f =
f −1 (0). du f ´ V þëY¼ê, Ïdl {0} ´ C 48Ñ W ´ V 48.
l W ´ V 4fm. u´â½n 2 , V = W ⊕ W ⊥ . du f 6= 0, Ïd
3 α1 ∈ V , ¦ f (α1 ) 6= 0, l W $ V , u´ W ⊥ 6= {0}. Ïd3 γ ∈ W ⊥ ,
kγk = 1. ? α ∈ V , -
δ = f (α)γ − f (γ)α. (14)
du f (δ) = f (α)f (γ) − f (γ)f (α) = 0, Ïd δ ∈ W . u´ (δ, γ) = 0. l k

f (α) = f (α)(γ, γ) = (f (α)γ, γ)
= (δ + f (γ)α, γ) = f (γ)(α, γ) = (α, f (γ)γ). (15)
P β = f (γ)γ, K f (α) = (α, β) = βR (α). du α ´ V ¥?¿þ, Ïd f = βR .
ek β ′ ∈ V , ¦ f = βR ′
, K (α, β) = (α, β ′ ), ∀α ∈ V . u´ (α, β − β ′ ) = 0,
∀α ∈ V . l β = β ′ .
Óny: f ´ Hilbert m V þ?ëY5¼ê, K3 α ∈ V ,
¦ f = αL .
9.2 D5mÚ Banach mk.5N

éuE (¢) 5m V , Ø
3 V þ½ÂSÈ5Ú?Ýþ ,
{´lþÝ¤äk5ÄÑeãVg.
½Â 3 E (¢) 5m V ¡D5m, XJéuz α ∈ V
½
K¢ê kαk, ¡ α ê, ¦
(i) kα + βk 6 kαk + kβk, ∀α, β ∈ V ;
(ii) kaαk = |a|kαk, α ∈ V, a ∈ C (½ R);

(iii) kαk = 0 %¹ α = 0.
â½Â 3 (i), eãn/Øª¤á:
kα − βk 6 kα − γk + kγ − βk, α, β, γ ∈ V. (16)
3½Â 2 (ii) ¥, ©O a = 0, a = −1,
k0k = 0, k − αk = kαk. (17)
(Ü (iii)
kαk = 0 = α = 0; (18)
l (17) ª
kα − βk = k − (α − β)k = kβ − αk. (19)
-
d(α, β) := kα − βk, (20)
Kl (16) !(18) !(19) ª, d (20) ª½Â d ´ål¼ê, ÏdD5m¤

Ýþm.
½Â 4 D5m V XJéud§ê½ÂÝþ´, @o
¡ V ´Banach m.
~X, z Hilbert m´ Banach m.
{ü Banach mÉê C (½¢ê R) g, z ê kzk := |z|.
XÛ5N A ½Âê? du A Aα(α ∈ V ) ¤û½, Aα k
ê, Ïdg,{´ÏL k Aαk(a ∈ V ) 5½Â A ê. ddÚÑeã½Â.
½Â 5 V Ú V ′ Ñ´D5m, A ´l V V ′ 5N, K
A êdeª½Â: ( )
k Aαk
k Ak = sup α ∈ V, α 6= 0 . (21)
kαk
XJ k Ak < +∞, @o A ¡k.5N.
dué?¿ α ∈ V, a ∈ C (½ R), k
k A(aα)k = ka( Aα)k = |a| k Aαk,
Ïd α 6= 0 , k

A kαk α
k Aαk kαk α
= = A ,
kαk kαk kαk
l 3 (21) ª¥±r α ü þ, =

k Ak = sup k Aαkα ∈ V, kαk = 1 . (22)
l (21) ª, k Ak ´¦eãØª¤áê:
k Aαk 6 k Ak kαk, ∀α ∈ V. (23)
l (23) ª, kαk 6 1 , k Aαk 6 k Ak. Ïd(Ü (22) ª

k Ak = sup{k Aαkα ∈ V, kαk 6 1}. (24)
· 306 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
d (21) ª½Â5N A ê k Ak (÷v½Â 3 ¥Þên

^¦:
(i) du
k( A + B)αk = k Aα + Bαk 6 k Aαk + k Bαk, ∀α ∈ V,
Ïd

sup{k( A + B)αkα ∈ V, kαk = 1}

6 sup{k Aαkα ∈ V, kαk = 1} + sup{k Bαkα ∈ V, kαk = 1},
l
k A + Bk 6 k Ak + k Bk, ∀ A, B ∈ Hom(V, V ′ );
(ii) dué?¿ k ∈ C (½ R), k

sup{k(k A)αkα ∈ V, kαk = 1} = |k| sup{k Aαkα ∈ V, kαk = 1},
Ïd
kk Ak = |k| k Ak;
(iii) e k Ak = 0, Kd (21) ª, ∀α ∈ V , k k Aαk = 0, l Aα = 0, Ïd

A = 0.
nþ¤ã,(21) ª(½Â
E (¢) 5m Hom(V, V ′ ) ê, l
Hom(V, V ′ ) ¤D5m, Ïd Hom(V, V ′ ) éudê½ÂÝþ¤Ýþ
m.
A ´D5m V V ′ 5N, Kéu α ∈ V , â (23) ªk
kαk 6 1 ⇒ k Aαk 6 k Ak,
k Ak ´¦é÷v kαk 6 1 α Ñk k Aαk 6 k Ak ¤áê. Ïd

5N A r V 4ü ¥ {α ∈ V kαk 6 1} N V ′ p± 0 ¥%, k Ak
»4¥¥.
3½Â 5 ¥, e V ′ ¤Eê, Krk.5N¡k.5¼ê (½k.
5¼).
V ´ Hilbert m, Kéu?¿ α ∈ V , k
kαL k = kαk, kαR k = kαk. (25)
ndXe: é?¿ β ∈ V kβk = 1, k
|αL (β)| = |(α, β)| 6 kαk kβk = kαk,
Ïd

kαL k = sup{|αL (β)|β ∈ V, kβk = 1} 6 kαk.
qdu αL (kαk−1 α) = (α, kαk−1 α) = kαk−1 (α, α) = kαk, Ïd kαL k > kαk, l
kαL k = kαk. Ón, kαR k = kαk.
½n 4 A ´D5m V D5m V ′ 5N, Ke
ãn^¥zÑ%¹Ù¦ü:
(i) A ´k.;
(ii) A ´ëY;
(iii) A 3 V :þëY.
y² (i)⇒(ii). du
k Aα1 − Aα2 k = k A(α1 − α2 )k 6 k Ak kα1 − α2 k, (26)
Ïde A ´k., K k Ak < +∞. l d (26) ª, A ´ëY.
(ii)⇒(iii). ù´w,.
(iii)⇒(i). A 3 V : α0 ëY, Kéu? ε > 0, 3 δ > 0, ¦
kα − α0 k < δ, Òk
k Aα − Aα0 k < ε.
é{`, kβk < δ, Òk

k A(α0 + β) − Aα0 k < ε. (27)
du A(α0 + β) = Aα0 + Aβ, Ïdl (27) ª k Aβk < ε. ddÑ (|^ (24)
ε
ª), k Ak 6 . Ïd A ´k..
δ
′ ′
V Ú V Ñ´D5m, e A, B Ñ´ V V k.5N, du
k A + Bk 6 k Ak + k Bk, kk Ak = |k| k Ak, Ïd A + B Ú k A(k ∈ C) Ñ´k.
5N. l V V ′ ¤kk.5N|¤8Ü´ Hom(V, V ′ ) f
m, P B(V, V ′ ), w,§´D5m.
e¡·5ïÄ Banach m V D5m V ′ k.5N5.
du Banach m´D5m, ÏdÄkïÄ'uÝþmeã
½n, §3êÆNõ©|¥kA^.
½n 5 (Baire ½n) X ´Ýþm, K X xêÈmf
8E´3 X ¥È; AO/ (Ø
X = ∅ ù~ ), ù8Ø´8.
y² V1 , V2 , V3 , · · · ´ X Èmf8. W ´ X ?m8 W 6=
\∞
∅, ·7L`² Vn k:áu W .
n=1
ρ ´ X Ýþ (=ål¼ê), ^ B(x, r) L«± x ¥%!r »m¥,
=
B(x, r) := {y ∈ X|ρ(x, y) < r},
^ B(x, r) L« B(x, r) 4 (5¿, 3ù/: B(x, r) Ø¹÷v ρ(x, y) 6

r ¤k y).
T
du V1 ´È, Ïd W V1 ´m8, l ·Ué x1 Ú r1 , ¦
T
B(x1 , r1 ) ⊆ W V1 , 0 < r1 < 1. (28)
T
XJ n > 2 xn−1 Ú rn−1 ÀJ, @o Vn È5L²: Vn B(xn−1 , rn−1 ) ´
m8, ÏdUé xn Ú rn , ¦
T 1
B(xn , rn ) ⊆ Vn B(xn−1 , rn−1 ), 0 < rn < . (29)
n
^8B{, ùL§) X S (xn ). XJ i > n j > n, @oþãEL
2
² xi Ú xj Ñáu B(xn , rn ), u´ ρ(xi , xj ) < 2rn < . Ïd (xn ) ´ Cauchy
n
· 308 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
S. du X ´, Ïd3: x ∈ X, ¦

x = lim xn .
n→∞
du i > n , xi ∈ B(xn , rn ), Ïd x áuz B(xn , rn ). 2l (29) ªÑ, x á
∞
\ \∞
uz Vn . ql (28) ª, x ∈ W . Ïd Vn k: x ∈ W . l Vn 3 X
n=1 n=1
¥È.
3ÿÀm X ¥, êm8¡ Gδ (.) 8, êÈm8¡
È Gδ (.) 8.
íØ 1 3Ýþm X ¥, ?êÈ Gδ 8E´È
Gδ 8.
y² duz Gδ 8´êm8, Ïdê Gδ 8E,´
êm8 (Ïêõê8¿8E´ê). qduÈ Gδ 8¥z
m8´È. l êÈ Gδ 8´xêÈm8. â½
n 5 (Barre ½n) , ù8E,´È, Ïd§´È Gδ 8.
|^ Baire ½n±y² Banach m¥'uk.5Neü
½n. dk0üVg.
½Â 6 f ´ÿÀm X þ¢ (½*¿
¢) ¼ê, XJéz
¢ê a,
{x|f (x) > a}
´m8, @o¡ f éëY. XJéz¢ê a,

{x|f (x) < a}
´m8, @o¡ f ´þëY.
l½Â 6 ±Ñ:
(1) ¢¼ê f ´ëY¼ê= f QéëYq´þëY.
(2) m8A¼êéëY; 48A¼ê´þëY.
(3) ?¿xeëY¼êþ(.éëY; ?¿xþëY¼êe
(.´þëY.
½n 6 (Banach-Steinhaus ½n) X ´ Banach m, Y ´D
5m, ¿ { Ai |i ∈ I} ´ X Y xk.5N, K½ö3
M < +∞, ¦
k Ai k 6 M, ∀i ∈ I; (30)
½öéáu X ,È Gδ 8¤k x, k

sup k Ai xk = +∞. (31)
i∈I
y² -
ϕ(x) = sup k Ai xk, x ∈ X, (32)
i∈I
Vn = {x|ϕ(x) > n}, n = 1, 2, 3, · · · . (33)
duk.5N7½´ëY, Ïdz Ai ´ëY. duê÷vn/Ø

ª, ÏdrzþéA§êùN´ëY¼ê (y²aqu·K 1
y²). l N Ai x 7→ k Ai xk ´ Y þëY¼ê. u´z¼ê x 7→ k Ai xk ´
X þëY¼ê, i ∈ I. l ϕ éëY¼ê, Ïd Vn ´m8, n = 1, 2, 3, · · · .
XJù
m8¥,, ~X VN , 3 X ¥Ø´È, @o3 x0 ∈ X Ú
T
e 0 , r) VN = ∅, Ù¥ B(x
r > 0, ¦ B(x e 0 , r) = {y ky − x0 k 6 r}, = ∀y ∈ B(x
e 0 , r),
Ñk y 6∈ VN ; Ò´é÷v ky − x0 k 6 r y, Ñk y 6∈ VN . P x = y − x0 , K
éu÷v kxk 6 r x, Ñk x0 + x 6∈ VN , = ϕ(x0 + x) 6 N , l ∀i ∈ I Úé
÷v kxk 6 r x, Ñk
k Ai (x0 + x)k 6 N. (34)
du x = (x0 + x) − x0 , ϕ(x0 ) 6 N , Ïd ∀i ∈ I Úé÷v kxk 6 r x, Ñk
k Ai xk 6 k Ai (x0 + x)k + k Ai x0 k 6 2N. (35)
l ∀i ∈ I Úé÷v kyk 6 1 y, Ñk k Ai (ry)k 6 2N , =
2N
k Ai yk 6 . (36)
r
Ïd ∀i ∈ I k
2N
k Ai k = sup{k Ai yky ∈ X, kyk = 1} 6 . (37)
r
2N
M= , K (30) ª¤á.
r
∞
\
,«U5´z Vi Ñ3 X ¥È, 3ù«/, â Baire ½n, Vn
n=1
∞
\
3 X ¥È. duéz x ∈ Vn k ϕ(x) = +∞, Ïdéuxm8 V1 , V2 , V3 · · ·
n=1
¤¤ Gδ 8p¤k x Ñk
sup k Ai xk = +∞.
i∈I
Banach-Steinhaus ½nk¡k.n.
½n 7 (mN½n) U Ú V ©O´ Banach m X Ú Y mü ¥,
Kéu X Y zk.5÷ A ÑéA δ > 0, ¦
A(U ) ⊇ δV, (38)
Ù¥ δV = {δy|y ∈ V } = {y ∈ Y |kyk < δ}.
y² ? y ∈ Y , du A ´÷, Ïd3 x ∈ X ¦ Ax = y. XJ
kxk < k, @o y ∈ A(kU ). Ïd Y ´8Ü A(kU ), k = 1, 2, 3, · · · , ¿8. du Y ´
, Ïdâ Baire ½n, 3, A(kU ) 4p3m8 W . ù
¿X W z:´S ( Axi ) 4, Ù¥ xi ∈ kU . ly3å, k Ú W
½.
du W ´m8, ÏdÀJ y0 ∈ W , ¿ÀJ η > 0 ¦ B(y0 , η) ⊆ W ,
é{`, kyk < η k y0 + y ∈ W . éu?¿ù y, 3 kU pü
S (x′i ), (x′′i ), ¦
Ax′i → y0 , Ax′′i → y0 + y (i → ∞). (39)
· 310 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
- xi = x′′i − x′i , K kxi k 6 kx′i k + kx′′i k < 2k, ¿

Axi → y (i → ∞). (40)
η
du (40) ªéz÷v kyk < η y Ñ¤á, Ïd δ = , eã·K¤á:
2k
éuz y ∈ δV Úz ε > 0, 3 x ∈ X §¦
kxk 6 δ −1 kyk ky − Axk < ε. (41)
ndXe: - z = 2ky, é z ^þ¡(Ø, kzk < η , 3 kU pS (e xi )
¦
xi k < 2k Ae
ke xi → z (i → ∞). (42)
z 1 η
du y = , Ïd kyk = kzk < = δ. kyk < δ k kzk < η. -
2k 2k 2k
1 1 1 1 1
xi = ei , K kxi k 6
x 2k = 1. du Axi = A x
ei = Aexi , z = y, Ï
2k 2k 2k 2k 2k
dl (42) ª
Axi → y (i → ∞). (43)
u´ (41) ªäóy².
y3½ y ∈ δV , ¿½ ε > 0 (Ø ε < 1). â (41) ª, 3 x1 ∈ X
¦ kx1 k 6 δ −1 kyk < 1
1
ky − Ax1 k < δε. (44)
2
u´ y − Ax1 ∈ δV . é y − Ax1 ^ (41) ª, 3 x2 ∈ X, ¦ kx2 k 6 δ −1 ky −
1 1
Ax1 k < ε ky − Ax1 − Ax2 k < δε. ge, b x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ÀJ¦
2 4
kxj k < 2−(j−1) ε, j = 1, 2, · · · , n,
ky − Ax1 − Ax2 − · · · − Axn k < 2−n δε. (45)
u´ y − Ax1 − · · · − Axn ∈ δV , é§^ (41) ª, 3 xn+1 ∈ X ¦
kxn+1 k 6 δ −1 ky − Ax1 − · · · − Axn k < 2−n ε, (46)
u´ (46) ªéê n ¤á. -
sn = x1 + x2 + · · · + xn , (47)
K (46) ªL² (sn ) ´ X ¥ Cauchy S. Ï X ´, ¤±3 x ∈ X
¦ lim sn = x. du kx1 k < 1, ÏdëÓ (46) ª
n→∞
n+1
X 1 1 1
ksn+1 k 6 kxj k < 1 + ε + ε + · · · + n ε. (48)
j=1
2 4 2
l (48) ª
1
ε
kxk < 1 + 2 = 1 + ε. (49)
1
1−
2
du A ´k.5N, Ïd A ´ëY, l d lim sn = x lim Asn = Ax.
n→∞ n→∞
ql (45) ª lim Asn = y. Ïd Ax = y. l (49) ª x ∈ (1 + ε)U , l
n→∞
y ∈ A((1 + ε)U ).
y3·®²y²
: éz ε > 0, k
δV ⊆ A((1 + ε)U ), (50)
u´éz ε > 0, k
AU ⊇ (1 + ε)−1 δV. (51)
H¤k ε > 0 , (51) ªm>8Ü¿8´ δV . Ïd AU ⊇ δV .

½n 7 Qã: X Ú Y Ñ´ Banach m, Kl X Y zk.
5÷ A ÑéA δ > 0, éu÷v kyk < δ y ∈ Y , 3 x ∈ X kxk < 1,
¦ Ax = y.
½n 8 X Ú Y Ñ´ Banach m, A ´ X Y k.5N A ´
V, K3 δ > 0 ¦
k Axk > δkxk, ∀x ∈ X. (52)
é{`, A−1 ´ Y X k.5N.

y² â½n 7 ,«Qã, |^ A ´ü¯¢BÑ: éu A,
3 δ > 0, ¦ k Axk < δ %¹ kxk < 1. l kxk > 1 %¹ k Axk > δ. Ïd
(52) ªy².
éu y ∈ Y , k A−1 y ∈ X. P A−1 y = x, K y = Ax. l (52) ª,
1
k Axk = 1 =⇒ kxk 6 . u´
δ
k A−1 | = sup{k A−1 yky ∈ Y, kyk = 1}

= sup{kxkx ∈ X, k Axk = 1}
1
6 . (53)
δ
Ïd A−1 ´k.5N.
½n 9 X ´D5m, Y ´ Banach m, Kd X Y ¤kk.
5N|¤8Ü B(X, Y ) ´ Banach m.
y² 3½n 4 e¡ã, ·®Ñ B(X, Y ) ´D5m. y35y
§´.
( An ) ´ B(X, Y ) ¥ Cauchy S, Kéz x ∈ X, n → ∞
m → ∞ , k
k An x − Am xk = k( An − Am )xk 6 k An − Am k kxk → 0. (54)
u´ ( An x) ´ Y ¥ Cauchy S. du Y ´, Ïd lim An x 3, P
n→∞
Ax, = lim An x = Ax. ·Äk5y A ´ X Y 5N. d
n→0
u An ´ X Y 5N, Ïd ∀x, x′ ∈ X, k ∈ C (½ R), k An (x + x′ ) =
An x + An x′ , An (kx) = k An x. l
lim An (x + x′ ) = lim ( An x + An x′ ) = lim An x + lim An x′ ,
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
lim An (kx) = lim k An x = k lim An x.
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
ddÑ, ∀x, x′ ∈ X, k ∈ C (½ R), k
A(x + x′ ) = Ax + Ax′ , A(kx) = k Ax.
· 312 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
ùL² A ´ X Y 5N,
y35y A ´k.. éu÷v kxk = 1 x, du ( An x) ´ Y ¥ Cauchy
S, Ïdéu ε = 1, 3 N1 , ¦ n > N1 m > N1 , Òk
k An x − Am xk < 1. (55)
- m → ∞, l (55) ª
k AN1 x − Axk 6 1. (56)
l (56) ª, kxk = 1 , k

k Axk 6 k AN1 xk + 1 6 k AN1 k kxk + 1 = k AN1 k + 1. (57)
l (57) ª

k Ak = sup{k Axkx ∈ X, kxk = 1} 6 k AN1 k + 1. (58)
Ïd A ´k., l A ∈ B(X, Y ).
5y A ´S ( An ) n → ∞ 4. éz x ∈ X, ? ε > 0.
du ( An x) ´ Y ¥ Cauchy S, Ïd3 Nε , ¦ n > Nε m > Nε , Ò
k
k An x − Am xk 6 εkxk. (59)
- m → ∞, l (59) ª
k( An − A)xk = k An x − Axk 6 εkxk. (60)
u´ k( An − A)xk/kxk 6 ε, l é
( n > Nε , k )
k( An − A)xk
k An − Ak = sup x ∈ X, x 6= 0 6 ε, (61)
kxk
¤± lim An = A. ùy²
B(X, Y ) ´. l B(X, Y ) ´ Banach m.
n→∞
Eê C Ú¢ê R Ñ´ Banach m, P F = C ½ R, d½n 9 á=
XeíØ.
íØ 2 X ´ F þD5m, K B(X, F ) ´ Banach m.
½Â 7 (xn ) ´D5m X ¥S, XJ3 x ∈ X, ¦éz
f ∈ B(X, F ), Ñk
lim f (xn ) = f (x), (62)
n→∞
@o·¡ (xn ) fÂñu x, P x0 → x (f), d¡ x ´ (xn ) f4.

½Â 8 (xn ) ´D5m X ¥S, XJ3 x ∈ X, ¦
lim kxn − xk = 0, @o·¡ (xn ) Âñu x, ½ (xn ) êÂñu x, P
n→∞
lim xn = x.
n→∞
XJ (xn ) êÂñu x, duéz f ∈ B(X, F ), k
|f (xn ) − f (x)| 6 kf k kxn − xk, (63)
Ïd lim f (xn ) = f (x), l (xn ) fÂñu x. duùÏ, êÂñ~~¡
n→∞
rÂñ.
½Â 9 D5m X XJ§qÉê (½¢ê) þê, ¿

§êé¤k x, y ∈ X ÷v
kxyk 6 kxk kyk (êg¦{5), (64)
@o¡ X ´Dê.
½Â 10 Banach ê´Dê.
X ´D5m, K B(X, X) ´D5m, éu B(X, X)
¥ A1 , A2 , k A1 A2 E´ X þ5C. dué x ∈ X, k
k( A1 A2 )xk = k A1 ( A2 x)k 6 k A1 k k A2 xk 6 k A1 k k A2 k kxk,
Ïd
k A1 A2 k 6 k A1 k k A2 k. (65)
l A1 A2 ´k., Ïd A1 A2 ∈ B(X, X). u´ B(X, X) ´ C (½ R) þ

ê, ÷vêg¦{5, Ïd B(X, X) ´Dê. w,ðN
I ∈ B(X, X).
e X ´ Banach m, Kâ½n 9 , B(X, X) ´, l B(X, X)
´ Banach ê. 8 r B(X, X) P¤ B(X).
X ´D5m, éu A ∈ B(X), e λ0 ´ A A, x ´
A áuA λ0 Aþ, K ( A − λ0 I)x = 0. l Ker ( A − λ0 I) 6= 0,
u´ A − λ0 I Ø´ü, Ïd A − λ I Ø_. ddÉéu, ÚÑeãVg.
½Â 11 X ´ F þkü e Dê, éu x ∈ X, -
σ(x) := {λ ∈ F |x − λe Ø_}, (66)
K σ(x) ¡ x Ì.
X ´D5m, K B(X) ´kü I Dê. éu A ∈
B(X), k A Ì σ( A). A ¤kA|¤8ÜP Eig ( A) ½ σP ( A), ¡
A :Ì. l½Â 11 Ú§þ¡ã{á=:
Eig ( A) ⊆ σ( A). (67)
9.3 ÛÜ; Hausdorff ÿÀ+jL« (½L«)

V ´ Hilbert m, V þjC (½C) ±þÝØC, Ïd
§Ñ´k.5C, l â½n 4 , V þjC (½C) Ñ´ëY
C. G ´ÿÀ+, + G jL« (½L«) (ϕ, V ) ¦éu g ∈ G k
ϕ(g) ´jC (½C), du ϕ(g) ´ëYC (∀g ∈ G), Ïd ϕ ´ÿÀ+ G
jL« (½L«).
y3·5?ØÛÜ; Hausdorff ÿÀ+ G jL« (½L«) 5.
½Â 12 V ´ Hilbert m, (ϕ, V ) ´ÛÜ; Hausdorff ÿÀ+ G
jL« (½L«), XJ3 α ∈ V , ¦d {ϕ(g)α|g ∈ G} ¤)¤fm´ V
Èf8, @o α ¡ ϕ Ìþ, ϕ ¡ÌL«.
½Â 13 V ´ Hilbert m, (ϕ, V ) ´ÛÜ; Hausdorff ÿÀ+ G
jL« (½L«), XJ3 V xüü4ØCfm {Vi |i ∈ I}, ¦
· 314 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
X X
V = Vi ( Vi °(¹Âò3!·K 25 ¡Qã), ϕ 3 Vi þ ϕ|Vi ,
i∈I i∈I
P ϕi , @o¡ÿÀ+ G jL« (½L«) (ϕ, V ) ´ G xj (½) f
L« (ϕi , Vi )(i ∈ I) Ú, P
M M
ϕ= ϕi , V = Vi . (68)
i∈I i∈I
ÛÜ; Hausdorff ÿÀ+ G jL« (½L«) (ϕ, V ) ´§
xj (½) fL« (ϕi , Vi )(i ∈ I) Ú, Kéu?¿ β ∈ V , k
X
β= βi , βi ∈ Vi , (69)
i∈I
X
kβk2 = kβi k2 , (70)
i∈I
5 (69) ª°(¹Â, ±9 (70) ª´XÛ, ò3!·K 25 ¡Q

ã.
½n 10 G ´ÛÜ; Hausdorff ÿÀ+, K G jL« (½L«) ´
ÌfL«Ú.
y² (ϕ, V ) ´ G jL« (½L«). -
S = {W |W = {Vi |i ∈ I}, Vi (i ∈ I) ´p4ØCfm,
ϕ|Vi ´ÌL«, i ∈ I}. (71)
S ±8Ü¹'XS. ? S ó T . -
[
f=
W W, (72)
W ∈T
w, Wf E,´d V xp4ØCfm|¤8Ü, ϕ 3Ù¥z
4ØCfmþ´ÌL«, Ïd W f ∈ S. l W
f ´ T þ..
â Zorn Ún, S k4 W0 = {Vi |i ∈ I}. -
M
U= Vi , (73)
i∈I
bX U 6= V , K3"þ β ∈ U ⊥ . rd {ϕ(g)β|g ∈ G} )¤4fm
S
P V0 , u´ ϕ|V
M0 ´ÌL«, l W0 {V0 } ∈ S, ù W0 ´ S 4gñ.
Ïd U = V , = Vi = V . ùy²
G jL« (ϕ, V ) ´ G xÌfL«
i∈I
(ϕ|Vi , Vi )(i ∈ I) Ú.
½Â 14 (ϕ, V ) ´ÿÀ+ G 5L«, XJ V 4ØCfmk 0 Ú
V , @o¡ (ϕ, V ) ´Ø.
l½Â 14 wÑ, ÿÀ) G ØL«'Ä+ØL«õ
“4”
^.
31Ù §4 ¥·®²w Schur Ún3ïÄk+ØL«¥å

~^. 3Ù §6 ¥·qw Schur Ún3ïÄ;+kØEL
«¥å
^. Schur Ún¦L«m´k (ëwÙ §4 Schur Ú
n). y3·ïÄÿÀ+ÃjL«, g,¬: Schur ÚnUÄí2L«
m´Ã/Q? lÙ §4 Schur Úny²¥w: I^ê4

K þk5m V þ5CkAù(Ø. y3í2Ã
/, ÄkÒïÄÃ5mþ5CA¯K. éuÿÀ+ G 3
Hilbert m V þjL« (½L«) (ϕ, V ), ϕ(g) ´jC (½C), l
ϕ(g) ∈ B(V ). u´·ïÄ V þk.5CA¯K.
k5mþ5CNõ5±í2Ã Banach m
a5C —— ;5Cþ.
½Â 15 X Ú Y Ñ´ Banach m, A : X → Y ´5N, XJ
X ¥4ü ¥ B1 3 A e A(B1 ) 4 A(B1 ) 3 Y ¥´;, @o¡
A ´;5N (½;5f).
·K 2 Banach m X Y ;5N½´k..
y² A ´ X Y ;5N, K A(B1 ) 3 Y ¥´;. âÙ
§2 ½n 1 , A(B1 ) ´k.. -

M = sup{k Axkkxk ∈ B1 } = sup{k Axkx ∈ X, kxk 6 1},
K M < +∞. l

k Ak = sup{k Axkx ∈ X, kxk 6 1} = M < +∞.
Ïd, A ´k..
9.4 D5m X VëYéóm X ∗∗

ïÄ;5C5. ·I'uD5m X VëYéó
m X ∗∗ £.
3 [25] eþ1 400 Ñ: éu F þk5m V , k V ∼ = V ∗∗ , Ù
∗∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗∗
¥ V = (V ) , V ´ V þ¤k5¼ê|¤8Ü. V V ÓNr α
N¤ α∗∗ , ùp α∗∗ (f ) = f (α), ∀f ∈ V ∗ . Ïd V ∗∗ = {α∗∗ |α ∈ V }. y3ÄÃ
5m/.
X ´D5m, X þ¤kk.5¼ê|¤8Ü B(X, F ) P
X , ùp F u C ½ R. âíØ 2, X ∗ ´ Banach m. ·r X ∗ ¡
∗
X ëYéóm. X þ¤k5¼ê|¤8ÜP X̂, r X̂ ¡ X ê

éóm. X ´k, 7½k X̂ = X ∗ , ndXe:
f ∈ X̂. 3 X ¥Ä α1 , α2 , · · · , αn , §3 X̂ ¥éóÄ f1 , f2 , · · · ,
Xn
fn . éu X ¥?þ α = ai αi , k fi (α) = ai , i = 1, 2, · · · , n. Ïd fi 3"þ
i=1
0 ?ëY. l â½n 4 , fi ´k., i = 1, 2, · · · , n. du f = k1 f1 +· · ·+kn fn ,
Ïd kf k 6 |k1 |kf1 k + · · · + |kn |kfn k < +∞. l f ∈ X ∗ . u´ X̂ ⊆ X ∗ , w,
X ∗ ⊆ X̂, Ïd X̂ = X ∗ .
r X ∗ ëYéómP (X ∗ )∗ , {P X ∗∗ , X ∗α ¡ X VëYéó
m, §´ Banach m, ? x ∈ X, ±Uìeª½Â X ∗∗ x∗∗ :
x∗∗ (f ) = f (x), ∀f ∈ X ∗ . (74)
· 316 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
Ný, d (74) ª½Â x∗∗ ´ X ∗ þ5¼ê. du

kx∗∗ k = sup{kx∗∗ (f )kf ∈ X ∗ , kf k = 1} = sup{|f (x)|f ∈ X ∗ , kf k = 1},
kf k = 1 , |f (x)| 6 kf k kxk = kxk; Ïd kx∗∗ k 6 kxk. l x∗∗ ´k., u
´ x∗∗ ∈ (X ∗ )∗ = X ∗∗ . Ïdk
{x∗∗ |x ∈ X} ⊆ X ∗∗ . (75)
·I?ÚïÄ kxk kx∗∗ k m'X, d0
VgÚ(Ø.
½Â 16 V É (¢) 5m, V þK¢¼ê p XJke
ã5:
(i) p(α + β) 6 p(α) + p(β), ∀α, β ∈ V ;
(ii) p(aα) = |a|p(a), ∀α ∈ V, a ∈ C (½ R),
@o¡ p ´ V þê (seminorm).
½Â 17 V É (¢) 5m, V þ¢¼ê q XJ÷v:
(i) q(α + β) 6 q(α) + q(β), ∀α, β ∈ V ;
(ii) q(kα) = kq(α), ∀α ∈ V, k > 0,
@o¡ q ´ V þg5¼ê (sublinear functinnel).
w,, zê´g5¼ê, Ø,.
½n 11 (Hahn-Banach ½n) V ´¢5m, q ´ V þg
5¼ê. XJ W ´ V 5fm, f ´ W þ5¼ê¦
f (γ) 6 q(γ), ∀γ ∈ W, (76)
@o3 V þ5¼ê F ¦ F |W = f , ¿
F (α) 6 q(α), ∀α ∈ V. (77)
y²w [15] 1 80 — 81 .
½n 11 ¿ÂØ3u*¿35, 3u*¿U± q .
Ún 1 V É5m.
(1) XJ f : V → R ´ R-5¼ê, @o
f˜(α) = f (α) − if ( iα) (78)
´ C-5¼ê, ¿ f = Re f ; ˜
(2) XJ g ´ V þ C-5¼ê, f = Re g, f˜ d (78) ª½Â, @o f˜ = g;
(3) XJ p ´ V þê, ¿ f f˜ Ó (1) ¥¤`, @o
|f (α)| 6 p(α), ∀α ∈ V ⇐⇒ |f˜(α)| 6 p(α), ∀α ∈ V ;
(4) XJ V ´D5m, f f˜ Ó (1) ¥¤`, @o kf k = kf˜k.
y² (1) ? α, β ∈ V, k = a + ib,
f˜(α + β) = f (α + β) − if ( i(α + β)) = f (α) + f (β) − i[f ( iα) + f ( iβ)]
= f (α) − if ( iα) + f (β) − if ( iβ) = f˜(α) + f˜(β);
f˜(kα) = f˜((a + ib)α) = f ((a + ib)α) − if ( i(a + ib)α) = k f˜(α).
Ïd f˜ ´ C-5¼ê. w, f = Re f˜.
(2) y²3Öö.
(3) ¿©5. |f˜(α)| 6 p(α), ∀α ∈ V , K

f (α) = Re f˜(α) 6 |f˜(α)| 6 p(α), ∀α ∈ V,
−f (α) = − Re f˜(α) = Re f˜(−α) 6 |f˜(−α)| 6 p(−α) = p(α), ∀α ∈ V.
Ïd |f (α)| 6 p(α), ∀α ∈ V .
75. |f (α)| 6 p(α), ∀α ∈ V . f˜(α) = |f˜(α)| e iθ , é,¢ê θ, K
∀α ∈ V , k
|f˜(α)| = f˜(α) e− iθ = f˜( e− iθ α) = Re f˜( e− iθ α) − i Re f˜( i e− iθ α).
du>´¢ê, Ïdm>7¢ê, l m>JÜ 0, Ïd ∀α ∈ V , k
|f˜(α)| = Re f˜( e− iθ α) = f ( e− iθ α) 6 p( e− iθ α) = p(α).
(4) du V þê,´ê, Ïdâ (3)
|f (α)| 6 kαk, ∀α ∈ V ⇐⇒ |f˜(α)| 6 kαk, ∀α ∈ V.
ÏdÑ kf k = kf˜k.
íØ 3 V É (¢) 5m, W ´ V 5fm, p ´ V þ
ê, XJ f ´ W þ5¼ê¦ |f (γ)| 6 p(γ), ∀γ ∈ W , @o3 V
þ5¼ê F ¦ F |W = f |F (α)| 6 p(α), ∀α ∈ V .
y² / 1 V ´¢5m. duê p ´g5¼ê, f (γ) 6
|f (γ)| 6 p(γ), ∀γ ∈ W , Ïdâ Hahn-Banach ½n, 3 V þ5¼ê F ¦
F |W = f , ¿ F (α) 6 p(α), ∀α ∈ V . u´
−F (α) = F (−α) 6 p(−α) = p(α), ∀α ∈ V.
Ïd |F (α)| 6 p(α), ∀α ∈ V .
/ 2 V É5m, - f1 = Re f . âÚn 1 (3), l |f (γ)| 6
p(γ), ∀γ ∈ W , Ñ |f1 (γ)| 6 p(γ), ∀γ ∈ W . é f1 ^/ 1 (Ø, 3 V þ
R-5¼ê F1 ¦ F1 |W = f1 ¿ |F1 (α)| 6 p(α), ∀α ∈ V . -
F (α) = F1 (α) − iF1 ( iα), ∀α ∈ V.
âÚn 1 (3) |F (α)| 6 p(α), ∀α ∈ V , du f (α) = f1 (α) − if1 ( iα),
F1 |W = f1 , Ïd F |W = f .
íØ 4 X ´D5m, W ´ X 5fm, f ´ W þ
k.5¼ê, K3 F ∈ X ∗ ¦ F |W = f , ¿ kF k = kf k.
y² - p(x) = kf k kxk, ∀x ∈ X, K
p(x1 + x2 ) = kf k kx1 + x2 k 6 kf k kx1 k + kf k kx2 k = p(x1 ) + p(x2 ),
p(kx) = kf k kkxk = |k| kf k kxk = |k|p(x),
Ïd p ´ X þê. du |f (γ)| 6 kf k kγk = p(γ), ∀γ ∈ W . âíØ 3
, 3 X þ5¼ê F ¦ F |W = f , |F (x)| 6 p(x) = kf k kxk, ∀x ∈ X. l
kF k 6 kf k. du F |W = f , Ïd
|f (γ)| |F (γ)|
kf k = sup γ ∈ W, γ =
6 0 = sup γ ∈ W, γ =
6 0
kγk kγk

|F (x)|
6 sup x ∈ X, x 6= 0 = kF k.
kxk
· 318 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
nþ¤ã kF k = kf k. l F ´k.. Ïd F ∈ X ∗ .
íØ 5 X ´D5m, {x1 , x2 , · · · , xn } ´ X 5Ã'
þ|, Kéu?¿E (¢) ê a1 , a2 , · · · , an , 3 f ∈ X ∗ , ¦ f (xj ) = aj , j =
1, 2, · · · , n.
y² W ´dþ| {x1 , x2 , · · · , xn } )¤5fm; ½Â W þ
¼ê g:  
n
X Xn
g bj xj  = b j aj ,
j=1 j=1
K g ´ W þ5¼ê. du W ´k, Ïd g ´k.. âíØ 4 ,

3 f ∈ X ∗ ¦ f |W = g. u´
f (xj ) = g(xj ) = aj , j = 1, 2, · · · , n.
íØ 6 X ´D5m, ? x ∈ X, K

kxk = sup{|f (x)|f ∈ X ∗ kf k 6 1},
¿ùþ(..

y² α = sup{|f (x)|f ∈ X ∗ kf k 6 1}, ¿ f ∈ X ∗ kf k 6 1, K
|f (x)| 6 kf k kxk 6 kxk. Ïd α 6 kxk. x )¤ 1 5fmP W . ½Â W
þ¼ê g:
g(bx) = bkxk, ∀b ∈ C (½ R).
w, g ´ W þ5¼ê, du W ´k, Ïd g ´k.. l g ∈ W ∗ ,

¿
|g(bx)|
kgk = sup b ∈ C(½ R), b 6= 0 = 1.
kbxk
âíØ 4, 3 f ∈ X ∗ ¦ kf k = kgk = 1, ¿ f |W = g, l f (x) = g(x) = kxk.

