COURSE OUTLINE: FINALS

1. CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM 1. ARTERIES

2. LYMPHATIC SYSTEM ● carries oxygenated blood away from the heart
3. NERVOUS SYSTEM (represented by color red)
4. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM ● The walls of the arteries are elastic, which allows
5. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM them to absorb the pressure created by ventricles
REFERENCE BOOK of the heart as they pump blood into the arteries
Tortora’s Principles of Anatomy and Physiology by Gerard ○ The walls is much thicker than vein to
Tortora and Bryan Derrickson withstand the pressure of pumping the blood
● because the smooth muscle in the tunica media,
arteries can regulate their diameter
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM arterioles - smallest arteries
aorta - biggest
OVERVIEW
● also called the cardiovascular system. aneurysm- rupture of blood vessel because of high blood
● makes up the network that delivers blood to the pressure
body’s tissue.
● with each heartbeat
ANASTOMOSES
o blood is sent throughout our bodies,
● union of the branches of two or more arteries
carrying oxygen and nutrients to all of our
supplying the same region of the body
cells.
○ provides an alternate route for blood flow
● Each day, 2000 gallons of blood travel many times
○ arteries that do not form an anastomosis are
through about 60,000 miles of blood vessels that
called “end arteries”
branch and cross, linking the cells of our organs
■ if the end artery is blocked, blood cannot
and body parts.
get to that particular region of the body and
● cardiovascular is our body’s lifeline.
necrosis can occur
● closed circuit
o we cannot break the system as bleeding
The Modified Gambee Suture Technique: Safe, Easy and
may happen and result to death
(hemorrhage) Modification for Bowel Anastomosis
Arterial Anastomosis
chamber of the heart creating the greatest pump? left
ventricle 2. VEINS
controls the contraction and relaxation of the heart? ● formed from the union of several venules
pacemaker / sinoatrial node ● carries deoxygenated blood back to the heart
(represented by color blue)
Cardiovascular System Overview, Animation ● contain a valve to prevent backflow of blood
● compared to arteries, veins have a thinner tunica
TYPES OF CIRCULATION interna and media and a thicker tunica externa
○ veins have less elastic tissue and less smooth
PULMONARY muscle than arteries
● The pulmonary artery carries blood from the right
ventricle to the lungs for oxygenation. Then, the vena cava
oxygenated blood will be transported from the lungs
- largest veins (superior and inferior vena cava)
to the left side of the heart through the pulmonary
vein. venules
● pulmon means lungs -smallest veins that are formed by the union of several
RENAL capillaries
● another term for kidney -drain blood from capillaries to veins
● kidney filters the blood
● the movement of blood from the body organs 3. CAPILLARIES
through the kidneys ● microscopic vessels that usually connect
arterioles and venules
● most numerous
SYSTEMIC
● composed of a single layers of cells and a
● involves the 11 systems of the body.
● distributed to the 11 systems of the body parts so it basement membrane
will be nourished. ○ because their walls are so thin, capillaries
● The oxygenated-rich blood pump in the left ventricle permit the exchange of nutrients and wastes
then leaves in the heart through the aorta between blood and tissue cells
distributing it to the different systems in the body ● absorption of minerals, nutrients, or oxygen.
BLOOD FLOW THROUGH CAPILLARIES
CORONARY capillaries branch to form an extensive capillary network
● heart
throughout the tissues and are found near almost every cell
in the body.
COMPONENTS OF THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
CAPILLARY EXCHANGE DYNAMICS
blood vessels, blood and heart
1. Diffusion
3 MAJOR BLOOD VESSELS

1 I
 ● capillaries can transfer substances or molecules ○ bringing waste products to the kidneys and
from higher to lower concentrations; liver,which filter and clean the blood - RBC
● substances such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, ○ regulating body temperature
glucose, amino acids, and some hormones cross Dilate
capillary walls via simple diffusion -enlargement of blood vessels
2. Transcytosis Vasodilation
● transfer facilitated by capillary; -blood vessels are dilated
● large lipid insoluble molecules cross capillary walls Constricted
in vesicles -narrowing of blood vessels
3. Bulk flow Vasoconstriction
● passive process in which large numbers of - blood vessels are constricted
molecules can move in the same direction.
regulation of relative volumes of blood and
interstitial fluid 4 COMPONENTS OF BLOOD
● occurs from high pressure to low pressure and it
continues as long as a pressure difference exists RBC (ERYTHROCYTES)
● important for the regulation of the relative volumes STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
of blood and interstitial fluid ● Erythron: highly specialized tissue responsible for
O2 transport
vital organs made up of capillaries: ● Bone marrow: site of rbc production
- eyes : this explains why safety goggles are (hematopoiesis)
needed during operations ● RBC’S: “containers” for hgb, lack nucleus and
- under the tongue: administration of sublingual mitochondria
drugs esp. for hypertension ● Hgb: protein ideally suited for 02 transport
Blood vessels - Structure & Function | GCSE PE ● Rbc membrane: provides strength and flexibility
● RBC metabolism: provides energy and protects
BLOOD VESSEL STRUCTURE rbc/hgb from environmental insults
● There about 5,000,000 RBC in one drop of blood

NORMAL RBC COUNT LEVELS

TUNICA INTERNA/TUNICA INTIMA
● Innermost layer,adjacent to lumen
TUNICA MEDIA
● middle layer, smooth muscle and elastic fibers
TUNICA EXTERNA
● the outermost layer, adjacent to surrounding tissue
BLOOD
BLOOD BASICS
● blood is a specialized body fluid.
● general component:
○ liquid component - blood plasma ; settle at
top as it is less dense
○ solid component- blood cells (rbc, wbc,
platelets) ; settle below as it is dense
● functions:
○ transporting oxygen and nutrients to the lungs
and tissues - RBC
○ forming blood clots to prevent excess blood
loss - PLATELET
○ carrying cells and antibodies that fight infection
- WBC
-expressed in million red cells per microliter
● Women- 4.2 to 5.4 million/μl
● men- 4.7 to 6.1 million/μl
● children-4.6 to 4.8 million/μl
Hemoglobin
- pigment that gives rbc its unique red color.
-if hemoglobin is dilated, itsS color becomes dull red/dark red
Polycythemia
High RBC count
Anemia
Low RBC count
Pallor
patient is pale
The Role of Red Blood Cells in Anemia
WBC (GERMINATORS / LEUKOCYTES)
● Play a role in reducing inflammation in the body
● a high WBC count could mean that there is
inflammation somewhere in the body
● a high WBC count can also be an indicator of an
infection,allergy,or inflammation
○ Leukocytosis - the presence of an elevated
WBC count
○ Leukopenia- a decreased WBC count
● Normal range for WBC count is 4,300 to 10,800
cells per cm3 or 4.3 to 10.8 x 10⁹ cells per liter.
TYPES OF WBC
1. Basophil
- defend bacteria and foreign substances
- releases histamine and heparin
- increases when there is a sign of allergy
6. Neutrophils