Ïd kxk áu8Ü {|f (x)|f ∈ X ∗ , kf k = 1}. qdu α 6 kxk, = kxk ´ù8Ü
þ., Ïd kxk Ò´ù8Üþ(..
·K 3 X ´D5m. -
τ : X → X ∗∗
x 7→ x∗∗ ,
K τ ´ X τ (X) 5Ó, ¿ τ ±ê, =
kx∗∗ k = kxk. (79)
∗∗
y² ·®² τ ´ X X N. y35y τ ´ü.
x1 , x2 ∈ X, XJ x∗∗ ∗∗ ∗ ∗∗ ∗∗
1 = x2 , @o ∀f ∈ X , k x1 (f ) = x2 (f ), l f (x1 ) = f (x2 ),
u´ f (x1 − x2 ) = 0, ∀f ∈ X ∗ . bX x1 − x2 6= 0, K {x1 − x2 } ´ X 5Ã'
þ|, âíØ 5 , 3 f0 ∈ X ∗ ¦ f0 (x1 − x2 ) = 1, gñ. Ïd x1 − x2 = 0.
l x1 = x2 . ùy²
τ ´ü. du ∀f ∈ X ∗ , k
τ (x1 + x2 )(f ) = (x1 + x2 )∗∗ (f ) = f (x1 + x2 ) = f (x1 ) + f (x2 )
= x∗∗ ∗∗ ∗∗ ∗∗
1 (f ) + x2 (f ) = (x1 + x2 )(f ) = (τ (x1 ) + τ (x2 ))(f ),
Ïd τ (x1 + x2 ) = τ (x1 ) + τ (x2 ). Óny τ (kx) = kτ (x). Ïd τ ´ X τ (X)

5Ó. e¡5y τ ±ê.
â (24) ªÚíØ 6

kx∗∗ k = sup{|x∗∗ (f )|f ∈ X ∗ , kf k 6 1}

= sup{|f (x)|f ∈ X ∗ , kf k 6 1} = kxk.
∗∗
½Â 18 D5m X XJ÷v τ (X) = X , =
X ∗∗ = {x∗∗ |x ∈ X},
@o¡ X ´g (reflexive).
~ 1 Hilbert m V ´g.
y² â½n 3, V ∗ ¥/L«¤ αL ½ βR /ª. ? f, g ∈ V ∗ ,
f = αL = α̃R , g = βR = β̃L , 5½
(αL , βR ) := (α, β), (βR , αL ) := (β, α), (80)
K (f, g) = (α, β), (f, g) = (α̃R , β̃L ) = (α̃, β̃). du f (γ) = αL (γ) = α̃R (γ), Ïd
(α, γ) = (γ, α̃), l (α, β) = (β, α̃) = (α̃, β), = βR (α̃) = β̃L (α̃) = (β̃, α̃) = (α̃, β̃). Ï
d^ (80) ª½Â (f, g) ´Ün. w,k
(g, f ) = (βR , αL ) = (β, α) = (α, β) = (αL , βR ) = (f, g).
â [25] eþ1 435 ~ 4 1 (1) K, α 7→ αL ´ V V ∗ 5N
, Ïd
(αL + γL , βR ) = ((α + γ)L , βK ) = (α + γ, β)
= (α, β) + (γ, β) = (αL , βR ) + (γL , βR );
(kαL , βk ) = ((kα)L , βR ) = (kα, β) = k(α, β) = k(αL , βR ).
(f, f ) = (αL , α̃R ) = (α, α̃). du (α, β) = (β, α̃) = (α̃, β), Ïd (α, α̃) = (α̃, α̃). l
(f, f ) > 0, Ò¤á= α̃ = 0, u´ f = α̃R = 0. Ïd (80) ª½Â
V ∗ þSÈ. l V ∗ ¤jm (½¢SÈm). (fn ) ´ V ∗ ¥

Cauchy S, Ké? ε > 0, 3 N ¦ n > N, m > N Òk
kfn − fm k < ε. fn = (αn )L , Kâ (25) ª
kfn − fm k = k(αn )L − (αm )L k = k(αn − αm )L k = kαn − αm k.
l (αn ) ´ V ¥ Cauchy S. du V ´, Ïd3 α ∈ V ¦
n → ∞ , αn → α, = n → ∞ , kαn − αk → 0. P f = αL , K n → ∞
kfn − f k = kαn − αk → 0. Ïd (fn ) Âñ f . l V ∗ ´, u´ V ∗ ´
Hibert m. é V ∗ ^½n 3 , V ∗∗ ¥?/L«¤ fL , Ù¥
f ∈ V ∗ . f = αL . K fL (βR ) = (f, βR ) = (αL , βR ) = (α, β) = βR (α), ∀βR ∈ V ∗ , q
k α∗∗ (βR ) = βR (α), ∀βR ∈ V ∗ , Ïd fL = α∗∗ . l V ∗∗ = {α∗∗ |α ∈ V }. ùy²
V ´g.
9.5 ÿÀm

ïÄ Banach m X Y ;5N5, ·I
'uÿÀ
m?Ú£. Äk, 8Ü X ¥S (xn ) í2, Ú? X
· 320 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
Vg, ¿|^ÿÀm5ïÄÿÀm
?Ú5.
½Â 19 k8 (directed set) ´ S8 (I, >), §÷veã^: X
J i1 , i2 ∈ I, @o3 i3 ∈ I, ¦ i3 > i1 i3 > i2 .
X ´ÿÀm, éu½ x0 ∈ X, U = {U |U ´m8, x0 ∈ U }.
éu U, V ∈ U , XJ U ⊆ V , ½Â U > V , @o U ´d¹'X½ÂS¤¤
k8.
½Â 20 X ´8Ü, (I, >) ´k8, Kl I X N x
¡ X (net), Ï~^ xi L« x(i), ¦^â “ {xi } ´ X ”.
dug,ê8 N ´k8, Ïd8Ü X ¥zS´ X .
X ´ÿÀm, x0 ∈ X, ^ U L«¹k x0 ¤km8|¤8Ü, ^
¹'X½Â U S. éuz U ∈ U , xU ∈ U , K {xU |U ∈ U } ´ X
.
½Â 21 {xi } ´ÿÀm X , XJéu X z¹k x0
mf8 U , Ñ3 i0 = i0 (U ), ¦ ∀i > i0 k xi ∈ U , @o¡ {xi } Âñ x0 ,
P xi → x0 ½ lim xi = x0 . XJéuz i0 Ú x0 zm U , Ñ3
i > i0 ¦ xi ∈ U , @o¡ù {xi } 3 x0 ¬à (clusters), P xi −
→ x0 , d
cl
¡ x0 ´ {xi } à:.
ù
Vgí2
S¥éAVg.
w,, XJ xi → x0 , @o xi −
→ x0 .
cl
3½Â 21 þ¡ã~f¥, X {xU |U ∈ U } Âñ x0 .
·K 4 X ´ÿÀm, A ⊆ X, K x ∈ Ā =3 A
{ai } ¦ ai → x.
y² U = {U |U ´m8, x ∈ U }.
T
75. x ∈ Ā, Kéuz U ∈ U , 3: aU ∈ A U . u´ {aU }
T
´ A 'uk8 U . éu A z¹k x mf8 A W , 3
T
U0 = W , ¦éz U > U0 , k aU ∈ A W . Ïd lim aU = x.
¿©5. {ai } ´ A ¦ ai → x, Kéuz U ∈ U , l éu
T
A z¹k x mf8 A U , 3 U0 ∈ U ¦éz W > U0 k
T
ai ∈ A U . u´ x ∈ Ā.
·K 5 X ´ÿÀm, A ⊆ X. XJ {ai } ´ A ai −→ x,
cl
@o x ∈ Ā.
y² du {ai } ´ A ai −
→ x, Ïdéuz¹k x m8 U0
cl T
Ú x zm U , Ñ3 W > U0 ¦ ai ∈ U A, Ïd x ´ A
à:. l x ∈ Ā.
íØ 7 {xi } ´ÿÀm X , XJ xi − → x0 , @o3 {xi }
cl
f8 {xik } ¦ xik → x0 .
y² r X {xi } w¤´ X f8 A. u´ {xi } w¤´ A
: du xi −
→ x0 , Ïdâ·K 5 x0 ∈ Ā. 2â·K 4 , 3 A
cl
{xik } ¦ xik → x0 .
N´wÑ, e X ´ Hausdorff ÿÀm, K X zÂñk4
:.
·K 6 X Ú Y Ñ´ÿÀm, f : X → Y , K f 3 x0 ëY=
xi → x0 Òk f (xi ) → f (x0 ).
y² 75. f 3 x0 ëY, {xi } ´ X ¦ xi → x0 , Kéu Y
¥¹k f (x0 ) zm8 V , Ñk X ¥¹k x0 m8 U ¦ f (U ) ⊆ V . d
u xi → x0 , Ïdéu U 3 i0 , ¦´ ∀i > i0 k xi ∈ U , l f (xi ) ∈ V, ∀i > i0 .
ùL² f (xi ) → f (x0 ).
¿©5. U = {U |U ´ X m8 x0 ∈ U }. bX f 3 x0 ØëY, K
3 Y ¹k f (x0 ) m8 V , ¦ f −1 (V ) Ø´¹k x0 m8, u´éz
U ∈ U Ñk f (U )\V 6= ∅. l éz U ∈ U Ñ3: xU ∈ U f (xU ) 6∈ V .
w, {xU } ´ X xU → x0 . u´d®^, f (xU ) → f (x0 ). w,
{f (xU )} ØUÂñ f (x0 ). ùgñL² f 3 x0 ëY.
·K 7 X Ú Y Ñ´ÿÀm, XJ f : X → Y 3 x0 ëY, {xi } ´ x
¦ xi − → x0 , @o f (xi ) −
→ f (x0 ).
cl cl
y² du f 3 x0 ëY, Ïdéu Y ¥¹k f (x0 ) zm8 V , Ñk X
¥¹k x0 m8 U ¦ f (U ) ⊆ V . du xi −
→ x0 , Ïdéuz i0 Úþã
cl
¹k x0 m8 U , Ñ3 i > i0 ¦ xi ∈ U , l f (xi ) ∈ V . Ïdâ½Â
21 f (x) −
→ f (x0 ).
cl
·K 8 X ´ Hausdorff ÿÀm, K ⊆ X, K K ´;= K
¥z3 K pkà:.
y² 75. K ´;. ? K {xi |i ∈ I}. éuz i,
Ai {xj |j > i} 4, u´z Ai ´ K 4f8. du I ´k8, Ïde
n
\
i1 , · · · , in ∈ I, K3 i > i1 , · · · , in . u´ Ai ⊆ Aik . l {Ai |i ∈ I} äk
k=1
k5 (= {Ai |i ∈ I} ¥?¿kõf88Ø´8). du K ´;
, X ´ Hausdorff ÿÀm,\ÏdâÙ\ §2 ·K 4 , K ´48, l
[
K̄ = K. u´ Ai ⊆ K, i ∈ I. bX Ai = ∅, K Ai 3 K ¥Ö8 Aci = K.
i∈I i∈I i∈I
m
[ m
\
u´3 Ai1 , · · · , Aim ¦ Acil = K, l Ail = ∅, ù {Ai |i ∈ I} äkk
\ l=1 l=1 \
5gñ. Ïd Ai 6= ∅. l K ¥3 x0 ∈ Ai . ? i0 ∈ I, ?
i∈I i∈I
¹k x0 m8 U , du x0 ∈ Ai0 , Ai0 ´ {xj |j > i0 } 4, Ïdéu¹k x0
TS
m8 U k {xj |j > i0 } 6= ∅. u´3 i > i0 ¦ xi ∈ U . Ïd xi −
→ x0 .
cl
¿©5. K z3 K pkà:. {Kα |α ∈ J} ´ K x
· 322 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
é4f8 (=éuÿÀm K 5`48), §äkk5. rI8 J

¤kkf8|¤8ÜP F , F S¹'X. ué F ∈ F , K K ¥k
\
: xF ∈ Kα . l {xF |F ∈ F } ´ K . d®^, {xF |F ∈ F }
α∈F
3 K ¥kà: x0 . ? α ∈ J, K {α} ∈ F , ué U ´¹k x0 ?m
8, K3 F ∈ F ¦ F ⊇ {α} ¿ xF ∈ U . du α ∈ F , Ïd xF ∈ Kα .
T
l xF ∈ U Kα . ùL²: éz α ∈ J Úz¹k x0 m8 U , Ñk
T
U Kα 6= ∅. u´ x0 ∈ K̄α . du Kα ´ÿÀm K 4f8, Ïd3 K ¥,
\
K̄α = Kα , l x0 ∈ Kα , ∀α ∈ J. u´ x0 ∈ Kα . Ïd K 7½´;.
α∈J
·K 9 X ´; Hausdorff ÿÀm, {xi } ´ X , XJ x0
´ {xi } =kà:, @o {x0 } Âñ x0 .
y² ? x0 m U , J = {j ∈ I|xj ∈ / U }. bX {xi } ØÂñ
x0 , Kéuz i ∈ I, 3 j ∈ J ¦ j > i xj ∈
/ U . Ïd J ´k8. l
{xj |j ∈ J} ´ X\U . du X\U ´ X 4f8, X ´;, Ïdâ
Ù §2 ·K 3 , X\U ´;. u´â·K 8 , {xj |j ∈ J} 3 X\U ¥k
à: y0 . duc¡®Ñ: éuz i ∈ I 3 j > i ¦ xj ∈ / U , Ïdé
u y0 3 X\U ¥zm W , 3 j > i ¦ xj ∈ W . ùL² y0 ´ X
{xi |i ∈ I} à:. ù®^ “x0 ´ {xi } =kà:” gñ. Ïd
xi → x0 .
·K 10 X Ú Y Ñ´ Hausdorff ÿÀm, ¿ X ´;. XJ
f : X → Y ´V´ëYN, @o f ´Ó.
y² y f −1 ´ëYN=. ? X 4f8 A, du X ´;
, ÏdâÙ §2 ·K 3 , A ´;. qdu f : X → Y ´ëYN,
ÏdâÙ §2 ·K 5 , f (A) ´ Y ¥;f8. du Y ´ Hausdorff m,
ÏdâÙ §2 ·K 4 , f (A) ´48. u´âÙ §2 íØ 1 , f −1 ´
ëYN. l f ´Ó.
9.6 Hilbert m;5N5
ÄkïÄ Banach m;5N5.

½Â 22 X Ú Y Ñ´ Banach m, A ∈ B(X, Y ). XJéu X ¥?f
Âñ x S (xn ) Ñk k Axn − Axk → 0, @o¡ A ´ëY (completely
continuous).
·K 11 X Ú Y Ñ´ Banach m, A ∈ B(X, Y ).
(1) XJ A ´;5N, @o A ´ëY;
(2) XJ X ´g, A ´ëY, @o A ´;.
y² (1) A ´;5N. Äk (xn ) ´ X ¥fÂñ 0 S, K

∀f ∈ X ∗ Ñk f (xn ) → f (0) = 0. l sup{|f (xn )|} < +∞. u´ sup{x∗∗
n (f )|} <
n n
+∞, ∀f ∈ X ∗ . u´éu X ∗ C xk.5N {x∗∗
n |n = 1, 2, · · · } ^k
.n (=½n 6) , 3 M1 < +∞, ¦

kx∗∗
n k 6 M1 , n = 1, 2, · · · . (81)
â·K 3 kxn k = kx∗∗n k 6 M 1 , n = 1, 2, · · · , l S (kxn k) kþ(..
sup{kxn k} = M . Ø5, ±b M 6 1. u´ xn áu X ¥4ü ¥ B1 .
n
Ïd Axn ∈ A(B1 ), n = 1, 2, · · · . du A ´;5N, Ïd A(B1 ) ´ Y ¥;
8. âÙ §2 ½n 1 , A(B1 ) ´k.. l S ( Axn ) ´k.. u´k
ÂñfS ( Axnk ). du Y ´, Ïd3 y ∈ Y ¦ Axnk → y, =
k Axnk − yk → 0. du (xnk ) fÂñ 0, Ïd ∀f ∈ X ∗ k f (xnk ) → f (0) = 0. w,
f A ´ X þ5¼ê. du ∀x ∈ X, k
|(f A)x| = |f ( Ax)| 6 kf k k Axk 6 kf k k Ak kxk,
Ïd

kf Ak = sup{|(f A)x|x ∈ X, kxk = 1} 6 kf k k Ak. (82)
l f A ∈ X ∗ . u´ (f A)(xnk ) → (f A)(0), Ïd ∀f ∈ X ∗ , k f ( Axnk ) →

f ( A(0)) = 0, = Axnk → 0 (f). qdu ( Axnk ) êÂñ y, Ïd ( Axnk )
fÂñ y, ddÑ, y = 0, = k Axnk − 0k → 0. u´â½Â 21 , 0 ´S
( Axn ) à:. qdu 0 ´S ( Axn ) à:, S ( Axn ) ¹
3;8 A(B1 ) p, Ïdâ·K 9 , ( Axn ) Âñ 0, = k Axn − A(0)k → 0.
Ùgéu X ¥fÂñ x S (xn ), - x̃n = xn − x, K (x̃n ) fÂñ 0.
âþ¡y(J, k Ax̃n k → 0. l k Axn − Axk → 0. Ïd A ´ëY.
(2) X ´g, A ´ëY. 3 X 4ü ¥ B1 ¥S
(xn ). X1 ´dS (xn ) )¤45fm, âÙ §2 ·K 7 , X1 E´
Banach m, X1 kêÈf8 {xn }, Ïd X1 ´©. du X ´g, Ï
d X 4fm X1 ´g (y²w [32]). u´ X1∗ ´© (ëw [15] 1
135 1ã). - A1 = A|X1 , K A1 ´ X1 Y 5N. du A ´ë
Y, Ïd A1 ´ëY. ±y², X1 4ü ¥ B11 éu X1 fÿÀ´
;Ýþm. ? B11 S (x̃n ), du B11 ´;, Ïdâ·K 8 ,
3 x̃ ∈ B11 ¦ x̃n − → x̃. l âíØ 7 , 3 (x̃n ) fS (x̃nk )
cl
¦ x̃nk → x̃ (éufÿÀ). du A1 ´ëY, Ïd k A1 x̃nk − A1 x̃k → 0. l
A1 x̃ ´S ( A1 x̃n ) à:. du ( A1 x̃n ) ´ A1 (B11 ) ?S, Ïdâ·
K 8 , A1 (B11 ) ´;. l A1 ´;5N. du Axn = A1 xn , ∀xn ∈ B1 ,
Ïdé ( A1 xn ) ^·K 8 , S ( Axn ) = ( A1 xn ) 3 A(B1 ) ¥kà:. du
S ( Axn ) ´ A(B1 ) ¥?S, Ïdé ( Axn ) ^·K 8 , A(B1 ) ´;.
l A ´;5N.
5 'ufÿÀVgëw [15] 1 124 ½Â 1.1. ·K 11 1 (2) Ü©
y²¥, “±y²” (Øëw [15] 1 130 ½n 3.1 (Alaoglu ½n) Ú
1 134 ½n 5.1.
·8´ïÄÿÀ+ÃjL« (½L«), Ïdy3·5ï
· 324 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
Ä Hilbert m X Y ;5N5.
Hilbert m X Y ¤k;5N|¤8ÜP B0 (X, Y ). â!
·K 2, B0 (X, Y ) ⊆ B(X, Y ).
Hilbert m X þ¤k;5C|¤8ÜP B0 (X), B0 (X) ⊆ B(X).
·K 12 X, Y, Z Ñ´ Hilbert m, K
(1) B0 (X, Y ) ´ B(X, Y ) 45fm;
(2) e K ∈ B0 (X, Y ) A ∈ B(Y, Z), K A K ∈ B0 (X, Z);
(3) e K ∈ B0 (X, Y ) A ∈ B(Z, X), K K A ∈ B0 (Z, Y ).
y² (1) A1 , A2 ∈ B0 (X, Y ), Kéu X ¥4ü ¥ B1 , k A1 (B1 ) Ú
A2 (B1 ) 3 Y ¥´;. ? ( A1 + A2 )(B1 ) {( A1 + A2 )(xi )|i ∈ I}.
du A1 (B1 ) ´;, Ïdâ·K 8 , A1 (B1 ) { A1 (xi )|i ∈ I} 3
A1 (B1 ) pkà:, = A1 (xi ) − → A1 (x01 ). Ón A2 (B1 ) {A2 (xi )|i ∈ I}
cl
3 A2 (B1 ) pkà:, = A2 (xi ) −
→ A2 (x02 ). u´
cl
( A1 + A2 )(xi ) = A1 (xi ) + A2 (xi ) −
→ A1 (x01 ) + A2 (x02 ).
cl
â·K 8 ( A1 + A2 )(B1 ) ´;. l A1 + A2 ∈ B0 (X, Y ). aq/y,
éu? c ∈ C, k c A ∈ B0 (X, Y ). Ïd B0 (X, Y ) ´ B(X, Y ) 5fm.

y B0 (X, Y ) ´48, y B0 (X, Y ) = B0 (X, Y ). dy: B0 (X, Y )
zà:áu B0 (X, Y ). { An |n ∈ N∗ } ⊆ B0 (X, Y ), A ∈ B(X, Y ) ¦
k An − Ak → 0, y A ∈ B0 (X, Y ), ùy A(B1 ) 3 Y ¥´;. du Y ´
Hilbort m, Ïd Y ´, l âÙ §2 ·K 7 , A(B1 ) ´.
âÙ §2 ½n 1, y A(B1 ) ´k., B A(B1 ) ´;. ?
ε > 0, du k An − Ak → 0, Ïd3 n ¦ k An − Ak < ε/3. du An ´;5
N, Ïd An (B1 ) 3 Y ¥´;, l 3 x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ∈ B1 ¦
m
[
An (B1 ) ⊆ B( An xj , ε/3).
j=1
u´éu? x ∈ B1 , 3 xj ¦ An x ∈ B( An xj , ε/3), = k An xj − An xk <
ε/3. l
k Axj − Axk 6 k Axj − An xj k + k An xj − An xk + k An x − Axk
< 2k A − An k + ε/3 < ε.
m
[
Ïd Ax ∈ B( Axj , ε), l A(B1 ) ⊆ B( Axj , ε). âÙ §2 ½Â 14 ,
j=1
A(B1 ) ´k.. u´ A(B1 ) ´k.. ùy²
B0 (X, Y ) ´48.
(2) K ∈ B0 (X, Y ), A ∈ B(Y, Z), y A K ∈ B0 (X, Z), y A K(B1 )
3 Z ¥´;. du K ´ X Y ;5N, Ïd K(B1 ) 3 Y ¥´;
. du A ´ Y Z ëY5N. ÏdâÙ §2 ·K 5 , A( K(B1 ))
3 Z ¥´;, l âÙ §2 ·K 4 , A( K(B1 )) ´ Z 48, u´
A( K(B1 )) = A( K(B1 )). Ïd A K(B1 ) 3 Z ¥´;.
(3) K ∈ B0 (X, Y ), A ∈ B(Z, X), y K A ∈ B0 (Z, Y ), y K A(B1 )

3 Y ¥´;, Ù¥ B1 ´ Z ¥4ü ¥. du A ´ Z X k.5N
, Ïdl k Aαk 6 k Akkαk, ∀α ∈ Z , A(B1 ) ¹u X ¥±"þ¥%, k Ak
»4¥. du K ´ X Y ;5N, Ïd K( A(B1 )) 3 Y ¥´;
, l K A ∈ B0 (Z, Y ).
l·K 12 á=eãíØ.
íØ 8 X ´ F þ Hilbert m, K B0 (X) ´ F þê B(X)
4V>n.
½Â 23 X Ú Y ´ Hilbert m, A ´ X Y 5C, XJ A(X)
´k, @o¡ A kk.
Hilbert m X Y ¤këYkk5N|¤8ÜP
B00 (X, Y ). A ∈ B00 (X, Y ), K A(X) ´k. Aα1 , · · · , Aαn ´ A(X)
IOÄ. A(X)  F n åÓ , Ù¥ÓN σ
n
X n
X
σ bj Aαj  = bj εj .
j=1 j=1
u´ σ( A(B1 )) ´ F n ¥k.48. F = R , âÙ §2 íØ 7 ,

σ( A(B1 )) ´;. F = C , aquíØ 7 y²{Ñ, Cn k.4
8´;, l σ( A(B1 )) ´;. u´ A(B1 ) 3 A(X) ¥´;. Ïd A
´;5C. ùy²
B00 (X, Y ) ⊆ B0 (X, Y ). N´wÑ, B00 (X, Y ) ´ B0 (X, Y )
5fm.
9.7 Hilbert mþk.5CC

·, éuE (¢) SÈm V þ5C A, XJ3 V þ
5C, P A∗ , ÷v ( Aα, β) = (α, A∗ β), ∀α, β ∈ V , @o¡ A∗ ´ A
C. e V ´k, K V þ?5C A ÑkC
A∗ . e V ´Ã, V þ5C A XJkC, @o A C
´ (þã(Øy²±w [25] eþ1 505 — 506 ). y3¯: Ã
Hilbert mþ?5C´Ä3C, £´: k.5C½
3C.
½n 12 X ´ Hilbert m, A ∈ B(X), K3 A∗ ∈ B(X) ¦
( Aα, β) = (α, A∗ β), ∀α, β ∈ X, (83)
∗
l A ´ A C.
y² ?¿½ β ∈ X, â·K 1, βR ´ X þëY5¼ê. du A
´ X þëY5C, Ïd βR A ´ X þëY5¼ê. 2â½n 3 ,
3þ β ′ ∈ X, ¦ βR A = βR ′ ′
, l ∀α ∈ X k βR A(α) = βR (α), =
′
( Aα, β) = (α, β ), ∀α ∈ X. (84)
∗ ′
u´· V gN A : β 7→ β . l
( Aα, β) = (α, A∗ β), ∀α, β ∈ X.
· 326 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
y A∗ ´ X þ5C (ëw [25] eþ1 506 1 8 —

13 1). y35y A∗ ´k.. â½n 3 y², β ′ = (βR A)(γ)γ, Ù¥
kγk = 1. u´
kβ ′ k = k(βR A)(γ)γk = |(βR A)(γ)| kγk = |(βR A)(γ)|
6 kβR k k Aγk 6 kβR k k Ak kγk = kβR k k Ak.
l k A βk = kβ k 6 kβR k k Ak. du kβR k = kβk, Ïd k A∗ βk 6 kβk k Ak. l
∗ ′
k A∗ k 6 k Ak. du A ´k., Ïd A∗ ´k..

'u5y² [25] eþ1 506 1 14 — 18 1.
l [25] eþ1 506 ½n 9 á=Xe·K.
·K 13 X ´ Hilbert m, A, B ∈ B(X), k ∈ C (½ R), K
( A + B)∗ = A∗ + B ∗ , (k A)∗ = k̄ A∗ ,
( A B)∗ = B ∗ A∗ , ( A∗ )∗ = A.
−1
·K 14 X ´ Hilbert m, A ∈ B(X), XJ A ´_, @o A ∈
B(X), A∗ ´_,
( A∗ )−1 = ( A−1 )∗ .
y² du A ´_, Ïd A ´V, q A k., u´â½n 8

A ∈ B(X). l A−1 kC. â [25] eþ1 506 ½n 9 , A∗
−1
_, ¿ ( A∗ )−1 = ( A−1 )∗ .

·K 15 X ´ Hilbert m, A ∈ B(X), K
k Ak = k A∗ k = k A∗ Ak1/2 . (85)
y² l½n 12 y²L§, k A∗ k 6 k Ak. l k( A∗ )∗ k 6 k A∗ k, u´
d·K 13 k Ak 6 k A∗ k. Ïd k Ak = k A∗ k. α ∈ X kαk 6 1, K
k Aαk2 = ( Aα, Aα) = (α, A∗ ( Aα)) 6 kαk k A∗ ( Aα)k
6 k A∗ Ak kαk 6 k A∗ Ak,
Ïd k Ak2 6 k A∗ Ak. du k A∗ Ak 6 k A∗ k k A||, Ïd k A∗ Ak 6 k Ak2 . dd
Ñ k A∗ Ak1/2 = k Ak.
X ´ Hilbert m, A ∈ B(X), XJ A∗ = A, @o¡ A ´ Hermite C
(½é¡C), ½gC; XJ A∗ = − A, @o¡ A ´ Hermite C (½
é¡C). XJ A A∗ = A∗ A, @o¡ A ´5C (ù
½Âëw [25] e
þ1 480 !490 !504 !507 Ú 518 ).
·K 16 X Éêþ Hilbert m, A ∈ B(X), K A ´ Hermite C
= ( Aα, α) ∈ R, ∀α ∈ X.
y² [25] eþ1 520 ~ 19.
·K 17 X ´ Hilbert m, XJ A = A∗ , @o

k Ak = sup{|( Aα, α)|kαk = 1}. (86)

y² - M = sup{|( Aα, α)|kαk = 1}. e kαk = 1, K |( Aα, α)| 6 k Aαk kαk 6
k Ak kαk = k Ak. Ïd M 6 k Ak. ,¡, XJ kαk = kβk = 1, @o

( A(α ± β), α ± β) = ( Aα, α) ± ( Aα, β) ± ( Aβ, α) + ( Aβ, β)
= ( Aα, α) ± ( Aα, β) ± (β, A∗ α) + ( Aβ, β).
∗
du A = A , Ïddþª
( A(α ± β), α ± β) = ( Aα, β) ± 2 Re ( Aα, β) + ( Aβ, β).
þãüª~,
( A(α + β), α + β) − ( A(α − β), α − β) = 4 Re ( Aα, β).
? γ ∈ X, γ 6= 0, K
γ γ
A , 6 M.
kγk kγk
l |( Aγ, γ)| 6 M kγk2, ∀γ ∈ X. du kαk = kβk = 1, Ïd
4 Re ( Aα, β) 6 M (kα + βk2 + kα − βk2 )
= 2M (kαk2 + kβk2 )
= 4M. (87)
iθ − iθ − iθ
( Aα, β) = |( Aα, β)| e , 3 (87) ª¥, ^ e α O α , Re ( A( e α), β) 6 M .
l |( Aα, β)| 6 M , kαk = kβk = 1. u´éu? α ∈ X kαk = 1, k

sup{|( Aα, β)|β ∈ X, kβk = 1} 6 M. (88)
du |( Aα, β)| 6 k Aαk kβk = k Aαk, Ò¤á= Aα β 5', Ïd
k Aαk 3 (88) ªà8Ü¥Ñy, l k Aαk 6 M , kαk = 1. u´

k Ak = sup{k Aαkα ∈ X, kαk = 1} 6 M.
q®y M 6 k Ak, Ïd k Ak = M .
∗
íØ 9 X ´ Hilbcrt m, XJ A = A , é α ∈ X k ( Aα, α) = 0,
@o A = 0.
y² â·K 17 , k Ak = 0, l âê½Â A = 0.
∗
íØ 10 X Éêþ Hilbert m, XJ A = − A, é α ∈ X
k ( Aα, α) = 0, @o A = 0.
y² du A∗ = − A, Ïd ( i A)∗ = ī A∗ = − i(− A) = i A. qdué
α∈X k
(( i A)α, α) = i( Aα, α) = 0,
ÏdâíØ 9 i A = 0, l A = 0.
íØ 11 X Éêþ Hilbert m, A ∈ B(X). XJé α ∈ X k
( Aα, α) = 0, @o A = 0.
y² â [25] eþ1 521 ~ 20, A ±/L«¤
A = A1 + i A2 , (89)
Ù¥ A1 , A2 Ñ´ Hermite C. é?¿ α ∈ X k
0 = ( Aα, α) = (( A1 + i A2 )α, α) = ( A1 α, α) + i( A2 α, α),
â·K 16 ( A1 α, α), ( A2 α, α) Ñ´¢ê, Ïddþª ( A1 α, α) = 0, ( A2 α,
α) = 0. âíØ 9 A1 = 0, A2 = 0. Ïd A = 0.
· 328 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
3 [25] eþ1 521 ~ 20 ¥Ñ:

1 1
A1 = ( A + A∗ ), A2 = ( A − A∗ ), (90)
2 2i
·r A1 , A2 ©O¡ A ¢ÜÚJÜ.
·K 18 X ´ Hilbert m, A ∈ B(X), K
Ker A = ( Im A∗ )⊥ , Ker A∗ = ( Im A)⊥ . (91)
y² ? α ∈ Ker A, K Aα = 0, l ∀β ∈ X k
(α, A∗ β) = ( Aα, β) = 0.
u´ α ∈ ( Im A∗ )⊥ , l Ker A ⊆ ( Im A∗ )⊥ .
,¡, ? α ∈ ( Im A∗ )⊥ , K ∀β ∈ X k
( Aα, β) = (α, A∗ β) = 0,
l Aα = 0, u´ α ∈ Ker A, Ïd ( Im A∗ )⊥ ⊆ Ker A. l Ker A = ( Im A∗ )⊥ .
du ( A∗ )∗ = A, Ïd Ker A∗ = ( Im A)⊥ .
⊥
·K 19 X ´ Hilbert m, A ∈ B(X), K Ker A, ( Ker A) Ñ´ X 4
fm.
y² duÝþm½´ Hausdorff m, Ïdü:8 {0} ´ X 48.
du A ´ X X ëYN, Ïd A−1 (0) ´ X 48, = Ker A ´ X 48,
l Ker A ´ X 4fm.
â!½n 1 þ¡ã, ( Ker A)⊥ ´ X 4fm.
∗ ⊥ ∗
5 A ∈ B(X), du Im A Ø½´48, Ïd ( Ker A) 6= Im A . du
Ker A ´ X 4fm. Ïdâ½n 2
X = Ker A ⊕ ( Ker A)⊥ .
Eâ½n 2
X = ( Im A∗ )⊥ ⊕ Im A∗ .
d·K 18
Ker A = ( Im A∗ )⊥ .
Ïd ( Ker A)⊥ = [( Im A∗ )⊥ ]⊥ . u´ Im A∗ ⊆ [( Im A∗ )⊥ ]⊥ = ( Ker A)⊥ . du

( Ker A)⊥ ´4fm, Ïd Im A∗ ⊆ ( Ker A)⊥ . ? β ∈ ( Ker A)⊥ . |^þã X
üÚ©)ª β ∈ Im A∗ . Ïd ( Ker A)⊥ = Im A∗ . l ( Ker A∗ )⊥ =
Im A.
9.8 Hilbert mþ;5CÌÚ:Ì

½n 13 X ´ Hilber m, A ∈ B(X), Ke·Kd:
(1) A ´;5C;
(2) A∗ ´;5C;
(3) 3 B00 (X) ¥3S ( An ) ¦ k An − Ak → 0.
y² (3) ⇒ (1). du B00 (X) ⊆ B0 (X), Ïd (An ) ´ B0 (X) ¥S,
â·K 12, B0 (X) ´ B(X) ¥48, u´l k An − Ak → 0 A ∈ B0 (X).
(1) ⇒ (3). du A ´ X þ;5C, Ïd A(B1 ) 3 X ¥´;, Ù

¥ B1 ´ X ¥4ü ¥. l âÙ §2 ½n 1 , A(B1 ) ´k.. u
´âÙ §2 ·K 9 , A(B1 ) ´©. -

Bn = {α ∈ X kαk 6 n}, (92)
du A ´;5C, Ïd A(Bn ) 3 X ¥´;, Óþ¡n, A(Bn ) ´
∞
[
©. du A(X) = A(Bn ), Ïd A(X) ´©, l A(X) ´ X ©f
n=1
m, âÙ §2 ·K 7 , A(X) ´, Ïd A(X) ¤ Hilbert m.
W ´ A(X) IOÄ. ? γ1 , γ2 ∈ W , K
kγ1 − γ2 k2 = kγ1 k2 + kγ2 k2 = 2.

1
Ïd B γ, √ γ ∈ W ´ A(X) ¥üüØm¥|¤8Ü. du A(X) ´
2
©, Ïd A(X) kêÈf8, l W ´ê8. W = {γ1 , γ2 , · · · }.
r X ¥¤k¹ {γ1 , γ2 , · · · , γn } 45fmP Wn , K dimWn = n.
P n ´ X 3 Wn þÝK, - An = P n A, K An (X) = P n A(X). u´
dim An (X) = dim P n A(X) 6 dim P n (X) = dimWn = n.
l An ∈ B00 (X), n = 1, 2, · · · . y k An − Ak → 0. Äk5y: k An α − Aαk →
0, ∀α ∈ X.
∞
X n
X
P β = Aα ∈ A(X), K β = (β, γm )γm , l P n β = (β, γm )γm . u´
m=1 m=1
n → ∞ , k P n β − βk → 0, = n → ∞ , k An α − Aαk → 0, ∀α ∈ X.
du A ´;5C, Ïd A(B1 ) ´k.. l ? ε > 0, 3
α1 , · · · , αm ∈ B1 , ¦
[m ε
A(B1 ) ⊆ B Aαj , . (93)
j=1
3
ε
é?¿ α ∈ B1 , À αj ¦ k Aα − Aαj k < . u´é?¿ê n, k
3
k Aα − An αk 6 k Aα − Aαj k + k Aαj − An αj k + k An αj − An αk
ε
< + k Aαj − An αj k + k P n ( Aαj − Aα)k
3
ε
6 + k Aαj − An αj k + k Aαj − Aαk
3
2
< ε + k Aαj − An αj k. (94)
3
du n → ∞ , k Aα − An αk → 0, ∀α ∈ X, Ïd3ê N0 , ¦éu
j = 1, 2, · · · , m, n > N0 Òk
ε
k Aαj − An αj k < . (95)
3
u´l (94) ªÚ (95) ª, ∀α ∈ B1 , n > N0 , k
k Aα − An αk < ε. (96)
l n > N0 , k
k A − An k = sup{k( A − An )αkα ∈ X, kαk = 1} < ε. (97)
· 330 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
Ïd n → ∞ , k A − An k → 0.
(3) ⇒ (2). ( An ) ´ B00 (X) ¥S, ¦ k An − Ak → 0. â·K
13 Ú·K 15
k An − Ak = k( An − A)∗ k = k A∗n − A∗ k. (98)
Ïd k A∗n − A∗ k → 0. du An kk, Ïd A∗n kk. l A∗n ∈ B00 (X),

é ( A∗n ) ^ (3) ⇒ (1) , A∗ ´;5C.
(2) ⇒ (1). A∗ ´;5C. é A∗ ^ (1) ⇒ (3) , 3 B00 (X) ¥3
S ( A∗n ) ¦ k A∗n − A∗ k → 0. é A∗ ^ (3) ⇒ (2) , ( A∗ )∗ ´;5C,
= A ´;5C.
l½n 13 (1) ⇒ (3) y²L§¥eã(Ø.
íØ 12 X ´ Hilbert m, e A ∈ B0 (X), K A(X) ´©, ¿X
J {γ1 , γ2 , · · · } ´ A(X) IOÄ, d {γ1 , γ2 , · · · , γn } )¤45f
mP Wn , X 3 Wn þÝKP P n , @o
k P n A − Ak → 0.
y35ïÄ Hilbert mþ;5CA. Hilbert m X þ5C
A ¤kA|¤8ÜP σp ( A).
·K 20 X ´ Hilbert m, A ∈ B0 (X), λ ∈ σP ( A) λ 6= 0, K A á
u λ Afm Ker ( A − λ I) ´k.
y² b Ker ( A − λ I) ´Ã, K3 Ker ( A − λ I) ¥kÃ
5S (γn ). du A ´;5C, Ïd A(B1 ) 3 X ¥´;. du
( Aγn ) ´ A(B1 ) ¥S, Ïdâ·K 8 , ( Aγn ) 3 A(B1 ) ¥kà
:. u´âíØ 7 , S (γn ) kfS (γnk ) ¦ ( Aγnk ) 3 A(B1 ) ¥Â
ñ. l ( Aγnk ) ´ Cauchy S. ´éu nk 6= nj , du λ 6= 0, Ïd
k Aγnk − Aγnj k2 = kλγnk − λγnj k2 = |λ|2 (kγnk k2 + kγnj k2 )
= 2|λ|2 > 0.
ùgñ`² Ker ( A − λ I) ½´k.
Ún 2 A ´ Hilbert m X þ;5C, λ 6= 0, XJ inf{k( A −

λ I)αkkαk = 1} = 0, @o λ ∈ σp ( A).

y² du inf{k A − λ I)αkkαk = 1} = 0, Ïd3dü þ|¤S
(αn ) ¦ k( A − λ I)αn k → 0. du A ´;5C, Ïd^·K 20 y²
¥ÓØã, S (αn ) kfS (αnk ) ¦ ( Aαnk ) Âñ. ( Aαnk )
Âñu β ∈ X, (Ü k( A − λ I)αn k → 0
αnk = λ−1 [(λ I − A)αnk + Aαnk ] → λ−1 β, (99)
−1 −1 −1
u´ kλ βk = lim kαnk k = 1, l 1 = kλ βk = |λ| kβk, Ïd β 6= 0. du A ´
k→∞
ëYC, Ïdl (99) ª, Aαnk → λ−1 Aβ. qdu Aαnk → β, Ïd λ−1 Aβ = β,
= Aβ = λβ. du β 6= 0, Ïd λ ∈ σp ( A).
íØ 13 A ´ Hilbert m X þ;5C, λ = / σp ( A),
6 0, λ ∈
/ σp ( A∗ ), K Im ( A − λ I) = X, l A − λ I _, ( A − λ I)−1 ´k.5

λ̄ ∈
C.
y² du λ ∈ / σp ( A), ÏddÚn 2 , 3~ê c > 0 ¦ k( A −
λ I)αk > ckαk, ∀α ∈ X. β ∈ Im ( A − λ I), Kâ·K 4 , X ¥3S
(αn ), ¦ ( A − λ I)αn → β. u´du
kαn − αm k 6 c−1 k( A − λ I)(αn − αm )k
= c−1 k( A − λ I)αn − ( A − λ I)αm k,
Ïd (αn ) ´ Cauchy S, l é, γ ∈ X, αn → γ. du A − λ I ´ëY
C, Ïd
( A − λ I)αn → ( A − λ I)γ.
qdu ( A − λ I)αn → β, Ïd ( A − λ I)γ = β. l β ∈ Im ( A − λ I). u´

Im ( A − λ I) = Im ( A − λ I). ùy²
Im ( A − λ I) ´48. du λ̄ ∈ / σp ( A∗ ), Ï
d Ker ( A∗ − λ̄ I) = 0. l [ Ker ( A∗ − λ̄ I)]⊥ = X. du A∗ − λ̄ I = ( A − λ I)∗ ,
Ïd
Im ( A − λ I) = Im ( A − λ I) = [ Ker ( A − λ I)∗ ]⊥ = X.
du λ ∈ / σp ( A), Ïd Ker ( A − λ I) = 0, l A − λ I ´ü. qdu

Im ( A − λ I) = X, Ïd A − λ I ´÷, l A − λ I ´V, u´ A − λ I _.
? β ∈ X, 3 γ ∈ X ¦ ( A − λ I)γ = β. u´ γ = ( A − λ I)−1 β. â
1ãm©Øª
ck( A − λ I)−1 βk 6 k( A − λ I)( A − λ I)−1 βk = kβk.
u´ k( A − λ I)−1 βk 6 c−1 kβk. l

−1 k( A − λ I)−1 βk −1
k( A − λ I) k = sup
kβk β ∈ X, β 6= 0 6 c .
Ïd ( A − λ I)−1 ´k.5C.
du λ ∈ / σp ( A) = Ker ( A − λ I) = 0, ÏdlíØ 13 y²1ã
á=XeíØ.
íØ 14 A ´ Hilberb m X þ;5C, λ 6= 0. e Ker ( A − λ I) =
0, K Im ( A − λ I) ´48.
A ´ Hilbert m X þk.5C, â½Â 11, A Ì σ( A) ´
σ( A) = {λ ∈ F | A − λ I Ø_}. (100)
w,, σp ( A) ⊆ σ( A). y3·5ïÄÃ Hilbert m X þ;5C A
Ì σ( A) óf.
líØ 13 á=XeíØ.
íØ 15 A ´ Hilbert m X þ;5C, λ 6= 0, e λ ∈ σ( A), K
λ ∈ σp ( A) ½ λ̄ ∈ σp ( A∗ ).
·K 21 A ´Ã Hilbert m X þ;5C, K A Ø_.
· 332 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
y² bX A _, du A ´k., Ïdâ½n 8 , A−1 ´k..

? α ∈ X, P Aα = β, du
k A−1 βk 6 k A−1 k kβk,
Ïd kαk 6 k A−1 k k Aαk. du A−1 k., Ïd
k Aαk > k A−1 k−1 kαk, ∀α ∈ X. (101)
du X ´Ã, Ïd± X 58 {αn |n = 1, 2, · · · }, u´
k Aαn − Aαm k = k A(αn − αm )k > k A−1 k−1 kαn − αm k
p √
= k A−1 k−1 kαn k2 + kαm k2 = 2k A−1 k−1 .
l ( Aαn ) ØÂñ. du Aαn ∈ A(B1 ), Ïdâ·K 8 , A(B1 ) Ø´;,
ù A ´;5Cgñ. ¤± A Ø_.
·K 22 A ´ Hilbert m X þk.5C, K λ ∈ σ( A) =
λ̄ ∈ σ( A∗ ).
y² du A ´k.5C, Ïd A ´ëY, l A − λ I ´ëY,
u´ A − λ I ´k.. e A − λ I _, Kâ·K 14 , ( A − λ I)∗ ´_
, = A∗ − λ̄ I ´_. Ïd
A − λ I _ =⇒ A∗ − λ̄ I _.
du A ´k., Ïdé A∗ ^þã(Ø, BÑ
∗
A∗ − λ̄ I _ =⇒ ( A∗ )∗ − (λ̄) I _,
nÜå5BÑ
A − λ I _ ⇐⇒ A∗ − λ̄ I _,
u´
λ∈/ σ( A) ⇐⇒ A − λ I _ ⇐⇒ A∗ − λ̄ I _ ⇐⇒ λ̄ ∈ / σ( A∗ ). l
∗
l λ ∈ σ( A) ⇐⇒ λ̄ ∈ σ( A ).
Ún 3 X ´ Hilbert m, U Ú W ´ X 4fm, U & W , Ké?
ε > 0, 3 β ∈ W ¦ kβk = 1, dist (β, U ) > 1 − ε, Ù¥

dist (β, U ) := inf{kβ − αkα ∈ U }. (102)
y² éuz β ∈ W , P δ(β) = dist (β, U ). e β1 ∈ W \U , Kéu ε > 0,
3 α0 ∈ U ¦
δ(β1 ) 6 kβ1 − α0 k 6 (1 + ε)δ(β1 ).
β2 = β1 − α0 , K

(1 + ε)δ(β2 ) = (1 + ε) inf{kβ2 − αkα ∈ U }

= (1 + ε) inf{kβ1 − α0 − αkα ∈ U }
= (1 + ε)δ(β1 ).
u´ (1 + ε)δ(β2 ) > kβ1 − α0 k = kβ2 k. β = kβ2 k−1 β2 , K kβk = 1, β ∈ W , e
α ∈ U, K
kβ − αk = kkβ2 k−1 β2 − αk = kβ2 k−1 kβ2 − kβ2 kαk
> [(1 + ε)δ(β2 )]−1 kβ2 − kβ2 kαk
> [(1 + ε)δ(β2 )]−1 δ(β2 )

= (1 + ε)−1 > 1 − ε,
l dist (β, U ) > 1 − ε.
Ún 4 A ´ Hilbert m X þ;5C, (λn ) ´ σp ( A) pØÓ
S, K lim λn = 0.
n→∞
y² éuzê n, αn ´ A áuA λn Aþ.
α1 , α2 , · · · , αn )¤45fmP Wn . du λ1 , λ2 , · · · , λn üüØ, Ïd
α1 , α2 , · · · , αn 5Ã', l dimWn = n. u´ Wn & Wn+1 . âÚn 3, 3
1
þ βn ∈ Wn ¦ kβn k = 1 dist (βn , Wn−1 ) > . βn = b1 α1 +b2 α2 +· · ·+bn αn ,
2
K
( A − λn I)βn = b1 (λ1 − λn )α1 + · · · + bn−1 (λn−1 − λn )αn−1 ∈ Wn−1 .
ué n > m, K
A(λ−1 −1 −1 −1
n βn ) − A(λm βm ) = λm ( A − λn I)βn − λm ( A − λm I)βm + βn − βm
= βn − [βm + λ−1 −1
m ( A − λm I)βm − λn ( A − λn I)βn ].(103)
(103) ªmà)ÒpLª´ Wn−1 ¥þ, Ïd
1
k A(λ−1 −1
m βn ) − A(λm βm )k > dist (βn , Wn−1 ) > . (104)
2
l S ( A(λ−1
n βn )) ØUkÂñfS. ´ A ´;5C, ÏdXJ S
´ X ?k.f8, @o A(S) ´;. l â·K 8 , A(S) ¥zS
3 A(S) ¥kà:. 2âíØ 7 , A(S) ¥zSkÂñfS
∗
; ùL²S (λ−1n βn ) Ø´k.: du kβn k = 1, ∀n ∈ N , Ïd
kλ−1 −1
n βn k = |λn | → ∞,
l lim λn = 0.
·K 23 A ´ Hilbert m X þ;5C, XJ λ ∈ σ( A) λ 6= 0,
@o λ ´ σ( A) á: (= λ Ø´ σ( A) à:).
y² bX λ ´ σ( A) à:, KâíØ 7 , σ( A) ¥kS (λn )
¦ λn → λ. du λ 6= 0, Ïdz λn 6= 0. l âíØ 15 λn ∈ σp ( A)
½ λn ∈ σp ( A∗ ). u´½ökfS (λnk ) ¹3 σp ( A) p, ½ökS
(λn ) fS (λ̄nk ) ¹3 σp ( A∗ ) p. e (λnk ) ⊆ σp ( A), KâÚn 4
λnk → 0. ù λn → λ gñ. e (λ̄nk ) ⊆ σp ( A∗ ), du A∗ ´;5C, d
λn → λ λ̄n → λ̄, Ïdé A∗ ^Ún 4 λ̄nk → 0, gñ. ùL² λ 7½´ σ( A)
á:.
·K 24 A ´ Hilbort m X þ;5C, λ 6= 0, XJ Ker ( A−λ I) =
0, @o Im ( A − λ I) = X.
y² bX Im ( A − λ I) 6= X, KP X1 = Im ( A − λ I), P X0 = X, u´
X0 ' X1 . -
Xk = ( A − λ I)Xk−1 , k = 1, 2, · · · .
· 334 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
du Ker ( A−λ I) = 0, ÏdâíØ 14 , Xk (k = 0, 1, 2, · · · ) Ñ´48, A−λ I

´ü. l
( A − λ I)X0 ' ( A − λ I)X1 ,
= X1 ' X2 . gaí, k
X0 ' X1 ' X2 ' · · · . (105)
?¿½ m ∈ N , du Xm ' Xm+1 , ÏdâÚn 3, 3 βm ∈ Xm ¦ kβm k = 1

1
dist (βm , Xm ) > , e n > m, Kaqu (103) ªí
2
A(λ−1 βm ) − A(λ−1 βn ) = βm − [βn + λ−1 ( A − λ I)βn − λ−1 ( A − λ I)βm ].
du n > m + 1, Ïd Xn ⊆ Xm+1 , l βn + λ−1 ( A − λ I)βn − λ−1 ( A − λ I)βm ∈
Xm+1 . u´
1
k A(λ−1 βm ) − A(λ−1 βn )k > dist (βm , Xm+1 ) > .
2
l S ( A(λ−1 βn )) ØUkÂñfS. du A ´;5C, ÏdÚ
n 4 y² ãÓÆØÑS (λ−1 βn ) Ø´k.. ´ kλ−1 βn k =
|λ−1 |, ∀n ∈ N , ùgñL²Ak Im ( A − λ I) = X, Ù¥ λ 6= 0.
·K 24 L², éu Hilbert m X þ;5C A, λ 6= 0, λ ∈ / σp ( A),
Òk Im ( A − λ I) = X. ÏdíØ 13 ±U¤XeíØ.
íØ 16 A ´ Hilbert m X þ;5C, λ 6= 0, e λ ∈ / σp ( A), K
Im ( A − λ I) = X, l A − λ I _, ( A − λ I)−1 ´k.5C.
|^íØ 16, ±ríØ 15 (Ø\r¤XeíØ.
íØ 17 A ´ Hilbert m X þ;5C, λ 6= 0, e λ ∈ σ( A), K
λ ∈ σp ( A).
ríØ 17 ·K 22 (Üå5XeíØ.
íØ 18 A ´ Hilbert m X þ;5C, λ 6= 0, K λ ∈ σp (A)
= λ̄ ∈ σp ( A∗ ).
y² λ ∈ σp ( A), K λ ∈ σ( A). â·K 22 λ̄ ∈ σ( A∗ ). du A∗ ´
;5C, ÏdâíØ 17 λ̄ ∈ σp ( A∗ ).
λ̄ ∈ σp ( A∗ ), é A∗ ^ffy(Ø, (λ̄) ∈ σp ((A∗ )∗ ), = λ ∈ σp ( A).
y3·±éÃ Hilbert mþ;5CÌóf¯K
)û.
½n 14 (F.Riesz) A ´Ã Hilbert m X þ;5C, Kk
en«U/:
(1) σ( A) = {0};
(2) σ( A) = {0, λ1 , · · · , λn }, Ù¥ λk 6= 0, 1 6 k 6 n, z λk ´ A A,
dim Ker ( A − λk I) < ∞;
(3) σ( A) = {0, λ1 , λ2 , · · · }, Ù¥éz k > 1, λk ´ A A, dim Ker ( A −
λk I) < ∞, lim λk = 0.
y² du A ´Ã Hilbert m X þ;5C, Ïdâ·K 21 ,

A Ø_, l 0 ´ A A, u´ 0 ∈ σ( A). âíØ 17, e λ 6= 0
λ ∈ σ( A), K λ ∈ σp ( A), = λ ´ A A. Ïd σ( A) ¥"ê λ Ñ´ A
A, ¿â·K 20, dim Ker ( A − λ I) < ∞.
XJ σ( A) ´k8, @o σ( A) / (1) ½/ (2). XJ σ( A) Ã8,
@oâ·K 23, σ( A) ¥"êÑ´á:, = σ( A)\{0} ká:, dd
íÑ σ( A)\{0} ´ê8. u´ σ( A) = {0, λ1 , λ2 , · · · }. du (λk ) ´ σp ( A) pØÓ
S, ÏdâÚn 4 lim λk = 0.
½n 15 A ´ Hilbert m X þ;5C, e λ ∈ C λ 6= 0, K
Im ( A − λ I) ´48, ¿
dim Ker ( A − λ I) = dim Ker ( A∗ − λ̄ I) < ∞. (106)
y² e λ ∈ / σ( A), K A − λ I _, l Ker ( A − λ I) = 0. u´âíØ
14 , Im ( A − λ I) ´48. â·K 22 λ̄ ∈ / σ( A∗ ), Ónk Ker ( A∗ − λ̄ I) = 0.
Ïd Ker ( A − λ I) = Ker ( A∗ − λ̄ I) = 0.
e¡ λ ∈ σ( A). âíØ 17, λ ∈ σp ( A). â·K 20, Ker ( A − λ I) ´k
. du λ ∈ σ( A∗ ), A∗ ´;5C, ÏdÓnk Ker ( A∗ − λ̄ I) ´k
. 'u Im ( A − λ I) ´48, ±9 dim Ker ( A − λ I) = dim Ker ( A∗ − λ̄ I) y
²w [15] 1 217 1 3 — 16 1.
9.9 Hilbert mþ;gCÌ½n
3 [25] eþ1 526 ~ 36 ¥, ·Ñ

n jm V þ5C A
x. y3·òéÃ Hilbert m X þ;gC A Ñaq
x.
Ún 5 A ´ Hilbert m X þ;gC, K k Ak Ú −k Ak ¥
´ A A.
y² e A = 0, K(Øw,¤á. e¡ A 6= 0. du A = A∗ , Ïdâ·

K 17 , k Ak = sup{|( Aα, α)|kαk = 1}. l 3dü þ|¤S (αn ) ¦
|( Aαn , αn )| → k Ak, XJ7{, ± (αn ) ÂñfS, l Ø
( Aαn , αn ) → λ, Ù¥ |λ| = k Ak. ·5y² λ ∈ σp ( A). du |λ| = k Ak, Ïd
0 6 k( A − λ I)αn k2 = k Aαn k2 − 2λ( Aαn , αn ) + λ2 kαn k2
6 k Ak2 kαn k2 − 2λ( Aαn , αn ) + λ2 = 2λ2 − 2λ( Aαn , αn ) → 0.
u´ k( A − λ I)αn k → 0. l âÚn 2 λ ∈ σp ( A).
½n 16 (;gCÌ½n) A ´ Hilbert m X þ;gC
, K A =kêØÓA, §Ñ´¢ê. {λ1 , λ2 , · · · } ´ A ¤k
ØÓ"A, P n ´ X 3 Ker ( A − λn I) þÝK, K P n P m =
P m P n = 0, n 6= m; ¿
∞
X
A= λn P n , (107)
n=1
· 336 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
Ù¥?ê3d B(X) ê½ÂÝþeÂñ A (, (107) ªmà±´

kÚ).
y² âÚn 5, ;gC A ½kA; A 6= 0 , A ½k
"A. du A ´ X þ;5C, Ïdâ½n 14 , A =kêØÓ
A. â [25] eþ1 505 ·K 9 , gC A AÑ´¢ê.
{λ1 , λ2 , · · · } ´ A ¤kØÓ"A, P Vn = Ker ( A − λn I), n =
1, 2, · · · . â [25] eþ1 513 ~ 8 , n 6= m , Vn Vm p (=
Vn ⊆ Vm⊥ , Vm ⊆ Vn⊥ ). ^ P n L« X 3 Vn þÝK, n = 1, 2, · · · . â
[25] eþ1 523 ~ 28 , n 6= m , P n P m = P m P n = 0. e¡5y:
X∞
A= λn P n . d·Ueã{À A A λ1 , λ2 , · · · .
n=1
âÚn 5, A kA λ1 äk |λ1 | = k Ak. P X2 = V1⊥ , â·K 19
, V1 = Ker ( A − λ1 I) ´ X 4fm. l
X = V1 ⊕ V1⊥ = V1 ⊕ X2 .
du A A − λ1 I , Ïd Ker ( A − λ1 I) ´ A ØCfm, = V1 ´
A ØCfm. du A = A∗ , Ïdâ [25] eþ1 508 ½n 11 , V1⊥
´ A ØCfm. l A(X2 ) ⊆ X2 . P A2 = A|X2 . w, A2 ´ X2 þ
gC. du X2 = V1⊥ = ( Ker ( A − λ1 I))⊥ , Ïdâ·K 19 , X2 ´ X
4fm, l X2 ´ Hilbert m. ^ B2 L« X2 ¥4ü ¥, ?
A2 (B2 ) ¥ {βi |i ∈ I}. du B2 ⊆ B1 , Ù¥ B1 ´ X ¥4ü ¥, Ïd
A2 (B2 ) ⊆ A(B1 ). l {βi |i ∈ I} ´ A(B1 ) , du A ´;5C, Ï
d A(B1 ) 3 X ¥´;. l â·K 8 , {βi |i ∈ I} kà:, Eâ·
K 8 , A2 (B2 ) 3 X2 ¥´;, l A2 ´ X2 þ;5C, u´ A2 ´
X2 þ;gC.
âÚn 5, A2 3A λ2 äk |λ2 | = k A2 k. P Ṽ2 = Ker ( A2 − λ2 I).
w, 0 6= Ṽ2 ⊆ V2 . du V2 ⊆ V1⊥ , Ïd Ṽ2 ⊆ V1⊥ , l λ1 6= λ2 (bX λ1 = λ2 , K
Ṽ2 ⊆ V2 = V1 , qdu Ṽ2 ¥?þ β2 ∈ V1⊥ , Ïd (β2 , β2 ) = 0, l β2 = 0. u´
Ṽ2 = 0. gñ). du k A2 k 6 k Ak, Ïd |λ2 | 6 |λ1 |. ? α2 ∈ V2 , K α2 ∈ V1⊥ = X2 .
du A2 α2 = Aα2 = λ2 α2 , Ïd α2 ∈ Ṽ2 , u´ V2 ⊆ Ṽ2 , l Ṽ2 = V2 . du V1
T
V2 p, Ïd V1 V2 = 0. l V1 + V2 ´Ú. P X3 = (V1 ⊕ V2 )⊥ . u´
X = V1 ⊕ V2 ⊕ (V1 ⊕ V2 )⊥
= V1 ⊕ V2 ⊕ X3 .
bk A ØÓA|¤S (λk ) ¦
(i) |λ1 | > |λ2 | > · · · > |λm |;
(ii) |λk | = k A|(V1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Vk−1 )⊥ , k = 2, · · · , nk.
P Xn+1 = (V1 ⊕ · · ·⊕ Vn )⊥ , du V1 ⊕ · · ·⊕ Vn ´ A ØCfm, A = A∗ , Ïd
(V1 ⊕· · ·⊕Vn )⊥ ´ A ØCfm. l A(Xn+1 ) ⊆ Xn+1 . P An+1 = A|Xn+1 .
w, An+1 ´gC. Óny An+1 ´;5C. u´âÚn 5 , An+1
kA λn+1 äk |λn+1 | = k An+1 k. P Ṽn+1 = Ker ( An+1 − λn+1 I), w,

0 6= Ṽn+1 ⊆ Vn+1 . du
Vn+1 ⊆ Vk⊥ , k = 1, 2, · · · , n,
Ïd Vn+1 ⊆ (V1 ⊕ V2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Vn )⊥ = Xn+1 . l Vn+1 ⊆ Ṽn+1 , u´ Ṽn+1 = Vn+1 .

du Vn+1 ⊆ Vk⊥ (k = 1, 2, · · · , n), Ïd λn+1 6= λk (k = 1, 2, · · · , n). ù´ÏbX
λn+1 = λk , K Vn+1 = Vk . u´ Vn+1 ¥?þ βn+1 ∈ Vk⊥ , q βn+1 ∈ Vk , Ïd
βn+1 = 0. l Vn+1 = 0, gñ. du k An+1 k 6 k An k, Ïd |λn+1 | 6 |λn |. ù·

A ØÓA|¤S (λk ) ¦
(i) |λ1 | > |λ2 | > · · · > |λn | > |λn+1 |;
(ii) |λk | = k A|(V1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Vk−1 )⊥ k, k = 2, 3, · · · , n + 1.
dêÆ8B{n, 3 A ØÓA|¤S (λk ) ¦
(i) |λ1 | > |λ2 k > · · · ;
(ii) |λk | = k A|(V1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Vk−1 )⊥ k, k = 2, 3, · · · .
du (λn ) ´ σp ( A) pØÓS, A ´;5C, ÏdâÚn
4 lim λn = 0, l lim |λn | = 0.
n→∞ n→∞

αk ∈ Vk , Ù¥ 1  6 k 6 n, K P k αk = αk . u´
X n X n n
X
A − λj P j  αk = Aαk − λj P j αk = λk αk − λj P j P k αk
j=1 j=1 j=1
 = λk αk − λk αk = 0.  
n
X n
X
Ïd αk ∈ Ker  A − λj P j , l Vk ⊆ Ker  A − λj P j , Ù¥ 1 6 k 6
j=1 j=1
 
n
X
n. u´ V1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Vn ⊆ Ker  A − λj P j .
j=1
β ∈ (V1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Vn ) , K β ∈ Vj⊥ , 1 6 j 6 n. du P j ´ X 3 Vj þ

⊥
ÝK, Ïd Im P j = Vj , Ker P j = Vj⊥ (â [25] eþ1 472 ~ 7 Ú1 522

~ 24). l P j β = 0, 1 6 j 6 n. u´
 
Xn
A − λj P j  β = Aβ. (108)
j=1
du (V1 ⊕ · · ·⊕ Vn ) ´ A ØCfm, Ïd A|(V1 ⊕ · · ·⊕ Vn )⊥ ´ (V1 ⊕ · · ·⊕ Vn )⊥

⊥
þ5C, = An+1 ´ (V1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Vn )⊥ þ5C. ? α ∈ X, du

X = (V1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Vn ) ⊕ (V1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Vn )⊥ ,
Ïd α = γ + β, Ù¥ γ ∈ V1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Vn , β ∈ (V1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Vn )⊥ . du V1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Vn ⊆
 
n
X
Ker  A − λj P j , Ïd
j=1
· 338 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
   
n
X n
X
A − λj P j  α =  A − λj P j  β = Aβ. (109)
j=1 j=1
l    
n  n 
X X
A − λ P = sup  A − λ P  α α ∈ X, kαk = 1
j j

j j 
j=1 j=1

= sup{k Aβkβ ∈ (V1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Vn )⊥ , kβk 6 1}
= k A|(V1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Vn )⊥ k
= k An+1 k = |λn+1 | → 0.
X∞
Ïd λj P j = A.
j=1
íØ 19 A ´ Hilbert m X þ;gC, {λ1 , λ2 , · · · } ´ A
¤kØÓ"A, |λ1 | > |λ2 | > · · · , Ù¥ |λ1 | = k Ak, P n ´ X 3 Vn =
Ker ( A − λn I) þÝK, K
(1) Ker A = ( Im A)⊥ = [V { Im P n |n > 1}]⊥ , Ù¥ V { Im P n |n > 1} L« X
∞
[
¤k¹ Im P n 4fm;
n=1
(2) z P n kk;

(3) k Ak = sup{|λn |n > 1}, lim λn = 0.
n→∞
y² (1) du A = A∗ , Ïdâ·K 18
Ker A = ( Im A∗ )⊥ = ( Im A)⊥ .
du Im P m = Vm , n 6= m , Vn Vm p, Ïdl½n 16 , éu?
¿ α ∈ X, k
∞
X ∞
X
k Aαk2 = kλn P n αk2 = |λn |2 k P n αk2 .
n=1 n=1
l Aα = 0 ⇐⇒ P n α = 0, n > 1.
u´ α ∈ Ker A ⇐⇒ α ∈ Ker P n = Vn⊥ = ( Im P n )⊥ , n > 1. Ïd
Ker A = [V { Im P n |n > 1}]⊥ .
(2) Im P n = Vn = Ker ( A − λn I). â·K 20, Ker ( A − λn I) ´k,
l P n kk, n = 1, 2, · · · .
(3) du kλ1 k > kλ2 k > · · · , kλ1 k = k Ak, Ïd

sup{|λn |n > 1} = |λ1 | = k Ak.
âÚn 4 lim λn = 0.
n→∞
X ´ Hilbert m, X 458¡ X IO
Ä.
I Í8, §´Ã8 (U´Øê8). F ´ I ¤kkf
8|¤8Ü, éu8Ü¹'X, F ¤k8. éuz F ∈ F , ½Â

αF = Σ{αi ∈ X|i ∈ F }, (110)
du F ´k8, Ïd αF ´ X Ün½Â.
½Â 24 äkþãPÒ, XJ {αF |F ∈ F } Âñ, @o¡Ú Σ{αi |i ∈ I} Â
ñ, ù4¡ùÚ Σ{αi |i ∈ I} .
e X = F , Ù¥ F = C ½ R, K½Â 24 Ñ
ØêþÚ½Â, =
Σ{ai |i ∈ I} ½Â.
I ´ê8, (αn ) ´ X ¥S, K Σ{αn |n ∈ N} ÂñØ
X∞
du αn Âñ: cöÂñ½Â½Â 24, öÂñ½Â´Ü©ÚS
n=1
n
! ∞
X X
αk Âñ. ±y²: XJ Σ{αn |n ∈ N } Âñ, @o αn Âñ.
k=1 n=1
Ún 6 W ´ Hilbert m X 58, ? α ∈ X, K
Σ{(α, η)η|η ∈ W }
3 X ¥Âñ. ( )
1

y² éuz n > 1, - Wn = η ∈ W |(α, η)| > . â Besel Øª, =
n
XJ {ηn |n ∈ N} ´ X 58, α ∈ X, @o
∞
X
|(α, ηn )|2 6 kαk2 . (111)
n=1
é Wn ^ Besel Øª, Wn 7½´k8. qk
[∞
Wn = {η ∈ W |(α, η) 6= 0},
n=1
Ïd W ¥õkêþ¦ (α, η) 6= 0. u´ W ¥k η1 , η2 , · · · ¦
{η ∈ W |(α, η) 6= 0} = {η1 , η2 , · · · }.
∞
X
â Besel Øª, |(α, ηn )|2 6 kαk2 < ∞. u´? ε > 0, 3ê N ¦
n=1
∞
X
|(α, ηn )|2 < ε2 . P F0 = {η1 , · · · , ηN −1 }, ^ F L« W ¤kkf8|¤
n=N
8Ü, éu F ∈ F , ½Â
αF = Σ{(α, η)η|η ∈ F }. (112)
e F, K ∈ F §Ñ¹ F0 , K|^½ní2
S
kαF − αK k2 = Σ{|(α, η)|2 |η ∈ (F \K) (K\F )}
X∞
6 |(α, ηn )|2 < ε2 . (113)
n=N
u´ {αF |F ∈ F } ´ X ¥ Cauchy . du X ´, Ïdù3 X
X∞
¥Âñ. l Ú Σ{(α, η)η|η ∈ W } 3 X ¥Âñ. ù4´ (α, ηn )ηn , §Ò
n=1
· 340 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
´ Σ{(α, η)η|η ∈ W } .

·K 25 {ηi |i ∈ I} ´ Hilbert m X 58, Ke·Kd:
(1) {ηi |i ∈ I} ´ X IOÄ;
(2) e α ∈ X α ⊥ ηi , i ∈ I, K α = 0;
(3) d {ηi |i ∈ I} )¤4fmu X;
(4) X ¥?þ α = Σ{(α, ηi )ηi |i ∈ I};
(5) X ¥?¿üþ α, β SÈ (α, β)
(α, β) = Σ{(α, ηi )(ηi , β)|i ∈ I}; (114)
(6) éu α ∈ X k
kαk2 = Σ{|(α, ηi )|2 |i ∈ I}. (115)

S α
y² (1) ⇒ (2). α ⊥ ηi , i ∈ I, α 6= 0, K {ηi |i ∈ I} ´X
kαk
58, §¹ {ηi |i ∈ I}. ù {ηi |i ∈ I} ´458gñ, Ïd
α = 0.
(2) ⇔ (3). W ´ X 5fm, e W 3 X ¥È, K W = X. d
⊥ ⊥
u W ´ X 4fm, Ïd X = W ⊕ W . u´ W = 0. l W ⊥ = 0. ,
⊥
XJ W ⊥ = 0, @o W = 0, l X = W , u´ W 3 X ¥È. y3 U ´d
{ηi |i ∈ I} )¤4fm, K U = U . â1 (2) ·K U ⊥ = 0. l Ū = X,
= U = X. , e U = X, K U ⊥ = 0, l 1 (2) ·K¤á.
(2) ⇒ (4). α ∈ X. âÚn 6 , Σ{(α, ηi )ηi |i ∈ I} 3 X ¥Âñ. P
β = α − Σ{(α, ηi )ηi |i ∈ I}. |^½Â 24
(β, ηj ) = (α, ηj ) − (Σ{(α, ηi )ηi |i ∈ I}, ηj )
= (α, ηj ) − Σ{(α, ηi )(ηi , ηj )|i ∈ I}
= (α, ηj ) − (α, ηj ) = 0, ∀j ∈ I.
u´ β = 0. Ïd α = Σ{(α, ηi )ηi |i ∈ I}.
(4) ⇒ (5). â1 (4) ·K
α = Σ{(α, ηi )ηi |i ∈ I}, β = Σ{(β, ηj )ηj |j ∈ I}.
u´|^½Â 24
(α, β) = (Σ{(α, ηi )ηi |i ∈ I}, Σ{(β, ηj )ηj |j ∈ I})
= Σ{(α, ηi )(β, η)|i ∈ I}
= Σ{(α, ηi )(ηi , β)|i ∈ I}.
(5) ⇒ (6). d1 (5) ·K=
kαk2 = (α, α) = Σ{(α, ηi )(ηi , α)|i ∈ I} 6 Σ{|(α, ηi )|2 |i ∈ I}.
(6) ⇒ (1). bX {ηi |i ∈ I} Ø´ X IOÄ, K3ü
þ η0 ¦ η0 ⊥ ηi , i ∈ I. u´ Σ{|(η0 , ηi )|2 |i ∈ I} = 0, qâ1 (6) ·K
kη0 k2 = Σ{|(η0 , η1 )|2 |i ∈ I}, l kη0 k2 = 0. gñ. Ïd {ηi |i ∈ I} ´ X IO
Ä.
{Vi |i ∈ I} ´x Hilbert m. âÙ §2 ½Â 17 Ú§e¡ã{

, {Vi |i ∈ I} (kÈ´8Ü
( )
[
f :I→ Vi f (i) ∈ Vi , i ∈ I , (116)

i∈I
3ù8Ü¥z f d§ {f (i)|i ∈ I} û½, P αi = f (i), i ∈ I. rN
f 8Ü {αi |i ∈ I} Ó, u´ {Vi |i ∈ I} (kÈz {αi |i ∈ I}.
-
Σ{Vi |i ∈ I} := {{αi |i ∈ I}|αi ∈ Vi , i ∈ I, Σ{kαi k2 |i ∈ I} < ∞}, (117)
3ù8Ü¥5½\{$Úêþ¦{$Xe:
{αi |i ∈ I} + {βi |i ∈ I} := {αi + βi |i ∈ I}, (118)
k{αi |i ∈ I} := {kαi |i ∈ I}. (119)
du
kαi + βi k2 = kαi k2 + (αi , βi ) + (βi , αi ) + kβi k2
= kαi k2 + 2 Re (αi , βi ) + kβi k2
= kαi k2 + 2|(αi , βi )| + kβi k2
6 kαi k2 + 2kαi k kβi k + kβi k2
= (kαi k + kβi k)2 , (120)
2
Ïd Σ{kαi + βi k |i ∈ I} < ∞. l (118) ª(½Â
Σ{Vi |i ∈ I} \{$. a
q/y (119) ª(½Â
Σ{Vi |i ∈ I} êþ¦{$. N´wÑ, Σ{Vi |i ∈ I} ¤
5m. q3ù5m¥½ÂSÈXe: α = {αi |i ∈ I}, β = {βj |j ∈
I}, 5½
(α, β) := Σ{(αi , βi )|i ∈ I}. (121)
du |(αi , βi )| 6 kαi kkβi k, Ïd

Σ{|(αi , βi )|i ∈ I} 6 Σ{kαi k kβi ki ∈ I}
1 1
6 (Σ{kαi k2 |i ∈ I}) 2 (Σ{kβi k2 i ∈ I}) 2 < ∞. (122)
l (121) ª¼ê½Â´Ün. Ný (121) ª½Â¼ê´
Σ{Vi |i ∈ I} þSÈ. l Σ{Vi |i ∈ I} ¤E (¢) SÈm. éuù
SÈê
1
kαk = (Σ{kαi k2 |i ∈ I}) 2 . (123)
Ný Σ{Vi |i ∈ I} ´, l Σ{Vi |i ∈ I} ´ Hilbert m, ¡§

{Vi |i ∈ I} Ú, P ⊕{Vi |i ∈ I}.
M∞
I8´ê8, {Vi |i ∈ N} ÚP Vi , §z´S
n=1
(αn ), Ù¥ αn ∈ Vn , ¿÷v
∞
X
kαn k2 < ∞. (124)
n=1
· 342 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
α = (αn ), β = (βm ), K
∞
X
(α, β) = (αn , βn ), (125)
n=1
∞
! 12
X
2
kαk = kαn k . (126)
n=1
X ´ Hilbert m, {Vi |i ∈ I} ´ X xüü4fm. -

Σ{Vi |i ∈ I} := {Σ{αi |αi ∈ Vi , i ∈ I}Σ{kαi k2 |i ∈ I} < ∞}, (127)
^ Σ{kαi k2 |i ∈ I} < ∞ y
Σ{αi |αi ∈ Vi , i ∈ I} 3 X ¥Âñ, ndXe:
F Í8 I ¤kkf8|¤8Ü, éuz F ∈ F , -
αF = Σ{αi |i ∈ F },
K {αF |F ∈ F } ´ X ¥. du F ´k8, {Vi |i ∈ I} ´xüü
fm, Ïdâ½ní2
kαF k2 = Σ{kαi k2 |i ∈ F }. (128)
2 2 2
{kαF k |F ∈ F } ´ R ¥. du Σ{kαi k |i ∈ I} < ∞, Ïd {kαF k |F ∈
F } Âñ Σ{kαi k2 |i ∈ I}. l ù´ R ¥ Cauchy . u´éu?
ε > 0, 3 F0 ∈ F , ¦éu F, K ∈ F F ⊇ F0 , K ⊇ F0 , k
S
Σ{kαj k2 |j ∈ (F \K) (K\F )} < ε2 .
l k
S
kαF − αK k2 = Σ{kαj k2 |j ∈ (F \K) (K\F )} < ε2 . (129)
u´ kαF −αK k < ε. ùL² {αF |F ∈ F } ´ X ¥ Cauchy . du X ´, Ï
d {αF |F ∈ F } 3 X ¥Âñ. â½Â 24 , Ú Σ{αi |αi ∈ Vi , i ∈ I} 3 X ¥Âñ.
ù {αF |F ∈ F } 4 (§´ X ¥þ) ´ Σ{αi |αi ∈ Vi , i ∈ I} . l
Σ{αi |αi ∈ Vi , i ∈ I} ´ X ¥þ. u´ Σ{Vi |i ∈ I} ⊆ X. â (120) ª
Σ{Vi |i ∈ I} éu X ¥\{µ4, aq/éuêþ¦{µ4, Ïd Σ{Vi |i ∈ I}
´ X 5fm. α = Σ{αi |αi ∈ Vi , i ∈ I}, β = Σ{βi |βi ∈ Vi , i ∈ I}, 5½
(α, β) := Σ{(αi , βi )|i ∈ I}. (130)
â (122) ª, (130) ªmàu ∞. Ný (130) ª½Â¼ê´ Σ{Vi |i ∈
I} þSÈ. éuùSÈê
1
kαk = (Σ{kαi k2 |i ∈ I}) 2 . (131)
lþ¡?Ø±wÑ, Σ{Vi |i ∈ I} ¥? Cauchy 3 Σ{Vi |i ∈ I} ¥Âñ, Ï
d Σ{Vi |i ∈ I} ´. âÙ §2 ·K 7 , Σ{Vi |i ∈ I} ´ X ¥48,
l Σ{Vi |i ∈ I} ´ X 4fm. ·r Σ{Vi |i ∈ I} ¡ X xüü
4fm {Vi |i ∈ I} Ú, P ⊕{Vi |i ∈ I}.
M∞
I ´ê8, ⊕{Vi |i ∈ I} {P¤ Vn , §z Σ{αn |αn ∈ Vn , n ∈
n=1
∞
X
N}, {P¤ αn , Ù¥ αn ∈ Vn , §÷v Σ{kαn k2 |n ∈ N} < ∞, l
n=1
Σ{kαn k2 |n ∈ N}
∞
X
Âñ, u´ kαn k2 Âñ, = Σkαn k2 < ∞.
n=1
íØ 20 A ´ Hilbert m X þ;gC, K3¢êS
(µn ) ±9 ( Ker A)⊥ IOÄ {ηn }, ¦éuz α ∈ X, k
∞
X
Aα = µn (α, ηn )ηn . (132)
n=1
(5: S (µn ) ¥UkEÑyê.)
y² â½n 16, {λ1 , λ2 , · · · } ´ A ¤kØÓ"A, du
Ker A ´ A ØCfm, Ïd ( Ker A)⊥ ´ A∗ ØCfm. du A = A∗ ,
Ïd ( Ker A)⊥ ´ A ØCfm. du ( Ker A)⊥ = Im A∗ = Im A, Ïd Im A
´ A ØCfm. u´ A| Im A ´ Im A þ5C, w,§E´g
. ½n 16 y²1nãaqy: A Im A ´;5C. âíØ 19
Im A = V { Im P n |n > 1} = V {Vn |n > 1}.Vn = Ker ( A − λn I) ´k. 3 Vn
¥IOÄ ηn1 , · · · , ηnrn . du n 6= m , Vn Vm p, Ïd
{ηnj |1 6 j 6 rn , n > 1} ´ Im A 58. du§)¤4fmu
Im A, Ïdâ·K 25 , §´ Im A IOÄ. ? α ∈ X, du
X = Ker A ⊕ ( Ker A)⊥ = Ker A ⊕ Im A, (133)
Ïd α = γ + β, Ù¥ γ ∈ Ker A, β ∈ Im A. u´ Aα = Aβ. du Im A =
( Ker A)⊥ , Ïd (ηnj , γ) = 0, l
(α, ηnj ) = (γ + β, ηnj ) = (β, ηnj ).
du Aβ ∈ Im A, Ïdâ·K 25
∞ X
X rn X∞ X γn
Aβ = ( Aβ, ηnj )ηnj = (β, Aηnj )ηnj
n=1 j=1 n=1 j=1
rn
∞ X
X
= λn (β, ηnj )ηnj .
n=1 j=1
l
∞ X
X rn ∞ X
X rn
Aα = Aβ = λn (β, ηnj )ηnj = λn (α, ηnj )ηnj , (134)
n=1 j=1 n=1 j=1
Ù¥ γn = dim Ker ( A − λn I), n = 1, 2, · · · .

íØ 21 A ´ Hilbert m X þ;gC, XJ Ker A = 0, @o
Im A = X.
y² líØ 20 y²¥w ( Ker A)⊥ = Im A, ué Ker A = 0, K
X = Im A.
íØ 22 A ´ Hilbert m X þ;gC, {λ1 , λ2 , · · · } ´ A ¤
kØÓ"A, P
Vn = Ker ( A − λn I), n = 1, 2, · · · ; V0 = Ker A,
M ∞
K X= Vn . (135)
n=0
· 344 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
y² 3íØ 20 ¥®²y²: ( Ker A)⊥ = Im A, ¿l (134) ª, éu?¿

α∈V, k
X rn
∞ X ∞
X
Aα = λn (α, ηnj )ηnj = αn , (136)
n=1 j=1 n=1
rn
X ∞
M ∞
M
Ù¥ αn = λn (α, ηnj )ηnj ∈ Vn , n = 1, 2, · · · . Ïd Im A ⊆ Vn . du Vn ´
j=1 n=1 n=1
∞
M
48, Ïd Im A ⊆ Vn . ? αn ∈ Vn , K Aαn = λn αn , l αn = λ−1
n Aαn ∈
n=1
Im A. u´ Vn ⊆ Im A, n = 1, 2, · · · . Ïd {Vn |n > 1} ´ Im A xüü
M∞ ∞
M
4fm. l Vn ´ Im A 4fm, = Vn ⊆ Im A. Ïd
n=1 n=1
∞
M
Im A = Vn . u´
n=1
X = Ker A ⊕ ( Ker A)⊥ = Ker A ⊕ Im A
∞
! ∞
M M
= V0 ⊕ Vn = Vn .
n=1 n=1
íØ 22 L²: e A ´ Hilbert m X þ;gC, Km X ±
©)¤ A ¤kAfmÚ.
A Éêþ Hilbert m X þ;5C, Kkaqu½n 16
Ó(Ø (Ø
z λi ´¢ê ). y²ëw [15] 1 55 — 56 .
9.10 Schur Ún, ÿÀ+jL«, ;+jL«
y3·5r Schur Úní2L«m±´Ã/.