2 I
 - most numerous and multiply quickly when they
detect infection (bacteria or fungus)
7. Eosinophils
- target parasitic worms
- elevates when there is invasion of parasitic worms
8. Lymphocytes - front liners of the body, identifies and
destroys foreign invaders
a. B-cells - found in bone marrow ; makes up 10%
b. T-cells - found in thymus gland ; makes up of 75%
c. Natural killer cells - makes up 15%
5. Antibodies
- also called as Immunoglobulins (Ig)
G - IgG Antibodies
A - IgA Antibodies
M - IgM Antibodies
E - IgE Antibodies
D - IgD Antibodies
6. Monocytes
- partially differentiated white cells; not fully mature
- when they mature, they can be either:
macrophages-ingest invading microbes and
infected human cells
dendritic cells- messenger taking the broken-down
antigen material and presenting it to other white cells. the
B-cells will determine the antigen and will activate the t-cells.
Diapedesis
-ability to leap across; going in or out of the system because
of the antibodies
-unique characteristic of white blood cell (wbc)
Video 9 White Blood Cells Types and Functions
PLATELETS (THROMBOCYTES)
● Play an important role in stopping bleeding by forming
blood clots
○ low level of platelets in the blood may result in
excessive bleeding
○ high platelet count may cause the formation of
blood clots.which can block blood vessels and
result in heart attack,strokes.
● Normal platelet level can range between 150,000 and
450,000 per μl (microliter) of blood
○ Thrombocytopenia ( low platelet count) and
Thrombocytosis (high platelet count)
○ Children normal platelet count: 150,000 and
450,000 per μl of blood
○ Adult normal platelet count:150,000 and 400,000
per μl of blood
Dengue
-low platelet that makes it hemorrhagic (bleeding)
-avoid dark-colored foods to observe if the stool has blood
-electrolytes are needed to increase the platelets
Platelets & Blood Clotting | Biology | FuseSchool
Fibrin is a fibrous, non-globular protein involved in the
clotting of blood.
PLASMA
BLOOD TYPES
ANTIGENS
● ‘surface markers’
● located on the surface of RBC
● they are called markers as the blood type depends
on the antigen located on the surface of red blood
cells
● trigger immune response
ANTIBODIES
● outside RBC and found within plasma
● interact opposite antigen to trigger an immune
response
blood type antigen antibodies
A A anti- B
B B anti- A
AB A AND B no antibodies
O no antigen anti- A and anti B
Antigen reacts with the opposite antibodies. Like antigen
interacts with antibodies b. antigen b interacts with
antibodies A. However, if the blood type is AB, there are no
antibodies since the a and b antigen are mixed. The blood
type O has no antigen but has anti A and anti b antibodies.
take note that the antigen must always be opposite to the
antibodies
blood type compatible with
A A and O
B B and O
AB A,B,AB,and O
O O
Basically, the letters seen in antibodies will not be compatible
with each blood type. Just like blood type A, the only
compatible ones are blood type A and O since the antibodies
of blood type A is B.
Rh FACTOR
● Rhesus (Rh) factor is an inherited protein found on
the surface of the red blood cells. If your blood has
the protein, you’re Rh-positive. If your blood lacks
the protein, you’re Rh-negative.
○ Rh-positive is the most common blood type.
○ Having Rh-negative blood is not an illness and
usually does not affect your health.
○ However, it can affect your pregnancy. Your
pregnancy needs special care if you’re Rh
negative and your baby is Rh-positive (Rh
incompatibility)
○ Blood incompatibility (mother and baby) when
pregnancy can lead to abortion.
○ A baby can inherit the Rh factor from its parent.
3 I
 ● Basically, it determines if a certain blood type is ● it usually beats from 60 to 100 times per minute but
positive or negative. it can go much faster when it needs to
○ presence of Rh factor- indicative/positive ● it beats about 100,000 times a day,more than 30
○ absence of Rh factor - negative million times per year,and about 2.5 billion times in
● Rh factor is an important characteristic of blood a 70 year lifetime.
cells as it identifies if two different people are
compatible. If they have different blood group ATRIUM or ATRIA or AURICLE
characteristics, it may cause problems ● receives the blood
● collecting chamber of the heart
blood type (+ means the compatible with
PRESENCE Rh factor on VENTRICLE
the surface of the RBC) ● pump blood out of the heart
● pumping chamber
A+ A+,A-,O+,O-
CHAMBERS OF THE HEART
B+ B+,B-,O+,O-

AB+ A+,A-,B+,B-,O+,O-

O+ O+,O-

blood type (- means that compatible with

is an ABSENCE of Rh
factor on the surface of
the RBC)

A- A-,O-
(RA) RIGHT ATRIUM
B- B-,O- ● receives deoxygenated blood or CO2-rich blood.

AB- A-,B-,O- (LA) LEFT ATRIUM

● receives oxygenated blood from lungs after
O- O- oxygenation.

If there is an Rh factor on the surface of RBC, it is a positive

blood type and it’s compatible with a positive and negative
(RV) RIGHT VENTRICLE
● pumps deoxygenated blood going to the lungs for
blood type. However, if there is no Rh factor on the surface
oxygenation
of RBC, it is a negative blood type and only available in
negative blood type.
(LV) LEFT VENTRICLE
video link: ● thickest muscle in heart (10x thicker than right
Blood Types Explained: Easy and Simple ventricle)
Types Of Blood Cells ● pumps oxygenated blood away from the heart to all
systemic organs of the body.

Mother’s Rh Father’s Rh Baby’s Rh Precautions Pumping should be powerful in the left ventricle to push
Factor Factor Factor
away all the blood so that blood circulates throughout the
Rh Positive Rh Positive Rh Positive None body.
Atelectasis
Rh Negative Rh Negative Rh None -collapse of one or more areas of the lungs
Negative
there are general chambers of the heart: upper chamber(left
Rh Positive Rh Negative Could be None and right atrium) which is the receiving chamber and the
Rh Positive lower chamber (right and left ventricle) which is the pumping
or Rh
chamber
Negative

Rh Negative Rh Positive Could be Rh Immune GREAT BLOOD VESSELS

Rh Globulin
Injection

HEART
● key organ in the circulatory system
● a hollow, muscular pump
● main function is to propel blood throughout the body
● about the size of a closed fist

4 I
(1) SUPERIOR VENA CAVA OR SVC
● one of the largest veins
● blood enters from the upper parts of the body ; (3) SA NODE or PACEMAKER
above umbilical region ● it is the heart’s conduction system
● controls the contraction and relaxation of the heart
(2) INFERIOR VENA CAVA
● blood enters from the lower parts of the body ; If there is no pacemaker, the heart will create an abnormal
below umbilical region rhythm or it murmurs.

(3) PULMONARY ARTERY (2) PERICARDIUM

● carry deoxygenated blood from the heart going to ● it is a thin, fluid sac that covers and protects the
the lungs outer surface of the heart

(4) PULMONARY VEIN (1) SEPTUM OR SEPTAL SAC

● carry oxygenated blood coming from the lungs back ● a muscular wall that divides the left and right sides
to the heart of the heart
● interventricular septum - divides the ventricles
(5) AORTA ● interatrial septum - divides atria
● largest artery
● carrying oxygen-rich blood away from the heart to There must be a muscular wall to prevent the mixing of
the rest of the body deoxygenated and oxygenated blood that can lead to
poisoning.
VALVES
● all valves prevent backflow of blood PATTERN OF BLOOD CIRCULATION

1.Blood enters the heart through two large veins, the

(V1) TRICUSPID VALVE
inferior and superior vena cava, emptying
● it is in between the right atrium and right ventricle
oxygen-poor blood from the body into the right
● it has three flaps or cusps that open and close that
atrium.
allows blood to flow and prevent backflow
2. As the atrium contracts, the pressure increases and
blood flows from your right atrium into your right
(V2) PULMONARY SEMILUNAR VALVE
ventricle through the open tricuspid valve.
● it is in between the right ventricle and pulmonary
3. When the ventricle is full, the tricuspid valve shuts.
artery
This prevents blood from flowing backward into the
● semilunar because the structure looks like a
atria while the ventricle contracts
half-moon
4. As the ventricle contracts, blood leaves the heart
.
through the pulmonary semilunar valve, into the
(V3) BICUSPID VALVE OR MITRAL VALVE
pulmonary artery and to the lungs where it is
● it has two flaps of tissue that open and close that as
oxygenated
blood enters from one chamber to another chamber
5. The pulmonary vein empties oxygen-rich blood from
● it is in between the left atrium and the left ventricle
the lungs into the left atrium.
6. As the atrium contracts, blood flows from your left
(V4) AORTIC SEMILUNAR VALVE atrium into your left ventricle through the open mitral
● it is in between the left ventricle and aorta valve.
7. When the left ventricle is full, the mitral valve shuts.
SPECIAL FEATURES OF THE HEART This prevents blood from flowing backward into the
atrium while the ventricle contracts.
8. As the ventricle contracts, blood leaves the heart
through the aortic valve, into the aorta, then to the
arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules then back to
the vena cava.
SUMMARY:

5 I
[deoxygenated blood] Superior and Inferior vena cava →
Right Atrium → Tricuspid valve opens → Right ventricle →
Pulmonary semilunar valve opens → Pulmonary artery →
lungs → becomes oxygenated blood → pulmonary veins →
left atrium → bicuspid valve/ mitral valve opens → left
ventricle →> aortic semilunar valve opens → aorta →
arteries→ arterioles → capillaries → venules → veins →
superior and inferior vena cava
Blood Flow Through the Heart (Made Easy in 5 Minutes!)
CONDUCTING SYSTEM
SA Node (Sinoatrial) → AV Node (Atrioventricular) → AV of
Bundle (Bundle of His) → Purkinje Fibers
SA Node is located in the right atrium near the entrance of
the superior vena cava. The natural pacemaker of the heart
initiates all heartbeat and determines heart rate. Electrical
impulses from the SA node spread throughout both atria and
stimulate them to contract. The AV Node is located on the
other side of the right atrium, near the AV valve. The AV
node serves as an electrical gateway to the ventricles. It
delays the passage of electrical impulses to the ventricles.
This delay is to ensure that the atria have ejected all the
blood into the ventricles before the ventricles contract. - The
AV node receives signals from the SA node and passes
them onto the atrioventricular bundle - AV bundle or bundle
of His. This bundle is divided into right and left bundle
branches which conduct the impulses toward the apex of the
heart. The signals are then passed onto Purkinje fibers,
turning upward and spreading throughout the ventricular
myocardium. Electrical activities of the heart can be
recorded in the form of (ECG) Electrocardiogram.
Cardiac Conduction System and Understanding ECG,
Animation.
Normal Heart Rate
- 60 to 100 beats per minute
Bradycardia
- slow heart rate ; less than 60 beats per minute
Tachycardia
- fast heart rate ; more than 100 beats per minute
Syncope
-another term for ‘fainting’
Body Malaise
-body weakness
Arrhythmia
-irregular rhythm
Depolarization
-relaxation
Repolarization
-contraction
OTHER TERMINOLOGIES / INFORMATION
● The heart gets messages from the body to tell it
when to pump more or less blood depending on a
person’s needs.
○ When asleep, the heart pumps just enough to
provide for the lower amounts of oxygen
needed by the body at rest.
○ when exercising or frightened, the heart pumps
faster to get more oxygen to the body.
● heart’s location
○ it lies between the lungs, left of the sternum,
mid-clavicular at the 4th and 5th intercostal
space.
● two other heart valves separate the ventricles and
the large blood vessels that carry blood leaving the
heart.
● a wall called the interventricular septum divides
the ventricles while interatrial septum divides the
atria; they are generally called septum
● atrioventricular valves separates from the
ventricles by the AV valve
tricuspid valve - separates the atrium from the
right ventricle
bicuspid or mitral valve - separates the left atrium
and the left ventricle
● pulmonic valves (pulmonary and aortic semilunar
valves) separates the right ventricle from the
pulmonary artery leading to the lungs, and the
aorta; the largest blood vessel.
BLOOD PRESSURE
● the pressure exerted by blood along the walls of the
artery when the left ventricle of the heart pushes the
blood away from the aorta
● contraction of the ventricles generates BP
● BP is determined by CO, blood volume, and
vascular resistance
● the higher the BP, the greater the blood flow
Normal range bp-90/60mmHg and 140/90 mmHg
normal bp-120/80 mmHg
SYSTOLIC BP
● top number
● measures the pressure or contraction the heart
exerts on the walls of the arteries each time it beats
● contraction of the heart muscle
DIASTOLIC BP
● bottom number
● measures the pressure in the wall of the arteries
when the heart rests / relax between beats
● relaxation of the heart muscle
PULSE PRESSURE
● difference between diastolic and systolic
○ systolic - diastolic = pulse pressure
● normal pulse pressure is 40mmHg
Example:
The patient’s blood pressure is 140mmHg/90mmHg. What is
the pulse pressure?
systolic - diastolic = pulse pressure
140mmHg (systolic) - 90mmHg (diastolic) = 50mmHg
40mmHg is the normal pulse pressure
CARDIOVASCULAR INSTRUMENTS
SPHYGMOMANOMETER (BP CUFF)
6 I
 SHOCK
● syndrome of acute circulatory failure associated
with ineffective tissue perfusion and cellular injury
● shock can lead to multiple organ dysfunction (MOD)
○ heart- lead to cardiac dysfunction
○ kidneys- hypoperfusion
○ brain- hypoperfusion

STETHOSCOPE (BLOOD PRESSURE CUFF)
Scenario:
During delivery, there are some instances that the mother
experiences excessive loss of blood that can lead to
hypovolemic shock (low volume of blood). There should be
blood transfusion to replenish the amount of blood that is
lost.

Anaphylactic shock where blood is not properly

cross-matched and transfusion is given, the patient
manifests the anaphylactic reaction.
What to do?
Stop the infusion and immediately inform the colleagues.

youtube link: What is shock? - MEDZCOOL

HEART ATTACK / MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION (MI)

● blockage in the arteries of the heart
● causes:
○ smoking - harmful chemical enters into
Warm the bell and diaphragm on the palm before using it the bloodstream and destroys the
to prevent the patient from experiencing abdominal endothelium
discomfort. ○ hypertension
○ diabetes - can cause silent heart attack
the bell is more sensitive than the diaphragm ○ high cholesterol
■ hdl high density lipoprotein (good
cholesterol)
■ ldl low density lipoprotein
HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES
○ sedentary lifestyle
HYPERTENSION If hypertension combines with diabetes it can lead to
● ‘silent killer’ ‘diabetic coma’.
○ some are asymptomatic; does not manifest
signs and symptoms until they come youtube link: Heart Attack Symptoms, Causes & Risk factors
unexpectedly || Practo
● common factors: LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
○ smoking ● side by side with cardiovascular system
○ drinking alcohol ● open system
○ poor diet ● drainage system
● lifestyle changes: ○ excess fluids are collected by the L.S., to
○ exercise prevent accumulation of fluid in the body
○ dash diet or LSLF (low salt & low fat) ● helps systems - blood, digestive
● consists of several structures and organs that
Category Systolic Diastolic contain lymphatic tissue, bone marrow, and a fluid
called lymph that flows within lymphatic vessel
Normal less than 120 less than 80 ● spleen is the largest organ of the lymphatic system
● lymphatic organs: tonsils, adenoids, lymph nodes,
Prehypertension 120-139 80-89 thymus, spleen, mucous membrane
Stage 1 140-159 90-99
hypertension 85% of excess fluid is reabsorbed by blood capillaries to
return to the heart
Stage 2 greater than 160 greater than 100 15% of excess fluid is reabsorbed by lymphatic capillaries
hypertension Edema
-fluid trapped in the body which must go through the
youtube link: What is High Blood Pressure? | New
drainage system.
Hypertension Guidelines! | Doctor Mike
Syndrome
-Group of signs and symptoms

7 I
Flow:
Interstitial fluid → Lymphatic capillaries → lymphatic
vessels --> lymphatic nodes → lymph trunks → Lymph
ducts → subclavian veins

yt link: What is the Lymphatic System? (Part 1: Anatomy and

Physiology)