½n 17 (Schur Ún) V ´ Hilbert m, (ϕ, V ) ´ÿÀ+ G j
L«.
(1) e (ϕ, V ) Ø, K V þ ϕ(g) ;5C7½´ê¦C;
(2) e V þ ϕ(g) k.5CÑ´ê¦C, K (ϕ, V ) Ø
.
y² (1) (ϕ, V ) Ø. b3 V þ;5C T ÷v T ϕ(g) =
ϕ(g) T , ∀g ∈ G, T Ø´ê¦C. du ϕ(g) ´jC, Ïd ϕ(g)∗ = ϕ(g)−1 , l
ϕ(g)∗ = ϕ(g −1 ). u´é?¿ g ∈ G, k
T ∗ ϕ(g −1 ) = T ∗ ϕ(g)∗ = (ϕ(g) T )∗ = ( T ϕ(g))∗ = ϕ(g)∗ T ∗ = ϕ(g −1 ) T ∗ .
l T ∗ ϕ(g) . -
1 1
A = ( T + T ∗ ), B = ( T − T ∗ ).
2 2i
â [25]eþ1 507 , A, B Ñ´gC, T = A + i B. du T ´ V þ
;5C, Ïdâ½n 13 , T ∗ ´ V þ;5C. â·K 12, B0 (V )
´ B(V ) 45fm. Ïd A, B Ñ´ V þ;5C. du T Ø´ê
¦C, Ïd A B kØ´ê¦C. Ø A Ø´ê¦C. qdu

∞
X
A ´;gC, Ïdâ½n 16 A = λn P n , Ù¥ {λ1 , λ2 , · · · } ´ A
n=1
¤kØÓ"A. du A Ø´ê¦C, Ïdk P n Ø´ê¦C,
P m Ø´ê¦C, du Vm = Ker ( A − λm I), Ïd Vm 6= 0. du T T ∗ Ñ
ϕ(g) , Ïd A ϕ(g) . l A − λm I ϕ(g)
, u´ Ker ( A − λm I) ´ ϕ(g) ØCfm, Ïd Vm ´ V G ØCf
m, Vm ´4fm. u´ V = Vm ⊕ Vm⊥ . du Vm = Im P m , Ïd Vm⊥ = Ker P m
(â [25] eþ1 522 ~ 24). bX Vm = V , K Vm⊥ = 0, u´éu?¿ α ∈ V ,
k©)ª α = α + 0, Ù¥ α ∈ Vm , 0 ∈ Vm⊥ . l P m α = α. Ïd P m = I. ù
P m Ø´ê¦Cgñ. u´ Vm 6= V . l V k²4 G ØCf
m Vm . ù (ϕ, V ) Øgñ. Ïd V þ ϕ(g) ;5CÑ´
ê¦C.
(2) bX (ϕ, V ) , K V k²4 G ØCfm W . u´ V =
W ⊕ W ⊥ . P ´ V 3 W þÝK, K W = Im P , W ⊥ = Ker P . bX P
´ê¦C, P = k I, ? α ∈ V α 6= 0, Kk P α = kα. α = α1 + α2 , Ù
¥ α1 ∈ W, α2 ∈ W ⊥ , K P α = α1 , u´ α1 = kα. l (1 − k)α1 = kα2 . ddíÑ
(1 − k)α1 = kα2 = 0. e k 6= 0, K α2 = 0, l α1 = α 6= 0, u´ k = 1, = P = I;
e k = 0, K P = 0. P = I , W = Im P = V ; P = 0 , W = Im P = 0.
ù W ´ V ²fmgñ. Ïd P Ø´ê¦C. du

k P k = sup{k P αkα ∈ V, kαk = 1},
k P αk = kα1 k 6 kαk, Ïd P ´k.5C. ? α ∈ V , α = α1 + α2 , Ù
¥ α1 ∈ W, α2 ∈ W ⊥ . du W ´ G ØCfm, Ïdé?¿ g ∈ G k ϕ(g)α1 ∈ W .
du ϕ(g) ´jC, Ïd ϕ(g)∗ = ϕ(g)−1 = ϕ(g −1 ). â [25] eþ1 508 ½n
11, l W ´ ϕ(g) ØCfmÑ W ⊥ ´ ϕ(g −1 ) ØCfm. u
´ ϕ(g)α2 ∈ W ⊥ . du ϕ(g)α = ϕ(g)α1 + ϕ(g)α2 , Ïd
P (ϕ(g)α) = ϕ(g)α1 = ϕ(g)( P α), ∀α ∈ V, ∀g ∈ G.
u´ P ϕ(g) = ϕ(g) P , ∀g ∈ G. Ïd P ´ ϕ(g) k.5C, ´
P Ø´ê¦C, ù®^gñ. ùy²
(ϕ, V ) Ø.
½n 17 1 (1) ·Kr(J: e (ϕ, V ) Ø, K V þ
ϕ(g) k.5C7½´ê¦C. y²I^k.gC
Ì½n, ùpÒØ[0
, k,Öö±w [17] 1 120 ·K 1.3
75y².
½Â 25 ÿÀ+ G 5L« (ϕ, V ) ¡, XJ V z4
G ØCfm W Ñk4 G ØCÖm.
½n 18 ÿÀ+ G jL«´.
y² (ϕ, V ) ´ÿÀ+ G jL«, Ù¥ V ´ Hilbert m, ? V
²4 G ØCfm W , K V = W ⊕ W ⊥ . du W ´ ϕ(g)
· 346 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
ØCfm, Ïd W ⊥ ´ ϕ(g)∗ ØCfm. du ϕ(g) ´jC, Ïd

ϕ(g)∗ = ϕ(g)−1 = ϕ(g −1 ), l W ⊥ ´ ϕ(g −1 ) ØCfm, = W ⊥ ´ G Ø
Cfm. q W ⊥ ´ V 4fm, Ïd (ϕ, V ) ´.
½n 19 ;+jL«´kØfL«Ú.
y² G ´;+. â½n 10, G jL«´ÌfL«Ú. ÏdI
y;+ G ÌL« (ϕ, V ) ´kØfL«Ú, Ù¥ V ´ Hilbert
m. α0 ´ ϕ Ìþ, kα0 k = 1. u´d {ϕ(g)α0 |g ∈ G} )¤fm´
V Èf8.
?¿½ α, β ∈ V , -
f (g) := (ϕ(g)α, α0 )(α0 , ϕ(g)β),
K f (g) = (α, ϕ(g −1 )α0 )(ϕ(g −1 )α0 , β)
= αL (ϕ(g −1 )α0 )βR (ϕ(g −1 )α0 ) = αL βR (ϕ(g −1 )α0 ).
du αL , βR ´ V þëY¼ê, ϕ ´ÿÀ+ G B(V ) ëYN, {ϕ(g)α0 |g ∈
G} )¤fm´ V Èf8 Z , Ïd f ´ G þëY¼ê, l ±-
hα, βi : = f (g) dg
ZG
= (ϕ(g)α, α0 )(α0 , ϕ(g)β) dg. (137)
G
ý hα, βi ´ V þSÈ.
aqu [25] eþ1 444 ~ 18 y²{, ¿|^!·K 21 Ú½n
3 , 3 V þ5C A ¦
hα, βi = ( Aα, β), ∀α, β ∈ V. (138)
éu α ∈ V kαk = 1, du ϕ(g) ´jC, Ïd kϕ(g)αk = kαk = 1. |^;+
ØCÈ©½5Ú55,
1 1
k Aαk2 = ( Aα, Aα) = hα, Aαi 6 hα, αi 2 h Aα, Aαi 2
Z 21 Z 12
2 2
= |(ϕ(g)α, α0 )| dg |(ϕ(g)( Aα), α0 )| dg
G G
Z 12 Z 21
6 (kϕ(g)αkkα0 k)2 dg (kϕ(g)( Aα)kkα0 k)2 dg
G G
Z 12 Z 12
= kα0 k2 dg k Aαk2 kα0 k2 dg
G G
= kα0 kk Aαkkα0 k = k Aαk. (139)
l
k Aαk 6 1, α ∈ V kαk = 1.
u´

k Ak = sup{k Aαkα ∈ V, kαk = 1} 6 1.
Ïd k Ak ´k.5C. l A kC A∗ . du ∀α, β ∈ V , k

( A∗ α, β) = (α, Aβ) = ( Aβ, α) = hβ, αi = hα, βi = ( Aα, β),
Ïd A∗ α = Aα, ∀α ∈ V . l A∗ = A, Z = A ´gC.
( Aα, α) = hα, αi = |(ϕ(g)α, α0 )|2 dg > 0.
G
â;+ØCÈ©½5
( Aα, α) = 0
⇐⇒ |(ϕ(g)α, α0 )| = 0, ∀g ∈ G
⇐⇒ |(α, ϕ(g −1 )α0 )| = 0, ∀g ∈ G
⇐⇒ (α, ϕ(g −1 )α0 ) = 0, ∀g ∈ G.
du {ϕ(g)α0 |g ∈ G} )¤fm W ´ V Èf8, Ïd W = V . 3 W ¥
IOÄ {ηi |i ∈ I}, â·K 25
(α, ϕ(g −1 )α0 ) = 0, ∀g ∈ G ⇐⇒ (α, ηi ) = 0, i ∈ I ⇐⇒ α = 0.
Ïd ( Aα, α) = 0 ⇐⇒ α = 0. XJ A k"A λ1 , @ok V ¥"þ γ ¦
Aγ = λ1 γ: l λ1 (γ, γ) = ( Aγ, γ) > 0, u´ λ1 > 0.
α ∈ Ker A ⇐⇒ Aα = 0 =⇒ ( Aα, α) = 0 =⇒ α = 0.
Ïd Ker A = 0. P V1 = Ker ( A − λ1 I). Z ? h ∈ G, éu ∀α, β ∈ V , k
( Aϕ(h)α, β) = hϕ(h)α, βi = (ϕ(g)ϕ(h)α, α0 )(α0 , ϕ(g)β) dg
G
Z
= (ϕ(s)α, α0 )(α0 , ϕ(sh−1 )β) ds
G
= hα, ϕ(h−1 )βi = ( Aα, ϕ(h)−1 β)
= (ϕ(h)( Aα), β). (140)
l Aϕ(h)α = ϕ(h) Aα, ∀α ∈ V . Ïd Aϕ(h) = ϕ(h) A. u´ Ker ( A − λ1 I) ´
ϕ(h) ØCfm, ∀h ∈ G. Ïd V1 ´ V G ØCfm, = A z"A
Afm´ G ØCfm, â·K 19 , V1 ´4fm.
XJUy² A ´;5C, @oâ·K 20 , A z"AA
fm´k, ¿éu;gC A ±$^íØ 22 rm V ©).
e¡5y² A ´;5C. Äk5y A ´ëY.
(xn ) ´ V ¥fÂñ x S, y k Axn − Axk → 0, @o A Ò´
ëY (½Â 22). â½Â 7, ∀f ∈ V ∗ Ñk f (xn ) → f (x). l sup{|f (xn )|} <
n
+∞. du x∗∗
n (f ) = f (xn ), Ïd
sup{|x∗∗
n (f )|} < +∞, ∀f ∈ V ∗ .
n
u´éu V ∗ C xk.5N {x∗∗ n |n = 1, 2, · · · } ^k.n (=½n
6) , 3¢ê M ¦
kx∗∗n k 6 M, n = 1, 2, · · ·
∗∗
â·K 3 , kxn k = kxn k 6 M, n = 1, 2, · · · . u´éu ∀h, s ∈ G, k
|(ϕ(h)xn , α0 )(α0 , ϕ(s)xn )(ϕ(sh−1 )α0 , α0 )|.
6 kϕ(h)xn k kα0 k kα0 k kϕ(s)xn k kϕ(sh−1 )α0 k kα0 k
= kxn k kxn k = kxn k2 6 M 2 . (141)
· 348 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
du ϕ(h) A , Ïdâ (140) ª

(ϕ(h) Axn , α0 ) = ( Aϕ(h)xn , α0 )
Z
= (ϕ(s)xn , α0 )(α0 , ϕ(sh−1 )α0 ) ds.
G
l
k Axn k2 = ( Axn , Axn ) = hxn , Axn i
Z
= (ϕ(h)xn , α0 )(α0 , ϕ(h)( Axn )) dh
G
Z Z
= (ϕ(h)xn , α0 ) (α0 , ϕ(s)xn )(ϕ(sh−1 )α0 , α1 ) ds dh
ZG Z G
= (ϕ(h)xn , α0 )(α0 , ϕ(s)xn )(ϕ(sh−1 )α0 , α0 ) ds dh. (142)

G G
f ∈ V ∗ , Kéu V þ?5C B k f B ∈ V ∗ . du (xn ) fÂñ x, Ïd
(ϕ(h)xn , α0 ) = (α0 )R (ϕ(h)xn ) = ((α0 )R ϕ(h))xn → (ϕ(h)x, α0 ),
(α0 , ϕ(s)xn ) = (α0 )L (ϕ(s)xn ) = [(α0 )L ϕ(s)]xn → (α0 , ϕ(s)x).
l
(ϕ(h)xn , α0 )(α0 , ϕ(s)xn )(ϕ(sh−1 )α0 , α0 )
−1
Z →Z (ϕ(h)x, α0 )(α0 , ϕ(s)x)(ϕ(sh )α0 , α0 ). (143)
du M 2 dg = M 2 1 dg = M 2 , Ïd M 2 ´È¼ê. u´â (141) ª, A^
G G
Ù §8 ½n 7 (LebesgueZ Âñ½n
Z )
2
lim k Axn k = (ϕ(h)x, α0 )(α0 , ϕ(s)x)(ϕ(sh−1 )α0 , α0 ) ds dh
n→∞ G G
= k Axk2 . (144)
du (xn ) fÂñ x, Ïd
( Axn , Ax) = ( Ax)R ( Axn ) = [( Ax)R A]xn → ( Ax, Ax). (145)
l d (144) ª, (145) ª
k Axn − Axk2 = k Axn k2 − ( Axn , Ax) − ( Ax, Axn ) + k Axk2
→ k Axk2 − ( Ax, Ax) − ( Ax, Ax) + k Axk2 = 0.
Ïd A ´ëY. qâ~ 1, Hilbert m´g, u´â·K 11 , A
´;5C.
{λ1 , λ2 , · · · } ´;gC A ¤kØÓ"A, P Vn = Ker ( A −
λn I), n = 1, 2, · · · , c¡®y Ker A = 0, u´âíØ 22
∞
M
V = Vn . (146)
n=1
éuz n > 1, du Vn ´ V G ØCfm, Ïd (ϕ, V ) kfL« ϕ|Vn , du
A ´;5C, Ïdâ·K 20 , Vn = Ker ( A − λn I) ´k. ϕ|Vn ´;
+ G kjL«. âÙ §6 ½n 2, ϕ|Vn ´. â1Ù §3
½n 1, + G kL«½±©)¤kõØfL«
Ú. Ïd ϕ|Vn ±©)¤kõØfL«Ú, Ù¥zfL«Ñ´k

. ùy²
;+ G jL« (ϕ, V ) ´kØfL«Ú.
l½n 19 á=eã(Ø.
íØ 23 ;+ØjL«´k.
3Ù §6 ½n 8 ¥, ·Ñ: ;+ G ¤k*dØdkØ
jL«Ý
|¤8Ü ∆ ÉSÈm C(G, C) 8, 5®²
3 §6 ½n 3 ¥y², ey´5, ½n 8 5Ü©¡ Peter-Weyl
½n. ·5y² Peter-Weyl ½n.
(ϕ, V ) ´;+ G kjL«, 3 V ¥IOÄ η1 , η2 , · · · , ηn ,
ϕ(g) 3dÄeÝ
Φ(g), K Φ(g) ´jÝ
. Φ(g) (i, j) u ϕ(g)ηj 3
IOÄ η1 , η2 , · · · , ηn eI1 i ©þ, = (ϕ(g)ηj , ηi ). éu V ¥?¿
ü5Ã'þ α1 , α2 , ±²L Schmidt zÚü züü
þ γ1 , γ2 , {α1 , α2 } {γ1 , γ2 } d. u´3Äd;+ G ¤k*dØ
dkØjL«Ý
|¤8Ü ∆ )¤5fm¯K,
±r (ϕ(g)α, β) w ϕ Ý
, Ù¥ α, β ´ V ¥?¿½üþ. -
f (g) = (ϕ(g)α, β), K f ´ G þëYE¼ê.
·¦ Peter-Weyl ½n±r/ªÑy. dIé;+ G þØCÈ
©
\?Ø. ;+ G ÿÀm´;, l ´ÛÜ;. 3Ù §5
½n 1 y²
: 3z;+ G (G ÿÀm´ Hausdorff m) þ±ïáØ
CÈ©, k«{ïáØCÈ© (5¿ §5 ½Â 1 ¥¦;+ G þØ
CÈ©äk55, Ïd G þØCÈ©´). âÙ §8 ½Â 19 Ú½Â
20, ;+ G þØCÈ©Ò´ G þÿÝ äk (m) ØC5, = Haar
ÿÝ, P ν. âÙ §8 ½n 9 (Riesz L«½n), 3d G f8|¤ σ-
ê A , §¹ X ¤k Borel 8, ¿3 A þÿÝ µ, ¦éu G þ
EëY¼ê f (du G ´;, Ïd f | 8 supp (f ) 7½´ G ;f
8, l f ∈ Cc (G)), k
Z Z
f (x) dx = f dµ. (147)
G
âÙ §8 ½Â 18, éu½Â G Eÿ¼ê h, XJ h ∈ L1 (µ), @

Z Z
o±½ÂÈ© h dµ, §Éê. l (147) ªÉéu, ·r h dµ P
Z
¤ h(x) dx, ´5¿ h Ø´ G þëY¼ê, Øäk (m) ØC5.
G
âÙ §8 ·K 6, e G þ¼ê f Éÿ¼ê, K |f | ´¢ÿ¼ê,
Z
l â §8 Ún 3 , |f | ´¢ÿ¼ê. u´kÈ© |f |2 dµ, r§P¤
2
Z Z
|f (x)|2 dx. e¢ |f (x)|2 dx < +∞, K¡ f ´²È: r G þ¤k
G G
²ÈEÿ¼ê|¤8ÜP L2 (G).
y² L2 (G) éu¼ê\
· 350 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
{Úêþ¦{¤5m. ·I
O£.
9.11 à¼êÚ L2 -m
½Â 26 −∞ 6 a < b 6 +∞, ½Â3«m (a, b) þ¢¼ê ϕ ¡´à

(convex), XJØª
ϕ((1 − λ)x1 + λx2 ) 6 (1 − λ)ϕ(x1 ) + λϕ(x2 ) (148)
é a < x1 < b, a < x2 < b ±9 0 6 λ 6 1 ¤á.
^ A1 , A2 ©OL««m (a, b) SüØÓ:, §3 x ¶þI©O
−−→
x1 , x2 , K3 x ¶þI x : C 3ã A1 A2 þ= A1 C = λA1 A2 , 0 6
λ 6 1. ddÑ, x− x1 = λ(x2 − x1 ), l x = (1 − λ)x1 + λx2 , 0 6 λ 6 1. Bi
−−→ −−−→
I (xi , ϕ(xi )), i = 1, 2, K: D(x, y) 3ã B1 B2 þ= B1 D = µB1 B2 , 0 6
µ 6 1. l : D I÷v
x − x1 = µ(x2 − x1 ), y − ϕ(x1 ) = µ(ϕ(x2 ) − ϕ(x1 )).
u´ µ = λ, Ïd y = (1 − λ)ϕ(x1 ) + λϕ(x2 ). ù·Ñ
(148) ªAÛ¿Â
: ²¡þ: (x, ϕ(x)) ué(ü: B1 (x1 , ϕ(x1 )) Ú B2 (x2 , ϕ(x2 )) e
½3 B1 B2 þ.
a < s < t < u < b, K t − s = λ(u − s), é, t(0 6 t 6 1). l
t−s u−t
λ= ,1 − λ = ; t = (1 − λ)s + λu. u´
u−s u−s
ϕ((1 − λ)s + λu) 6 (1 − λ)ϕ(s) + λϕ(u)
⇐⇒ ϕ(t) 6 (1 − λ)ϕ(s) + λϕ(u)
⇐⇒ ϕ(t) − ϕ(s) 6 λ[ϕ(u) − ϕ(s)] = λ[ϕ(u) − ϕ(t) + ϕ(t) − ϕ(s)]
⇐⇒ (1 − λ)[ϕ(t) − ϕ(s)] 6 λ[ϕ(u) − ϕ(t)]
ϕ(t) − ϕ(s) ϕ(u) − ϕ(t)
⇐⇒ 6 . (149)
t−s u−t
$^©¥d½n¿(Ü (149) ª, «m (a, b) þ¢¼ê ϕ(x) ´
à=l a < ξ1 < ξ2 < b íÑ ϕ′ (ξ1 ) 6 ϕ′ (ξ2 ), == ϕ′ ´üNþ,
¼ê.
$^þã(Øá=Ñ: ê¼ê3 (−∞, +∞) þ´à.
·K 26 XJ (a, b) þ¢¼ê ϕ ´à, @o ϕ 3 (a, b) þ´ëY.
y² a < s < x1 < x2 < t < b. I (s, ϕ(s)) :P S; I
(xi , ϕ(xi )) :P Ai , i = 1, 2; I (t, ϕ(t)) :P T . du ϕ ´à, Ïd
A1 3 SA2 þ½§e, l A2 3 SA1 þ½§þ, k A2 3
A1 T þ½§e. Ïd x2 → x1 , : A2 ªu A1 , = ϕ(x2 ) → ϕ(x1 ), l ϕ
3 x1 ?mëY. aq/y ϕ 3 x1 ?ëY. Ïd ϕ 3 x1 ?ëY.
½n 20 (Jensen Øª) µ ´8Ü X f8|¤ σ-ê A þ
ÿÝ÷v µ(X) = 1. f ´ X þ¢ÿ¼ê f ´È, XJ
ϕ ´ (a,
∀x ∈ X Ñk a < f (x) < b, Z b) þà¼ê, Ù¥ a, b ∈ R, @o
Z
ϕ f dµ 6 (ϕ ◦ f ) dµ, (150)
Ù¥ ϕ ◦ f ´¼ê fZ ϕ EÜ, = (ϕ ◦ f )(x) = ϕ(f (x)).
y² - t = f dµ. du a < f (x) < b, a, b ∈ R, ±9 µ(X) = 1, Ïd
âÙ §8 ½Â 17 !(51) ªÚ½Â 15 a < t < b. a < s < t, XJ β ´
ϕ(t) − ϕ(s)
þ(., @oéu?¿ u ∈ (t, b), β Øu (149) ªmàû, dd
t−s
Ñ: ∀s ∈ (a, b) Ñk
ϕ(s) > ϕ(t) + β(s − t), (151)
duéz x ∈ X Ñk f (x) ∈ (a, b), Ïdl (151) ª

ϕ(f (x)) − ϕ(t) − β(f (x) − t) > 0. (152)
du ϕ 3 (a, b) þ´à, Ïd ϕ 3 (a, b) þ´ëY. l éu R zm8
U Ñk ϕ−1 (U ) ´ (a, b) m8. du f ´ÿ¼ê, ÏdâÙ §8 ½Â
11 , f −1 (ϕ−1 (U )) ∈ A , l ϕ ◦ f ´ X þÿ¼ê. du f ´ X þÈ¼
Z Z
ê, ϕ ´ (a, b) þëY¼ê, Ïd (ϕ ◦ f )+ dµ Ú (ϕ ◦ f )− dµ Ñ´k, l
ϕ ◦ f ´3 X þÈ. u´$^Ù §8 ·K 5 Ú (51) ª, ±9® µ(X) = 1,

l (152) ª
Z Z
(ϕ ◦ f ) dµ > ϕ(t) + β f dµ − t = ϕ(t).
e¡Þ
~f, `²l Jensen Øª
Øª.
ϕ(x) = ex , K Jensen Ø¤ Z R
f dµ
e 6 ef dµ. (153)
1
X = {x1 , x2 , · · · , xn }, XJ µ({xi }) = , P f (xi ) = ai , K (153) ª¤
n
1 1
e n (a1 +···+an ) 6 ( ea1 + · · · + ean ), (154)
n
Ù¥ ai ∈ R, i = 1, 2, · · · , n. - bi = eai , K (154) ª¤
1 1
(b1 b2 · · · bn ) n 6 (b1 + · · · + bn ). (155)
n
(155) ª´ÙG n ¢êâ²þêAÛ²þêmØª.
- g = ef , K f = ln g. u´ (153) ª¤ Z
R
ln g dµ
e 6 g dµ. (156)
(156) ª>Úm>~~©O¡½¼ê g AÛþâþ.
n
X
XJ µ({xi }) = αi , Ù¥ αi = 1, @o (154) ª¤
i=1
bα1 α2 αn
1 b2 · · · bn 6 α1 b1 + α2 b2 + · · · αn bn . (157)
· 352 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
½n 21 X ´8Ü, A ´ X f8|¤ σ-ê, µ ´½Â

A ÿÝ. f Ú g ´ X þKÿ¼ê, K
Z Z 12 Z 12
2 2
f g dµ 6 f dµ g dµ , (158)
Z 12 Z 12 Z 21
(f + g)2 dµ 6 f 2 dµ + g 2 dµ . (159)
y² âÙ §8 Ún 3, du f, g ´ÿ¼êÏd f 2 , g 2 , f g, f + g Ñ´
Z 12 Z 12
ÿ¼ê. P a = f 2 dµ ,b = g 2 dµ . XJ a = 0, @oâÙ §8 ·K
3 f = 0 (a.e.); Ïd f g = 0 (a.e.), l (158) ª¤á. XJ a > 0 b = +∞, @

o (158) ªw,¤á. u´·IÄ 0 < a < +∞, 0 < b < +∞ /. -
f g
F = , G= . (160)
a b
âÙ §8 Ún 3, duZf, g ´ÿ¼ê Z, Ïd
2
F dµ = 1, G2 dµ = 1. (161)
XJ x ∈ X ¦ 0 < F (x) < +∞ 0 < G(x) < +∞, @o3¢ê s Ú t ¦
s t
F (x) = e 2 , G(x) = e 2 . duê¼ê´à, Ïdl (148) ª
s t 1 1
e 2 + 2 6 es + et . (162)
2 2
ddÑ: ∀x ∈ X, k
1 1
F (x)G(x) 6 F (x)2 + G(x)2 . (163)
2 2
âÙ §8 (51) ª Z, l (163) ªÚ Z (161) ªZ
1 1
F G dµ 6 F 2 dµ + G2 dµ = 1. (164)
2 2
r (160) ª\ (164) ª
Z Z 21 Z 12
2 2
f g dµ 6 f dµ g dµ .
e¡5y² (159) ª. du
(f + g)2 = f (f + g) + g(f + g). (165)
â®²y² (158) ª
Z Z 12 Z 12
2 2
f (f + g) dµ 6 f dµ (f + g) dµ , (166)
Z Z 21 Z 12
2 2
g(f + g) dµ 6 g dµ (f + g) dµ . (167)
r (166) ª (167) ª\
Z Z 12 "Z 21 Z 12 #
2 2 2 2
(f + g) dµ 6 (f + g) dµ f dµ + g dµ . (168)
Z Z
e (f + g)2 dµ = 0, K (159) ªw,¤á. e¡ (f + g)2 dµ > 0. du
(f + g)2 = f 2 + g 2 + 2f g 6 f 2 + g 2 + (f 2 + g 2 ) = 2(f 2 + g 2 ),
Ïd Z Z Z
(f + g)2 dµ 6 2 f 2 dµ + 2 g 2 dµ. (169)
Z Z Z
2
e f dµ = +∞ (½ g dµ = +∞), K (159) ªw,¤á. e¡ f 2 dµ < +∞
2
Z Z
g 2 dµ < +∞. ùd (169) ª (f + g)2 dµ < +∞. l (168) ªü>Ø±
Z 12
2
(f + g) dµ
Z 12 Z 21 Z 12
(f + g)2 dµ 6 f 2 dµ + g 2 dµ .
X ´8Ü, A ´ X f8|¤ σ-ê, µ ´½Â

½Â 27
Z
A ÿÝ. f ´ X þEÿ¼ê, XJ |f |2 dµ < +∞, @o¡ f
´²È¼ê. X þ¤k²È¼ê|¤8ÜP
Z Z L2 (µ).
f, g ∈ L2 (µ), K |f |2 dµ < +∞, |g|2 dµ < +∞. du
|f + g|2 = (f + g)(f + g) = |f |2 + |g|2 + f g + gf = |f |2 + |g|2 + 2 Re (f g)
6 |f |2 + |g|2 + 2|f g| = |f |2 + |g|2 + 2|f ||g|
= (|f | + |g|)2 , (170)
Ïd(Ü$^½n 21 (159) ª
Z 21 Z 12 Z 12 Z 12
|f + g|2 dµ 6 (|f | + |g|)2 dµ 6 |f |2 dµ + |g|2 dµ . (171)
Z Z
l (171) ª |f +g|2 dµ < +∞. Ïd f +g ∈ L2 (G). é?¿Eê c, k |cf |2 dµ =
Z
|c|2 |f |2 dµ < +∞, Ïd cf ∈ L2 (µ). l L2 (µ) Éêþ5m, é
u f, g ∈ L2 (µ), âÙ §8 ·K 6 ,Zf g Éÿ¼ê. 5½

(f, g) = f g dµ. (172)
duâ½n 21 (158) ª
Z Z Z 12 Z 12
2 2
|f g| dµ = |f ||g| dµ 6 |f | dµ |g| dµ < +∞, (173)
Z
Ïd f ḡ ∈ L1 (µ) l âÙ §8 ½Â 18 , f g dµ Éê. Ïd (172) ª
(½Â
L2 (µ) þ¼ê, |^Ù §8 ·K 10, Ný (172) ª½
Â¼ê´ L2 (µ) þSÈ (SÈ'SÈ^: “e (f, f ) = 0,
R
K f = 0”. y3 (f, f ) = |f |2 dµ, Ïdl (f, f ) = 0 UíÑ f = 0 (a.e.)). ù
SÈê
Z 21
kf k = |f |2 dµ . (174)
· 354 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
(171) ªL²:
kf + gk 6 kf k + kgk. (175)
3 (175) ª¥ f ^ f − g O, g ^ g − h O, K
kf − hk 6 kf − gk + kg − hk. (176)
-
d(f, g) = kf − gk, (177)
K 0 6 d(f, g) < +∞, d(f, g) = d(g, f ), (178)
d(f, h) 6 d(f, g) + d(g, h), (179)
d(f, f ) = 0, (180)
Z 12
d(f, g) = 0 =⇒ |f − g|2 dµ =0
=⇒ f = g (a.e.). (181)
·P f ∼ g = d(f, g) = 0. w, ∼ ´ L2 (µ) þd'X, u´ ∼
Ñ
L2 (µ) y©. XJ F Ú G ´üda, ÀJ f ∈ F, g ∈ G, 5½
d(F, G) = d(f, g). (182)
due f ∼ f1 , g ∼ g1 , K d(f, f1 ) = 0, d(g, g1 ) = 0. l
d(f, g) 6 d(f, f1 ) + d(f1 , g) 6 d(f, f1 ) + d(f1 , g1 ) + d(g1 , g).
ddÑ, d(f, g) 6 d(f1 , g1 ). Ón d(f1 , g1 ) 6 d(f, g). Ïd d(f, g) = d(f1 , g1 ). ùL
² (182) ª½Â d(F, G) ´Ün. k
ù½Â, K L2 (µ) ¤kda|¤
8Ü´Ýþm. e f ∼ f1 g ∼ g1 , K
d(f + g, f1 + g1 ) = k(f + g) − (f1 + g1 )k 6 kf − f1 k + |g − g1 k = 0.
d(cf, cf1 ) = kcf − cf1 k = |c|kf − f1 k = 0.
Ïde F, G ´ L2 (µ) üda, K F + G, cF ´ L2 (µ) da. l L2 (µ)
¤kda|¤8ÜÉêþ5m.
L2 (µ) w¤´Ýþm, §Ø´ X þ¼ê, ´¼êda.

ó{z, S.þErÝþm L2 (G) w¤¼êm.
½n 22 L2 (µ) ´Ýþm.
y² (fn ) ´ L2 (µ) ¥ Cauchy S, Ké? ε > 0, 3
ê N ¦ n > N, m > N Òk kfn − fm k < ε. u´3fS (fni ), Ù
¥ n1 < n2 < · · · , ¦
kfni+1 − fni k < 2−i , i = 1, 2, 3, · · · . (183)
-
k
X ∞
X
gk = |fni+1 − fni |, g= |fni+1 − fni |, (184)
i=1 i=1
du (183) ª¤á, Ïdâ (175) ª

k
X n
X
kgk k 6 kfni+1 − fni k < 2−i < 1, (185)
i=1 i=1
Ù¥ k = 1, 2, 3, · · · . l (184) ªwÑ, g = lim inf gk = lim gk . âe4$

k→∞ k→∞
2
2 2
{K, lim gk 6 lim gk . u´é (gk ) ^Ù §8 ½n 6 (Fatou Ún) ¿
k→∞ k→∞
|^ (185) ª
Z Z Z 2
kgk2 = |g|2 dµ =
| lim gk |2 dµ = lim gk dµ
k→∞ k→∞
Z Z
6 lim gk2 du 6 lim gk2 dµ = lim kgk k2 6 1.
k→∞ k→∞ k→∞
Ïd kgk 6 1. AO/, g(x) < +∞ (a.e.), u´?ê
∞
X
fn1 (x) + fni+1 (x) − fni (x) (186)
i=1
éAz x ∈ X ýéÂñ. éu¦ (186) ªÂñ@
x. ^ f (x) L« (186) ª
Ú; éueÿÝ 0 8Ü¥ x, - f (x) = 0. du
k−1
X
fn1 + fin+1 − fni = fnk , (187)
i=1
Ïd
f (x) = lim fnk (a.e.). (188)
k→∞
u´·®²é
¼ê f , §´S (fni ) A??:ªÂñ4. y3·
7Ly² f ∈ L2 (µ) (fni ) êÂñ f . ? ε > 0, 3ê N ¦
n > N m > N , Òk kfn − fm k < ε. éz m > N , l (188) ªÑ
2 2

2
|f − fm | = lim fni − fm = lim (fni − fm )

i→∞ i→∞
2
= lim |fni − fm | 6 lim |fni − fm |2 . (189)
i→∞ i→∞
u´â Fatou
Z Ún Z Z
|f − fm |2 dµ 6 lim |fni − fm |2 dµ 6 lim |fni − fm |2 dµ
i→∞ i→∞
2 2
= lim kfni − fm k < ε , (190)
i→∞
l (190) ªÑ f − fm ∈ L (µ), l f = (f − fm ) + fm ∈ L2 (µ), ¿
2
kf − fm k → 0, m → ∞. (191)
ùy²
: L (µ) ¥z Cauchy S (fn ) ÑÂñ L (µ) ¥, Ïd L2 (µ)
2 2
´.
½n 22 y²¹
k¿Â(J, =Xe½n.
½n 23 XJ (fn ) ´ L2 (µ) ¥ Cauchy S, §Âñ f , @o (fn ) k
fS (fni ), §A??:ªÂñ f (x).
L2 (µ) þ½Â¼ê (f, g) ,´SÈ, ´·´r L2 (µ) w¤´
Hilbert m.
· 356 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
½n 24 S ´ x þäkeã5¤kEÿü¼ê|¤8Ü:
µ({x|s(x) 6= 0}) < +∞, (192)
2
K S 3 L (µ) ¥È.
y² âÙ §8 ½Â 13 Ú§e¡ã{, X þEÿü¼ê s kI
Xn
OL«: s = cj 1Aj , Ù¥ c1 , c2 , · · · , cn ´üüØEê, Aj ∈ A , j = 1, 2, · · · , n
j=1
A1 , A2 , · · · , An üüØ
 . u´
n n
! n n
X X X X
2
|s| = ss̄ =  cj 1 A j  ck 1 A k = cj c¯j 1Aj = |cj |2 1Aj .
j=1 k=1 j=1 j=1
u´âÙ §8 ½Â 15 ±9 (192) ª
Z n
X
|s|2 dµ = |cj |2 µ(Aj ) < +∞. (193)
j=1
Ïd s ∈ L2 (µ), l S ⊆ L2 (µ).
f ´Kÿ¼ê, f ∈ L2 (µ), âÙ §8 Ún 4, 3Kÿü¼
êS (fn ), ¦
0 6 fn (x) 6 fn+1 (x) 6 f (x), ∀n ∈ N∗ , ∀x ∈ X, (194)
2
¿¦ lim fn (x) = f (x), ∀x ∈ X. du 0 6 fn 6 f , Ïd fn ∈ L (µ), l fn ÷
n→∞
v (192) ª, u´ fn ∈ S. du |f − fn |2 6 f 2 , ÏdâÙ §8 ½n 7(Lebesgue
Âñ½n) Z Z
lim kf − fn k2 = lim |f − fn |2 dµ = lim |f − fn |2 dµ = 0,
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
Ïd f áu S 4.
y3Ä/, = f Éÿ¼ê f ∈ L2 (µ). f = g + ih, Ù¥ g, h
´¢ÿ¼ê. du |f |2 = g 2 + h2 , Ïd g 2 6 |f |2 , h2 6 |f |2 . l g, h ∈ L2 (µ).
du g + 6 |g|, g − 6 |g|, Ïd g + , g − ∈ L2 (µ). Ón h+ , h− ∈ L2 (µ). âfây
(Ø, g + , g − , h+ , h− ∈ S̄. du g = g + − g − , h = h+ − h− , Ïdlfây²L§
wÑ: g, h ∈ S̄. l f ∈ S̄. ùy²
S 3 L2 (µ) ¥È.
½Â 28 g : X → [0, +∞] ´ÿ, W ´÷veã^¤k¢ê a |¤
8Ü:
µ(g −1 ((a, +∞])) = 0. (195)
e W = ∅, K- β = +∞; e W 6= ∅, K- β = inf W . du
[∞
1
g −1 ((β, +∞]) = g −1 β + , +∞ , (196)
n=1
n
¿duÿÝ 0 8Üê¿8kÿÝ 0, Ïd β ∈ W . ·¡ β ´ g
þ(. (essential supremam).
XJ f ´ X þEÿ¼ê, @o·½Â kf k∞ ´ |f | þ(..
-

L∞ (µ) := {f kf k∞ < +∞}. (197)
9.12 ÛÜ; Hausdorff ÿÀ+ G þ L2 (G)

½n 25 X ´ÛÜ; Hausdorff m, A ´ X f8|¤ σ-ê,
µ ´ A þÿÝ, §äk Riesz L«½n¥¤Qã5, K Cc (X) 3 L2 (µ)
¥È.
y² ? f ∈ Cc (X), w,k |f |2 ∈ Cc (X). ν ´ X þÿÝ, K
Z
2
â Riesz L«½n, ν(|f | ) = |f |2 dµ. du ν ´ Cc (X) þ5¼
Z
ê, Ïd 0 6 ν(|f |2 ) < +∞, l |f |2 dµ < +∞, u´ f ∈ L2 (µ). ùy²
:
Cc (X) ⊆ L2 (µ). ½Â8Ü S XÓ½n 24 ¥@. â Lusin ½n (ëw [14] 1

56 — 57 ). éu s ∈ S Ú ε > 0, 3 g ∈ Cc (X) ¦ µ({x|g(x) 6= s(x)}) < ε ¿
|g| 6 ksk∞ . u´ |g − s| < |g|Z+ |s| 6 2ksk∞. l
|g − s|2 dµ 6 4(ksk∞ )2 ε. (198)
du g ∈ L2 (µ), s ∈ L2 (µ), Ïd g − s ∈ L2 (µ). u´l (198) ª
1
kg − sk 6 2ksk∞ε 2 . (199)
2
? f ∈ L (µ), â½n 24, 3 S ¥3S (sn ) ¦ lim kf − sn k =
n→∞
0, |sn | 6 |f |. âþã, éu sn ∈ S Ú ε > 0, 3 gn ∈ Cc (X) ¦
kgn − sn k 6 2ksn k∞ ε 2 . du |sn | 6 |f |, Ïd ksn k∞ 6 kf k∞ , l ∀n ∈ N∗ , k
1
1
kgn − sn k 6 2kf k∞ ε 2 . du
kf − gn k 6 kf − sn k + ksn − gn k,
Ïd lim kf − gn k = 0. ùL² f áu Cc (X) 4. Ïd Cc (X) 3 L2 (µ) ¥È
n→∞
.
G ´ÛÜ; Hausdorff ÿÀ+, ν ´ G þ Haar ÿÝ, éu f ∈
Z
Cc (G), r ν(f ) P f (x) dx. â Riesz L«½n, 3 G f8|¤ σ-
G
ê A , §¹ G ¤k Borel 8, ¿3 A þÿÝ ν̂, ¦ ν(f ) =
Z Z Z Z
f dν̂, = f (x) dx = f dν̂. éu h ∈ L1 (ν̂) k hdν̂, §Éê, ·r
ZG GZ G G Z
hdν̂ P¤ h(x) dx, ´5¿: h Ø´ G þëY¼ê, h(x) dx Ø
G G
äkØC5. ·r L2 (ν̂) P¤ L2 (G).
a1 , · · · , an Ú b1 , · · · , bn ´ü|¢ê, K  
n
!2 n
! n
X X X
ai b i 6 a2i bi  bj  . (200)
i=1 i=1 j=1
|^ùØª±y²eã(Ø:
(X, A , µ) ´ÿÝm, µ(X) < +∞, Kéu X þKÿ¼ê g,
k Z 2 Z
g dµ 6 g 2 dµ µ(X). (201)
X X
· 358 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
y²3Öö (J«: kéKÿü¼êy² (201) ª¤á).

·K 27 G ´ÛÜ; Hausdorff ÿÀ+, ν ´ G þ Haar ÿÝ,
A ´ Riesz L«½n¥ σ-ê, µ ´ A þ?k.ÿÝ, = µ(G) < +∞. éu
f ∈ Cc (G), - Z
(Tµ f )(x) := f (y −1 x) dµ(y), (202)
G
K Tµ f ∈ L2 (G), Tµ ´ Cc (G) L2 (G) ëY5N, k

kTµ f k 6 kf kµ(G). (203)
−1
y² éu f ∈ Cc (G), ±9z x ∈ G, - fx (y) = f (y x), N´wÑ fx ´ G
þEëY¼ê, Ïd fx ´ A -Eÿ¼ê, l |fx | ´Kÿ¼ê. ´w
Ñ fx ∈ Cc (G). l fx ∈ L2 (G). $^ (201) ª
Z 2 Z
2
|fx (y)| dµ(y) 6 |fx (y)| dµ(y) µ(G) < +∞.
G G
Ïd fx ∈ L1 (G). l éz x ∈ G. (202) ªmàÈ©Éê. u´ Tµ f ´
G þE¼ê.
- F (x, y) = f (y −1 x). N´wÑ |F (x, y)| ´ G × G þKÿ¼ê. u´
âÙ §8 ·K 11 Ú½n 11 (Fubini ½n), (201) ª±9 G Haar ÿÝ ν
ØC5
Z Z Z 2

2
|Tµ f | dx = −1
f (y x) dµ(y) dx
G G G
Z Z 2
−1
6 |f (y x)| dµ(y) dx
G G
Z Z
6 |f (y −1 x)|2 dµ(y) µ(G) dx
G G
Z Z
= µ(G) |f (y −1 x)|2 dx dµ(y)
G G
Z Z
= µ(G) |f (x)|2 dx dµ(y)
G G
Z Z
= µ(G) |f (x)|2 dx dµ(y)
G G
Z
= µ(G)2 |f (x)|2 dx
G
= µ(G) kf k2 .
2
(204)
du ν ´ Cc (G) þ5¼êZ, Ïd
kf k2 = |f (x)|2 dx = ν(|f |2 ) < +∞,
G Z Z
2
q® µ(G) < +∞, Ïdl (204) ª |Tµ f | dx < +∞. q |Tµ f |2 dx =
G G
Z
|Tµ f |2 dν̃, Ïd Tµ f ∈ L2 (ν̃), = Tµ f ∈ L2 (G). l Tµ ´ Cc (G) L2 (G)
G
N. N´wÑ Tµ ´5N. l (204) ª, ∀f ∈ Cc (G), k

kTµ f k 6 µ(G)kf k. (205)
2
l kTµ k 6 µ(G)kf k. Ïd Tµ ´k.5N. du L (G) ´D5m,
Cc (G) ´ L2 (G) fm, Ïdâ!½n 4 , Tµ ´ëY5N.
â½n 25, Cc (G) 3 L2 (G) ¥È, Ïd±r Tµ ½Â*Ð L2 (G)
þ, l Xe·K.
·K 28 3·K 27 ¥½Â Tµ ´ L2 (G) þëY5C, ¿
kTµ f k 6 kf kµ(G).
·K 29 G ´ÛÜ; Hausdorff ÿÀ+, ν ´ G þ Haar ÿ
Ý, ν̃ ´ Riesz L«½n¥d G f8|¤ σ-ê A þÿÝ, K G × G
´ÛÜ; Hausdorff ÿÀ+, ν × ν ´ G × G þ Haar ÿÝ, é
F (x, y) ∈ L2 (G × G), k
(ν × ν)(F (x, y)) = (ν × ν)(F (y −1 x, y)). (206)
y² âÙ §8 ·K 14 , G × G ´ÛÜ;ÿÀm, âÙ §2
½Â 18 e¡(Ø, G × G ´ Hausdorff m. l G × G ´ÛÜ;
Hausdorff ÿÀ+.
F (x, y) ∈ Cc (G × G), Kéz x ∈ G, k Fx (y) = F (x, y) ∈ Cc (G); éz
y ∈ G, k F y (x) = F (x, y) ∈ Cc (G). âÙ §8 ½Â 24 e¡ã{, du ν̃
´ G þ σ-ê A þÿÝ, Ïd ν̃ ×Z ν̃ ´ A × A þÿÝ. -
(ν × ν)(F (x, y)) = F (x, y) d(ν̃ × ν̃). (207)
G×G Z
du |F (x, y)| ∈ Cc (G × G), Ïdâ Fubini ½n, |Fx (y)| dν̃(y) ´ A -ÿ¼
G
Z
ê, |F y (x)| dν̄(x) ´ A -ÿ¼ê,
G Z Z Z
|F (x, y)| d(ν̃ × ν̃) = |Fx (y)| dν̄(y) dν̄(x)
G×G G G
Z Z
y
= |F (x)| dν̄(x) dν̄(y). (208)
G G
â Riesz L«½n Z
|Fx (y)| dν̄(y) = ν(Fx ) < +∞,
ZG
|F y (x)| dν̄(x) = ν(F y ) < +∞.
Z G
Ïdl (208) ª |F (x, y)| d(ν̃ × ν̃) < +∞. l F (x, y) ∈ L1 (G × G). u´
G×G
Z
F (x, y) d(ν̄×ν̄) Éê. Ïd ν×ν ´ Cc (G×G) þ5¼ê, éu
G×G
F > 0, k (ν ×ν)(F ) > 0. l ν ×ν ´ G×G þÿÝ. éu s ∈ G, aqu
Ù §8 ·K 5 y{, $^ §8 ·K 4 F (sx, sy) ´ G× G þEëY¼ê,
· 360 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
Z
F (sx, sy) ∈ Cc (G × G). dfây(Ø |F (sx, sy)| d(ν̄ × ν̄) < +∞.
G×G
u´d FubiniZ½nÚ Riesz L«½n±9 ν ØC5
F (sx, sy) d(ν̃ × ν̄)
G×G
Z Z
sy
= F (sx) dν̃(x) dν̃(y)
ZG G Z
sy
= ν(F (sx)) dν̄(y) = ν(F sy (x)) dν̃(y)
G G
Z Z Z Z
= F (x, sy) dν̃(x) dν̄(y) = F (x, sy) dν̄(y) dν̂(x)
ZG G Z G G
= ν(Fx (sy)) dν̄(x) = ν(Fx (y)) dν̄(x)

G G
Z Z Z
= F (x, y) dν̄(y) dν̄(x) = F (x, y) d(ν̃ × ν̃). (209)
G G G×G
l (209) ªÚ (207) ª
(ν × ν)(F (sx, sy)) = (ν × ν)(F (x, y)). (210)
Ïd ν × ν ´ G × G ØCÿÝ, = Haar ÿÝ. u´
(ν × ν)(F (x, y)) = (ν × ν)(F (y −1 x, y)). (211)
â½n 25, Cc (G × G) 3 L2 (ν̃ × ν̃) (P¤ L2 (G × G)) ¥È, Ïdéu F (x, y) ∈
L2 (G × G) k (211) ª¤á.
G ´ÛÜ; Hausdorff ÿÀ+, ν ´ G þ Haar ÿÝ, ν̃ ´ Riesz
L«½n¥d G f8|¤ σ-ê A þÿÝ. r L1 (ν̃) P L1 (G). f, g ∈
L1 (G). Kd Fubini ½n
Z Z Z
|g(x)f (ν)| d(ν̃ × ν̃) = |g(x)||f (y)| dν̄(x) dν̄(y)
G×G G G
Z Z
= |f (y)| |g(x)| dν̃(x) dν̄(y)
G G
Z Z
= |g(x)| dν̄(x) |f (y)| dν̄(y) < +∞. (212)
G G
Ïd g(x)f (y) ∈ L1 (ν̃ × ν̃), r L1 (ν̄ × ν̄) P¤ L1 (G × G). âÙ §3 ½Â 3 9Ù
e¡ã{, (x, y) 7→ (y −1 x, y) ´ G × G gÓN. u´l (212)
ª
Z
|g(y −1 x)f (y)| d(ν̃ × ν̃) < +∞. (213)
G×G
l â Fubini ½n, éA¤k Z x ∈ G, k

−1
|g(y x)f (y)| dν̄(y) < +∞, (214)
G Z
Ïd g(y −1 x)f (y) ∈ L1 (G), u´ g(y −1 x)f (y) dν̃(y) Éê: éu G þ
G
Kÿ¼ê |f |, - Z
µ(A) = |f | dν̃, ∀A ∈ A , (215)
A
KâÙ §8 íØ 3 , µ ´ A þÿÝ, ¿éu G þzKÿ

¼ê h, k Z Z
h dµ = h|f | dν̃. (216)
G G
AO/, éu 1G , k Z Z Z
µ(G) = 1G dµ = 1G |f | dν̃ = |f | dν̃ < +∞. (217)
G G G
?Ú g = L2 (G), â·K 27, Tµ ´ L2 (G) þëY5C, u´ Tµ g ∈
L2 (G). â Tµ ½Â (202) ª, Z
(Tµ g)(x) = g(y −1 x) dµ(y). (218)
G
â (216) ªÚZ(214) ª, éA¤k Z x ∈ G, k
|g(y −1 x)| dµ(y) = |g(y −1 x)| |f (y)| dν̄(y) < +∞. (219)
G G
- gx (y) = g(y x), Kl (219) ª, éA¤k x ∈ G k gx ∈ L1 (µ). l
−1
Z Z
gx (y) dµ(y) Éê, = g(y −1 x) dµ(y) Éê. âÙ §8 íØ 4
G G
, éA¤k Z x ∈ G, k Z Z
g(y −1 x) dµ(y) = gx (y) dµ(y) = gx (y)|f (y)| dν̃(y)
G
ZG G
= g(y −1 x)|f (y)| dν̃(y). (220)

Z Z G
r g(y −1 x)|f (y)| dν̃(y) P¤ g(y −1 x)|f (y)| dy, Kl (200) ª, éA¤k
G G
Z
x ∈ G, g(y −1 x)|f (y)| dy Éê. -
G Z
(f ∗ g)(x) := g(y −1 x)|f (y)| dy, (221)
G
K f ∗ g ´ G þE¼ê, §A??k½Â, ¡ f ∗ g ´ f g òÈ, Ù¥
f ∈ L1 (G), g ∈ L2 (G). l (218) ª (220) ªÚ (221) ª, éA¤k x ∈ G, k
(Tµ g)(x) = (f ∗ g)(x), (222)
du Tµ g ∈ L2 (G), Ïd f ∗ g ∈ L2 (G). u´·y²
eã·K.
·K 30 G ´ÛÜ; Hausdorff ÿÀ+, ν ´ G þ Haar ÿÝ,
éu f ∈ L1 (G), g ∈ L2 (G), - Z
(f ∗ g)(x) := g(y −1 x)|f (y)| dy, (223)
G
K f ∗ g A??k½Â, ¡ f ∗ g ´ f g òÈ, ¿ f ∗ g ∈ L2 (G).
9.13 Peter-weyl ½ny²

y3·5y² Peter-Weyl ½n.
· 362 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
½n 26 (Peter-Weyl ½n) G ´;+, ν ´ G þ (m) Haar ÿÝ

ν äk55, K3 L2 (G) ¥, G ¤kkØjL«Ý
)¤f
m3 L2 (G) ¥È.
y² (ϕ, V ) ´;+ G kØjL«, ?¿½ ϕ, β ∈ V , -
f (x) = (ϕ(x)α, β), K f (x) ´ ϕ Ý
, §´ G þEëY¼ê. ? s ∈ G,
f (sx) = (ϕ(sx)α, β) = (ϕ(s)ϕ(x)α, β) = (ϕ(x)α, ϕ(s−1 )β),
f (xs) = (ϕ(xs)α, β) = (ϕ(x)ϕ(s)α, β),
f (x−1 ) = ϕ(x−1 α, β) = (α, ϕ(x)β) = (ϕ(x)β, α).
u´ f (sx), f (xs), f (x−1 ) Ñ´ ϕ Ý
. Ïdd;+ G kØjL
«Ý
)¤ L2 (G) fm4 U 3 G ²£!m²£±9N
f (x) 7→ f (x−1 ) eØC. du L2 (G) ´ Hilbert m, U ´4fm, Ïdâ
!½n 2
L2 (G) = U ⊕ U ⊥ . (224)
â!½n 1 þ¡ã{, U ⊥ ´ L2 (G) 4fm.

bX U 6= L2 (G), K U ⊥ 6= 0. u´3 G þ"E¼ê k ∈ U ⊥ , l
k ∈ L2 (G). W ´ G ü e m Z .-
1 −1
FW (x) = k(y x)1W (y) dy. (225)
ν(W ) G
1
du 1W ∈ L1 (G), k ∈ L2 (G), Ïdâ·K 29 FW = (1W ∗ k), FW ∈
ν(W )
L2 (G). â½n 25, Cc (G) 3 L2 (G) ¥È, u´ FW ∈ Cc (G). â!·K 4
, Cc (G) ¥3 {fiW } ¦ fiW → FW , =éu L2 (G) z¹k FW
mf8 ΩW , Ñ3 i0 = i0 (ΩW ), ¦ ∀i > i0 k fiW ∈ ΩW . qdu W
{e} , FW 3 L2 (G) ¥Âñ
1
k(x)ν({e}) = k(x).
ν({e})
du k 6= 0, Ïd3 e m W ¦ FW 6= 0. éuù W , âþ¡¤ù
SN, fiW → FW . du k ∈ U ⊥ U ⊥ ´4fm, Ïdk" fjW ∈ U ⊥ , l
U ⊥ ¥k"ëY¼ê. du U 3 G (m) ²£eØC, Ïd U ⊥ 3 G
(m) ²£eØC. l b U ⊥ ¥k"ëY¼ê F1 , ¦ F1 (e) ´Øu 0
¢ê. Z
F2 (x) = F1 (yxy −1 ) dy, (226)
G
F (x) = F2 (x) + F2 (x−1 ), (227)
âÙSK 6.5 1 1 K, F2 (x) ´ G þEëY¼ê, l FZ(x) ´ G þE
ëY¼ê. du F1 ∈ U ⊥ , Ïdéu?¿ f ∈ U , k 0 = (F1 , f ) = Fi (x)f (x) dx.
G
l $^ FubiniZ½n Z Z
(F2 , f ) = F2 (x)f (x) dx = F1 (yxy −1 ) dy f (x) dx
G G G
Z Z Z Z
−1 −1
= F1 (yxy )f (x) dy dx = F1 (yxy )f (x) dx dy
G G G G
Z Z Z
= F1 (x)f (x) dx dy = 0 dy = 0. (228)
G G G
Ïd F2 ∈ U ⊥ . du U ⊥ 3N g(x) → 7 eØC, Ïd F2 (x−1 ) ∈ U ⊥ . l
g(x−1 )
F (x) ∈ U ⊥ , ¿
Z Z
−1
F (e) = F2 (e) + F2 (e) = F1 (yey ) dy + F1 (yey −1 ) dy
G G
= F1 (e) + F1 (e) = 2F1 (e). (229)
∀s ∈ G, k Z Z
F2 (sxs−1 ) = F1 (ysxs−1 y −1 ) dy = F1 ((ys)x(ys)−1 ) dy = F2 (x). (230)
G G
−1
k(x, y) = F (x y), K
k(x, y) = F (x−1 y) = F2 (x−1 y) + F2 (y −1 x) = F (y −1 x) = k(y, x), (231)
éu f ∈ L2 (G), ½Â Z
( T f )(x) := k(x, y)f (y) dy, (232)
G
- kx (y) = k(x, y) = F (x−1 y), du F ´ G þEëY¼ê, Ïd kx ´ G þ

EëY¼ê, l kx ´ G þEÿ¼ê, q f ´ G þEÿ¼ê, Ï
dâÙ §8 ·K 6 , kx f ´ G þEÿ¼ê, l éz x ∈ G, (232)
ªmàÈ©k¿Â. aq/, k(x, y)f (y) ´ G × G þEÿ¼ê, l
2
Z ´ G × G þKÿ¼ê
|k(x, y)f (y)| Z . $^ Fubini ½n
|k(x, y)f (y)|2 dx dy = F (x−1 y)F (y −1 x)|f (y)|2 dx dy
G×G G×G
Z Z
= F (x−1 y)F (y −1 x)|f (y)|2 dx dy
G G
Z Z
= |f (y)|2 F (x−1 )F (x) dx dy
G G
Z Z
2
= |F (x)| dx |f (y)|2 dy < +∞. (233)
G G
Ïd k(x, y)f (y) ∈ L2 (G × G), ¿E^ Fubini ½n
Z Z Z
|k(x, y)f (y)|2 dy dx = |k(x, y)f (y)|2 dx dy < +∞. (234)
G G G×G
l éz x ∈ G, k Z
|k(x, y)f (y)|2 dy < +∞. (235)
G
$^ (201) ª
Z 2 Z
|k(x, y)f (y)| dy 6 |k(x, y)f (y)|2 dy ν(G) < +∞. (236)
Z G G
Ïd |k(x, y)f (y)| dy < +∞. l k(x, y)f (y) ∈ L1 (G). u´éz x ∈ G, Ñk
G
· 364 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
Z
k(x, y)f (y) dy Éê. Ïd T f ´ G þE¼ê. âÙ §8 ·
G
K 11 Ú (236) ª!(234) ª
Z Z Z 2

|If |2 dx = k(x, y)f (y) dy dx

G G G
Z Z 2
6 |k(x, y)f (y)| dy dx
G G
Z Z
2
6 |k(x, y)f (y)| dy dx < +∞. (237)
G G
Ïd T f ∈ L2 (G). l T ´ L (G) þC, w,, T ´5C. dué?
2
¿ f1 , f2 ∈ L2 (G), k Z Z Z
(f1 , T f2 ) = f1 ( T f2 ) dx = f1 (x) k(x, y)f2 (y) dy dx
G G
Z Z G
= f1 (x) k(y, x)f2 (y) dy dx
G G
Z Z
= f1 (x)k(y, x) dx f2 (y) dy
ZG G
= ( T f1 )(y)f2 (y) dy = ( T f1 , f2 ), (238)
G
Ïd T ´gC.
e¡·5y² T ´;5C, dÄky T ´ëY.
(fn ) ´ L2 (G) ¥fÂñu f S, Kéu?¿ l ∈ [L2 (G)]∗ k
l(fn ) → l(f ). l
sup{|l(fn )|} < +∞, ∀l ∈ [L2 (G)]∗ .
n
du fn∗∗ (l) = l(fn ), Ïd sup{|fn∗∗ (l)|} < +∞, ∀l ∈ [L2 (G)]∗ . u´éu [L2 (G)]∗
n
C xk.5N {fn∗∗ |n = 1, 2, · · · } ^k.n (=½n 6) , 3¢
ê M ¦
kfn∗∗ k 6 M, n = 1, 2, · · · . (239)
â·K 3 kfn k = kfn∗∗ k 6 M, n = 1, 2, · · · . u´

|fn (y)| 6 M, n = 1, 2, · · · , ∀y ∈ G. (240)
du;+ZG þØCÈ©´5¼êZ, Ïd Z
k(x, y)[g1 (y) + g2 (y)] dy = k(x, y)g1 (y) dy + k(x, y)g2 (y) dy,
G G G
Z Z
k(x, y)ag(y) dy = a k(x, y)g(y) dy.
G G
l d (fn ) fÂñZ f Ñ Z
k(x, y)fn (y) dy → k(x, y)f (y) dy, n → ∞. (241)
Z G G
Pb= |F (y)| dy, Kéu?¿ê n k

G
Z Z

k(x, y)fn (y) dy 6 |k(x, y)| |fn (y)| dy

G G
Z
6 |F (x−1 y)|M dy
G
Z
=M |F (y)| dy = M b. (242)
Z G
du M b dx = M b, Ïd M b ´È¼ê. $^Ù §8 ½n 7(Lebesgue

G
Âñ½n)
"Z Z 2 # 21

lim k T fn k = lim k(x, y)fn (y) dy dx
n→∞ n→∞
G G
"Z Z 2 # 12

= lim k(x, y)fn (y) dy dx
G n→∞ G
" Z Z 2 # 21

= k(x, y)f (y) dy dx

G G
= k T f k. (243)
Ïd T ´ëY, qâ~ 1, Hilbert m´g. u´â·K 11 , T
´;5C, l T ´;gC.
du F 6= 0, Ïd T 6= 0. l âÚn 5 , T k"A λ, λ ´
¢ê. â·K 20, T áu λ Afm Vλ = Ker ( T − λ T ) ´k,
éu G KL« ρ, ? s ∈ G, ρ(s) p
L2 (G) þ5C, P
ρ̃(s) : [ρ̃(s)f ](x) = f (sx). ? f ∈ Vλ , P gs = ρ̃(s)f , K gs (x) = [ρ̃(s)f ](x) = f (sx).
u´k Z
[ T (ρ̃(s)f )](x) = ( T gs )(x) = k(x, y)gs (y) dy
G
Z Z
−1
= F (x y)f (sy) dy = F (x−1 s−1 t)f (t) dt
G G
Z
= F ((sx)−1 y)f (y) dy = ( T f )(sx)
G
= (λf )(sx) = λf (sx) = λ(ρ̃(s)f )(x). (244)
ddÑ T (ρ̃(s)f ) = λ(ρ̃(s)f ). l ρ̃(s)f ∈ Vλ , Ïd Vλ ´ G KL« ρ p
L« ρ̃ ØCfm. u´ ρ̃ ± Vλ þ. du Vλ ´k, Ïd ρ̃|Vλ
´ G kEL«. dué?¿ Z f1 , f2 ∈ L2 (G), k
(ρ̃(s)f1 , ρ̃(s)f2 ) = [ρ̃(s)f1 ](x)[ρ̃(s)f2 ](x) dx
ZG Z
= f1 (sx)f2 (s(x)) dx = f1 (x)f2 (x) dx
G G
= (f1 , f2 ), (245)
Ïd ρ̃(s) ´ L2 (G) þjC, l ρ̃ ´ G jL«. u´ ρ̃|Vλ ´ G
· 366 · 18Ù Ã+5L«
jL«. du G jL«´, Ïd ρ̃|Vλ kØfL«, ÙL«m

P Wλ , w, Wλ 6= 0. Wλ ´ L2 (G) 4fm, ÏdâÙ §2 ·K 7 , Wλ
´. l Wλ ´ Hilbert m, 3 Wλ ¥IOÄ η1 , · · · , ηn ,
(ρ̃|Wλ )(s) 3 Wλ ùÄeÝ
(i, Z j) P hij (s), K
hij (s) = (ρ̃(s)ηj , ηi ) = (ρ̃(s)ηj )(x)ηi (x) dx
G
Z
= ηj (sx)ηi (x) dx. (246)
G
â U ½Â, hij (s)Z ∈ U . ,¡, du F ∈ U ⊥ , Ïd
0 = (F, hij ) = F (s)hij (s) ds
G
Z Z Z Z
= F (s) ηj (sx)ηi (x) dx ds = F (s)ηj (sx)ηi (x) dx ds
G G G G
Z Z Z Z
= F (s)ηj (sx) ds ηi (x) dx = F (tx−1 )ηj (t) dt ηi (x) dx
G G G G
Z Z Z Z
= F (xt−1 )ηi (x) dx ηj (t) dt = F (t−1 x)ηi (x) dx ηj (t) dt
ZG G Z G G
= ( T ηi )(t)ηj (t) dt = (ληi )(t)ηj (t) dt

G G
= λ(ηi , ηj ), (247)
2
l (247) ª 0 = λ(η1 , η1 ) = λ, ù λ 6= 0 gñ. Ïd U = L (G).
SK)½J«
SK 1.1
1. (1) y f ±$.

(2) x ∈ Ker f ⇐⇒ e2π ix = 1 ⇐⇒ x ∈ Z, Ïd Ker f = Z. Im f É²¡þü
, P C.
(3) â+ÓÄ½n R/ Z ∼ = C.
2. (1) y ψ ±¦{$.
z z
(2) z ∈ Ker ψ ⇐⇒ = 1 ⇐⇒ z ∈ R+ , Ïd Ker ψ = R+ . du = 1, Ïd
|z| |z|
Im ψ É²¡þü C.
(3) â+ÓÄ½n C∗ / R+ ∼ = C.
3. w,, 1ª¼ê det ´ GL n (F ) F ∗ ÓN, det ´÷. Ï
d Im (det) = F ∗ . d SLn (F ) ½Âá= Ker (det) = SLn (F ). Ïd SLn (F ) ⊳
GL n (F ). d+ÓÄ½n GL n (F )/SLn (F ) ∼
= F ∗.
SK 1.2
1. ^ V L«²¡þ±½: O å:¤k½ þ|¤¢5m. -
ϕ : ( R, +) → GL (V )
t 7→ σt ,
Ù¥ σt ´²¡þ7: O = t ^=. du
ϕ(t + u) = σt+u = σt σu ,
Ïd ϕ ´ ( R, +) 2 g¢L«.
2. V = Rn [x]. ? a ∈ R, - T a (f (x)) = f (x + a), K T a ∈ GL (V ). -
ϕ(a) = T a , K ϕ ´ ( R, +) n g¢L«. 3 Rn [x] ¥Ä 1, x, x2 , · · · ,
· 368 · SK)½J«
xn−1 . du
ϕ(a)1 = T a (1) = 1, ϕ(a)x = T a (x) = x + a,
ϕ(a)x2 = T a (x2 ) = (x + a)2 = x2 + 2ax + a2 ,
············
ϕ(a)xn−1 = T a (xn−1 ) = (x + a)n−1
= xn−1 + C1n−1 xn−2 a + · · · + Cn−2
n−1 xa
n−2
+ an−1 ,
Ïd  
1 a a2 · · · an−1
 
0 1 2a · · · Cn−2 n−2 
 n−1 a 
 
0 0 1 ··· n−3 n−3 
Cn−1 a
 
 
 n−4 n−4 
Φ(a) =  0 0 0 ··· Cn−1 a .
 
 .. .. .. .. 
. . . . 
 
 
0 0 0 ··· Cn−1 a 
1
 
0 0 0 ··· 1
3. V = R[x], ? a ∈ R, - T a (f (x)) = f (x + a), K T a ∈ GL (V ). -
ϕ(a) = T a , K ϕ ´ ( R, +) Ã¢L«.
4. ~ 1 ¥, x ∈ Ker (fa ) ⇐⇒ fa (x) = 1 ⇐⇒ eax = 1. a 6= 0 , x ∈
Ker (fa ) ⇐⇒ eax = 1 ⇐⇒ ax = 0 ⇐⇒ x = 0. Ïd fa ´§¢. a = 0 ,
Ker (f0 ) = R, Ïd f0 ´², l Ø´§¢.
~ 2 ¥, x ∈ Ker (fa ) ⇐⇒ e iax = 1. a = 0 , Ker (f0 ) = R, l f0 ´²
, Ø´§¢. a 6= 0 , a = a1 + ia2 , Ù¥ a1 , a2 ∈ R, a1 , a2 Ø
0. e iax = e i(a1 + ia2 )x = e−a2 x [cos(a1 x) + i sin(a1 x)] u´ e iax = 1 ⇐⇒ e−a2 x = 1
a1 x = 2kπ, k ∈ Z. e a2 6= 0, K e iax = 1 ⇐⇒ x = 0. l fa ´§¢. e a2 = 0.
2kπ
K e iax = 1 ⇐⇒ x = , k ∈ Z. l fa Ø´§¢.
a1
~ 3 ¥, t ∈ Ker Φ ⇐⇒ Φ(t) = I ⇐⇒ t = 2kπ, k ∈ Z. Ïd Φ Ø´§¢.
~ 4 ¥, a ∈ Ker ϕ ⇐⇒ T a = I
⇐⇒ f (x + a) = f (x), ∀f (x) ∈ Rn [x]
=⇒ x + a = x
=⇒ a = 0.
Ïd ϕ ´§¢.
l~ 3 , 1 1 K ( R, +) 2 g¢L«Ø´§¢.
l~ 4 , 1 2 K ( R, +) n g¢Ý
L«Ú1 3 K ( R, +) Ã
¢L«Ñ´§¢.
5. w, ϕλ ´ ( Z, +) C∗ N. du
ϕλ (n + m) = λn+m = λn λm = ϕλ (n)ϕλ (m),
SK)½J« · 369 ·
Ïd ϕλ ´ ( Z, +) 1 gEL«.
n ∈ Ker ϕλ ⇐⇒ λn = 1,
u´
ϕλ ´§¢ ⇐⇒ ∀n ∈ Z∗ Ñk λn 6= 1
⇐⇒ λ Ø´ m gü , ∀m ∈ N∗ .
6. La ´ R[x] gN. du x ^ ax \´±\{Ú¦{$,
Ïd La ´ R[x] þ5C. a = 0 , L0 (x) = 0, L0 (x2 ) = 0, Ïd L0 Ø´ü
. l L0 Ø_. u´ ϕ Ø´ ( R, +) ¢L«.
Ón, Sa ´ R[x] þ5C. du
(S−a Sa )(f (x)) = S−a (f ( ea x)) = f ( e−a ( ea x))
= f (x), ∀f (x) ∈ R[x],
Ïd Sa _. du
ψ(a + b)(f (x)) = Sa+b (f (x)) = f ( ea+b x) = f ( ea eb x)
= Sa (f ( eb x)) = Sa (Sb (f (x))) = (Sa Sb )(f (x))
= (ψ(a)ψ(b))(f (x)), ∀f (x) ∈ R[x],
Ïd ψ(a + b) = ψ(a)ψ(b). l ψ ´ ( R, +) Ã¢L«.
7. ~ 3 E ( R, +) 2 g¢Ý
L« Φ !
cos t − sin t
Φ(t) = , ∀t ∈ R.
sin t cos t
1 2 KE ( R, +) 2 g¢Ý
L« Ψ!
1 t
Ψ (t) = , ∀t ∈ R.
0 1
du tr (Φ(t)) = 2 cos t, tr (Ψ (t)) = 2, Ïd t 6= 2kπ(k ∈ Z) , Φ(t) Ψ (t) Ø
q. l Ø3 2 ¢_Ý
S ¦ Ψ (t) = SΦ(t)S −1 , ∀t ∈ R. Ïd Φ Ψ Ø
d.
8. K[G] Ä´ e, a, a2 , a3 . du
ρ(a)e = ae = a, ρ(a)a = a2 , ρ(a)a2 = a3 , ρ(a)a3 = e.
Ïd ρ(a) 3Ä e, a, a2 , a3 eÝ

 
0 0 0 1
 
1 0 0 0

P (a) =  .

0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
P (a2 ) = P (a)2 , P (a3 ) = P (a)3 , P (e) = I.
9. S3 = h(12), (123)i. du
ρ((12))(1) = (12), ρ((12))(12) = (12)2 = (1),
ρ((12))(13) = (12)(13) = (132), ρ((12))(23) = (12)(23) = (123),
ρ((12))(123) = (12)(123) = (23), ρ((12))(132) = (13),
· 370 · SK)½J«
Ïd ρ((12)) 3 K[S3 ] Ä (1), (12), (13), (23), (123), (132) eÝ

 
0 1 0 0 0 0
 
1 0 0 0 0 0
 
0 0 0 0 0 1
 
P ((12)) =  .
0 0 0 0 1 0
 
 
0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0
du ρ((123))(1) = (123), ρ((123))(12) = (13), ρ((123))(13) = (23), ρ((123))(23) =
(12), ρ((123))(123) = (132), ρ((123))(132) = (1), Ïd
 
0 0 0 0 0 1
 
0 0 0 1 0 0
 
0 1 0 0 0 0
 
P ((123)) =  .
0 0 1 0 0 0
 
 
1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0
du (13) = (123)(12), (23) = (12)(123), (132) = (123)−1 , Ïd P ((13)) = P ((123))
P ((12)), P ((23)) = P ((12))P ((123)), P ((132)) = P ((123))−1 .
π
10. D4 = hσ, τ |σ 4 = τ 2 = I, τ στ = σ −1 i, Ù¥ σ ´7/¥% O =
2
^=, τ ´'u/^é¡¶. ± O :, ù^é¡¶ x ¶ï
á²¡IX Oxy. x ¶, y ¶ü þ©O e1 , e2 . /¤3²¡ V
´ 2 ¢5m, §Ä e1 , e2 .
D4 z (§´:C) éA§pþC´ D4 2 g¢L
« ϕ. σ pþCEP σ. Ù{aq.
σ(e1 ) = e2 , σ(e2 ) = −e1 ,
τ (e1 ) = e1 , τ (e2 ) = −e2 ,
Ïd ! !
0 −1 1 0
Φ(σ) = , Φ(τ ) = .
1 0 0 −1
du Φ ´Ó, Ïd Φ(σi ) = Φ(σ)i , Φ(σi τ ) = Φ(σ)i Φ(t), i = 1, 2, 3. Φ(I) = I.

11. Φ(σ) = Eσ(1),1 + Eσ(2),2 + · · · + Eσ(n),n , u´
tr Φ(σ) = |{i|σ(i) = i}|,
ªm>Ò´ σ ØÄ:ê.
SK)½J« · 371 ·
SK 1.3
1. (1) w, V1 Ú V!
n
2 Ñ´ V fm. ? g ∈ G.
n n
!kn
X X X X
ϕ(g) xi = g ◦ xi , ϕ(g) ai xi = ai (g ◦ xi ),
i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1
du g ◦ xi = g ◦ xj ⇐⇒ g −1 ◦ (g ◦ xi ) = g −1 ◦ (g ◦ xj ) ⇐⇒ xi = xj , Ïd V1 ´ ϕ(g)
ØCfm, ϕ(g)|V1 = 1V1 ; V2 ´ ϕ(g) ØCfm. l V1 , V2 Ñ´ G ØC
fm.
(2) K AØUØ n, K n1 6= 0, Ù¥ 1 ´ K ü . P a =
n
X
(n1)−1 ai , K
i=1
n
X n
X n
X
ai xi = (ai − a)xi + axi .
i=1 i=1 i=1
n
X n
X n
X n
X
du (ai − a) = ai − a = (n1)a − na = 0, Ïd (ai − a)xi ∈ V2 . w,
i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1
n
X
axi ∈ V1 . l V = V1 + V2 .
i=1
n
X n
X
T
? ai xi ∈ V1 V2 , K a1 = a2 = · · · = an , ai = 0. l na1 = 0, =
i=1 i=1
n
X T
(n1)a1 = 0. du n1 6= 0, Ïd a1 = 0. u´ ai xi = 0. ¤± V1 V2 = {0}. l
i=1
V = V1 ⊕ V2 . Ïd
ϕ = ϕV1 ⊕ ϕV2 .
2. S3 38Ü Ω = {x1 , x2 , x3 } þkg,^: σ ◦ xi = xσ(i) . - V =

( ) ( 3 )
3
X X X3

ai xi ai ∈ C, i = 1, 2, 3 , V1 = hx1 +x2 +x3 i, V2 = ai xi ai = 0, ai ∈ C ,

i=1 i=1 i=1
K V1 , V2 Ñ´ S3 ØCfm. du dimV1 = 1, Ïd, dimV2 = 2. l ϕV2 ´ S3

2 gEL«, {P ϕ2 . V2 ¥Ä x1 − x2 , x1 − x3 . du
ϕ2 ((12))(x1 − x2 ) = x2 − x1 = −(x1 − x2 ),
ϕ2 ((12))(x1 − x3 ) = x2 − x3 = −(x1 − x2 ) + (x1 − x3 );
ϕ2 ((123))(x1 − x2 ) = x2 − x3 = −(x1 − x2 ) + (x1 − x3 ),
ϕ2 ((123))(x1 − x3 ) = x2 − x1 = −(x1 − x2 );
Ïd ! !
−1 −1 −1 −1
Φ2 ((12)) = , Φ2 ((123)) = .
0 1 1 0
du (12)(123) = (23), (123)(12) = (13), (132) = (123)−1 , Ïd Φ2 ((23)) = Φ2 ((12))

· 372 · SK)½J«
Φ((123)), Φ2 ((13)) = Φ2 ((123))Φ2 ((12)), Φ2 ((132)) = Φ2 ((123))−1 . ÖögCO

ÑÝ
.
3. (1) w, ϕ ±$, dim(Mn (K)) = n2 , Ïd ϕ ´ GL n (K) n2 g
K-L«.
(2) du tr (ϕ(A)X) = tr (AXA−1 ) = tr (X), Ïd Mn0 (K) ´ ϕ ØCfm.
du ϕ(A)(kI) = A(kI)A−1 = kI, Ïd hIi ´ ϕ ØCfm.
(3) e K AØUØ n, K n1 6= 0, Ù¥ 1 ´ K ü . ?
n
X
X = (xij ) ∈ Mn (K), P b = (n1)−1 xii . - X1 = bI, X2 (i, j) xij − bδij ,
i=1
K X1 + X2 (i, j) bδij + (xij − bδij ) = xij , Ïd X1 + X2 = X. du
n
X Xn X n
tr (X2 ) = (xii − b) = xii − b = (n1)b − nb = 0,
i=1 i=1 i=1
Ïd X2 ∈ Mn0 (K). l Mn (K) = hIi + Mn0 (K).
T
? Y ∈ hIi Mn0 (K), K Y = cI nc = 0. du n1 6= 0, Ïd c = 0. l
T
hIi Mn0 (K) = {0}. u´ Mn (K) = hIi ⊕ Mn0 (K). Ïd
ϕ = ϕhIi ⊕ ϕMn0 (K) .
4. (1) ? X ∈ Mn+ ( R), Ké?¿ A ∈ O(n), k
(ϕ(A)X)′ = (AXA−1 )′ = (AXA′ )′ = AX ′ A′ = AXA−1 = ϕ(A)X,
tr (ϕ(A)X) = tr (AXA−1 ) = tr (X),
Ïd ϕ(A)X ∈ Mn+ ( R), l Mn+ ( R) ´ ϕ ØCfm. Óny, Mn− ( R) ´ ϕ
ØCfm.
(2) â1 3 K, Mn ( R) = hIi ⊕ Mn0 ( R). ? X ∈ Mn0 ( R), k
X + X′ X − X′ X + X′ X − X′
X= + , ∈ Mn+ ( R), ∈ Mn− ( R).
2 2 2 T 2
Ïd Mn0 ( R) = Mn+ ( R) + Mn− ( R). w, Mn+ ( R) Mn− ( R) = {0}. l Mn0 ( R) =
Mn+ ( R) ⊕ Mn− ( R). u´
Mn ( R) = hIi ⊕ Mn+ ( R) ⊕ Mn− ( R).
Ïd ϕ = ϕ0 ⊕ ϕ1 ⊕ ϕ2 .
− n(n − 1)
(3) dimMn ( R) = (n − 1) + (n − 2) + · · · + 2 + 1 = , Ïd (ϕ2 , Mn− ( R))
2
1
´ O(n) n(n − 1) g¢L«.
2
5. A ∈ Ker ϕ ⇐⇒ ϕ(A) = I ⇐⇒ Aα = α, ∀α ∈ K n ⇐⇒ A = I. Ïd ϕ ´§¢.
U ´ K n GL n (K) ØCfm, U 6= {0}. α1 ∈ U α1 6= 0. ? β1 ∈ V ,
β1 6= 0. ©Or α1 , β1 *¿¤ K n Ä: α1 , α2 , · · · , αn ; β1 , β2 , · · · , βn . P ´Ä
α1 , α2 , · · · , αn Ä β1 , β2 , · · · , βn LÞÝ
, K P ´_Ý
, β1 = P α1 . d
u U ´ GL n (K) ØCfm, Ïd β1 ∈ U . l V ⊆ U . u´ U = V . Ïd ϕ ´
Ø, du K n ´ n , Ïd deg ϕ = n.
6. (1) ´wÑ, ψ(A) ´ Mn (K) þ_5C, ψ ±$. Ïd ψ ´
GL n (K) K-L«. du dimMn (K) = n2 , Ïd deg ψ = n2 .
SK)½J« · 373 ·
(j) (j)
(2) w, Mn (K) ´ Mn (K) fm. ? Mn (K) ¥Ý
X =
x1j E1j + x2j E2j + · · · + xnj Enj , Ù¥ Eij L« (i, j) 1 Ù{ 0 n Ý
. éu?¿ A = (aij ) ∈ GL n (K), k

n
! n
X X
ψ(A)X = A xij Eij = xij AEij
i=1 i=1
n n
! n n
!
X X X X
= xij ali Elj = xij ali Elj ∈ Mn(j) (K).
i=1 l=1 l=1 i=1
Ïd Mn(j) (K) ´ GL n (K) ØCfm.