FUNCTIONS OF LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

Source: Tortora’s Principles of Anatomy and Physiology pg. 706
1. Drain excess fluid - 15% are excess fluids, returned to
the heart by lymphatic system to prevent development of PRIMARY LYMPHATIC ORGAN
edema
Edema is swelling that is caused by fluid trapped in your RED BONE MARROW
body's tissues ● site of maturation of b-cells
2. Transport Dietary Fats - helps transport large molecules
in a form of chyle (fatty substances) THYMUS
3. Carry out immune responses - helps immune system ● site of maturation of t-cells.
fight diseases
SECONDARY LYMPHATIC ORGAN
DISEASE RESISTANCE
SPLEEN
NONSPECIFIC RESISTANCE (INNATE IMMUNITY) ● it is the largest organ of the lymphatic system
● inborn/congenital
● the spleen sits in the upper left part of the abdomen,
● present at birth which provides general protection
behind the ribs, under the diaphragm. above and
against invasion by a wide range of pathogens
behind the stomach
● all humans are born with innate immunity to fight
● functions:
various acute infections
○ filter the blood
● COMPONENTS:
○ breaks down and remove cells that are
○ Physical barrier (include all the organs and
abnormal, old or damaged
their secretion - skin and mucous coating),
○ stores red blood cells (RBC), platelets, and
○ Physiological Barrier (tears, saliva, HCl in
infection-fighting white blood cells (WBC)
stomach),
○ vital in immune systems as it detects bacteria,
○ Cellular Barriers (immune cells of the body -
viruses, or other germs in the blood. it
lymphocyte, monocyte)
produces WBC called lymphocytes to fight off
the infections
ADAPTIVE / ACQUIRED IMMUNITY
● involves activation of specific lymphocytes that
LYMPH NODES
combat a particular pathogen or other foreign
● small, oval-shaped organs that contain immune
substance
cells that attack and kill foreign invaders such as
● Acquired by the individual in due course of time
viruses
● chickenpox virus (antigen) body synthesizes
● it is located throughout the body, including neck,
antibodies (immune response)
armpits, around the gut, and between the lungs
● cell-mediated or antibody-mediated
● it houses white blood cells (WBC) to mount any
pathogen
The body system that carries out immune responses is the
● acts as a checkpoint
lymphatic system.
Swelling of lymph node is an indication that it fights infection
First drop of milk
- colostrum
Innate Immunity and Acquired immunity | Adaptive Immunity
| Immune System | Don't Memorise

COMPONENTS OF THE LYMPHATIC

SYSTEM
Basics & Structures of the Lymphatic System

8 I
 Source: Tortora’s Principles of Anatomy and Physiology pg. 709

LYMPHATIC VESSELS & CAPILLARIES

● lymphatic vessels begin as lymphatic capillaries,
which are closed on one end
○ lymphatic capillaries are located between cells
and tissues
○ lymphatic capillaries merge to form lymphatic
vessels, which have thin walls and valves
Source: Tortora’s Principles of Anatomy and Physiology pg. 712
THYMUS
● site of T-cell maturation in children
○ atrophied in adults

LYMPHATIC NODULES Source: Tortora’s Principles of Anatomy and Physiology pg. 710
● much smaller than lymph nodes, frequently contain
germinal centres—sites for localized production of CISTERNA CHYLI
lymphocytes ● large group of lymph nodes
● masses of lymphatic tissue that are not surrounded
by a capsule SELECTIVE DRAINAGE
● also referred to as mucosa-associated lymphatic
tissue(MALT) RIGHT LYMPHATIC DUCT
● They are scattered throughout the lamina propria of ● returns fluid to the right subclavian and internal
mucous membranes lining the jugular vein
gastrointestinal,urinary,and reproductive tracts and
respiratory system THORACIC DUCT
● returns fluid to the left subclavian and internal
OTHER COMPONENTS jugular vein

LYMPH Lymphatic System equivalent to Cardiovascular System

● fluid similar to blood that may contain proteins,
excess fluid, and pathogens Spleen- equivalent to heart
Lymphatic Vessels- equivalent to blood vessels
Lymph- equivalent to blood

Lymphatic system- circulation of fluid and an open circuit

Cardiovascular- circulation of blood and a closed circuit

HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES

9 I
 HIV AND AIDS
● ‘Human Immunodeficiency Virus’
○ the primary target of HIV is the helper T cells
○ once inside the cell, the virus is replicated and
leave the damaged helper T cell to infect other
cells which affect the immune system
● ‘Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome’
○ HIV + Opportunistic Infection = AIDS
Bacteria vs. Virus
Bacteria- alive ; not self-limiting
Virus- dead ; alive when it enters the host ; self-limiting
Steps of Viral Infection:
1. Attachment to host
2. Replication
3. Group together to form an ‘assembly’
4. When ready, it bursts to infect another host
5. Transfer & release another cell like T-Cell
Video: Medical Animation: HIV and AIDS
COMMON AIDS-RELATED OPPORTUNISTIC
INFECTIONS
MENINGITIS
● inflammation of the meninges (protective membrane
covering brain and spinal cord)
○ 3 layers of meninges:
■ outer: Dura (Hard) Mater
■ mid: Arachnoid
■ inner: Pia (Soft) Mater
ENCEPHALITIS
● inflammation of brain and brain tissue
PNEUMONIA
● lung parenchyma (tissue) is inflamed
TUBERCULOSIS (TB)
● mycobacterium tuberculosis
ALLERGY
● the blood vessels dilate, causing the blood vessels
to expand, which in turn causes a dangerous drop
in blood pressure.
Video: Allergy - Mechanism, Symptoms, Risk factors,
Diagnosis, Treatment and Prevention, Animation
NERVOUS SYSTEM
● controls and coordinates all parts of the body
● receives stimuli from the body’s interior and external
environments through the sensory system
● determines the body’s responses to the impulse
messages, through the motor system
● contains the human higher functions:
○ memory
○ reasoning
● nervous system is the body’s information gatherer,
storage center and control system
○ nervous system is the first controlling system
of the body
● functions:
○ collect information about the body’s
external/internal state and transfer it to the
brain (afferent system)
○ analyze information
○ send impulses out (efferent system) to
initiate appropriate motor responses to meet
the body’s needs
Humans have the ability to make critical thinking and logical
analysis.
HOMEOSTATIC MECHANISM
Stimulus → Sensory Pathway/Neurons → Afferent (sensory)
→ CNS → Efferent (motor) → muscle and glands
video: Overview of the Nervous System, Animation
SOMATOSENSORY RECEPTORS
● somatic senses are body senses such as pain,
temperature, and pressure
● sensory receptors are classified according to the
type of energy they can detect and respond to
○ mechanoreceptors: hearing and balance,
stretching
○ photoreceptors: light
○ chemoreceptors: smell and taste mainly, as
well as internal sensors in the digestive and
circulatory systems
○ thermoreceptors: changes in temperature
○ electroreceptors: detect electrical currents in
the surrounding environment
PARTS OF THE NERVE CELL
● the system is composed of specialized cells, termed
nerve cells or neurons, that communicate with each
other and with other cells in the body
NEURONS
● the basic unit of the brain and nervous system
● electrically excitable
● cellular structures
● neurons has three parts:
○ cell body: containing the nucleus
○ dendrites: hair-like structures surrounding the
cell body, which conduct incoming signals
○ axons or nerve fibers: conduct outgoing
signals emitted by the neuron
■ encased in a fat-like sheath, called myelin
○ synapse: the boundary between two nerve
cells/ neurons.
STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATIONS OF NEURONS
● neurons can be classified based on the number of
processes extending from the cell body
10 I
 ○ cerebrum
○ cerebellum
○ brain stem
■ medulla oblongata
■ pons
● consists of two sides, the right and left cerebral
hemispheres, which are interconnected by the
corpus callosum
● The two hemispheres are “twins”, each with
centers for receiving sensory (afferent) information
and for initiating motor (efferent) responses.
● left side sends and receives information to/from the
Source: Tortora’s Principles of Anatomy and Physiology pg. 358 right side and vice versa
● the hemispheres are covered by a thin layer of gray
matter known as the cerebral cortex
BRAIN SPECIALIZATIONS ● the interior portion consists of white matter, tracts,
and nuclei (gray matter) where synapses occur
LEFT BRAIN RIGHT BRAIN ● each hemisphere of the cerebral cortex is divided
into four lobes by various sulci and gryri
Literal General ○ sulci (fissures)-grooves
○ gyri- bumps on the brain’s surface
● Convolution- divide left & right hemispheres
Linguistic Artistic

Mathematical Spatial

Logical imaginative/ creative

metaphor/poetic

dream maker

sexual
GRAY MATTER WHITE MATTER
musical
40% of the brain 60% of the brain
DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
constraints most of the made up of bundles that
Central Nervous System brains neuronal cell bodies connect various gray
- it consists of the brain and spinal cord matter areas
-collection of neurons are called nuclei
fully develop once a person develops throughout the
Peripheral Nervous System reachers 20s 20s and peaks in middle
- the vast network of spinal and cranial nerves linking the age
body to the brain and spinal cord
-collection of neurons are called ganglia conducts, processes, and interprets sensory
sends information to information from various
PNS is subdivided into: various parts of the body parts of the body

Autonomic nervous system

- involuntary control of internal organs, blood vessels, 4 LOBES OF THE BRAIN
smooth and cardiac muscles
-consists of:
● sympathetic - excites
● parasympathetic - inhibits

Somatic nervous system

- voluntary control of skin, bones, joints, and skeletal muscle

adrenaline/ epinephrine hormone

-emergency hormone
-sympathetic NS

noradrenaline/ norepinephrine FRONTAL LOBE

-opposite hormone of adrenaline ● controls fine movement (Betz cells)/ upper motor
neuron and smell
BRAIN ● center for abstract thinking, judgment and
● body’s “control central” language(left hemisphere)
● one of the largest of adult organs, consisting of over
100 billion neurons and weighing about 3 pounds PARIETAL LOBE
● divided into 3 parts

11 I
 ● coordinates afferent information dealing with pain, ● a collection of ganglia located below the thalamus
temperature, form, shape, texture, pressure, and and intimately connected with the pituitary gland
position ● functions
● some memory functions are also found here ○ senses changes in body temperature/
thermoregulation
○ controls autonomic activities
TEMPORAL LOBE ○ regulates the sympathetic and parasympathetic
● handles dreams, memory and emotions nervous system
● center for auditory function ○ links to the endocrine system/control pituitary
gland
OCCIPITAL LOBE ○ regulates appetite
○ functions as part of the arousal or alerting
● governs vision
mechanism
○ links the mind (emotions) to the body --
CEREBRUM sometimes, unfortunately, to the degree of
● largest region or part of the brain producing “psychosomatic disease”
● in addition to four lobes: there are basal ganglia
○ aggregates of neurons(gray matter), constitute
the extrapyramidal system
● the extrapyramidal system governs postural
adjustment and gross voluntary movements, as
opposed to fine movements (controlled by the
frontal lobe)
● basal ganglia receive afferent input from the
cerebral cortex and thalamus. Their axons synapse
in the brainstem and the spinal cord
● functions of cerebrum
○ consciousness - awareness of one’s self and
one’s environment
○ thought/reasoning/memory
○ vision, hearing, touch
○ speech, language
○ motor control (fine and gross)/ coordination video: Diencephalon
○ emotions (limbic system aka emotional brain)

video: Human Brain: Major Structures and their Functions
025 The 4 Lobes of the Cerebrum and their functions
CEREBELLUM
● “little brain”
● second largest brain structure sits below the
cerebrum
● has an outer cortex of gray matter and two
hemispheres
● receives/relay information via the brain stem
● performs 3 major functions: (all of which have to do
with skeletal-muscle control
○ balance and equilibrium of the trunk
○ muscle tension, spinal nerve reflexes, posture,
and balance of the limbs
○ fine motor control, eye movement
○ involved in motor learning
● cerebellar disease (abscess, hemorrhage tumors,
trauma) results in ataxia (muscle incoordination),
tremors, and disturbances of gait(walk) and
equilibrium.
BRAIN STEM
● consists of medulla oblongata and pons
● some references include midbrain as part of the
brain stem
○ controls the most basic life functions
○ medulla oblongata is the most important
○ all functions of the brain stem are associated
with cranial nerves III-XI
● functions:
○ breathing/ respiration (pons, medulla)
○ heart rate/action (medulla)
○ blood pressure (vasoconstriction) / blood vessel
diameter (medulla)
○ reflex centers for pupillary reflexes and eye
movements (midbrain, pons)
○ vomiting, sneezing, swallowing and hiccuping
(medulla)
video: 027 The 3 parts of the brain stem and their functions
CRANIAL NERVES

video: 2-Minute Neuroscience: Cerebellum 12 CRANIAL NERVES

DIENCEPHALON Nerves Type Function

THALAMUS I. Olfactory sensory olfaction (smell)

● large, bilateral egg-shaped mass of gray matter
● main synaptic relay center II. Optic sensory vision (38% axons
○ relay center of all sensory impulses connecting to the brain)
○ receives/relays sensory information to/from the
cerebral cortex, including pain and pleasure III. Oculomotor motor eyelid and eyeball
centers muscles

HYPOTHALAMUS IV Trochlear motor eyeball muscles

● located below the thalamus
V. Trigerminal mixed sensor:facial and mouth

12 I
 sensation Progesterone prepares the
motor: chewing female body for
pregnancy
VI. Abducens motor eyeball movement
Testes Testosterone gives masculine
VII. Facial mixed sensory:taste characteristics
motor: facial muscles and
salivary glands
NERVOUS SYSTEM VS. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
VIII. Auditory/ sensory hearing and balance ● nervous and endocrine systems act together to
vestibulocochlear coordinate all systems of the body

IX. mixed sensory: taste NERVOUS SYSTEM

Glossopharyngeal motor: swallowing ● first controlling system (brain)
● releases neurotransmitter
X. Vagus mixed main nerve of the
● neurotransmitters also bind to receptors on “target”
parasympathetic nervous
system (PNS) cells

XI. Accessory motor swallowing, moving head ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

and shoulder ● second controlling system (pituitary gland)
● releases hormones
XII. Hypoglossal motor tongue muscles ● most hormones circulate through the blood and bind
with receptors (protein receptor - target cells)
youtube link:
How To Remember Cranial Nerves NEUROTRANSMITTERS
Nursing Review Michael U Jimenez Anatomy Physiology 1. Dopamine - pleasure neurotransmitter as it functions in
Cranial Nerves Simplified Easy satisfying different pleasures of the body
2. Gaba(Gamma-aminobutyric acid) - responsible for mood
3. Glutamate - cognition, learning, memory, most numerous
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM and abundant among neurotransmitters
● releases hormones into the bloodstream 4. Serotonin - found in the brain and in the digestive tract.
Responsible for mood, anxiety, depression,
OVERVIEW appetite,temperature, and sleep
● pituitary gland is a master gland 5. Acetylcholine (ACH) - the first neurotransmitter
○ it controls all body activities in respect of discovered and most common aside from
endocrine system adrenaline/epinephrine, triggers muscle contraction, controls
heartbeat, and stimulates other hormones
GLAND HORMONES ACTION 6. Norepinephrine - inhibits, provide an accurate
assessment of danger and stressful situations
Pineal Melatonin Circadian
Rhythm Neurotransmitters - What Are Neurotransmitters And What
Do They Do In The Body?
Anterior Pituitary Growth Hormone Cell Growth Neurotransmitters And Their Functions Dopamine,
(GH)
Glutamate, Serotonin, Norepinephrine, Epinephrine
Posterior Antidiuretic Water Balance ENDOCRINE VS EXOCRINE
Pituitary (ADH)
EXOCRINE
T3/T4 Metabolism ● secretes their products into ducts
Thyroid ○ none of these are hormones
Calcitonin Lowers blood Ca ● example: sudoriferous (sweat) glands, sebaceous(
oil) gland, digestive glands
Parathyroid PTH Raises blood Ca