U ´ Mn(j) (K) GL n (K) ØCfm, U 6= {0}. X ∈ U X 6= 0. ?
Y ∈ Mn(j) (K) Y 6= 0. ©Or X, Y *¿¤ Mn(j) (K) Ä, LÞÝ

(j)
P , K P X = Y . du U ´ GL n (K) ØCfm, Ïd Y ∈ U . l U = Mn (K).
u´ ψj ´Ø. w,k
Mn (K) = Mn(1) (K) ⊕ · · · ⊕ Mn(n) (K),
Ïd ψ = ψ1 ⊕ ψ2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ ψn .
(j)
(3) Mn (K) Ä E1j , E2j , · · · , Enj . K n Ä ε1 , ε2 , · · · , εn , Ù¥
εi ´1 i ©þ 1 Ù{©þ 0 n þ. -
n
! n
X X
σ xij Eij := xij εi ,
i=1 i=1
n
X
K σ ´ n 5m Mn(j) (K) K n ÓN, éu?¿ xij Eij ∈
i=1
Mn(j) (K), ?¿ A ∈ GL n (K), k
n
! n
! n
! n
X X X X
ϕ(A)σ xij Eij = ϕ(A) xij εi = A xij εi = xij Aεi
i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1
n n
! n n
!
X X X X
= xij ali εl = xij ali εl ,
i=1 l=1 l=1 i=1
n
! n n
! ! n n
!
X X X X X
σψj (A) xij Eij =σ xij ali Elj = xij ali εl ,
i=1 l=1 i=1 l=1 i=1
Ïd ϕ(A)σ = σψj (A), ∀A ∈ GL n (K). l ψj ϕ d.
7. GL 2 ( C) 3fm M20 ( C) þfL«P ϕ1 . du M2 ( C) = hIi ⊕ M20 ( C),
Ïd dimM20 ( C)!= 3. bX ϕ1 , K M20 ( C) k 1 GL 2 ( C) ØCfm U = hBi.
1 0
A= ,K
0 2
! !  
1

1 0 b b 1 0 b 11 b 12
11 12
ϕ1 (A)B = ABA−1 =    2 .
1 =
0 2 b21 −b11 0 2b21 −b11
2
· 374 · SK)½J«
du U ´ ϕ(A) ØCfm, Ïd!ϕ(A)B = cB. !

l B!ke 3 «U:
b 0 0 d 0 0
, , ,
0 −b 0 0 t 0
Ù¥ b, d, t ´"Eê. þã 3 Ý
©OP ! !3 . ©O
B1 , B2 , B
1 2 0 1
A1 = , A2 = ,
1 1 1 0
K ! ! ! !
1 2 b 0 −1 2 −3b 4b
ϕ(A1 )B1 = = 6∈ hB1 i,
1 1 0 −b 1 −1 −2b 3b
! ! ! !
0 1 0 d 0 1 0 0
ϕ(A2 )B2 = = 6∈ hB2 i,
1 0 0 0 1 0 d 0
! ! ! !
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 t
ϕ(A2 )B3 = = 6∈ hB3 i,
1 0 t 0 1 0 0 0
ù U = hBi ´ GL 2 ( C) ØCfmgñ. Ïd ϕ1 Ø.
8. Sn 3 K þ n gL« ( ϕn ´d Sn 38Ü Ω = {x1) , x2 , · · · , xn }
X

þg,^Úå, L«m V = ai xi ai ∈ K, i = 1, 2, · · · , n . - V1 =

* n + ( n n i=1)
X X
X
xi , V2 = ai xi ai = 0, ai ∈ K . â1 1 K, duAØUØ

i=1 i=1 i=1
n, Ïd V = V1 ⊕ V2 , V1 , V2 Ñ´ Sn ØCfm ! . ϕ 3 V1 , V2 þfL«©OP
n
X Xn Xn
ϕ1 , ϕ2 , K ϕ = ϕ1 ⊕ ϕ2 . du ϕ1 (σ) xi = xσ(i) = xi , Ïd ϕ1 (σ) ´
i=1 i=1 i=1
V1 þðC, ∀σ ∈ Sn . l Ker ϕ1 = Sn . q ϕ1 ´ 1 gL«, Ïd ϕ1 ´ Sn
ÌL«. deg ϕ2 = dimV2 = n − 1. U ´ V2 Sn ØCfm, U 6= {0}. 3 U
n
X
¥"þ α = ai xi . Ï α 6∈ V1 , ¤± α Iþ¥kü©þØ
i=1
. Ø a1 6= a2 . u´
ϕ2 ((12))α − α = (a1 x2 + a2 x1 ) − (a1 x1 + a2 x2 )
= (a2 − a1 )(x1 − x2 ).
du U ´ Sn ØCfm, Ïd x1 − x2 ∈ U . l
ϕ2 (σ)(x1 − x2 ) = xσ(1) − xσ(2) ∈ U.
σ Sn , B/X xi − xj þÑáu U . x1 − x2 , x1 −
x3 , · · · , x1 − xn ´ V2 ¥ n − 1 5Ã'þ, Ïd§´ V2 Ä. Ïd
U = V2 . l ϕ2 Ø.
SK)½J« · 375 ·
SK 1.4
1. (1) G = hai × hbi, a2 = b2 = e, ab = ba.
e a b ab
ϕe 1 1 1 1
ϕa 1 −1 1 −1
ϕb 1 1 −1 −1
ϕab 1 −1 −1 1
(2) G = hai × hbi, a2 = b4 = e, ab = ba.
e a b b2 b3 ab ab2 ab3
ϕe 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
ϕa 1 −1 1 1 1 −1 −1 −1
ϕb 1 1 i −1 −i i −1 −i
ϕb2 1 1 −1 1 −1 −1 1 −1
ϕb3 1 1 −i −1 i −i −1 i
ϕab 1 −1 i −1 −i −i 1 i
ϕab2 1 −1 −1 1 −1 1 −1 1
ϕab3 1 −1 − i −1 i i 1 −i
2 2 2
(3) G = hai × hbi × hci, a = b = c = e, Abel +.
ϕar1 br2 cr3 (at1 bt2 ct3 ) = (−1)r1 t1 +r2 t2 +r3 t3 , 0 6 tj 6 1, j = 1, 2, 3,
Ù¥ 0 6 rj 6 1, j = 1, 2, 3. ÖögCÑL.
(4) G = hai × hbi, a3 = b3 = e, ab = ba.
ϕar1 br2 (at1 bt2 ) = ω r1 t1 +r2 t2 , 0 6 tj 6 2, j = 1, 2, 3,
√
−1 + 3i
Ù¥ 0 6 rj 6 2, j = 1, 2, ω = . ÖögCÑL.
n
2
(5) Zp = {(c1 , c2 , · · · , cn )|cj ∈ Zp , j = 1, 2, · · · , n}
= h(1, 0, · · · , 0)i ⊕ h(0, 1, 0, · · · , 0)i ⊕ · · · ⊕ h(0, · · · , 0, 1)i,
2π
m>zÌf+ p. P ξp = e i p .
ϕ(b1 ,b2 ,··· ,bn ) ((c1 , c2 , · · · , cn )) = ξpb1 c1 +b2 c2 +···+bn cn ,
Ù¥ (b1 , b2 , · · · , bn ), (c1 , c2 , · · · , cn ) ∈ Znp .
2. G = ha1 i × ha2 i × · · · × han i, |haj i| = p, j = 1, 2, · · · , n.
ϕ(at11 at22 · · · atnn ) = ξpr1 t1 +r2 t2 +···+rn tn ∈ hξp i.
u´ Im ϕ ⊆ hξp i. du hξp i ´ p Ì+, Ïd ϕ ´²L«, Im ϕ = hξp i.
pn
du G/ Ker ϕ ∼ = Im ϕ, Ïd | Ker ϕ| = = pn−1 .
p
3. |G| = n. ? g ∈ G, k g n = e. ϕ ´ G 1 gEL«, K ϕ(g)n = 1.
l ϕ(g) ´ n gü . u´ Im ϕ ⊆ hξn i. Ïd Im ϕ ´Ì+. e ϕ ´§¢,
· 376 · SK)½J«
K Ker ϕ = {e}, Ïd G ∼
= Im ϕ. l G ´Ì+.
SK 1.5
1. A′4 = {(1), (12)(34), (13)(24), ′ ′ ′ ′

√ (14)(23)}. |A4 /A4 | = 3. A4 /A4 = {A4 , (123)A4 ,
2π −1 + 3 i
(132)A′4 }. P ω = e i 3 = . A4 /A′4 Tk 3 1 gEL«: ϕ0 , ϕ1 , ϕ2 , Ù¥
2
ϕ0 ´ÌL«. ϕ1 ((123)A′4 ) = ω, ϕ2 ((123)A′4 ) = ω 2 . r§J,B A4 ¤k 1
gEL«: ϕ0 , ϕ1 , ϕ2 , Ù¥ ϕ0 ´ÌL«.
ϕ1 ((123)) = ϕ1 ((134)) = ϕ1 ((243)) = ϕ1 ((142)) = ω,
ϕ1 ((132)) = ϕ1 ((234)) = ϕ1 ((124)) = ϕ1 ((143)) = ω 2 ,
ϕ1 ((1)) = ϕ1 ((12)(34)) = ϕ1 ((13)(24)) = ϕ1 ((14)(23)) = 1.
ÓnÑ ϕ2 (σ), ∀σ ∈ A4 .
T
2. (1) S3 ±w¤´ S4 f+. S3 N = {(1)}. â [24] 1 40 1
14 K, k
|S3 | |N |
|S3 N | = T = 24 = |S4 |.
|S3 N |
T
Ïd S3 N = S4 . â1Ó½n (ëw [24] 1 58 ½n 8), S3 N/N ∼ = S3 /S3 N ,
= S4 /N ∼= S3 .
(2) S4 /N = {N, (12)N, (13)N, (23)N, (123)N, (132)N }. ^ σ L« S4 /N S3
ÓN:
σ((12)N ) = (12), σ((123)N ) = (123), ··· .
âSK ( 3 1.3 1 2 KÚ1 8 K), S3 k 2 gØEL« ψ2 , §L«m

X X3

V2 = ai xi ai = 0, ai ∈ C , Ù¥, {x1 , x2 , x3 } ´ 3 8. V2 ¥Ä

i=1 i=1
x1 − x2 , x1 − x3 . ψ2 3dÄeJøÝ
L«! !
−1 −1 −1 −1
Ψ2 ((12)) = , Ψ ((123)) = .
0 1 1 0
ψ2 σ ´ S4 /N 2 gØEL«, P ϕ2 . r ϕ2 J,B S4 2 g
ØEL« ϕ2 .
éu (12)N ¥? τ1 , k
ϕ2 (τ1 ) = ϕ2 ((12)N ) = (ψ2 σ)((12)N ) = ψ2 ((12)).
éu (123)N ¥? τ2 , k
ϕ2 (τ2 ) = ϕ2 ((123)N ) = (ψ2 σ)((123)N ) = ψ2 ((123)).
u´ ϕ2 3 V2 Ä x1 − x2 , x1 − ! x3 eJøÝ
L« Φ2 !
−1 −1 −1 −1
Φ2 (τ1 ) = , Φ2 (τ2 ) = .
0 1 1 0
SK)½J« · 377 ·
du S3 = h(12), (123)i, Ïd S4 /N = h(12)N, (123)N i. l éuÙ¦8¥

τ , ¦Ñ Φ2 (τ ).
3. ý ϕm ´ K ∗ K-L«. 1ª¼ê det ´ GL n (K) K ∗

Ó. Ïd ϕm ( det) ´ GL n (K) 1 g K-L«, = [ϕm (det)]A = [det(A)]m ,
∀A ∈ GL n (K).
4. |G| = n, K? g ∈ G, k g n = e. l ϕ(g) ´ n gü . Ïd

ϕ(g) ∈ hξn i. u´ Im ϕ ⊆ hξn i. l Im ϕ ´Ì+. du G/ Ker ϕ ∼
= Im ϕ, Ïd
G/ Ker ϕ ´Ì+.
5. XJ G k§¢ 1 gEL«, @oâ1 4 K(Ø, G ´Ì+.
6. (ϕ, V ) ´k Abel + G 3AØUØ |G| K þ§¢ 2 g

L«. bX ϕ , K V k 1 G ØCfm U . â Maschke ½n, ϕ .
l V ¥k U G ØCÖm W , = V = U ⊕ W . U ¥Ä α, W ¥
Ä β, K ϕ 3 V Ä α, β eJøÝ
L« Φ
!
λg 0
Φ(g) = , ∀g ∈ G.
0 µg
u´é?¿ g, h ∈ G, k Φ(g)Φ(h) = Φ(h)Φ(g), l k ϕ(g)ϕ(h) = ϕ(h)ϕ(g). Ïd
ϕ(gh) = ϕ(hg). du ϕ ´§¢, Ïd gh = hg, ∀g, h ∈ G. u´ G Abel +, g
ñ. ¤± ϕ Ø.
7. (ϕ+̇ψ)∗ L«m´ (V +̇W )∗ , ϕ∗ +̇ψ ∗ L«m´ V ∗ +̇W ∗ . â [28] 1
557 ~ 19, (V +̇W )∗ V ∗ +̇W ∗ kÓN σ : f 7→ (f1 , f2 ), Ù¥
f1 (α) = f (α, 0), ∀α ∈ V ; f2 (β) = f (0, β), ∀β ∈ W ;
f (α, β) = f1 (α) + f2 (β).
u´é?¿ (α, β) ∈ V +̇W, f ∈ (V +̇W )∗ , g ∈ G, k
{σ[(ϕ+̇ψ)∗ (g)f ]}(α, β) = {σ[f (ϕ+̇ψ)(g −1 )]}(α, β)
= ([f (ϕ+̇ψ)(g −1 )]1 , [f (ϕ+̇ψ)(g −1 )]2 )(α, β)
= [f (ϕ+̇ψ)(g −1 )]1 α + [f (ϕ+̇ψ)(g −1 )]2 β
= [f (ϕ+̇ψ)(g −1 )](α, 0) + [f (ϕ+̇ψ)(g −1 )](0, β)
= f (ϕ(g −1 )α, ψ(g −1 )0) + f (ϕ(g −1 )0, ψ(g −1 )β)
= f1 (ϕ(g −1 )α) + f2 (ψ(g −1 )β) = (ϕ∗ (g)f1 )α + (ψ ∗ (g)f2 )β;
[(ϕ∗ +̇ψ ∗ )(g)(σf )](α, β) = [(ϕ∗ +̇ψ ∗ )(g)(f1 , f2 )](α, β)
= (ϕ∗ (g)f1 , ψ ∗ (g)f2 )(α, β) = (ϕ∗ (g)f1 )α + (ψ ∗ (g)f2 )β.
Ïd σ[(ϕ+̇ψ)∗ (g)f ] = (ϕ∗ +̇ψ ∗ )(g)σf, ∀f ∈ (V +̇W )∗ .
l σ(ϕ+̇ψ)∗ (g) = (ϕ∗ +̇ψ ∗ )(g)σ, ∀g ∈ G.
u´ (ϕ+̇ψ)∗ ≈ ϕ∗ +̇ψ ∗ .
· 378 · SK)½J«
SK 2.1
1. ý Z(A) ´ A f, A ü áu Z(A); ý Z(A) ´5

m A fm, Ïd, Z(A) ´ A fê.
X
2. (1) ? bh h ∈ K[G], k
h∈G
  !  
X X XX X X
 g bh h = bh (gh) = bh  gh .
g∈G h∈G g∈G h∈G h∈G g∈G
X X
du h ½, gh hg Ñ´ G ¥¤k/ªÚ, Ïd
g∈G g∈G
X X
gh = hg.
g∈G g∈G
  ! 
X X X X
l bh  gh = bh h  g .
h∈G g∈G h∈G g∈G
  ! ! 
X X X X
u´  g bh h = bh h  g .
g∈G h∈G h∈G g∈G
X
Ïd g ∈ Z(K[G]).
g∈G
(2) 1 (1) Ky{aq.
SK 2.2
1. 3SK 1.2 1 8 K¥®¦Ñ 4 Ì+KL« ρ JøÝ

L« P
 
0 0 0 1
 
1 0 0 0

P (a) =  .

0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
¦ÑEÝ
P (a) Aõª λ4 − 1, l P (a) ÜA 1, i, −1, − i.
u´
P (a) ∼ diag {1, i, −1, − i}.
Ïd
ρ = ϕ0 ⊕ ϕ1 ⊕ ϕ2 ⊕ ϕ3 ,
Ù¥ ϕ0 (a) = 1, ϕ1 (a) = i, ϕ2 (a) = −1, ϕ3 (a) = − i. 4 Ì+ G = hai ØE

L«Ñ´ 1 g, Tk 4 1 gEL«, §Ð´ ϕ0 , ϕ1 , ϕ2 , ϕ3 .
T
2. 75. H1 + H2 ´Ú. ? x ∈ H1 H2 , K 0 = x + (−x). du 0
T
L«{, Ïd x = 0. l H1 H2 = {0}.
SK)½J« · 379 ·
T
¿©5. H1 H2 = {0}. ? H1 +H2 ¥ x, x = x1 +x2 = y1 +y2 ,
T
Ù¥ x1 , y1 ∈ H, x2 , y2 ∈ H2 , K x1 − y1 = y2 − x2 ∈ H1 H2 . u´ x1 − y1 = y2 − x2 =
0. l x1 = y1 , x2 = y2 . Ïd H1 + H2 ´Ú.
3. x = x1 + x2 , Ù¥ x1 ∈ H1 , x2 ∈ H2 . - P 1 (x) = x1 , ¡ P 1 ´ M 3 H1
þÝK. w, P 1 ±\{, R ^, Ïd P 1 ´ M H1
Ó, w, P 1 ´÷, Ïd Im P 1 = H1 .
x ∈ Ker P 1 ⇐⇒ P 1 (x) = 0 ⇐⇒ x1 = 0 ⇐⇒ x = x2 ∈ H2 .
Ïd Ker P 1 = H2 . âÓÄ½n, M/H2 ∼ = H1 . Ón M/H1 ∼= H2 .
4. w, M = H1 ⊕ H2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Hs = H1 ⊕ (H2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Hs ). d1 3 Ká=
M/(H2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Hs ) ∼
= H1 .
SK 2.3
1. D ´Ø. ? Mn (D) V>n J, J 6= {0}, y J =

Mn (D). dy Eij ∈ J, 1 6 i, j 6 n. ? A ∈ J A 6= 0. A = (aij ), Ù
¥ akt 6= 0. ?¿½ i, j. du Eik AEtj = akt Eij (ëw [33] 1 166 úª (3)),
J ´V>n, Ïd akt Eij ∈ J. l Eij ∈ J, 1 6 i, j 6 n. u´ Mn (D) ¥?Ý
Xn Xn
bij Eij ∈ J. Ïd J = Mn (D).
i=1 j=1
2. V ¥Ä α1 , α2 , · · · , αn . ? A ∈ HomD (V, V ),
A(α1 ) = α1 a11 + α2 a21 + · · · + αn an1 ,
A(α2 ) = α1 a12 + α2 a22 + · · · + αn an2 ,
············
A(αn ) = α1 a1n + α2 a2n + · · · + αn ann ,
K  
a11 a12 ··· a1n
 
 a21 a22 ··· a2n 
 
A(α1 , α2 , · · · , αn ) = (α1 , α2 , · · · , αn )  . .. ..  .
 .. . . 
 
an1 an2 ··· ann
rþªmà n Ý
P A. -
σ : HomD (V, V ) → Mn (D)
A 7→ A.
w, σ Ń!÷!ü. l σ ´V. Ný σ ±\{. e¡5y σ
±¦{.
A(α1 , α2 , · · · , αn ) = (α1 , α2 , · · · , αn )A,
B(α1 , α2 , · · · , αn ) = (α1 , α2 , · · · , αn )B,
· 380 · SK)½J«
K
( A B)(α1 , α2 , · · · , αn ) = A((α1 , α2 , · · · , αn )B)
n n n
!
X X X
= A αi bi1 , αi bi2 , · · · , αi bin
i=1 i=1 i=1
n n n
!
X X X
= A(αi )bi1 , A(αi )bi2 , · · · , A(αi )bin
i=1 i=1 i=1
= ( Aα1 , Aα2 , · · · , Aαn )B = [(α1 , α2 , · · · , αn )A]B
= (α1 , α2 , · · · , αn )(AB).
l σ( A B) = AB = σ( A)σ( B). Ïd σ ´ HomD (V, V ) Mn (D) Ó.
éu?¿ d ∈ D, k
( Ad)(α1 , α2 , · · · , αn ) = (( Ad)α1 , ( Ad)α2 , · · · , ( Ad)αn )
= (( Aα1 )d, ( Aα2 )d, · · · , ( Aαn )d)
= ( Aα1 , Aα2 , · · · , Aαn )d = [(α1 , α2 , · · · , αn )A]d
= (α1 , α2 , · · · , αn )(Ad).
Ïd σ( Ad) = Ad = σ( A)d. l σ ´ HomD (V, V ) Mn (D) mêÓ
.
SK 2.4
1. Φ Ú Ψ ©O´+ G ü K-L« (ϕ, V ) Ú (ψ, W ) éu V, W ¥©O

ÄJøÝ
L«. A ´ V W 5N, §'u V þãÄ
Ú W þãÄÝ
´ A, K ψ(g) A = Aϕ(g), ∀g ∈ G. du ϕ, ψ Ñ´+ G 3
K þ5L«, Ïd V, W Ñ´ K[G]-, Ù¥
gv := ϕ(g)v, ∀v ∈ V ; gw := ψ(g)w, ∀w ∈ W.
du ∀g ∈ G, v ∈ V , k
A(gv) = A(ϕ(g)v) = [ Aϕ(g)]v = [ψ(g) A]v = g( Av),
Ïd A ´ V W Ó, = A ∈ HomK[G] (V, W ). du V Ú W Ñ´Ø
K[G]-. ÏdâÚn 1 , V ≇ W , A = 0. l A 6= 0 , V ∼ = W. u
´ n = m, Ker A = {0}, Im A = W . l A ´V, = A _. Ïd A = 0 ½ö
n = m A ´_Ý
.
2. V Ú W Ñ´Ø K[G]-. d®^, σ ´ V W Ó.
(1) e ϕ Ú ψ Ød, K V ≇ W , âÚn 1 , σ = 0.
(2) e V = W ϕ = ψ, K σ ∈ HomK[G] (V, V ). dÚn 2 , é, k ∈ K,
σ = k1V .
SK)½J« · 381 ·
3. ? h ∈ G, k
X
σ ϕ(h)−1 = |G|−1
ψ(h)e ψ(h)ψ(g)σϕ(g)−1 ϕ(h)−1
g∈G
X
= |G|−1 ψ(hg)σϕ(hg)−1 = σ
e,
g∈G
Ïd
ψ(h)e
σ=σ
e ϕ(h), ∀h ∈ G.
(1) e ϕ ψ Ød, Kâ1 2 K1 (1) K σ

e = 0.
(2) e V = W ϕ = ψ, Kâ1 2 K1 (2) K σ e = k1V . u´
σ ) = k dimV . du
tr (e
X X
σ ) = |G|−1
tr (e tr [ϕ(g)σϕ(g)−1 ] = |G|−1 tr (σ) = tr (σ).
g∈G g∈G
tr (σ)
Ïd k = .
dimV
4. Φ ´+ G 5L« (ϕ, V ) 3 V ÄeJøÝ
L«. A ´ V
þ5C, §3 V þãÄeÝ
A, K ϕ(g) A = Aϕ(g), ∀g ∈ G. â1
2 K1 (2) K(Ø A = k1V , Ù¥ k ´ K ¥,. l A ´êþÝ
.
SK 2.5
1. â [24] 1 80 1 14 K, D4 Ýak 5 :

{I}, {σ 2 }, {σ, σ 3 }, {τ, σ 2 τ }, {στ, σ 3 τ }.
u´ D4 k 5 ØdØEL«.
â [24] 1 66 1 9 K, D4′ = hσ2 i. u´ D4 /D4′ ´ 4 Abel +:
D4 /D4′ = {hσ 2 i, hσ 2 iσ, hσ 2 iτ, hσ 2 iστ }
= hhσ 2 iσi × hhσ 2 iτ i.
D4 /D4′ k 4 1 gEL«: ϕ0 , ϕ1 , ϕ2 , ϕ3 , Ù¥ ϕ0 ´ÌL«, ϕ1 = ϕhσ2 iσ , ϕ2 =
ϕhσ2 iτ , ϕ3 = ϕhσ2 iστ . u´
ϕ1 (hσ 2 iσ) = (−1)1×1+0×0 = −1, ϕ1 (hσ 2 iτ ) = (−1)1×0+0×1 = 1;
ϕ2 (hσ 2 iσ) = (−1)0×1+1×0 = 1, ϕ2 (hσ 2 iτ ) = (−1)0×0+1×1 = −1;
ϕ3 (hσ 2 iσ) = (−1)1×1+1×0 = −1, ϕ3 (hσ 2 iτ ) = (−1)1×0+1×1 = −1.
r D4 /D4′ ù 4 1 gEL«J,, B D4 4 1 gEL«: ϕ0 , ϕ1 , ϕ2 , ϕ3 ,
Ù¥ ϕ0 ´ÌL«,
ϕ1 (σ) = −1, ϕ1 (τ ) = 1; ϕ2 (σ) = 1, ϕ2 (τ ) = −1;
ϕ3 (σ) = −1, ϕ3 (τ ) = −1.
ϕl (σ τ ) = [ϕl (σ)]i [ϕl (τ )]j , l = 1, 2, 3; 0 6 i 6 3, j = 1, 2. du |D4 | = 8 = 12 + 12 +
i j
12 + 12 + 22 , Ïd D4 k 2 gØEL«. D4 ´/é¡ (5) +. ±

/¥% O :, ±/^é¡¶ (τ ´'uù^é¡¶) x
· 382 · SK)½J«
¶, ïá²¡IX Oxy, x ¶, y ¶ü þ©OP e1 , e2 , K

σ(e1 ) = e2 , σ(e2 ) = −e1 ;
τ (e1 ) = e1 , τ (e2 ) = −e2 .
u´ σ, τ 3Ä e1 , e0 eÝ
©O ! !
0 −1 1 0
A= , B= .
1 0 0 −1
Eêþ 2 5m V , V Ä α1 , α2 . ϕ4 (σ), ϕ4 (τ ) ´ V þ
5C, §3 V Ä α1 , α2 eÝ
©O´ A, B, K ϕ4 ´ D4
2 gEL«. w, ϕ4 ´§¢. du D4 ´ Abel +, ÏdâSK 1.5 1 6 K
, ϕ4 Ø.
2. ´¦Ñ Z(Q) = {±1}. u´
CQ ( i) = {±1, ± i}, CQ ( j) = {±1, ± j}.
Ïd i Ýaê 2, j Ýaê 2. u´ Q k 5 Ýa:
{1}, {−1}, { i, − i}, { j, − j}, { i j, − i j}.
Ïdo+ Q k 5 ØdØEL«.
du Q/ Z(Q) ´ 4 +, 4 +Ñ´ Abel +, Ïd Z(Q) ⊇ Q′ . du
−1 = i2 = i( j i j−1 )−1 = i j i−1 j−1 ∈ Q′ ,
Ïd Z(Q) ⊆ Q′ . u´ Q′ = Z(Q) = h−1i. l Q/Q′ = {h−1i, h−1i i, h−1i j, h−1i i j}
k 4 1 gEL«: ϕ0 , ϕ1 , ϕ2 , ϕ3 , Ù¥ ϕ0 ´ÌL«, ϕ1 = ϕh−1i i , ϕ2 = ϕh−1i j , ϕ3 =
ϕh−1i i j . u´
ϕ1 (h−1i i)(−1)1×1+0×0 = −1, ϕ1 (h−1i j)(−1)1×0+0×1 = 1,
ϕ2 (h−1i i)(−1)0×1+1×0 = 1, ϕ2 (h−1i j)(−1)0×0+1×1 = −1,
1×1+1×0
ϕ3 (h−1i i)(−1) = −1, ϕ3 (h−1i j)(−1)1×0+1×1 = −1.
r ϕ0 , ϕ1 , ϕ2 , ϕ3 J,, B Q 4 1 gEL«: ϕ0 , ϕ1 , ϕ2 , ϕ3 , Ù¥ ϕ0 ´ÌL
«,
ϕ1 ( i) = ϕ1 (h−1i i) = −1, ϕ1 ( j) = 1,
ϕ2 ( i) = 1, ϕ2 ( j) = −1; ϕ3 ( i) = −1, ϕ3 ( j) = −1.
ϕl (i j ) = [ϕl (i)] [ϕl (j)]s , l = 1, 2, 3; 0 6 r, s 6 3. du
r s r
|Q| = 8 = 12 + 12 + 12 + 12 + 22 ,
Ïd Q k 2 gØEL«
l [28] 1 711 n Pauli Ý
Ééu, -
Φ4 : Q → GL 2 ( C) !
i 0
i 7→ ,
0 −i
!
0 i
j 7→ ,
i 0
Φ4 ( ir js ) = [Φ4 ( i)]r [Φ4 ( j)]s , 0 6 r, s 6 3, K Φ4 ´ Q 2 gEÝ
L«. Φ4 ´
d Q 2 gEL« ϕ4 Jø. w, ϕ4 ´§¢. du Q ´ Abel +, Ïd ϕ4
SK)½J« · 383 ·
Ø.
3. â [24] 1 80 1 17 K, A4 k 4 Ýa, §L©O´: (1),
(12)(34),(123),(132). u´ A4 k 4 ØdØEL«.
A′4 = {(1), (12)(34), (13)(24), (14)(23)}. u´ A4 k 3 1 gEL«, §d
A4 /A′4 3 1 gEL« ϕ0 , ϕ1 , ϕ2 J,. SK 1.5 1 1 K®¦Ñ
A4
2π
3 1 gEL« ϕ0 , ϕ1 , ϕ2 , Ù¥ ϕ0 ´ÌL«. P ω = e i 3 .
ϕ1 ((123)) = ϕ1 ((134)) = ϕ1 ((243)) = ϕ1 ((142)) = ω,
ϕ1 ((132)) = ϕ1 ((234)) = ϕ1 ((124)) = ϕ1 ((143)) = ω 2 ,
ϕ1 ((1)) = ϕ1 ((12)(34)) = ϕ1 ((13)(24)) = ϕ1 ((14)(23)) = 1.
ÓnÑ ϕ2 (σ), ∀σ ∈ A4 .
|A4 | = 12 = 12 + 12 + 12 + 32 .
Ïd A4 k 3 gØEL«. · S4 k 3 gØEL«, §
´d S4 38Ü Ω = {x1 , x2 , x3( , x4 } þg,^Úå
4 4 gL«©)
)
X4 X

, P ψ, §L«m V2 = ai xi ai = 0, ai ∈ C , V2 ¥Ä α1 =

i=1 i=1
x1 − x2 , α2 = x1 − x3 , α3 = x1 − x4 , K
ψ((12))α1 = x2 − x1 = −α1 , ψ((12))α2 = x2 − x3 = −α1 + α2 ,
ψ((12))α3 = x2 − x4 = −α1 + α3 ; ψ((13))α1 = x3 − x2 = α1 − α2 ,
ψ((13))α2 = x3 − x1 = −α2 , ψ((13))α3 = x3 − x4 = −α2 + α3 ;
ψ((14))α1 = x4 − x2 = α1 − α3 , ψ((14))α2 = x4 − x3 = α2 − α3 ,
ψ((14))α3 = x4 − x1 = −α3 .
r ψ A4 þB A4 3 gEL«, P ϕ3 . â [24] 1 39 1 6
K,
A4 = h(123), (124)i.
du (123) = (13)(12), (124) = (14)(12), Ïd

ϕ3 ((123))α1 = ψ((13)(12))α1 = ψ((13))ψ((12))α1
= ψ((13))(−α1 ) = −α1 + α2 ,
ϕ3 ((123))α2 = ψ((13))ψ((12))α2 = ψ((13))(−α1 + α2 ) = −α1 ,
ϕ3 ((123))α3 = ψ((13))(−α1 + α3 ) = −α1 + α3 ;
ϕ3 ((124))α1 = ψ((14))ψ((12))α1 = −α1 + α3 ,
ϕ3 ((124))α2 = ψ((14))(−α1 + α2 ) = −α1 + α2 ,
ϕ3 ((124))α3 = ψ((14))(−α1 + α3 ) = −α1 .
ϕ3 ´ÄØ? dO  ϕ3 3 V2 Ä
 α1 , α2 , α3eJøÝ
L«  Φ3
−1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1
   
Φ3 ((123)) =  1 0 0  , Φ3 ((124)) =  0 1 0 .
0 0 1 1 0 0
Φ3 ((123)) A 1, ω, ω , Φ3 ((123)) áuA 1 Afm h(1, 1, −3)′ i,
2
áuA ω Afm h(ω, 1, 0)′ i, áuA ω 2 Afm h(ω 2 , 1, 0)′ i.

· 384 · SK)½J«
Φ3 ((124)) A 1, ω, ω 2 ; áu 1 Afm h(1, −3, 1)′ i, áu ω A

fm h(ω, 0, 1)′ i, áu ω 2 Afm h(ω 2 , 0, 1)′ i. bX ϕ3 , K V2
k 1 A4 ØCfm. l ϕ3 ((123)) ϕ3 ((124)) Akú 1 ØCf
m. du ϕ3 ((123)) ϕ3 ((124)) Ñk 3 ØÓA, Ïd§AkúA
fm. ´lþãOw: ϕ3 ((123)) ϕ3 ((124)) vkúAfm. Ï
d ϕ3 Ø.
4. ? G Ø K-L« (ϕ, V ). du G ´k+, K AØ
UØ |G|, Ïd G zØ K-L«Ñ´k. l V ´k.
Ä ϕ 3f+ H þ ϕ|H. ϕ|H ©)¤kõØfL«Ú. W
´ V H ØCfm, ϕ|H 3 W þfL« (ϕ|H)W ´Ø. du H
´ Abel +, K ´ê4, Ïd H zØ K-L«Ñ´ 1 g. l
dimK W = 1. W = hwi, - V ′ ´d V f8 {ϕ(g)w|g ∈ G, w ∈ W } )¤f
m. w, V ′ ´ G ØCfm. du (ϕ, V ) Ø, Ïd V ′ = V . P r = [G : H].
H 3 G ¥8LX {g1 , g2 , · · · , gr }. éu gi H ¥? gi h(Ù¥
h ∈ H), k
ϕ(gi h)ω = ϕ(gi )ϕ(h)ω = ϕ(gi )(kω) = kϕ(gi )ω.
Ïd V ′ (l V ) ±d ϕ(g1 )ω, ϕ(g2 )ω, · · · , ϕ(gr )ω )¤. l dimK V 6 r, =
dimK V 6 [G : H].
SK 3.1
1. du char K ∤ |G|, Ïd ϕ1 , ϕ2 , · · · , ϕs ÑÑy3 G KL ρ §Ø

fL«Ú©)ª¥ (3d¿Âþ). ϕi 3 ρ Ú©)ª¥Ñy mi g,
K
ρ ≈ m1 ϕ1 +̇m2 ϕ2 +̇ · · · +̇ms ϕs .
3 ρ L«m K[G] ¥Ä, = G Ü, K ρ 3dÄeJøÝ
L
«P
SP (g)S −1 = diag {Φ1 (g), · · · , Φ1 (g), · · · , Φs (g), · · · , Φs (g)},
| {z } | {z }
m1 ms
Ù¥ S ´ K þ_Ý
. u´
s
\
g∈ Ker ϕi ⇐⇒ ϕi (g) = 1Vi , i = 1, 2, · · · , s
i=1
⇐⇒ Φi (g) = Ini , i = 1, 2, · · · , s
⇐⇒ P (g) = I ⇐⇒ ρ(g) = 1K[G]
⇐⇒ gx = x, ∀x ∈ G ⇐⇒ g = 1.
s
\
Ïd Ker ϕi = {1}.
i=1
2. K Eê, d·K 9, χ(g) = χ(1) = ϕ(g) = 1V .
SK)½J« · 385 ·
(1) Ker χ = {g ∈ G|χ(g) = χ(1)} = {g ∈ G|ϕ(g) = 1V } = Ker ϕ.

(2) d1 1 KÚK1 (1) K
s
\ s
\
Ker χi = Ker ϕi = {1}.
i=1 i=1
3. (1) ? g ∈ Z(χ), K ϕ(g) = c1V . w,, Z(χ) < G. éu?¿ x ∈ G, k
ϕ(xgx−1 ) = ϕ(x)ϕ(g)ϕ(x)−1 = ϕ(x)c1V ϕ(x)−1 = c1V ,
Ù¥ c ´ m gü m ´ G ê. l |χ(xgx−1 )| = χ(1). Ïd xgx−1 ∈ Z(χ).
u´ Z(χ) ⊳ G.
? g ∈ Ker ϕ, K ϕ(g) = 1V . l χ(g) = χ(1). u´ g ∈ Z(χ). Ïd
Ker ϕ ⊆ Z(χ).
(2) g ∈ Z(χ), Kâ1 (1) Ky²L§ ϕ(g) = c1V , ¿éu?¿
x ∈ G, k ϕ(xgx−1 ) = c1V . l ϕ(xgx−1 ) = ϕ(g). u´ ϕ(xgx−1 g −1 ) = 1V . Ïd
xgx−1 g −1 ∈ Ker ϕ. ddÑ g Ker ϕ ∈ Z(G/ Ker ϕ).
(3) ? g Ker ϕ ∈ Z(χ)/ Ker ϕ, K g ∈ Z(χ). â1 (2) K g Ker ϕ ∈
Z(G/ Ker ϕ). Ïd Z(χ)/ Ker ϕ ⊆ Z(G/ Ker ϕ). Ä Z(χ)/ Ker ϕ GL (V )
éA{K ψ : g Ker ϕ 7→ ϕ(g). ý ψ Ń, ±$, Ïd ψ ´ Z(χ)/ Ker ϕ
EL«. du g ∈ Z(χ), Ïd ϕ(g) = cg 1V . - ψ(g e Ker ϕ) = cg , K ψe ´
Z(χ)/ Ker ϕ C N. ý ψ ´+Ó. l ψe ´ Z(χ)/ Ker ϕ 1 g
∗ e
EL«. éu g, h ∈ Z(χ), e cg = ch , K ϕ(g) = ϕ(h). l g −1 h ∈ Ker ϕ. u´
g Ker ϕ = h Ker ϕ. Ïd ψe ´ü. l ψe ´§¢. du Z(χ)/ Ker ϕ ´k Abel
+, ÏdâSK 1.4 1 3 K, Z(χ)/ Ker ϕ ´Ì+.
(4) χ(1) = 1. K (ϕ, V ) ´ G 1 gEL«. éu?¿ g ∈ G, â!·
K 6 , χ(g) ´ m gü , Ù¥ m ´+ G ê. u´ |χ(g)| = 1 = χ(1). Ïd
g ∈ Z(χ). l Z(χ) = G.
4. (1) - ϕ(g Ker ϕ) = ϕ(g), ∀g Ker ϕ ∈ G/ Ker ϕ, K ϕ ´ G/ Ker ϕ
ØEL«, ? g Ker ϕ ∈ Z(G/ Ker ϕ), Kéu?¿ x Ker ϕ ∈ G/ Ker ϕ, k
(g Ker ϕ)(x Ker ϕ) = (x Ker ϕ)(g Ker ϕ). l ϕ(g Ker ϕ)ϕ(x Ker ϕ) = ϕ(x Ker ϕ)
ϕ(g Ker ϕ). u´
ϕ(g)ϕ(x) = ϕ(x)ϕ(g), ∀x ∈ G.
du ϕ(g) ´ V g5N, ϕ Ø, ÏdâSK 2.4 1 2 K

ϕ(g) = c1V , é, c ∈ C. l |χ(g)| = χ(1), Ïd g ∈ Z(χ).
(2) ? g ∈ Z(G), Kéu?¿ x ∈ G, k gx = xg. u´ ϕ(g)ϕ(x) = ϕ(x)ϕ(g),
∀x ∈ G. du ϕ Ø, ÏdâSK 2.4 1 2 K ϕ(g) = c1V , é, c ∈ C.
l g ∈ Z(χ). Ïd Z(G) ⊆ Z(χ).
(3) ? g Ker ϕ ∈ Z(G/ Ker ϕ), d1 (1) K g ∈ Z(χ). l g Ker ϕ ∈
Z(χ)/ Ker ϕ. (Ü1 3 K1 (3) K Z(χ)/ Ker ϕ = Z(G/ Ker ϕ), Z(G/ Ker ϕ)
´Ì+.
· 386 · SK)½J«
(4) 75. d1 3 K1 (4) Ká=. ¿©5. Z(χ) = G. d1 (3)

K, G/ Ker ϕ = Z(G/ Ker ϕ). u´ G/ Ker ϕ ´ Abel +. du ϕ ´ G/ Ker ϕ
ØEL«, Ïd ϕ ´ 1 g. l ϕ ´ 1 g. u´ χ(1) = 1.
\s s
\
(5) d1 (2) K Z(G) ⊆ Z(χi ). , ? g ∈ Z(χi ), K ϕi (g) =
i=1 i=1
ci 1V , i = 1, 2, · · · , s. l éu?¿ x ∈ G, k ϕi (g)ϕi (x) = ϕi (x)ϕi (g). u´
ϕi (gxg −1 x−1 ) = 1Vi , l gxg −1 x−1 ∈ Ker ϕi , i = 1, 2, · · · , s. Ïd gxg −1 x−1 ∈
\s \s
−1 −1
Ker ϕi . â1 2 K gxg x = 1. u´ g ∈ Z(G). l Z(χi ) ⊆ Z(G). Ï
i=1 i=1
s
\
d Z(G) = Z(χi ).
i=1
SK 3.2
1. (1) 1ÙSK 2.5 1 1 K®¦Ñ D4 ¤kØdØEL«, u´

±á=Ñ D4 EAILXe:
I σ σ2 τ στ 
χ0 1 1 1 1 1
 
χ1 1 −1 1 1 −1 
 
1 −1 
χ2  1 1 −1 .
 
χ3 1 −1 1 −1 1 
χ4 2 0 −2 0 0
(2) 1ÙSK 2.5 1 2 K®¦Ñoê+ Q ¤kØdØEL«,
u´Ñ Q EAIL:
1 i −1 j ij
 
χ0 1 1 1 1 1
 
χ1 
1 −1 1 1 −1 

 
χ2  1 1 1 −1 −1  .
 
χ3 
1 −1 1 −1 1 
χ4 2 0 −2 0 0
(3) 1ÙSK 2.5 1 3 K®¦Ñ A4 ¤kØdØEL«, u´
±Ñ A4 EAIL:
(1) (12)(34) (123) (132)
 
χ0 1 1 1 1
 
χ1 1
 1 ω ω2 
.
χ2 1 1 ω2 ω 
 
χ3 3 −1 0 0
SK)½J« · 387 ·
5 A4 EAIL1 4 11 2, 3, 4 ±|^1

'X¦Ñ.
(4) â [24] 1 80 1 14 K, D6 Ýak 6 :
{I}, {σ 3 }, {σ, σ 5 }, {σ 2 , σ 4 }, {τ, σ 2 τ, στ4 }, {στ, σ 3 τ, σ 5 τ }.
u´ D6 k 6 ØdØEL«.
â [24] 1 66 1 10 K, D6′ = hσ2 i. u´ D6 /D6′ ´ 4 Abel +:
D6 /D6′ = {hσ 2 i, hσ 2 iσ, hσ 2 iτ, hσ 2 iστ }.
D6 /D6′ 4 1 gEL«J, B D6 4 1 gEê«: ϕ0 (ÌL«),
ϕ1 , ϕ2 , ϕ3 , Ù¥
ϕ1 (σ) = −1, ϕ1 (τ ) = 1; ϕ2 (σ) = 1, ϕ2 (τ ) = −1;
ϕ3 (σ) = −1, ϕ3 (τ ) = −1.
du 12 = 1 + 1 + 1 + 12 + 22 + 22 , Ïd D6 ´üØd 2 gØE
2 2 2
L«. du D6 ´8>/é¡ (5) +, Ïd¦Ñ D6 2 gØEL

« ϕ4 , §JøÝ
L« Φ4
   √ 
π π 1 3 !
cos − sin −
 3 3   2 2 
 , Φ4 (τ ) = 1 0
Φ4 (σ) =  π  =  √3 .
sin
π
cos 1  0 −1
3 3 2 2
â±þ&EÑ D6 EAILcÊ1, 1 6 1±|^1©'X
¦Ñ:
2
 I σ σ σ 3 τ στ
χ0 1 1 1 1 1 1
 
 
χ1  1 −1 1 −1 1 −1 
 
 
χ2  1 1 1 1 −1 −1 
 .
 