Pancreas Insulin Lowers blood ENDOCRINE

sugar ● secretes hormones
● do not have ducts, instead hey secrete their
Glucagon Raises blood hormones directly into the interstitial fluid that
sugar surrounds them
● the hormones diffuse into the bloodstream through
Adrenal Cortex Glucocorticoids Anti-inflammatory capillaries and are carried to target cells throughout
the body
Adrenal Medulla Epinephrine Fight or Flight
● example: pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal,
Ovary Estrogen gives feminine pineal glands
characteristics
HORMONE ACTIVITY

13 I
 ● hormones traveling throughout the body will only
affect target cells that possess specific protein
receptors for the hormone
CONTROL OF HORMONE SECTION
● most hormone regulation is achieved via negative
feedback
● only few hormones operate via positive feedback
○ example: oxytocin (during birth, contraction of
the uterus) and Epinephrine (emergency
hormone)
CONTROL OF HORMONE SECTION
● how a target cell responds to a hormone is based
on:
○ the hormone’s concentration in the blood
○ the number of hormone receptors on the target
cell
○ influences exerted by other hormones
○ some hormones work more efficiently when a
second hormone is present to assist them
(synergistic effect)
○ some hormones oppose the action of
others(antagonistic effect)
example of antagonistic effect
glucagon (increase blood glucose) & insulin (decrease blood
sugar)
example of synergistic effect:
glucagon and cortisol (both increase blood glucose)
PARTS OF ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, pineal gland, thyroid
gland, parathyroid gland, thymus gland, adrenal gland,
pancreas, gonads
HYPOTHALAMUS & PITUITARY GLAND
● hypothalamus and pituitary gland work together to
control other endocrine glands
○ they are connected by the infundibulum
● the anterior lobe (adenohypophysis) makes up 75%
of the weight of the pituitary gland and secretes 7
hormones
● the posterior lobe (neurohypophysis) is made of
neutral tissue and releases two hormones made by
the hypothalamus
● pituitary gland is also known as “master gland”
● anterior pituitary:
○ Growth hormone(GH)
○ Follicle-stimulating Hormone(FSH)
○ Luteinizing Hormone(LH)
○ Adrenocorticotropic Hormone(AH)
○ Thyroid-stimulating Hormone(TSH)
○ Prolactin(PRL)
● posterior pituitary:
○ oxytocin
○ vasopressin or antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
● Human Growth Hormone (hGH) is the most plentiful
anterior pituitary hormone; it is released in bursts
every hour by somatotrophs
○ its activity is controlled by 2 hypothalamic
hormones:
■ growth hormone-releasing hormone
(GHRH)
■ growth hormone-inhibiting hormone
(GHIH)
● the posterior pituitary gland does not synthesize
any hormones, but stores and releases from axon
terminals two hormones produced by the
neurosecretory cells of the hypothalamus:
○ oxytocin
○ vasopressin or antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
● oxytocin is released in response to stretch placed
on the cervix during childbirth. it affects the:
○ Mother’s Uterus - enhances contractions
○ Mother’s Breasts - stimulates milk production by
the mammary glands in response to sucking
● antidiuretic (ADH) secreted varies with blood
osmotic pressure
○ ADH decreases urine output as a part of
negative feedback loop where osmoreceptors
in the hypothalamus monitor blood osmotic
pressure
■ an increase in blood volume causes
decrease in ADH secretion
■ a decrease in blood volume causes an
increase in ADH secretion
Table 18.4 Summary of Principal Actions of Anterior Pituitary
Hormones can be found on pg.557
Table 18.5 Summary of Posterior Pituitary Hormones can be
found on pg. 560
14 I
Uterus Massage after delivery/childbirth can promote
contraction of the uterus. Table 18.6 - Summary of Thyroid Gland hormones can be
found on page 564
Oxytocin injection is used to begin or improve contractions
during labor. It also is used to reduce bleeding after T4- major metabolic hormone
childbirth. exophthalmos- abnormal bulging of eyeball
Exophthalmos- bulging of eyes; one of the signs of chronic
renal failure video: Thyroid Gland, Hormones and Thyroid Problems,
Gonad-reproductive organ Animation
Uremia- blood in the urine
Table 18.7 - Summary of Parathyroid Gland hormones can
mnemonics: be found on page 566
Anterior pituitary hormones:
TPFLAG PARATHYROID GLAND
TSH ● located on the posterior aspect of each lobe of the
PRL thyroid gland
FSH ● there are 2 parathyroid glands: 1 inferior and 1
LH superior
AH ● contains two types of cells
GH ○ chief cells (principal cells) that produce
parathyroid hormone (PTH, parathormone)
Posterior pituitary hormones: ● calcitonin produced by the thyroid gland works in
Any Other conjunction with PTH and calcitriol to regulate
ADH calcium homeostasis
Oxytocin
video: Parathyroid Glands and Hyperparathyroidism:
the hormone that produce intermediate of anterior and Amazing Animation.
posterior pituitary is called melanocytes stimulating
hormone (MSH) ADRENAL GLAND
Video: Pituitary Gland & Hormones: SUPER SIMPLE! ● the adrenal glands (suprarenal glands) are located
The Endocrine System | Summary of the Anterior Pituitary on top of each kidney
2-Minute Neuroscience: Hypothalamus & Pituitary Gland ● the glands are covered by a connective tissue
capsule and divided into two regions:
THYROID GLAND ○ the outer cortex
○ the inner medulla
● butterfly-shaped gland located inferior to the larynx ● the adrenal cortex is divided into 3 regions:
and anterior to the trachea ○ the zona glomerulosa (upper); secretes
○ has right and left lateral lobes connected by an hormones called mineralocorticoids used to
isthmus regulate mineral homeostasis
○ some glands also have a pyramidal lobe ○ the zona fasciculata (middle); secretes
projecting from the isthmus hormones called glucocorticoids that affect
● Follicular cells are stimulated by TSH to produce glucose homeostasis
thyroxine (tetraiodothyronine, T4) and ○ the zona reticularis (innermost zone of cortex )
triiodothyronine (T3), known as thyroid secretes gonadocorticoids
hormones ● the major mineralocorticoid is aldosterone; it
○ T3 and T4 are synthesized and secreted in a 8 regulates sodium and potassium homeostasis
step process ○ renin-angiotensin-aldosterone (RAA) controls
● Parafollicular cells produce the hormone calcitonin secretion of aldosterone
to help regulate calcium homeostasis ○ aldosterone regulates water balance
● thyroid hormones: ● the major glucocorticoid is cortisol; it produce
○ increase basal metabolic rate (BMR) sugar and helps regulate:
○ help maintain normal body temperature ○ protein breakdown
○ stimulate protein synthesis ○ glucose formation
○ increase the use of glucose and fatty acids for ○ lipolysis
ATP production ○ resistance to stress
○ Upregulate beta receptors to attach to ● the major gonadocorticoid is androgen (male) and
catecholamines estrogen (female)
○ works with hGH and insulin to accelerate body ● the adrenal medulla is stimulated by sympathetic
growth preganglionic neurons of the autonomic nervous
● Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) from the system
hypothalamus and thyroid-stimulating hormone ○ chromaffin cells secrete epinephrine
(TSH) from the anterior pituitary stimulates (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
synthesis and release of thyroid hormones in a 5 both of which are involved in the fight-or-flight
step process response