χ3  1 −1 1 −1 −1 1 
 
 
χ4  2 1 −1 −2 0 0 
 
χ5 2 −1 −1 2 0 0
Xs
2. ci ∈ Z( C[G]), ei , e2 , · · · , es ´ Z( C[G]) Ä, Ïd ci = kj ej . u
j=1
´éu l ∈ {1, 2, · · · , s}, k
s
X
χ∗l (ci ) = kj χ∗l (ej ) = kl χl (1).
j=1
dd)Ñ kl :
χ∗l (ci ) |Ci |χl (gi )
kl = = , l = 1, 2, · · · , s.
χl (1) χl (1)
s
X χj (gi )
Ïd ci = |Ci | ej .
j=1
χj (1)
· 388 · SK)½J«
2π
3. ξ = e i n , K G = hai éAu aj 1 gEAI χj
χj (a) = ξ j . j = 0, 1, 2, · · · , n − 1.
éu f ∈ CG , du χ0 , χ1 , · · · , χn−1 ´ CG IOÄ, Ïd
n−1
X
f= (f, χj )χj ,
j=0
l
n−1
X n−1
X
f (ar ) = (f, χj )χj (ar ) = (f, χj )ξ rj ,
j=0 j=0
Ù¥
n−1 n−1
1X 1X
(f, χj ) = f (ar )χj (ar ) = f (ar )ξ −rj .
n r=0 n r=0
4. 75. f (g) = c, ∀g ∈ G, K g 6= 1 , k
1 X c X
fˆ(g) = p f (x)χg (x) = p χ1 (x)χg (x) = 0.
|G| x∈G |G| x∈G
¿©5. fˆ(g) = 0, ∀g ∈ G g 6= 1, K? x ∈ G, k
1 X ˆ 1 1
f (x) = p f (g)χg (x) = p fˆ(1)χ1 (x) = p fˆ(1).
|G| g∈G |G| |G|
Ïd f ´~¼ê.
5. â [24] 1 80 1 16 K S4 k 5 Ýa, ÙL
(1), (12), (12)(34), (123), (1234).
du S4 ´VD4+, Ïdâ!½n 7 , S4 k 3 gØEL« ψ,

χψ ((12)) = 2 − 1 = 1,
χψ ((12)(34)) = 0 − 1 = −1,
χψ ((123)) = 1 − 1 = 0,
χψ ((1234)) = 0 − 1 = −1.
6. A5 k 5 Ýa, ÙL
(1), (12)(34), (123), (12345), (13524).
â!íØ 5 , A5 k 4 gØEL« ψ,
χψ ((12)(34)) = 1 − 1 = 0,
χψ ((123)) = 2 − 1 = 1,
χψ ((12345)) = χ4 ((13524)) = 0 − 1 = −1.
SK 3.3
1. (1) w, I éu~{µ4; ? f (x) ∈ I, g(x) ∈ Q[x], k f (α)g(α) = 0, Ïd

f (x)g(x) ∈ I. l I ´ Q[x] n. du Q ´, Ïdâ [24] 1 136
SK)½J« · 389 ·
·K 2 K§I ´Ìn¶e I 6= (0), K I ±dÄXê 1 õª)¤. du

α 3 Q þ4õª p(x) ´ I ¥gê$"õª, Ïd p(x) ´ I
)¤.
(2) bX p(x) 3 Q þ, K p(x) = p1 (x)p2 (x), Ù¥ pi (x) ∈ Q[x],
deg pi (x) < deg p(x), i = 1, 2. u´ p1 (α)p2 (α) = 0. l p1 (α) = 0 ½ p2 (α) = 0. ù
p(x) ´ α 3 Q þ4õªgñ. Ïd p(x) 3 Q þØ.
2. α ´êê, K3ÄXê 1 Xêõª f (x), ¦ f (α) = 0.
u´ f (x) ∈ I, l p(x)|f (x). du f (x) ´õª, Ïdâ [28] 1 94
·K 4 Ú Q[x] ¥Ïª©)½n, f (x) ©)ª¥,3 Q þØ
õª qj (x) p(x) . du qj (x) p(x) ÄXêÑ 1, Ïd
qj (x) = p(x). l p(x) ´Xêõª.
SK 3.4
1. ^y{. bX G ´ Abel +. ? A ∈ G, - A(α) := Aα, ∀α ∈ C2 , K

A ∈ GL ( C2 ). - ϕ : A → A, K ϕ ´ G GL ( C2 ) N, ϕ ±¦{. l
ϕ ´ G 2 gEL«. w, ϕ ´ü, Ïd ϕ ´§¢. du G ´ Abel
), Ïd§§¢ 2 gEL« ϕ Ø. u´ deg ϕ|[G].du deg ϕ = 2, Ïd G k
2 A, = A2 = I, A 6= I. l A õª m(λ)|λ2 − 1, m(λ) 6= λ − 1.
/ 1 m(λ) = λ + 1. d A = −I. du {±I} ⊳ G, G ´ü+, Ïd
G = {±I}. ù G ´ Abel +gñ.
/ 2 m(λ) = λ2 − 1. d ±1 ´ m(λ) ÜE. l A Aõª
f (λ) ÜE´ ±1. Ïd !
1 0
A∼ .
0 −1
1ª¼ê det ´ G C∗ Ó, l det ´ G 1 gEL«Ø´
ÌL«. du det(A) = −1, Ïd Ker (det) 6= {I}. â·K 3, ù G ´ü+gñ.
nþ¤ã, G ´ Abel +.
2. ekü+ G k2 gØEL« ϕ, K g JøÝ
L« Φ ´ G
GL(2, C) Ó, l Ker Φ ⊳ G. du ! G ´ü+, Ïd Ker Φ = {1} ½
1 0
Ker Φ = G. bX ö, K Φ(g) = , ∀g ∈ G. u´ Φ , gñ. Ïd
0 1
Ker Φ = {1}. l G ∼
= Im Φ. Im Φ < GL (2, C). u´ G Óu GL (2, C) k
f+. â1 1 K(Ø, G Abel +.
SK 4.1
q 2q q q
1. r ⊗ 0̄ = 0; ⊗ 1̄ = ⊗ 1̄ = ⊗ 21̄ = ⊗ 0̄ = 0.
p 2p 2p 2p
· 390 · SK)½J«
2. aqu½n 5 y{.
3. ëw [28] 1 813 ½n 5.
4. (1) du F w¤´ (F, K)-V, V ´ (K, K)-V, Ïd F ⊗K V ´
F -, l F ⊗K V ´ F þ5m:
(2) du V ∼
=K +̇ · · · +̇K , Ïd
| {z }
r
F ⊗K V ∼
= F ⊗K K +̇ · · · +̇F ⊗K K
| {z }
r
∼
=F| +̇ ·{z
· · +̇F} .
r
ù´ F -ÓI. l dimF (F ⊗K V ) = r( dimF F ) = r. ÓÑéu?¿ f ∈
F, v ∈ V, f ⊗ v d 1 ⊗ v1 , · · · , 1 ⊗ vr F -5LÑ, Ïd 1 ⊗ v1 , · · · , 1 ⊗ vr ´ V F
F -Ä.
SK 4.2
1. du dimK (V ⊗K W ) = ( dimK V )( dimK W ) = n, Ïd ϕ ⊗ ψ ´ G n

g K-L«. ϕ, ψ, ψ ⊗ ψ ©O3 V, W, V ⊗K W AÄeJøÝ
L«P
Φ, Ψ , Φ ⊗ Ψ , K Φ(g) = (a(g)). l
(Φ ⊗ Ψ )(g) = Φ(g) ⊗ Ψ (g) = a(g)Ψ (g), ∀g ∈ G.
bX ϕ ⊗ ψ , K3 n _Ý
S, ¦é g ∈ G, S(Φ ⊗ Ψ )(g)S −1 ©
¬þnÝ
. ddÑé g ∈ G, SΨ (g)S −1 ©¬þnÝ
. l ψ .
gñ. Ïd ϕ ⊗ ψ Ø.
2. â1'X
S
1 X
|Cj |χl (gj )χl (gj ) = 1, j = 1, 2, · · · , s.
|G|
l=1
ddÑ
s
X
|Cj | = |G|/ χl (gj )χl (gj ), j = 1, 2, · · · , s.
l=1
3. (1) G k 7 Ýa, Ïd G k 7 ØØEAI χ1 , χ2 , χ3 , χ4 ,

χ5 , χ6 , χ7 , Ù¥ χ1 ´ G ÌAI. -
χ3 = χ2 χ2 , χ5 = χ 2 χ 4 , χ6 = χ 2 χ 5 ,
KÑ G EAILc 6 1.
¦Ñ1 7 1, ·IÄk¦Ñ
χ7 (g1 ), , |^1 j (2 6 j 6 7) 1 1 , B¦Ñ1 7 1Ù¦.
χ7 (g1 ) = y, K
|G| = 12 + 12 + 12 + 22 + 22 + 22 + y 2 = 15 + y 2 .

du G ØEL«gê´ |G| Ïê, Ïd y |G|. l y|15. u´ y = 1 ½
SK)½J« · 391 ·
3 ½ 5 ½ 15. g2 ¤3Ýa C2 ê

|C2 | = |G|/[12 + 12 + 12 + (−2)2 + (−2)2 + (−2)2 + |χ7 (g2 )|2 ]
= |G|/[15 + |χ7 (g2 )|2 ].
du G EAIL1 2 1 1 , Ïd
0 = 1 · 1 + 1 · 1 + 1 · 1 + 2 · (−2) + 2 · (−2) + 2 · (−2) + y · χ7 (g2 ).
9
ddÑ χ7 (g2 ) = .
y
e y = 1, K χ1 (g2 ) = 9, |G| = 16. d
/ N∗ ,
|C2 | = 16/(15 + 92 ) ∈
gñ. e y = 3, K χ7 (g2 ) = 3, |G| = 24. d
|C2 | = 24/(15 + 32 ) = 1.
9
e y = 5, K χ7 (g2 ) = , |G| = 40, d
5
" 2 #
9
|C2 | = 40 15 + / N∗ ,
∈
5
9
gñ. e y = 15, K χ7 (g2 ) = , |G| = 240. d
15
" 2 #
9
|C2 | = 240 15 + / N∗ ,
∈
15
gñ. Ïd y = 3, |G| = 24, χ7 (y2 ) = 3, |C2 | = 1.
du1 j (3 6 j 6 7) 1 1 , Ïd¦Ñ G EAIL1 7 1
Ù¦:
g1 g2 g3 g4 g5 g6 g7
 
χ1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
 
χ2 
1 1 1 ω2 ω ω2 ω 
 
χ3  1 1 1 ω ω2 ω ω2 
 
χ4 
2 −2 0 −1 −1 1 1 .
 2 
χ5  2 −2 0 1+ω 1+ω ω2 ω 
 
χ6 
2 −2 0 1+ω 2
1+ω ω ω2 

χ7 3 3 −1 0 0 0 0
(2) gi ¤3ÝaP Cj , j = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7.
|C1 | = 1, |C2 | = 1,
|C3 | = |G|/(12 + 12 + 12 + (−1)2 ) = 24/4 = 6,
|C4 | = 24/[12 + ω 2 ω + ωω 2 + (−1)2 + (1 + ω)(1 + ω 2 ) + (1 + ω 2 )(1 + ω)]
= 24/6 = 4,
· 392 · SK)½J«
|C5 | = 24/[12 + ωω 2 + ω 2 ω + (−1)2 + (1 + ω 2 )(1 + ω) + (1 + ω)(1 + ω 2 )]

= 24/6 = 4,
|C6 | = 24/(12 + ω 2 ω + ωω 2 + 12 + ω 2 ω + ωω 2 ) = 4,
|C7 | = 24/(12 + ωω 2 + ω 2 ω + 12 + ωω 2 + ω 2 ω) = 4.
(3) χi ´d G ØEL« ϕi JøAI, i = 1, 2, · · · , 7, KâSK
3.1 1 2 K, Ker ϕi = Ker χi , u´l G EAILwÑ
S S
Ker ϕ1 = G, Ker ϕ2 = C1 C2 C3 = Ker ϕ3 ,
Ker ϕ4 = Ker ϕ5 = Ker ϕ6 = C1 = {1},
S
Ker ϕ7 = C1 C2 = {1, g2 }.
du G ?5f+ÑéZ Ker ϕi , Ïd G Ü5f+Xe:
S S
{1}, G, N1 = {1, g2 }, N2 = C1 C2 C3 ,
Ù¥ |N1 | = 2, |N2 | = 8.
(4) du G Tk 3 1 gEL«, Ïd G/G′ Tk 3 1 gEL«. qdu G/G′
´ Abel +, Ïd G/G′ §EAI+Ó. u´ |G/G′ | = 3. l |G′ | = 8. d
S S
u G′ ⊳ G, Ïd G′ = N2 = C1 C2 C3 .
\7
(5) âSK 3.1 1 4 K, Z(G) = Z(χi ).
i=1
Z(χ1 ) = G, Z(χ2 ) = G, Z(χ3 ) = G,
S
Z(χ4 ) = Z(χ5 ) = Z(χ6 ) = C1 C2 = {1, g2}, Z(χ7 ) = {1, g2 }.
l Z(G) = {1, g2 }. Ïd G ´ Abel +.
SK 4.3
1. Z2 EAIL
!
1 1
H2 = ,
1 −1
u´ Z2 × Z2 EAIL !
H2 H2
H4 = .
H2 −H2
l Z2 × Z2 × Z2 EAIL
 
H2 H2 H2 H2
!  
H4 H4  H2 −H2 H2 −H2 
H8 = =
H
.

H4 −H4  2 H2 −H2 −H2 
H2 −H2 −H2 H2
2. ){ G Sylow 3-f+ P ⊳ G, G Sylow 5-f+ Q ⊳ G. G ∼
= P × Q. P
SK)½J« · 393 ·
EAIL  
1 1 1
  2π
T1 =  2
1 ω ω , ω = ei 3 .
1 ω2 ω
Q EAIL  
1 1 1 1 1
 
 1 ξ ξ2 ξ3 ξ4 
 
 
T2 =  1 ξ 2 ξ 4 ξ ξ 3  ,
 
 1 ξ3 ξ ξ4 ξ2 
 
1 ξ4 ξ3 ξ2 ξ
2π
Ù¥ ξ = e i 5 . u´ G EAIL T = T1 ⊗ T2 . Öö[Ñ T1 ⊗ T2 .
){ P = hai, Q = hbi. du ab = ba, a 3 b 5 p, Ïd
ab 15. l G ´ 15 Ì+. u´Ñ G EAIL.
SK 4.4
1. (1) âSK 3.1 1 3 KÚ1 4 K: Z(χ) ⊳ G, ¿ Ker ϕ ⊆ Z(χ), k

Z(χ)/ Ker ϕ = Z(G/ Ker ϕ). â!½n 1 , G/ Ker ϕ ?ØEL«g
êUØ [G/ Ker ϕ : Z(G/ Ker ϕ)] = [G/ Ker ϕ : Z(χ)/ Ker ϕ] = [G : Z(χ)]. d G
L« ϕ G/ Ker ϕ L« ϕe ¦ ϕ ´ ϕe J,, §kÓgê. Ïd
χ(1)|[G : Z(χ)].
(2) du χ Ø, Ïd (χ, χ) = 1. l
X X
[G : Z(χ)]| Z(χ)| = |G| = χ(g)χ(g) + χ(g)χ(g)
g∈Z(χ) g∈Z(χ)
/
X
2
= χ(1) | Z(χ)| + |χ(g)|2 > χ(1)2 | Z(χ)|,
g∈Z(χ)
/
ddÑ, χ(1)2 6 [G : Z(χ)], «¤á= ∀g ∈ / Z(χ) k χ(g) = 0.
(3) yé y ∈ / Z(χ) k χ(y) = 0. |^SK 3.1 1 4 K(J:
g ∈ Z(χ) = g Ker ϕ ∈ Z(G/ Ker ϕ). u´l g ∈ / Z(χ) íÑ: 3 h ∈ G ¦
(g Ker ϕ)(h Ker ϕ) 6= (h Ker ϕ)(g Ker ϕ), = g −1 h−1 gh∈ Ker ϕ. P a = g −1 h−1 gh,
K a ∈ G′ ⊆ Z(χ). l |χ(a)| = χ(1). ¤± ϕ(a) = λ.1V , Ù¥ λ ´ü .
du a ∈ / Ker ϕ, Ïd λ 6= 1. du λ1V = ϕ(a) = ϕ(g)−1 ϕ(h)−1 ϕ(g)ϕ(h), Ïd
λϕ(g) = ϕ(h)−1 ϕ(g)ϕ(h). ü>, λχ(g) = χ(g). ddÑ χ(g) = 0.
SK 5.1
1. (1) ? h ∈ H, éu?¿ h′ ∈ H, du H ⊳ G, Ïdk h(gi h′ ) = gi (gi−1 hgi )h′ ∈

gi K[H]. l gi K[H] ¤ K[H]-. u´ gi K[H] ⊗K[H] W ´ K[H]-.
· 394 · SK)½J«
(2) 3½n 1 ¥®yk K-Ó: gi K[H] ⊗K[H] W ∼ = W . Ïd

dimK [gi K[H] ⊗K[H] W ] = dimK W.
l K[H]- gi K[H] ⊗K[H] W Jø H L« ψi gêu ψ gê.
2. ? g ∈ G, ? i ∈ {1, 2, · · · , t}, k ggi = gl h, é, l ∈ {1, 2, · · · , t} Ú,
h ∈ H. u´5½
gWi := Wl . (1)
? x ∈ G, (xg)gi = x(ggi ) = x(gl h) = (xgl )h = gj h′ h, Ù¥ xgl = gj h′ , é,
j ∈ {1, 2, · · · , t} Ú, h′ ∈ H. u´
(xg)Wi = Wj .
qk x(gWi ) = x(Wl ) = Wj , Ïd (xg)Wi = x(gWj ). w, 1Wi = Wi . Ïd (1) ª5
½
+ G 38Ü Ω þ^. dù^ G t gL« ϕ Jø
Ý
L« Φ ¦éz g ∈ G, Ñk Φ(g) ´ t Ý
, â (1) ª, Φ(g)
(l, i) 1.
â!·K 21 , H ÌL« 1H pL« (1H )G JøÝ
L« A
¦ A(g) (l, i) 1H (gl−1 ggi). du gl−1 ggi = h ∈ H, Ïd, 1H (gl−1 ggi) = 1. d
dÑ, Φ(g) = A(g). Ïd ϕ (1H )G d.
3. y{1 2 Ky{aq.
SK 5.2
1. oê+ Q k 5 Ýa:
{1}, {−1}, { i, − i}, { j, − j}, { k, − k}.
H = h ii 3 Q ¥8©)ª
S
Q=H jH.
(1) ψ1 ( i) = −1, Ïd µ1 ( i) = −1, µ1 ( i ) = (−1)2 = 1, µ1 ( i3 ) = (−1)3 = −1.
2
µG1 (1) = 2, µG
1 (−1) = µ1 (−1) + µ1 ( j
−1
(−1) j) = 1 + 1 = 2,
µG
1 ( i) = µ1 ( i) + µ̇1 ( j
−1
i j) = −1 + µ1 (− i) = −2,
µG
1 ( j) = µ̇1 ( j) + µ̇1 ( j
−1
j j) = 0,
µG
1 ( k) = µ̇1 ( k) + µ̇1 ( j
−1
k j) = µ̇1 (− k) = 0.
loê+ Q EAIL (SK 3.2 1 1 K1 (2) K) µG 1 = χ1 + χ3 .
l
ψiG = ϕ1 +̇ϕ3 .
(2) µ2 ( i) = i, µ2 (−1) = µ2 ( i2 ) = i2 = −1, µ2 (− i) = µ2 ( i3 ) = i3 = − i.
µG G
2 (1) = 2, µ2 (−1) = µ2 (−1) + µ2 (−1) = −2,
µG
2 ( i) = µ2 ( i) + µ̇2 ( j
−1
i j) = i + µ2 (− i) = i − i = 0,
G −1
µ2 ( j) = µ̇2 ( j) + µ̇2 ( j j j) = 0,
µG
2 ( k) = µ̇2 ( k) + µ̇2 ( j
−1
k j) = µ̇2 (− k) = 0.
SK)½J« · 395 ·
ddwÑ µG G G
2 = χ. Ïd ψ2 ≈ ϕ4 . l ψ2 ´ Q 2 gØEL«.
2. G = A4 k 4 Ýa, ÙL
(1), (12)(34), (123), (132).
H 3 G ¥8©)ª
S S
G=H (123)H (132)H.
H ² 1 gEL« ψ, §JøAI µ
µ((1)) = 1, µ((12)(34)) = −1, µ((13)(24)) = 1, µ((14)(28)) = −1,
G
u´ µ ((1)) = 3,
µG ((12)(34)) = µ((12)(34)) + µ̇[(123)−1 (12)(34)(123)] + µ̇[(132)−1 (12)(34)(132)]
= −1 + µ̇[(13)(24)] + µ̇[(14)(23)] = −1 + 1 − 1 = −1,
µ ((123)) = µ̇((123)) + µ̇[(123)−1 (123)(123)] + µ̇[(132)−1 (123)(132)] = 0,
G
µG ((132)) = µ̇((132)) + µ̇[(123)−1 (132)(123)] + µ̇[(132)−1 (132)(132)] = 0.

Ïd µG = χ3 (SK 3.2 1 1 K1 (3) K). l ψ G ´ G 3 gØEL
«.
SK 5.3
1. µ1 , µ2 , · · · , µs ´ H ÜØÓØEAI. â!·K 1, éu
z µi , 3 G ØEAI χi , ¦ µi = χi |H.
s
X
χ|H = mj µj ,
j=1
s
X s
X
K χ(1) = mj µj (1) = mj .
j=1 j=1
duéu?¿ i ∈ {1, 2, · · · , s}, k
1 X 1 X
(χ, χi )G = χ(g)χi (g) = χ(h)χi (h)
|G| |G|
g∈G h∈H
|H| 1
= (χ|H, χi |H)H = (χ|H, µi )H
|G| [G : H]
 
Xs
1  mi
= mj µj , µi  = .
[G : H] j=1 [G : H]
H
Ïd [G : H]|mi , i = 1, 2, · · · , s. l [G : H]|χ(1).
2. (1) du (12)(13)(24)=(1324), Ïd H k 4 , a = (1324), b = (13)(24),
K
bab−1 = (13)(24)(1324)(13)(24) = (3142) = a−1 .
u´ H = ha, b|a4 = b2 = (1), bab−1 = a−1 i. Ïd H ∼= D4 .
∼
(2) du H = D4 , Ïd H k 5 Ýa:
{(1)}, {a2 }, {a, a3 }, {b, a2 b}, {ab, a3 b},
· 396 · SK)½J«
Ù¥ a2 = (12)(34), a3 = (1423), ab = (12), a2 b = (14)(23), a3 b = (34). âSK 3.2

1 1 K D4 EAIL, H 1 gEAI µ1 , Ù¥
µ1 ((1)) = 1, µ1 (a) = 1, µ1 (a2 ) = 1, µ1 (b) = −1, µ( ab) = −1.
H 3 S4 ¥8©)ª
S S
S4 = H (13)H (14)H.
S4 Ýak 5 , ÙL©O
(1), (12), (12)(34), (123), (1234).
Ýaêg 1, 6, 3, 8, 6 (ëw [24] 1 80 1 16 K).
µG1 ((12)) = µ̇1 ((12)) + µ̇1 ((13)(12)(13)) + µ̇1 ((14)(12)(14))
= µ1 ((12)) + µ̇1 ((23)) + µ̇1 ((24)) = −1 + 0 + 0 = −1,

µG
1 ((12)(34)) = µ1 ((12)(34)) + µ̇1 ((13)(12)(34)(13)) + µ̇1 ((14)(12)(34)(14))
= 1 + µ̇1 ((14)(23)) + µ̇1 ((13)(24)) = 1 + (−1) + (−1) = −1.

µG
1 ((123)) = µ̇1 ((123)) + µ̇1 ((13)(123)(13)) + µ̇1 ((14)(123)(14)) = 0,
µG
1 ((1234)) = µ̇1 ((1234)) + µ̇1 ((13)(1234)(13)) + µ̇1 ((14)(1234)(14))
= 0 + µ̇1 ((3214)) + µ̇1 ((4231)) = 0 + 0 + 1 = 1.

u´
1 2
(µG G
1 , µ1 ) = [3 + 6(−1)2 + 3(−1)2 + 6 · 12 ] = 1.
24
Ïd µG 1 ´ S4 3 gØEAI.
(3) âSK 3.2 1 1 K1 (3) K A4 EAIL, A4 1
gEAI µ2 , Ù¥
µ2 ((1)) = 1, µ2 ((12)(34)) = 1, µ2 ((123)) = ω, µ2 ((132)) = ω 2 .
A4 3 S4 ¥8©)ª
S
S4 = A4 (12)A4 .
du A4 ⊳ S4 , Ïdéu σ ∈ / A4 , k µG 2 (σ) = 0. l k
G
µ2 ((12)) = 0,
µG
2 ((12)(34)) = µ2 ((12)(34)) + µ̇2 ((12)(12)(34)(12)) = 1 + 1 = 2,
µG 2
2 ((123)) = µ2 ((123)) + µ̇2 ((12)(123)(12)) = ω + ω = −1,
µG
2 ((1234)) = 0.
u´
1 2
(µG G
[2 + 3 · 22 + 8 · (−1)2 ] = 1.
2 , µ2 ) =
24
Ïd µG2 ´ S4 2 gØEAI.
(4) S4 k 5 ØEL«.
S4′ = A4 . Ïd S4 Tkü 1 gEL«: ÌL« ϕ0 , 1 gEL« ϕ1 , ϕ1 ró
N¤ 1, ϕ1 rÛN¤ −1.
þ¡®¦Ñ
S4 3 gØEL«Ú 2 gØEL«. du
|S4 | = 24 = 12 + 12 + 22 + 32 + 32 ,
SK)½J« · 397 ·
Ïd S4 k 3 gØEL«. ±|^ S4 ´VD4+, á=Ñ S4

ù 3 gØEAI. ±|^1'Xr S4 ù 3 gØE
AI¦Ñ:
(1) (12) (12)(34) (123) (1234)

χ0 1 1 1 1 1
 
χ1 1 −1 1 1 −1 
 
 
χ2 2 0 2 −1 0 .
 
χ3 3 −1 −1 0 1 
 
χ4 3 1 −1 0 −1
5 3¦ S4 EAIL, ±Ø¦ H 1 gEAI µ1 p S4 3
gØEAI µG 1 , ´|^ S4 ´VD4+, Ñ S4 3 gØ
EAI, 2^1'X¦Ñ, 3 gØEAI.
T
3. (1) C H = ∅, éu g ∈ C, ?¿ a ∈ G, k a−1 ga ∈ C. l a−1 ga ∈
/ H.
Ïd
1 X
µG (g) = µ̇(a−1 ga) = 0.
|H|
a∈G
T
(2) C H = ∅. g ∈ C. -
CG (g) = {a ∈ G|aga−1 = g}.
â [24] 1 74 íØ 6 e¡ã{ |C| = [G : CG (g)]. éu x, y ∈ G, k
x−1 gx = y −1 gy ⇐⇒ yx−1 gxy −1 = g ⇐⇒ yx−1 ∈ Ca (g).
u´ G ¥éu½ x, ¦ x−1 gx = y −1 gy y k | CG (g)| . r H ¥¹ hi
ÝaP Bi , i = 1, 2, · · · , r. ·k
1 X 1 X
µG (g) = µ̇(a−1 ga) = | CG (g)|µ̇(x−1 gx)
|H| |H| −1
a∈G x gx∈C
1 X | CG (g)| X
= | CG (g)|µ̇(z) = µ(z)
|H| |H| T
z∈C z∈C H
r r
| CG (g)| X X | CG (g)| X X
= µ(z) = µ(hi )
|H| i=1 H i=1
z∈Bi z∈Bi
r r
| CG (g)| X X µ(hi )
= µ(hi )|Bi | = | CG (g)| .
|H| i=1 i=1
| CH (hi )|
4. + A5 k 5 Ýa C1 , C2 , C3 , C4 , C5 , ÙL
(1), (12)(34), (123), (12345), (13524),
Ýaêg
1, 15, 20, 12, 12.
â [24] 1 66 1 13 K, A′5 = A5 . Ïd A5 k 1 gEL«, =Ì
L«.
· 398 · SK)½J«
du A5 ´VD4+, Ïd A5 k 4 gØEL« ψ, ÙAI χ4

3þã 5 Ýaþ
(4, 0, 1, −1, −1).
r A4 w¤ A5 f+, P G = A5 . A4 ² 1 gEAI ν, Ù¥
ν((12)(34)) = 1, ν((123)) = ω, ν((132)) = ω 2 .
60
du [A5 : A4 ] = = 5, Ïd ν G (1) = 5. du
12 T
C2 A4 = {(12)(34), (13)(24), (14)(23)},
60 ν((12)(34))
Ïd ν G ((12)(34)) = = 1.
T 15 4
du C3 A4 ´ A4 üÝa¿8, Ïd

60 ν((123)) ν((132))
ν G ((123)) = + = ω + ω 2 = −1.
20 3 3
T T
du C4 A4 = ∅, C5 A4 = ∅, Ïd
ν G ((12345)) = ν G ((13524)) = 0.
u´
1 2
(ν G , ν G ) = [5 + 15 · 12 + 20 · (−1)2 ] = 1.
60
Ïd ν G ´ G ØEAI.
A5 f+ H = h(12345)i. H ² 1 gEAI µ, Ù¥
µ((12345)) = ε, µ((13524)) = ε2 , µ((14253)) = ε3 ,
2π
µ((15432)) = ε4 , ε = ei 5 .
du [A5 : H] = 12, Ïd µG (1) = 12.
T T
du C2 H = ∅, C3 H = ∅, Ïd
µG ((12)(34)) = 0, µG ((123)) = 0.
N´¦Ñ
T
C4 H = {(12345), (15432)},
T
C5 H = {(13524), (14253)}.
u´
G 60 µ((12345)) µ((15432))
µ ((12345)) = + = ε + ε4 ,
12 5 5

G 60 µ((13524)) µ((14253))
µ ((13524)) = + = ε2 + ε3 .
12 5 5
du
1
(µG , χ0 )G = (µ, χ0 |H)H = (1 + ε + ε2 + ε3 + ε4 ) = 0,
5
1
(µG , χψ )G = (µ, χψ |H)H = [1 · 4 + ε(−1) + ε2 (−1) + ε3 (−1) + ε4 (−1)] = 1,
5
1
(µG , ν G )G = (µ, ν G |H)H = (1 · 5 + ε · 0 + ε2 · 0 + ε3 · 0 + ε4 · 0) = 1,
5
SK)½J« · 399 ·
Ïd µG − χψ − ν G ´ G EAI, P χ1 .
χ1 (1) = µG (1) − χψ (1) − ν G (1) = 12 − 4 − 5 = 3,
χ1 ((12)(34)) = 0 − 0 − 1 = −1, χ1 ((123)) = 0 − 1 − (−1) = 0,
χ1 ((12345)) = (ε + ε ) − (−1) − 0 = 1 + ε + ε4 ,
4
χ1 ((13524)) = (ε2 + ε3 ) − (−1) − 0 = 1 + ε2 + ε3 .

u´
1 2
(χ1 , χ1 ) = [3 + 15 · (−1)2 + 12(1 + ε + ε4 )(1 + ε4 + ε) + 12(1 + ε2 + ε3 )(1 + ε3 + ε2 )]
60
1
= [24 + 12(2 + ε + ε4 ) + 12(2 + ε2 + ε3 )] = 1.
60
Ïd χ1 ´ G 3 gØEAI. du
60 = 12 + 32 + 42 + 52 + 32 ,
Ïd G k 3 gØEAI, P χ2 , ù±|^1'X¦Ñ. r
χ4 P χ3 , ν G P χ4 , K A5 EAILXe:
(1) (12)(34) (123) (12345) (13524)
 
χ0 1 1 1 1 1
 
χ1  3 −1 0 1 + ε + ε4 1 + ε2 + ε3 
 
χ2  3 −1 0 1 + ε2 + ε3

1 + ε + ε4  ,
 
χ3   4 0 1 −1 −1 

χ4 5 1 −1 0 0
Ù¥ √ √
2π −1 + 5 1+ 5
1 + ε + ε4 = 1 + ε + ε = 1 + 2 cos =1+2· = ,
5 4 √ 2√
4π −1 − 5 1− 5
1 + ε2 + ε3 = 1 + ε2 + ε2 = 1 + 2 cos =1+2· = .
5 4 2
5 dK±Ø^ A5 f+ H ² 1 gEAI µ pAI µG
©)¦Ñ A5 3 gØEAI, |^1oÙ §2 Ü©ù|
^ A5 Óu¡N (½¡N) ^=é¡+ G, ¦Ñ A5 3 gØ
EAI.
SK 5.4
T
1. {g1 , g2 , · · · , gt } ´ (L, H) 3 G pV8LX, - Li = L gi Hgi−1 , i =
(i) (i)
1, 2, · · · , t. ∀y ∈ gi Hgi−1 , k 1H (y) = 1H (gi−1 ygi ) = 1, Ïd 1H = 1gi Hg−1 , l
i
(i)
1H |Li = 1Li . ÄEê, â Mackey f+½n
t
X (i)
((1L )G , (1H )G )G = (1L |Li , 1H |Li )Li
i=1
t
X t
X
= (1Li , 1Li )Li = 1 = t.
t=1 i=1
· 400 · SK)½J«
2. d L 3 G/H þ½^ L 3EêþL«P ψ, lS

K 5.1 1 3 K ψ ≈ (1H )G |L. qâ1nÙ §2 íØ 4 , r u 1L 3 ψ ¥
ê, = (1L , χψ )L . Ïdâ Frobenius pÆ
r = (1L , χψ )L = (1L , (1H )G |L)L = ((1L )G , (1H )G )G .
Xs s
X Xs
·k (1L )G = ((1L )G , χi )G χi = (1L , χi |L)L χi = ai χi . Ón, (1H )G =
i=1 i=1 i=1
s
X
bi χi . Ïd
i=1
 
s
X s
X s X
X s s
X
r= a i χi , b j χj  = ai bj (χi , χj ) = ai b i .
i=1 j=1 i=1 j=1 i=1
3. du G 3 Ωi þ^D4, â [24] SK 1.5 1 29 K, G 3 Ωi þ

^du G 3û8 G/Gxi þ²£^, u´ G 3 G/Gxi þ²£^
ÚåAI´ ηi , i = 1, 2. âSK 5.1 1 3 K, ηi = (1Hi )G , i = 1, 2.
â1nÙ §2 íØ 4
r1 = (1H1 , η2 |H1 )H1 = (1H1 , (1H2 )G |H1 )H1 = ((1H1 )G , (1H2 )G )G = (η1 , η2 )G .
Ón r2 = (η1 , η2 )G .
4. du G 3 Ω þ^D4, Ïd G 3 Ω þ^du G 3 G/Gx þ
²£^. u´ G 3 G/Gx þ²£^ÚåEL«´ ϕ. l
ϕ ≈ (1Gx )G . Ïd Gx 3 Ω þ^;^ê r(x)
r(x) = (1Gx , χϕ |Gx )Gx = ((1Gx )G , χϕ )G
= (χϕ , χϕ )G .
5. k+ G D4/^3k8Ü Ω þÚåEL«P ϕ. â1 4
K(ØÚ1nÙ §2 ·K 3 , Gx 3 Ω þ^;^ê r(x)
1 X
r(x) = (χϕ , χϕ )G = χϕ (g)χϕ (g)
|G|
g∈G
1 X 1 X
= F (g)F (g) = |F (g)|2 .
|G| |G|
g∈G g∈G
!
∗ ∗
a1 0
6. (1) ϕij ´+ H GF (q) × GF (q) Ó: 7→ (a1 , a2 )
b a2
GF (q)∗ × GF (q)∗ EL« ψj #ψj Ü¤, Ïd ϕij ´+ H EL«. du
ψi (i = 1, 2, · · · , q − 1) ´ 1 g. Ïd ψi #ψj ´ 1 g, l ϕij ´ 1 g.
(2) du ϕij ´ 1 g, χψi #ψj (a1 , a2 ) = µi (a1 )µj (a2 ), Ïd
" !#
a1 0
χij = µi (a1 )µj (a2 ).
b a2
(3) ? g = (cij ) ∈ G\H, éu y = (yij ) ∈ Hg , k χgij (y) = χij (g −1 yg). du
i 6= j µi 6= µj , Ïd3 ρm ∈ GF (q)∗ ¦ µi (ρm ) 6= µj (ρm ), Ù¥ ρ ´ GF (q)∗
SK)½J« · 401 ·
)¤,  
ρm 0
y =  c22 m ,
(ρ − 1) 1
c12
K  
1 0
g −1 yg =  c11 m .
(ρ − 1) ρm
c12
T
l y ∈ H gHg −1 = Hg. u´
χgij (y) = χij (g −1 yg) = µi (1)µj (ρm ) = µj (ρm ),
χij (y) = µi (ρm )µj (1) = µi (ρm ) 6= µj (ρm ).
Ïd χgij 6= χij . â!íØ 1 χG ij Ø.
(q 2 − 1)(q 2 − q)
deg ϕG
ij = ( deg ϕij ) · [G : H] = = q + 1.
(q − 1)2 q
! !
1 1 y11 0
(4) g = ∈ G\H. éu y = ∈ H,
0 1 y21 y22
y ∈ gHg −1 ⇐⇒ g −1 yg ∈ H
⇐⇒ y! 21 = y11 − y22 .
y22 0
u´ ∀y ∈ Hg, k g −1 yg = ,
y11 − y22 y11
χgii (y) = χii (g −1 yg) = µi (y22 )µi (y11 ) = χii (y).
Ïd χgii = χii . â!íØ 1 χG ii .
7. (1) r G EAILP T , K T ´_Ý
. a 3 Ω þ^Úå T
, AÝ
P Q; a 3 Irr (G) þ^Úå T 1, A
Ý
P P . du (aχi )(aCj ) = χi (gj ), 1 6 i, j 6 s, Ïd P T Q = T . l
T −1 P T = Q−1 . du Q ´Ý
, Ïd Q−1 = Q′ . u´ tr (P ) = tr (T −1 P T ) =
tr (Q′ ) = tr (Q). tr (P ) u a 3 Irr (G) ¥ØÄ:ê, tr (Q) u a 3 Ω
¥ØÄ:ê.
1 X
(2) Ω A-;^ê r1 u |F1 (a)|, Ù¥ F1 (a) ´ a 3 Ω ¥ØÄ:
|A|
a∈A
1 X
8. Irr (G) A-;^ê r2 u |F2 (a)|, Ù¥ F2 (a) ´ a 3 Irr (G) ¥Ø
|A|
a∈A
Ä:8. â1 (1) K, |F1 (a)| = |F2 (a)|, ∀a ∈ A. Ïd r1 = r2 .
8. hj ´ Cj L, j = 1, 2, · · · , t, K
(gµi )(gCj ) = µgi (ghj g −1 ) = µi [g −1 (ghj g −1 )g] = µi (hj ).
u´l1 7 Ká=KüK(Ø.
9. l1 8 K(Øá=·K (i) (ii) d.
(i)⇒(iii). ? y ∈ N \{e}. y ∈ Cl . ? g ∈ G\N . d (i) , g 3 Ω ¥
½:, w, g ùØÄ:´ {e}. u´ gCl = gCl g −1 6= Cl . l gyg −1 6= y.
· 402 · SK)½J«
ddÑ, g ∈
/ CG (y). Ïd CG (y) ⊆ N .
(iii)⇒(i). ? g ∈ G\N . bX g 3 Ω ¥k1ØÄ: Cm , K gCm g −1 =
Cm . x ∈ Cm , k gxg −1 ∈ Cm . du Cm ´ N Ýa, Ïd3 a ∈ N , ¦
x = a(gxg −1 )a−1 . u´ ag ∈ CG (x). d (iii) CG (x) ⊆ N . ddíÑ g ∈ N .
gñ. Ïd g 3 Ω ¥kØÄ:.
10. (1) du ∀y ∈ N \{e}, k CG (y) ⊆ N , Ïdâ1 9 K(Ø, G\N ¥
z g 3 Irr (N ) ¥½:. l é?¿ µ ∈ Irr (N ), µ 6= 1N , k
µg 6= µ. â!íØ 2 9Ù5, µG Ø.
bX N ⊆ Ker (µG ), K ∀a ∈ N , k µG (a) = µG (1). r µG (1) P m. u´
µG |N = m1N , m = µ(1)[G : N ]. g1 = e, g2 , · · · , gr ´ N 3 G ¥8LX.
r
X X r r
X
â Mackey f+½n µG |N = (µ(i) |N )N = µ(i) . u´ µ(i) = rµ(1)1N .
i=1 i=1 i=1
r
!
X
du µ 6= µ(i) , i = 2, 3, · · · , r, µ 6= 1N , u´l µ(i) , µ = (rµ(1)1N , µ)N
i=1 N
1 = 0, gñ. Ïd N * Ker (µG ).
(2) du Ker χ + N , Ïd3 y0 ∈ N ¦ χ(y0 ) 6= χ(1). l χ|N 6= χ(1)1N .
Ïd χ|N ¹ N ØEAI µ 6= 1N . u´ (χ, µG )G = (χ|N, µ)N > 0.
â1 (1) K, µG Ø, Ïd χ = µG .
11. {g1 , g2 , · · · , gt } ´ Gµ 3 G ¥8LX. w,, N ⊆ Gµ .
{y1 , y2 , · · · , yl } ´ N 3 Gµ ¥8LX, K N 3 G ¥8LX´ {g1 y1 ,
g1 y2 , · · · , g1 yl , · · · , gt y1 , · · · , gt yl }. $^ Mackey f+½n
X t X
l t X
X l
µG |N = µgi yj = (µyj )gi
i=1 j=1 i=1 j=1
t X
X l t
X
= µgi = l µgi . (1)
i=1 j=1 i=1
Ï (µG , χ)G = (µ, χ|N )N > 0, ¤± χ ´ µG Ø¤©. u´ χ|N ´ µG |N
¤©, l (1) ª, χ|N Ø¤©Uk µg1 , µg2 , · · · , µgt . ·k
1 X 1 X
(χ|N, µgi )N = χ|N (h)µgi (h−1 ) = χ(h)µ(gi−1 h−1 gi )
|N | |N |
h∈N h∈N
1 X 1 X
= χ(gi xgi−1 )µ(x−1 ) = χ(x)µ(x−1 )
|N | |N |
x∈N x∈N
= (χ|N, µ)N = m. (2)
Ïd
t
X
χ|N = m µgi . (3)
i=1
XJ Gµ = G, K t = 1, d (3) ª= χ|N = mµ. ùÒy²

1 (2) K.
SK)½J« · 403 ·
e¡ Gµ 6= G. 2 Irr (Gµ ) = {ν1 , ν2 , · · · , νs },

χ|Gµ = l1 ν1 + l2 ν2 + · · · + ls νs , li > 0. (4)
u´ χ|N = l1 ν1 |N +l2ν2 |N +· · ·+ls νs|N . Ø 1 6 i 6 r , hνi |N, µiN > 0,
éu r + 1 6 j 6 s, k hνj |N, µiN = 0. -
ν = l1 ν1 + l2 ν2 + · · · + lr νr . (5)
Ï N ⊳ Gµ , ¤±éu Gµ Ú νi (1 6 i 6 r) A^þãy(ØB
νi |N = mi µ. (6)
u´
Xr Xr
ν|N = li νi |N = li mi µ = m′ µ, (7)
i=1 i=1
r
X
Ù¥ m′ = li mi . Ï
i=1
s
X r
X
m = (χ|N, µ)N = li (νi |N, µ)N = l i mi = m′ ,
i=1 i=1
¤± ν|N = mµ. y35y ν Ø¿ ν G = χ. ·k  
s
! s
X X
(ν G , χ)G = (ν, χ|Gµ )Gµ = ν, li νi = ν, ν + lj νj 
i=1 Gµ j=r+1
Gµ
 
r
X s
X
= (ν, ν)Gµ +  li νi , lj νj  = (ν, ν)Gµ ,
i=1 j=r+1
Gµ
u´ ν G = (ν, ν)Gµ χ + η, Ù¥ η = 0 ½ö η ´ G AI. l
ν G (1) = (ν, ν)Gµ χ(1) + η(1) > (ν, ν)Gµ χ(1). (8)
l (3) ª
χ(1) = mµ(1)[G : Gµ ]. (9)
Ï ν|N = mµ, ¤± ν(1) = mµ(1). u´ χ(1) = ν(1)[G : Gµ ]. Ï ν G (1) = [G :