15 I

Table 18.7 - Summary of Adrenal Gland Hormones can be
found on page 571
Video: ADRENAL GLAND
PANCREAS
● the pancreas is located in the curve of the
duodenum and behind the stomach
○ it is both an endocrine and exocrine gland
■ endocrine as it secretes through the
bloodstream
■ exocrine as it secretes through ducts
● islets of langerhans / pancreatic islets is the site
where insulin is produced
● acini is where almost all the exocrine cells of the
pancreas are arranged in clusters
○ it produces digestive enzymes that are delivered
to the gastrointestinal tract through ducts
○ scattered among the acini are clusters of
endocrine tissue called pancreatic islets
■ the islets contain secretin cells
● the islets include 4 types of cells that secrete
different hormones:
○ Alpha (A) Cells - Glucagon
○ Beta (B) cells - Insulin
○ Delta (D) cells - Somatostatin
temporary stop the production of glucagon
and insulin
○ F cells - Pancreatic Polypeptide
inhibits somatostatin function
Table 18.9 - Summary of Pancreatic Islet Hormones can be
found on page 574
Video: What does the pancreas do? - Emma Bryce
High level of phosphorus in blood
Hypophosphatemia
Low level of phosphorus in blood
Hypermagnesemia
High level of magnesium in blood
Hypomagnesemia
Low level magnesium in blood
OVARIES AND TESTES
● gonads (ovaries and testes) produce gametes
(oocytes and sperm) respectively
○ ovaries produce 2 estrogens (estradiol and
estrone), progesterone, relaxin, and inhibin
■ estrogen - feminizing charac.
■ progesterone - pregnancy
■ relaxin - cervical dilatation in preparation
for delivery
■ inhibin - it does not excite
○ testes produce testosterone
■ testosterone - prepares fertility
Table 18.10 - Summary of Hormones of the ovaries and
testes can be found on page 575
Cervix is the opening to the uterus
Fully dilated cervix is 10 cm
VIdeo: Amazing facts about ovaries
Ovulation
Ovum- Largest cell in the body
Zygote- fertilized egg
embryo-developing zygote
Fimbriae- fingerlike projection,catch the matured egg from
the fallopian tube and delivered it to ampulla

Most common electrolytes in the body:

Calcium Ampulla- located in the upper outer third of the fallopian
Sodium tube; meeting place of sperm and egg(fertilization)
Phosphorus Ectopic pregnancy- fertilized egg implants and grows
magnesium outside the uterus; zygote is in the fallopian tube

Terms refers to the increase and decrease level of PINEAL GLAND AND THYMUS
specific electrolytes: ● pineal gland is attached to the roof of the third
Hypocalcemia ventricle of the brain and secretes melatonin
Low calcium level of calcium in the blood ○ melatonin helps regulate the body’s biological
Hypercalcemia clock
High calcium level in blood ● thymus is located behind the sternum between the
lungs and produces thymosin, thymic humoral
Hypokalemia factor (THF), thymic factor (TF), and thymopoietin
Low potassium level in the blood ○ these hormones promote maturation of the
immune system
Hyperkalemia
High potassium level in the blood DISORDERS OF GROWTH HORMONE (hGH)

Hypernatremia GIGANTISM
High level of sodium in blood ● excess hGH before puberty; hypersecretion of hGH
before puberty age
Hyponatremia ● over 7 feet tall
Low level of sodium
DWARFISM
Hyperphosphatemia

16 I
 ● hGH deficiency before puberty ● parts:

ACROMEGALY
● excess hGH after puberty; hypersecretion of hGH
started from puberty until person matures
● makes tissue hypertrophy

ACROMEGALIC GIGANTISM
excess hGH before puberty,during and until adulthood.

video: Disorders of Growth Hormone Release [Excess and

Deficiency]

GOITER
● enlarged thyroid gland
○ iodine deficiency
● selenium may help boost metabolism and thyroid
function
video: What Causes a Goiter? Iodine Deficiency & Thyroid
Nodules – Dr.Berg
Puberty - a child's body begins to develop and change as
they become an adult.
- girls develop breasts and start their periods.
-Boys develop a deeper voice and facial hair will start to
appear.
The average age for girls to begin puberty is 11, while for
boys the average age is 12.
When does puberty end?
It can start as early as age 9. Puberty is a process that takes
place for several years. Most girls finish puberty by age 14.
Most boys finish puberty by age 15 or 16.
ABNORMALITIES OF PENIS
What is selenium good for in the body?
It plays a critical role in metabolism and thyroid function and
helps protect your body from damage caused by oxidative
stress. It may help boost your immune system, slow
age-related mental decline, and even reduce your risk of
heart disease.
○ shaft is the skin that covers penis, which ends
in the glans penis; made up of erectile tissue
covered by skin and subcutaneous tissues
devoid of fat
■ Corpus Cavernosum (sing.,
Cavernosa) - 2 situated on the lateral
part
■ Corpus Spongiosum - 1 central portion
○ glans penis is the enlarged tip or the head of
the penis covered by prepuce
○ prepuce (foreskin) is the loose skin covering
the penis that folds that downward to form a
cuff of skin around the proximal ends of the
glans
■ erection penis - parasympathetic
● the enlargement and rigidity of penis helps the
penis to serve as a penetrating organ to deliver the
semen into the female reproductive tract
1. Hypospadias
● the urethral opening is on the ventral surface of
the penis
2. Epispadias
● the urethral opening is on the dorsal surface of the
penis

3. Phimosis
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM ● the orifice of the prepuce is too narrow to permit
retraction over the glans penis
introductory video- Welcome to the reproductive system |
Reproductive system physiology | NCLEX-RN | Khan
Academy

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

● to produce sperm
● to produce the hormone “testosterone”

MALE EXTERNAL GENITAL PARTS

PENIS
● male organ for copulation
○ it is a flaccid structure when not stimulated
○ designed to deliver sperm into the female
reproductive tract SCROTUM
○ contains urethra and passageway for semen ● a pouch, which hands behind the penis and is
and urine suspended from the pubis

17 I
 ● a sac of loose skin and underlying subcutaneous
tissue that contains testes
○ it is the continuation of the abdominal wall and
is divided by a septum into 2 sacs
○ median perineal raphe - the septum divides
the scrotum into two sacs.
● normal conditions of scrotum:
○ scrotum hangs loosely from its attachments
providing the testes with:
■ temperature that is below the body
temperature
■ cold temp: scrotum becomes heavily
wrinkled as it pulls the testes closer to
the warmth of the body wall
Sperm - another term for spermatozoa EJACULATION
Copulation - another term for sexual intercourse
Video: Male Reproductive System
Scrotal lumps | Healthy Male
MALE INTERNAL GENITAL PARTS
MALE GONADS or TESTES “TESTICLES”
● primary reproductive organs of the male
● paired, oval glands in the scrotum partially covered
by the tunica vaginalis
● seminiferous tubules carry sperm produced within
them (spermatogenesis) out of the testes
● essential male organs of production and are divided
into tubules, which contains the seminiferous
tubules where spermatogenesis takes place
○ early fetal life: it lies into the abdominal cavity
○ 2 months prior to birth: it descends in the EJACULATORY DUCT
scrotum
○ seminiferous tubules - sperm factory are one to
four tightly coiled tube found in its tubule
● As a baby grows inside his mother’s womb, his
testicles from inside his abdomen move down
(descend) into the scrotum shortly before birth.
○ in some cases, the baby is born with one or URETHRA
both testicles undescended, this condition is
called cryptorchidism
SERIES OF DUCTS
● structures that transports sperm from the body
● part of internal genital parts
EPIDIDYMIS
● a comma-shaped, highly coiled tube about 6 meters
(20 feet) long that caps the superior, external parts
of the testes and then runs down to its
posterolateral side.
○ first part of the male duct system
● functions:
○ provides temporary storage site for the
immature sperm that enter from the testes
where they complete their maturation process
(gaining ability to swim)
○ the sperm makes its way along the snaking
course of the epididymis, a trip that takes about
20 days.
DUCTUS DEFERENS or VAS DEFERENS
● literally means ‘carrying away’
○ continuation of epididymis extending from
its tall to the posterior surface of the
prostate
● literally means ‘to shoot forth’
● stages of ejaculation:
○ first - devoid of spermatozoa (sperm), it is
composed chiefly of secretions from the
urethral and cowper’s gland
○ intermediate - rich in spermatozoa
(sperm)
○ remaining - consists mainly of secretions
from seminal vesicles and prostate and
maybe almost devoid of sperm
● Fertility:
○ Normal - average total of 400-500 million
of sperms per ejaculation, volume about
2-5 ml. or a teaspoon
○ Abnormal - sperm count falls below
approximately 20 million (infertile)
● two narrow ducts that are thin-walled which runs
side by side through the prostate glands to open the
urethra
○ it is the end of the ductus deferens to
which it empties the sperm
● the terminal part of the male duct system that
extends from the base of the urinary bladder to the
tip of the penis
SPERM
● male gamete
○ autosomes : 22
○ sex chromosome : 1
○ acrosome - enzyme necessary for
fertilization
● parts:
○ head- contain chromosomes
○ mid - mitochondria is found; produces ATP
for the sperm to move
○ flagellum - for the sperm to propel; move
in a whip-like motion
18 I
 SEMINAL VESICLES (GLANDS)
● secrete an alkaline viscous fluid containing fructose,
prostaglandins and clotting proteins