Gµ ]ν(1), ¤±l (8) ª
[G : Gµ ]ν(1) > hν, νiGµ ν(1)[G : Gµ ], (10)
ddÑ hν, νiGµ = 1. ¤± ν Ø, ¿ (10) ªÚ (8) ªÒ¤á, u´
η(1) = 0, = η = 0, l ν G = χ. ùÒy²
1 (1) K.
12. µ ´ χ|N Ø¤©, l1 11 K, Iy Gµ 6= G. bX
Gµ = G, K χ|N = mµ. Ï N ´ Abel +, ¤± µ gê 1. χ ´ G L«
(ϕ, V ) Jø. E^ µ JøAI µ N L«PÒ, K ϕ|N ≈ µ ⊕ · · · ⊕ µ.
u´éz h ∈ N , k ϕ(h) = µ(h) · 1V , l ϕ(h) ∈ Z( GL (V )). du ϕ ´§¢
, Ïd h ∈ Z(G), u´ N ⊆ Z(G). gñ.
13. χ|N ¹ N 1 gAI µ.
/ 1 Gµ = G. dk χ|N = mµ. χ ´ G L« (ϕ, V ) Jø, Kéu
z h ∈ N , k ϕ(h) = µ(h) · 1V . l |χ(h)| = χ(1). ùL² N ⊆ Z(χ). âS
· 404 · SK)½J«
K 4.4 1 1 K χ(1)|[G : Z(χ)]. Ï [G : N ] = [G : Z(χ)][Z(χ) : N ], ¤±

χ(1)|[G : N ].
/ 2 Gµ 6= G. d3 Gµ ØEAI ν ¦ χ = ν G , ¿
l1 11 Ky²L§¥ ν|N = mµ. u´/ 1 y²{aqy
ν(1)|[Gµ : N ]. Ï χ(1) = ν G (1) = [G : Gµ ]ν(1), ¤±
[G : N ] = [G : Gµ ][Gµ : N ] = [G : Gµ ]ν(1)l = χ(1)l.
14. l1 13 Ká=.
SK 6.3
1. ȧF = La (F ). du La ´ÿÀm G gÓ, Ïd L−1

a ´ëYN.
−1
l d La (aF ) = F ´48Ñ aF ´48. aq/, m²£ Ra ´ G g
Ó, Ïd F a = Ra (F ) ´48. ¦_$ ν ´ G gëYN, du ν 2 = 1G ,
Ïd ν −1 = ν. l ν −1 ´ G gëYN, Ïdd F ´48Ñ F −1
´48. [
2. P U = bU . du²£ Lb ´ G gÓ, Ïdl U ´m8Ñ bU
b∈P
´m8. u´ P U ´m8. Óny U P ´m8. du ν −1 ´ G gëYN
, Ïdl U ´m8Ñ U −1 ´m8.
3. ? x ∈ A, y ∈ B, W ´ xy ?. du G ¦{$´ëYN,
T
Ïd3 x V1 y V2 , ¦ V1 V2 ⊆ W . du x ∈ A, Ïd V1 A 6= ∅.
T T T
u´k a ∈ V1 A. Ónk b ∈ V2 B. u´ ab ∈ W AB. l xy ∈ AB.
4. ? a, b ∈ H. W ´ ab−1 ?. du G ¦{Ú¦_Ñ´ëY
N, Ïd3 a V1 b V2 , ¦ V1 V2−1 ⊆ W . du a ∈ H, Ïd
T T T T T
V1 H 6= ∅. Ón V2 H 6= ∅. u´k c ∈ V1 H, d ∈ V2 H. l cd−1 ∈ W H.
Ïd ab−1 ∈ H. l H ´ G f+.
N ⊳ G, d1 1 (Ø, N ´ G f+. ?¿½ g ∈ G, ? x ∈ N ,
W ´ gxg −1 ?. du G ¦{Ú¦_Ñ´ëYN, Ïd3 g
T
V1 , V2 , x U , ¦ V1 U V2−1 ⊆ W . du x ∈ N , Ïd U N 6= ∅. l k
T T
a ∈ U N . u´ gag −1 ∈ V1 U V2−1 . q gag −1 ∈ N . Ïd gag −1 ∈ W N . l
gxg −1 ∈ N . u´ N ⊳ N .
5. G = {gi |i ∈ I}. G mCX F :
F = {{gi }|i ∈ I}.
du G ´;, Ïd F kkfx F1 CX G, Ù¥ F1 = {{gj1 }, {gj2 }, · · · ,
{gjm }}. u´ G ´k+.
6. du H ´lÑm, Ïd {e} ´ H m8. âfmÿÀ½Â, {e}
T
´ G m8 N H 8, = N H = {e}. u´ e ∈ N . â½Â,
N ´ e 3 G S. du²£´ G gÓ, Ïdéu h ∈ H,
T
k hN ´ h 3 G S. du N H = {e}, Ïd N ¹k H p
SK)½J« · 405 ·
e. l hN ¹k H h. N N −1 E´ G m8, e ∈ N N −1 . À

T
G ÷v N H = {e} m8 N , ¦ N N −1 ¹k H e. bX
éu h1 , h2 ∈ H, h1 6= h2 , k h1 N h2 N 8Ø´8, K3 a ∈ h1 N
a ∈ h2 N , u´k n1 , n2 ∈ N , ¦ h1 n1 = a = h2 n2 . l n1 n−1 −1
2 = h1 h2 ∈ H. q
−1 −1 −1 −1
n1 n2 ∈ N N . du N N ¹k H e, Ïd n1 n2 = e. ddíÑ
T
h1 = h2 , gñ. ùy²
h1 6= h2 , h1 N h2 N = ∅.
T
7. du H ´ G lÑf+, Ïdéu bi ∈ K H, k {bi } ´ H m8. du
H ÿÀ´ G fmÿÀ, Ïd3 G m8 Vi ¦
T
Vi H = {bi }.
T
r K H P¤ bi , Ù¥ i ∈ I, =
T
K H = {bi |i ∈ I}.
T
K mCX F , ¦ F 3 K H þ {Vi |i ∈ I}, du K ´ G ;
T
f8, Ïdéu F kkfCX F1 , F1 3 K H þ {Vj1 , Vj2 , · · · ,
T
Vjm }, l K H ´k8.
8. 3;+~f¥®y S 1 ´;+. ? S 1 ²lÑf+ H, â1
T
7 K, S 1 H ´k8. l H ´k+. du H Éê C ¦{+ C∗
f+, ±y²? F ¦{+ F ∗ kf+½´Ì+ (y²{
aqu [24] 1 37 ½n 12 y²), Ïd H ´Ì+.
9. ?ÿÀ+ R ²lÑf+ H. du H ´lÑm, Ïd?
T
h ∈ H, k {h} ´ H m8. l 3m«m (a, b), ¦ (a, b) H = {h}. u´
T
H = {hi |i ∈ I}, Ù¥ I Í8, Kkm«mx {(ai , bi )|i ∈ I}, ¦ (ai , bi ) H =
{hi }, i ∈ I. h1 ´ H ¥ýé"ê. - K = {kh1 |k ∈ Z}, K K ´ H
Ìf+, bX K 6= H, K3 H\K ¥? x. ·äóé?¿ kh1 ∈ K, k
|x − kh1 | > |h1 |. bXk l ∈ Z ¦ |x − lh1 | < |h1 |. du x − lh1 ∈ H, x − lh1 6= 0,
Ïdù h1 ´ H ¥ýé"êgñ, l äó¤á. e h1 > 0, w,3
m ∈ Z, ¦ mh1 < x < (m + 1)h1 , u´ |x − mh1 | < h1 ; e h1 < 0, 3 m ∈ Z,
¦ mh1 < x < (m − 1)h1 , u´ |x − mh1 | < |h|. ù
Ñþãäógñ. Ïd
K = H.
10. - M1 = {A ∈ GL n ( R)| det(A) > 0}, M2 = {B ∈ GL n ( R)| det(B) < 0}. M1
3N det e8´ (0, +∞), M2 3 det e8´ (−∞, 0). (0, +∞) Ú (−∞, 0)
Ñ´ R m8, du det ´ëYN, Ïd M1 Ú M2 Ñ´m8. GL n ( R) ´ R∗
S T
3 det e, GL n ( R) = M1 M2 , M1 M2 = ∅. Ïd GL n ( R) ØëÏ.
S T
11. - M1 = {A ∈ O(n)| det(A) = −1}, K O(n) = SO(n) M1 , SO(n)
M1 = ∅. ®y SO(n) ´ O(n) 48. Óny M1 ´ O(n) 48. Ïd O(n)
L«¤üØ48¿, l §ØëÏ.
T
12. ? O(2) ²lÑf+ H. du O(2) ´;+, H = O(2) H,
â1 7 K, H k+.
/ 1 H ⊆ SO(2). ÿÀ+ SO(2) ∼ = S 1 , ^1 8 K(Ø, H kÌ
· 406 · SK)½J«
+. !
cos θ sin θ
/ 2 H * SO(2). B ∈ H det(B) = −1, K B = .
sin θ − cos θ
!
cos θ − sin θ
l B 2 = I. éu A ∈ H det(A) = 1, k A = . O
sin θ cos θ
BAB −1 = A−1 . du A, A2 , · · · Ñáu H, H ´k+, Ïd7k i < j, ¦
Ai = Aj . l Aj−i = I. n ´¦ An = I ¤áê, K n ´ A . d
u H ´k+, Ïd± A H p^=¥, A n.
- K = hA, B|An = B 2 = I, BAB −1 = A−1 i, K K ⊆ H. du H p¤k^=|¤
f8 H1 é¦{µ4, é¦_µ4, Ïd H1 ´ H f+, H1 ´ SO(2) f+,
â1 8 K, H1 ´Ì+. du A ∈ H1 , A ´^=, Ïd H1 = hAi.
l H p¤k^= I, A, A2 , · · · , An−1 . ù
TÐ´ K p¤k^=, ? H
p C (= det(C) = −1), K CB ´ H p^=. l CB = Ai , éu,
i(0 6 i < n). u´ C = Ai B −1 ∈ K, ddÑ, H = K, = H ´¡N+.
[
13. H ´+ G f+, H ´mf8. G\H = bH, d1 2 K, bH Ñ
b∈H
/
´m8. l G\H ´m8. Ïd H ´48.
S
14. H ´+ G f+, [G : H] = r, H ´ G 48, K G\H = b2 H · · ·
S
/ H, i = 2, · · · , r. â1 1 K, bi H Ñ´48, 2 6 i 6 r. Ïd G\H
br H, Ù¥ bi ∈
´48. l H ´m8.
15. G f+ H ¹ G ü e , K H 7¹¹kü
e m8 U . w,k H = U H. â1 2 K, U H ´m8, = H ´m8.
SK 6.4
1. aqu!~ 2 y{.
2. ÿÀ+ G K-L« (ϕ, V ) fL« ϕU Ý
L« ΦU , K ΦU (g) ´
Φ(g) fÝ
, ∀g ∈ G. Ïdl “Φ Ý
´ G þëY¼ê” á=Ñ: ΦU
Ý
´ G þëY¼ê. l fL« ϕU ´ëY.
SK 6.5
1. (1) aqu!Ún 7 y².

(2) |^!½n 2 (Ø.
SK)½J« · 407 ·
SK 6.6
1. (1) 31Ù §2 ~ 2 ®y ϕa ´+ ( R, +) 1 gEL«. du ϕa

Ý
e iat ´ R þëYE¼ê, Ïd ϕa ´ÿÀ+ ( R, +) 1 gEL
«.
(2) a = a1 + ia2 , K e iat = e ia1 t e−a2 t . l ϕa ´jL«=eª¤á:
| e iax | = 1, ∀t ∈ R ⇐⇒ e−a2 t = 1, ∀t ∈ R
⇐⇒ a2 = 0 ⇐⇒ a ∈ R.
Ïd ϕa ´jL«= a ∈ R.
(3) ψ ´ÿÀ+ ( R, +) ? 1 gjL«, K ∀t ∈ R, k ψ(t) ∈ C
|ψ(t)| = 1. du 1 Eê¤ e iθ ù«/ª, Ù¥ θ ∈ R. Ïd ψ(t) = e iθt .
u´ ψ = ϕθ .
2. (1) 31Ù §2 ~ 3 ®y f ´+ ( R, +) + SO(2) Ó. w
, f ´÷, du f Ý
cos t, sin t Ñ´ R þëY¼ê, Ïd f ´ÿÀ
+ ( R, +) ÿÀ+ SO(2) ÷Ó. ý Ker f = {2πm|m ∈ Z}. l
R/2π Z ∼= SO(2).
(2) duû+ R/2π Z ØEL«|¤8Ü ( R, +) ÙØ¹ 2π Z
ØEL«|¤8ÜkéA, ( R, +) kØEL«Ñ´ 1
g, Ïd R/2π Z kØEL«Ñ´ 1 g. u´ SO(2) zk
ØEL«Ñ´ 1 g. Ïd, SO(2) zkØjL«Ñ´ 1 g.
(3) Φ ´;+ SO(2) ØjL«, du SO(2) ∼ = R/2π Z, Ïd Φ
J, Φ e Ñ
( R, +) ØEL«, w, Φ e ´jL«, Φ(2π) e e
= Φ(0) = 1.
, Φ e ´ÿÀ+ ( R, +) ØjL«÷v Φ(2πm) e = 1, ∀m ∈ Z, K
e e
Ker Φ ⊇ 2π Z. u´ Φ ÏLé 2π Z ©)Ñ R/2π Z ØjL«, ?
SO(2) ØjL« Φ:
!!
cos t − sin t e
Φ = Φ(t), 0 6 t < 2π.
sin t cos t
(4) dK1 (3) KÚ1 1 K1 (3) K: SO(2) zØjL«
Φ
!!
cos t − sin t e
Φ = Φ(t) = e iθt , 0 6 t < 2π,
sin t cos t
e
Ù¥ θ A÷v Φ(2πm) = 1, ∀m ∈ Z. n 6 θ < n + 1, n ´,ê, K θ = n + r,
Ù¥ 0 6 r < 1. u´ θ A÷v 1 = e iθ(2πm) = e i2πmn e i2πmr = e i2πmr , ∀m ∈ Z. dd
íÑ r = 0, = θ = n. u´ SO(2) zØjL«äk/ª
!!
cos t − sin t
Φn = e int , 0 6 t < 2π,
sin t cos t
Ù¥ n ∈ Z.
· 408 · SK)½J«
(5) ÿÀ+ SO(2) ∼ = S 1 , âÙ §5 ~ 2 S 1 þØCÈ©deª½Â:

Z Z 2π
1
f (x) dx = f ( e iθ ) dθ.
S 1 2π 0
Φk , Φl Ñ´ SO(2) ØjL«, Kâ1 (4) KÚ;+ØjL«J
øAI'X Z 2π
1
e ikt e ilt dt = δkl .
2π 0
3. du Φ(e) = Φ(gg −1 ) = Φ(g)Φ(g −1 ), Φ(e) ´ðC, Ïd Φ(g −1 ) =
Φ(g)−1 . du Φ(g) ´jC, Ïdâ [28] 1 693 , Φ(g) C Φ(g)∗ =
Φ(g)−1 .
Φ ´ G n gjL«, Φ(g) ÜA λ1 , λ2 , · · · , λn . du Φ(g)
´jC, Ïd λi 1 (ëw [28] 1 705 ~ 10). u´ λ−1 i = λi , i = 1, 2, · · · , n.
l
n
X n
X
χ(g −1 ) = tr (Φ(g −1 )) = tr (Φ(g)−1 ) = λ−1
i = λi
i=1 i=1
n
X
= λi = tr (Φ(g)) = χ(g).
i=1
4. η1 , η2 , · · · , ηn ´ V 'uSÈ f0 IOÄ. - A = (f (ηi , ηj )).
σ ´ V þ5C, §3Ä η1 , η2 , · · · , ηn eÝ
! A′ , K
n
X
f0 (σηi , ηj ) = f0 f (ηi , ηk )ηk , ηj = f (ηi , ηj ),
k=1
l é?¿ α, β ∈ V , k
f0 (σα, β) = f (α, β).
bXk V þ5C τ ¦
f0 (τ α, β) = f (α, β),
é α, β ∈ V ¤á, K
f0 (σα, β) = f0 (τ α, β).
=
f0 ((σ − τ )α, β) = 0,
é α, β ∈ V Ñ¤á. ddíÑ σ = τ .
5 dK±|^ [28] 1 603 ~ 27 (Øá=Ñ.
5. f0 Ú f ´ V ü G ØCSÈ, Ké g ∈ G, éuSÈ f0 Ú f
ó, ϕ(g) Ñ´jC. â1 4 K, 3 V þ5C σ, ¦
f (α, β) = f0 (σα, β), é α, β ∈ V ¤á. ? g ∈ G, é?¿ α, β ∈ V , k
f0 (ϕ(g)−1 σϕ(g)α, β) = f0 (σϕ(g)α, ϕ(g)β) = f (ϕ(g)α, ϕ(g)β)
= f (α, β).
−1
u´ ϕ(g) σϕ(g) = σ, l σϕ(g) = ϕ(g)σ, ∀g ∈ G. du (ϕ, V ) Ø, Ïdâ
Schur Ún, σ = c1V éu,"Eê c. l f = cf0 .
SK)½J« · 409 ·
6. â1 1 K1 (3) K, ÿÀ+ G∗ = ( R, +) zØjL«/X

ϕa (t) = e iat , t ∈ R, a ∈ R. e Ker ϕa ⊇ N , K ϕa é N ©)û+ G∗ /N Ø
EL« ϕa . 2πn 6 a < 2π(n + 1), éu,ê n, K a = 2πn + r, 0 6 r < 2π,
e iat = e i(2πn+r)t = e i2πnt e irt ,
Ker ϕa ⊇ N ⇐⇒ ϕa (m) = 1, ∀m ∈ Z
⇐⇒ 1 = e iam = e i2πnm e irm = e irm , ∀m ∈ Z
⇐⇒ r = 0 ⇐⇒ a = 2πn.
i2πnt
P ϕn (t) = e , n ∈ Z. ù
´ G∗ ÙØ¹ N ÜØjL«, §é N
©)B G = G∗ /N ÜØjL«: ϕn (t + N ) = ϕn (t) = e i2πnt , n ∈ Z.
ë©z
[1] Curtis C. W. and Reiner I., Representation Theory of Finite Groups and Associative
Algebras, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1962.
[2] Jean-Pierre Serre, Linear Representations of Finite Groups, Springer-Verlag, New
York, 1997. ¥È5k+5L«6, Ï #È, ®: ÆÑ, 1984.
[3] Vinberg E. B., Linear Representations of Groups, Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel, 1989.
[4] Isaacs I. M., Character Theory of Finite Groups, Academic Press, New York, 1976.
[5] Curtis C. W. and Reiner I., Methods of Representation Theory with Applications to
Finite Groups and Orders, Volume 1, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1981.
[6] Feit W., The Representation Theory of Finite Groups, North-Holland Mathematical
Library, New York, 1982.
[7] Gorenstein D., Finite Groups, Harper and Row, New York, 1968.
[8] Hall M., The Theory of Groups, Macmillan, New York, 1959. ¥È5+Ø6, Ü1²
È, ®: ÆÑ,1981.
[9] Huppert B., Endliche Gruppen, I, Springer-Verlag, Berlin,1967.
[10] Wielandt H., Finite Permutation Groups, Academic Press, New York, 1964.
[11] Zhelobenko D. P., Compact Lie Groups and Their Representations, Amer. Math. Soc.,
Providence, RI, 1973.
[12] Pontryagin L.S. (
Apæ7). ëY+. þþ. ùâuÈ. ®: ÆÑ, 1978.
[13] £(. k+Ú;+L«Ø. ®: ®ÆÑ, 1997.
[14] Rudin W., Real and Complex Analysis (2nd ed), Mc Graw-Hill, New York, 1974.
[15] Conway John B., A course in Fanctional Analysis (2nd ed), Springer, New York, 1990.
[16] Browder A., Mathematical Analysis: An Introduction, Springer-Verlag, New York,
1996.
[17] iµ, ¾Xw. ÿÀ+ÚØ. ®: ÆÑ, 1991.
ë©z · 411 ·
[18] Van dre Waerden B.L.. êÆ I. ¶, Q¤, Ï #È. ®: ÆÑ, 1963.
[19] Armstrong M.A.. Ä:ÿÀÆ. ±´È. ®: ®ÆÑ, 1983.
[20] Kostrikin A. L. (dA|7). êÆÚØ. eþ. 7±¥, £(, Ü^ÿÈ. ®: p
Ñ, 1988.
[21] ùâu, |Ã. k+L«Ø. ®: pÑ, 1992.
[22] m(ê, ¶. êÆÚØ. ®: pÑ, 1988.
[23] £(. 4)+k'+ØL«. ®ÆÆ (g,Æ), 26(5):
592 – 601, 1990.
[24] £(. ÄêÄ:. ®: pÑ, 2003.
[25] £(. pê (þþ!eþ) —— Æpê§M#á. ®: uÆÑ
, 2010.
[26] £(. pê. 2 . þþ. ®: pÑ, 2002.
[27] £(. pê. 2 . eþ. ®: pÑ, 2003.
[28] £(. pêÆSÖ. eþ. ®: uÆÑ, 2009.
[29] £(. )ÛAÛ. 2. ®: ®ÆÑ, 1996.
[30] £(. êÆgªM#. ®: ®ÆÑ, 2011.
[31] Hewitt E. and Stromberg K., Real and Abstract Analysis, Springer-Verlag, 1969.
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1967.
[33] £(. pêÆSÖ. þþ. ®: uÆÑ, 2005.
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(½ Irr(G))
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K + G ¤k K ¼ê|¤þm
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K[G] + G 3 K þ+ê
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Sn n é¡+
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Sn n ¥¡
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f+
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ϕ(n) ê n î.¼ê
ϕ∗ + G L« ϕ _ÚL«, ½+ê K[G] d ϕ *¿¤L«
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L«
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σ
ϕ + G L« ϕ ÏL G gÓ σ LL«, ½ ϕ ÏLgÓ σ
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I(ψ) L« ψ .5+: I(ψ) = {g ∈ G|ψ g ≈ ψ}
ϕF + G K-L« ϕ ÏLÄ K *Ü F -L«
ϕ#ψ + G1 L« ϕ + G2 L« ψ ÜþÈ
G
ψ + G f+ H L« ψ pL«
Φm (x) m g©õª
χϕ L« ϕ JøAI
χ0 + G ÌAI, k^ χ1 L« G ÌAI
χρ k+ G KL« ρ JøAI
∗
χ χ _ÚAI, ½+ê K[G] L« ϕ∗ JøAI
σ
χ + G L« ϕ LL« ϕσ JøAI, ½ ϕ ²LgÓ
ÝL« ϕσ JøAI
· 416 · ÎÒ`²
χg + G 5f+ N L« ψ ÝL« ψ g JøAI

G
µ + G f+ H AI µ pAI
G
η + G f+ H a¼ê η pa¼ê
¶c¢Ú (Ç=éì)
σ-ê σ-algebra 257

Artin ½n Artin theorem 161
Baire ½n Baire theorem 307
Banach-Steinhaus ½n Banach-Steinhaus theorem 308
Banach m Banach space 305
Blichfeldt ½n Blichfeldt theorem 146
Borel ÿÝ Borel measure 258
Borel ê Borel algebra 257
Borel 8 Borel set 257
Brauer ½n Brauer theorem 159
Burnside ½n Burnside theorem 104
Clifford ½n Clifford theorem 146
Fatou Ún Fatou Lemma 279
Frobenius Ö Frobenius complement 167
Frobenius ½n Frobenius theorem 164
Frobenius Ø Frobenius kernel 167
Frobenius pÆ Frobenius reciprocity formula 139
Frobenius + Frobenius group 164
Fubini ½n Fubini theorem 299
Haar ÿÝ Haar measure 287
Hahn-Banach ½n Hahn-Banach theorem 316
Heine-Borel ½n Heine-Borel theorem 179
Hilbert m Hilbert space 302
Jordan-Hölder ½n Jordan-Hölder theorem 57
Lebesgue ÿÝ Lebesgue measure 263
Lebesgue È© Lebesgue integral 274
· 418 · ¶c¢Ú (Ç=éì)
Lebesgue Âñ½n Lebesgue dominated covergence theorem 282

Mackey f+½n Mackey subgroup theorem 143
Maschke ½n Maschke theorem 30
Peter-Weyl ½n Peter-Weyl theorem 214
Riesz L«½n Riesz representation theorem 287
Stone-Weierstrass ½n Stone-Weierstrass theorem 222
Urysohn Ún Urysohn lemma 214, 285
Wedderburn ½n Wedderburn theorem 66
Zorn Ún Zorn lemma 56, 171
B
üê semi-simple algebra 54
principal idempotent 51
4 closure 177
48 closed set 177
4N closed mapping 179
L«gê (½ê) degree (dimension) of a representation 13
L«ÜþÈ tensor product of representations 124
L«Ú direct sum of representation 27
L«m representation space 13
ØCSÈ invariant inner product 208
ØCfm invariant subspace 26
ØL« irreducible representation 28
Ø irreducible modules 47
C
ÿÝ measure 258
ÿÝm measure space 258
)+ supersolvable group 150
¦Èm product space 184
¦ÈÿÀ product topology 184
È dense 177
Ðf+ elementary subrgoup 153
D4 transitive 88
D
ê4 algebraically closed field 33
ê¥% center of an algebra 49
êþ module over an algebra 44
êÓ algebra homomorphism 43
êê algebraic integers 93
¶c¢Ú (Ç=éì) · 419 ·
üê simple algebra 59

üNÂñ½n Monotone convergence theorem 277
ü simple ring 59
ü L« unit representation 13
üL« monomial representation 137
üÝ
monomial matrix 137
dL« equivalent representations 14
:Ì point spectrum 313
Ýþ metric 182
Ýþm metric space 182
F
üúª inversion formula 86
ê norm 304
©) factoring 36
©õª cyclotomic polynomial 104
© cyclotomic fields 161
G
ÝL« conjugate representatin 39
á: isolated point 177
.5+ inertial group 39
2ÂAI generalized character 153
2ÂAI ring of generalized characters 153
H
Ü¤ composition series 57
Ü¤Ïf composition factors 57
J
4n minimal left ideal 58
;+ compact group 190
;5f compact linear operator 315
;5N compact linear mapping 315
;ÿÀm compact topological space 180
ÛÜ;m locally compact space 184
ÛÜ;+ locally compact group 225
Ý
L« matrix representations 14
à: cluster point 177
ýéØL« absolutely irreducible representation 148
· 420 · ¶c¢Ú (Ç=éì)
K
m8 open set 175
mN open mapping 179
mN½n open mapping theorem 309
ÿ¼ê measurable function 265
ÿ8 measurable set 257
ÿm measurable space 257
ÿN measurable mapping 265
)+ solvable groups 104
êg\5 countable subadditivity 259
ê\ countably additive 258
L
a¼ê class function 75
lÑÿÀ discrete topology 176
ëÏ8 connected set 185
ëÏm connected space 185
ëÏ5 connectirity 185
ëYL« continuous representation 194
ëYN continuous mapping 178
ûS½n well-ordering principle 172
ûS8Ü well-ordered set 171
neighbor hood 177
"zf annihilator 235
M
idempotent element 50
∼ orthogonal ∼ 51
¥% ∼ central∼ 51
"+ nilpotent group 150
module 111
Ó module homomorphism 48
N
LL« twisted representation 38
_ÚL« contragredient representation 39
P
S partial order 170
²ïN balanced map 109
Ì spectrum 313
¶c¢Ú (Ç=éì) · 421 ·
Q
+ê group algebra 42
+© splitting fields for a group 146
+ê exponent of a group 33
+38Üþ^ group actions on a set 19
S
û quotient module 49
VD4 doubly transitive 89
T
AÏj+ special unitary group 191
AÏ+ special orthogonal group 187
AI character 75
AIL character table 84
AI+ group of characters 86
J, lifting 36
Ó homeomorphism 178
ÿÀ topology 175
ÿÀÈ topological product 184
ÿÀm topological space 176
ÿÀ+ topological group 186
ÿÀ+5L« linear representation of a topological group 194
W
ÿÝ outer measure 259
ÜþÈ outer tensor product 127
complete 182
completely reducible 28
completely reducible module 48
k. totally bounded 183
net 320
X
5L« linear representations 13
ÀJún axiom of choice 171
ÀJ¼ê choice function 171
Y
5+ general linear group 3
ëY uniformly continuous 199
Âñ uniformly convergent 200
· 422 · ¶c¢Ú (Ç=éì)
k. uniformly bounded 199

k.n Principle of uniform boundedness 309
jL« unitary representation 209
j+ unitary group 191
jAI unitary character 227
k. bounded 182
k.5¼ bounded linear functional 306
k.5N bounded linear mapping 305
kCX finite covering 180
pL« induced representations 133
pa¼ê induced class function 155
p induced modules 133
pAI induced characters 137
pÿÀ induced topology 177
Z
ÜþÈ tensor product 111
L« orthogonality representation 208
+ orthogonal group 32
KL« regular representation 20
» diameter 182
L« permutation representation 20
§¢L« faithful representation 13
ÌL« principal representation 13
fL« subrepresentations 26
f submodule 46
left module 44
K left regular module 46

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现代数学基础

hh群众示论32711内封.indd 1 2018/6/22 下午4:01

群表示论 / 丘维声编著 . —北京 : 高等教育出版

Ⅰ. ①群… Ⅱ. ①丘… Ⅲ. ①群表示 - 研究 Ⅳ.

中国版本图书馆 CIP 数据核字（2011）第 221487 号

出版发行 高等教育出版社 咨询电话 400-810-0598

2009 c¢G#ÆÏ, ®ISêÆïÄ¥%­·1ÏïÄ)êÆÄ:r

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nê, dïÄü§4nÚ©), ùÒIïÄk

ÏLÜþÈEÑ ψ Ød n gØL«" ϕ, ψ ´+ G ügê

qX, éu K þÃõ5m {Vi |i ∈ I}  Ú, -kkõ©

3ù8Ü¥5½: (f + g)(i) := f (i) + g(i); (kf )(i) := kf (i) "´yù8Ü¤

 f , ¦é i ∈ I Ñk f (Ai ) ∈ Ai "f ¡ S þÀJ¼ê"ÀJún

, I G Ù¦("l4«mþëY¼ê f (x) ½È©½Â

w, I4"4{´êÆþ?nÃL§rkåóä" ¼ê

+ G þzëY¢ (E) ¼êÑkØCÈ©, Ïd;+ G zk¢

Hilbert m V þ;gC A 5: V ±©)¤ A ¤kAfm

jAI+ G∗ U G ØÓ"~X, lÑ+ ( Z, +) jAI+ S 1

1oÙ +L«ÜþÈ, +ÈL« · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 108

1ÊÙ pL«ÚpAI · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 133

18Ù Ã+5L« · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 168

9.10 Schur Ún, ÿÀ+jL«, ;+jL« · · · · · · · · · · · 344

¶c¢Ú (Ç=éì) · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 417

±y²:  R ¥, ∀a ∈ R, k a0 = 0a = 0. Ïd 0 ´ R(R kü)

Z∗8 Ú GL n (F ) Ñk«$, ùr¦·ïÄk«$êXÚ.

e G ´ Abel +, Ké?¿ a, b ∈ G, k (ab)n = an bn , n ∈ Z.

du H ´f+, Ïdù'Xäk5, é¡5ÚD45, l §´ G þ

 U ´¢SÈmfm, XJ V = U ⊕ U ⊥ , @ok V 3 U þ²1

ã), , |^c¡¤ùn, ÒxÑ­

y,  H, L, M Ñ´+ G f8, K

l (8) Ú (9) ª, gKg −1 = K. u´·y²

 N ´+ G 5f+, d·K 7 , G 'u N û8 (G/N )l mû

373  7 Ø {ê´ 2, ÏdL

Ïd σ ´\{+ Z \{+ Z7 Ó. |^ùÓ, þãF~)¹¥¯

1.  f ´¢ê\{+ R "Eê¦{+ C∗ N: f (x) = e2π ix ,

|¤8Ü, y²: SLn (F ) ⊳ GL n (F ),

½Â 2 + G  GL n (K) +Ó Φ ¡ G 3 K þ n gÝ

- t = 0,  C = f (0). du f ´ ( R, t) ¦{+ R∗ Ó, Ïd f (0) = 1. l

ùL² ( R, +) ¦{+ R∗ +Ó7½´ê.¼ê f (x) = eax , Ù¥ a ∈ R.

3úª (4) ¥, ?êÂñ´

´ L2 (0, 2π) IOÄ. lùpw: ( R, +) þãÃ¡õ 1 gEL«3

) Äké n ¢5m V .  V = Rn [x], §´d¢êþgê

K G ¥zÑ±n/ØC, Xã 1–4 ¤«. ,

γ ∈ G. N´y² G 'uN¦{µ4, ? y² G ´+, ¡ G ´n/

 xi Ó, KN´y x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ¤ V Ä. l dimK V = n.

k8 Ω gV Ω .  Ω ¹k n , Ø

Ù¥a1 a2 · · · an ´ 1, 2, · · · , n ü (¡ n ü). du n üoê

Ù¥ Eij ´ (i, j)  1, Ù{ 0  n Ý

w,, Un éuEê¦{¤+, ¡ Un ´Eêþ n gü +. Un 

·K 2  G ´+. XJ a  n, @o

du στ1 = τ3 , Ïd (στ1 )2 = τ32 = I, = (στ1 )(στ1 ) = I. l τ1 στ1 = σ−1 . u

Φ(σ 2 ) = Φ(σ)2 , Φ(στ ) = Φ(σ)Φ(τ ), Φ(σ 2 τ ) = Φ(σ 2 )Φ(τ ), Φ(I) = I.

 (ϕ, V ) ´+ G  K-L«. Äk¯: kvkU+ G 3 V f

B G  K-L« (ϕU , U ), ¡ ϕU ´ ϕ fL«.

½Â 2  (ϕ, V ) ´+ G  K-L«, U ´ V  G ØCfm, XJ

¿ ϕU , ϕW Ñ´ ϕ fL«. u´ V ¥?þ α ±/L«¤ α = u + w,

·K 1 L², XJ V ´ G ØCfm U Ú W Ú, @oL« ϕ ´§f

y3 V ´ n . 3 G ØCfm U Ú W ¥©OÄ α1 , α2 , · · · , αm ;

3.3 ØL«, L«, L«

, K3 Vi ² G ØCfm Vi1 . du ϕi , Ïd Vi1 3 Vi ¥k

´ U ′ Ø½´ G ØCfm. dl U ′ ÑuE G ØCfm,

? α ∈ Ker B, Á¯: ´Äk α ∈ U ? ? v ∈ V , ´Äk Bv = B 2 v, =

r½n 1 Ú½n 2 (Üå5B: k+ G 3AØUØ |G|  K þ

1. + G 38Ü Ω = {x1 , x2 , · · · , xn } þk^, dù^Úå G 3

Ⅰ. ①群…　Ⅱ. ①丘…　Ⅲ. ①群表示 - 研究　Ⅳ.

出版发行高等教育出版社咨询电话 400-810-0598

2009 c¢G#ÆÏ, ®ISêÆïÄ¥%·1ÏïÄ)êÆÄ:r

Ü, l dimK[G] = |G| "±3 K[G] ¥5½¦{$, u´ K[G] éu

nê, dïÄü§4nÚ©), ùÒIïÄk

ÏLÜþÈEÑ ψ Ød n gØL«" ϕ, ψ ´+ G ügê

qX, éu K þÃõ5m {Vi |i ∈ I} Ú, -kkõ©

3ù8Ü¥5½: (f + g)(i) := f (i) + g(i); (kf )(i) := kf (i) "´yù8Ü¤

f , ¦é i ∈ I Ñk f (Ai ) ∈ Ai "f ¡ S þÀJ¼ê"ÀJún

, I G Ù¦("l4«mþëY¼ê f (x) ½È©½Â

w, I4"4{´êÆþ?nÃL§rkåóä" ¼ê

+ G þzëY¢ (E) ¼êÑkØCÈ©, Ïd;+ G zk¢

Hilbert m V þ;gC A 5: V ±©)¤ A ¤kAfm

jAI+ G∗ U G ØÓ"~X, lÑ+ ( Z, +) jAI+ S 1

1oÙ +L«ÜþÈ, +ÈL« · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 108

1ÊÙ pL«ÚpAI · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 133

18Ù Ã+5L« · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 168

9.10 Schur Ún, ÿÀ+jL«, ;+jL« · · · · · · · · · · · 344

±y²: R ¥, ∀a ∈ R, k a0 = 0a = 0. Ïd 0 ´ R(R kü)

Z∗8 Ú GL n (F ) Ñk«$, ùr¦·ïÄk«$êXÚ.

du H ´f+, Ïdù'Xäk5, é¡5ÚD45, l §´ G þ

U ´¢SÈmfm, XJ V = U ⊕ U ⊥ , @ok V 3 U þ²1

ã), , |^c¡¤ùn, ÒxÑ

y, H, L, M Ñ´+ G f8, K

l (8) Ú (9) ª, gKg −1 = K. u´·y²

N ´+ G 5f+, d·K 7 , G 'u N û8 (G/N )l mû

373 7 Ø {ê´ 2, ÏdL

Ïd σ ´\{+ Z \{+ Z7 Ó. |^ùÓ, þãF~)¹¥¯

1. f ´¢ê\{+ R "Eê¦{+ C∗ N: f (x) = e2π ix ,

|¤8Ü, y²: SLn (F ) ⊳ GL n (F ),

½Â 2 + G GL n (K) +Ó Φ ¡ G 3 K þ n gÝ

- t = 0, C = f (0). du f ´ ( R, t) ¦{+ R∗ Ó, Ïd f (0) = 1. l

ùL² ( R, +) ¦{+ R∗ +Ó7½´ê.¼ê f (x) = eax , Ù¥ a ∈ R.

3úª (4) ¥, ?êÂñ´

´ L2 (0, 2π) IOÄ. lùpw: ( R, +) þãÃ¡õ 1 gEL«3

) Äké n ¢5m V . V = Rn [x], §´d¢êþgê

K G ¥zÑ±n/ØC, Xã 1–4 ¤«. ,

γ ∈ G. N´y² G 'uN¦{µ4, ? y² G ´+, ¡ G ´n/

xi Ó, KN´y x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ¤ V Ä. l dimK V = n.

k8 Ω gV Ω . Ω ¹k n , Ø

Ù¥a1 a2 · · · an ´ 1, 2, · · · , n ü (¡ n ü). du n üoê

Ù¥ Eij ´ (i, j) 1, Ù{ 0 n Ý

w,, Un éuEê¦{¤+, ¡ Un ´Eêþ n gü +. Un

·K 2 G ´+. XJ a n, @o

(ϕ, V ) ´+ G K-L«. Äk¯: kvkU+ G 3 V f

B G K-L« (ϕU , U ), ¡ ϕU ´ ϕ fL«.

½Â 2 (ϕ, V ) ´+ G K-L«, U ´ V G ØCfm, XJ

¿ ϕU , ϕW Ñ´ ϕ fL«. u´ V ¥?þ α ±/L«¤ α = u + w,

·K 1 L², XJ V ´ G ØCfm U Ú W Ú, @oL« ϕ ´§f

y3 V ´ n . 3 G ØCfm U Ú W ¥©OÄ α1 , α2 , · · · , αm ;

3.3 ØL«, L«, L«

, K3 Vi ² G ØCfm Vi1 . du ϕi , Ïd Vi1 3 Vi ¥k

´ U ′ Ø½´ G ØCfm. dl U ′ ÑuE G ØCfm,

? α ∈ Ker B, Á¯: ´Äk α ∈ U ? ? v ∈ V , ´Äk Bv = B 2 v, =

r½n 1 Ú½n 2 (Üå5B: k+ G 3AØUØ |G| K þ

1. + G 38Ü Ω = {x1 , x2 , · · · , xn } þk^, dù^Úå G 3

(3) y²: ψj 1 5 KEL« ϕ d, j = 1, 2, · · · , n.

ù!·5û½ Abel +¤kkØEL«.

ùL² ϕ , gñ. Ïd dimV = 1. u´·y²

´y ϕr ±$, l ϕr ´ G 1 gEL«.

k'+ÈVg±ëw [24] 1 44 Ú1 48 . k'k Abel +(

´y ϕh ±$. l ϕh ´ G 1 gEL«.

Äµ4? éu?¿ g ∈ G, g = at11 at22 · · · atss , k

ùL² G b éu¼ê¦{$µ4. w,¼ê¦{÷v(ÜÆ, G ÌL« ϕe

l G Tk |G| 1 gEL«, §d (4) ª½Â.

1. ¦e Abel +¤k 1 gEL«:

Abel +ØEL«kgêu 1 . ~X, SK 1.3 1 8 K, n é

(ϕ, V ) ´+ G L«, K V k² G ØCfm U . ?

N ´+ G 5f+, K+ G û+ G/N kN:

@o5f+ N Ker ϕ ko'XQ? du

Ïd “aba−1 b−1 6= e” Òx

ÏLrû+ G/G′ ¤k 1 g K-L«J,, B G ¤k 1 g K-L«. ù

V ´ K þ n 5m, V ∗ ´ V éóm. (ϕ, V ) ´+ G

l ϕ∗ (g) _, = ϕ∗ (g) ∈ GL (V ∗ ). Ïd ϕ∗ : g 7→ ϕ∗ (g) ´+ G GL (V ∗ )

1. ¦+ A4 ¤k 1 gEL« (J«: A4 f+ A′4 = {(1), (12)(34),

·®², k Abel +¤kkØEL«Ñ´ 1 g, ¿¬¦

§1 + G 5L«+ê K[G] þ

G ´k+, K ´. + G 3 K þ5L« (ϕ, V ) ´dL«

K[G] K þ5mÄ´ G Ü, l dimK K[G] = |G|.

N´y K[G] éu\{Ú¦{¤kü , G ü ´ K[G] ü