HORMONES
● hormones control testicular function
SPERMATOGENESIS ○ at puberty gonadotropin releasing hormone
● process of sperm production (GnRH) stimulates cells in the anterior pituitary
● spermatogenesis begins with spermatogonia gland to produce luteinizing hormone (LH) and
(diploid stem cells) that differentiate into diploid follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
primary spermatocytes ■ LH stimulates cells in the testes to
produce testosterone
PROCESS OF SPERMATOGENESIS ■ FSH stimulates spermatogenesis
Stage 1:
The Diploid spermatogonia is situated in the seminiferous OTHER INFORMATION
tubules which include twice the total number of ● semen
chromosomes. This replicates mitotically in interphase before ○ a mixture of sperm and seminal fluid
the method of meiosis 1 to create 46 pairs of sister ○ a milky white, somewhat sticky mixture of
chromatids. sperm and accessory glands secretion
Stage 2: ○ the volume of an average ejaculate is 2.5-5 ml.
In this, the chromatids allow the exchange of genetic with 50-150 million sperm/ml
information through the synapsis process. It is done before ○ the pH is 7.2-7.7
dividing into haploid spermatocytes through meiosis. ○ factors:
Stage 3: ■ sperm count
In this division, the new two daughter cells will further divide ■ motility and morphology of sperm
into 4 spermatids, having unique chromosomes that are (shaper and maturity)
approximately half in number to the original ■ semen volume
spermatogonium. ■ pH
Stage 4: ■ fructose content
In this stage, the cells move from the lumen of the testes to
the epididymis. They mature and develop into four sperm Video: Pathway of Sperm from a Testis to Outside the Body
cells with the growth of microtubules on the centrioles to
develop an axoneme. The remaining centrioles elongate and FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
develop into sperm tails.
EXTERNAL GENITAL PARTS
● collectively known as vulva (pudendum)

Video: Human Physiology - Reproduction: Spermatogenesis

ACCESSORY ORGANS

BULBOURETHRAL GLAND OR COWPER’S GLAND MONS PUBIS

● secrete an alkaline fluid during sexual arousal that ● “mons veneris” or “escutcheon” which means
neutralizes acids from urine and mucus for mountain on the pubis
lubrication ● a fatty rounded area overlying skin the pubic
symphysis
PROSTATE GLAND
● it is the largest gland of the male penis LABIA MAJORA
● prone to prostate cancer ● “outer lips”
● a single, donut-shaped gland that secretes a milky, ● two elongated hair-covered skin fold, running
slightly, acidic fluid containing citric acid, proteolytic posterior from the mons pubis
enzymes, acid phosphatase, and seminalplasmin ● homologous of the scrotum of the mail

19 I

LABIA MINORA
● “inner lips”
● two delicate hair-free folds enclosed in the labia
CLITORIS
● “hill” pea shaped projection of erectile tissue,
nerves, and blood vessels
● the apex of the vestibule anterior to the vagina
VESTIBULE
● a cleft or region enclosed in the labia majora, which
contains the external openings of the urethra,
followed posteriorly by that of the vagina.
● contents:
○ Hymen- thin circular fold of mucus
vascularized membrane separating the
vestibule; partially closes the inferior end of the
vagina
■ Imperforate hymen- a hymen
completely covering the vaginal orifice
○ Vaginal Orifice- an opening occupying the
posterior two-thirds of the vestibule
○ Urethral office- urinary passage from the
bladder opening to the vestibule clitoris
○ Glands:
■ Greater vestibular glands or
bartholin's glands - produce mucus
during sexual arusal to provide
lubrication; homologous to bulbourehtral
gland
■ Paraurethral glands or skene’s glands
-secretes mucus and are embedded in
the wall of the urethra; homologous to
prostate
○ The bulb of the vestibule has two masses of
erectile tissue that engorges during sexual
arousal to narrow the vaginal orifice applying
pressure to the penis during intercouse
■ homologous to the erectile tissues of
the penis
○ Perineum- wedge of soft tissue lying between
the rectum and the vagina
INTERNAL GENITAL PARTS
OVARIES
● almond-shaped primary reproductive organ of
female
● paired glands homologous to the testes
● functions:
○ produce both exocrine products (egg or ova)
and endocrine products (estrogen and
progesterone)
○ produce gametes (mature into ova) and
hormones like inhibin and relaxin
● parts
○ cortex- outer layer
○ medulla- inner layer
● hormones
○ progesterone- prepares and thickens the
lining of the uterus after ovulation in
preparation for pregnancy
○ estrogen- also causes the lining of the uterus
to grow and thicken and produces the
secondary female characteristics
DUCT SYSTEM OR FALLOPIAN TUBE
● “uterine tubes” or “oviducts”
● two muscular tubes, one on each side, running
laterally from the uterus to the ovaries
● the tubes are the pathway for the sperm to reach to
the ovum and for the secondary oocytes and
fertilized ova to travel to the uterus
● parts
○ interstitial portion
○ isthmus
○ ampulla- where egg and sperm cells meet;
widest portion of the tube
○ infundibulum- end of the tube
○ fimbriae- are small, fingerlike projections at the
end of the fallopian tubes, through which eggs
move from the ovaries to the uterus
● functions
○ receives the ovulated oocyte
○ provides the site where fertilization takes place
○ conveys the ovum from the ovary to the uterus
UTERUS
● “womb”
● a hollow, pear-shaped organ with thick muscular
walls located in the pelvis between the urinary
bladder and the rectum
● part of the pathway for sperm deposited in the
vagina to reach the uterine tube
● is where a fertilized ovum will implant
● parts
○ fundus- top of the uterus
○ body- central portion
○ cervix-inferior extension into the vagina
○ isthmus- between the body and the cervix
● layers
○ endometrium- inner layer
20 I
 ○ myometrium- middle layer consisting of three
layers of smooth muscle
○ perimetrium/ epimetrium (serosa)- outermost
layer
● functions
○ received the fertilized ovum
○ provides for its embedding and nourishment
○ retains, sustains, and protects it through
various stages of growth
○ expels the developed child at term
○ serves as the organ for menstruation and
childbearing
● forces that carry the oocyte or egg cell to the uterus
○ peristalsis
○ rhythmic bearing of cilia
■ 3–4 days journey of oocyte to the
uterus
■ 24 hours viability of the oocyte

VAGINA
● fibromuscular canal lined with mucous that extends
from the body’s exterior to the cervix
● musculomembranous dilatable canal
● “birth canal”
● female organ of copulation
● functions
○ provides passageway for the delivery of an
infant or baby
○ provides passageway for the menstrual flow
○ receives the penis and the semen during
copulation
● the epithelium and areolar connective tissue of the
vagina lie in a series of transverse folds called
rugae
● muscularis is composed of an outer circular layer
and inner longitudinal layer of smooth muscle
○ this allows vagina to stretch during intercourse
and childbirth

Menarche- first menstruation

video:
(1)Female Reproductive System
(2)Fertilization is the epic story of a single sperm to unite
with an egg. watch it in full details.
(3)9 Months In The Womb: A Remarkable Look At Fetal
Development Through Ultrasound By PregnancyChat.com

—END OF FINALS REVIEWER—

21 I