Topic or Discussion:

Scientific methods of detecting deception

a. Devices which records the psycho-physiological

responses of the subject
Recording the Psycho physiological Response:
The nervous control of the human body includes the central
nervous system (the brain and the spinal cord) and the autonomic or
regulating nervous system (sympathetic and parasympathetic). The
central nervous system primarily controls the motor and sensory

functions that occur at or above the threshold. It maybe voluntary. The

autonomic nervous system acts as a self-regulating autonomic response of the body.
The autonomic nervous system is composed of two
complimentary branches: the sympathetic and the parasympathetic
nervous system, acting opposite each other.
The fibers of both enervate all organs where self-regulation is
essential
When a person is under the influence of physical (exertion) or
emotional (anger, excitement, fear, lie detection, etc.) stimuli, the
sympathetic will dominate and over-ride the parasympathetic, thus there
will be a changes in the heart rate, pulse rate, blood pressure,
respiratory tracing, psycho galvanic reflexes, time of response to
question, voice tracing, etc.
The parasympathetic nervous system works to restore things to
normal when the conditions of stress have been removed. It is the
dominant branch when the condition is normal and the subject is calm,
contented and relaxed.
The recording of some of the psycho-physiological reaction of a
subject when he is subjected to a series of questions, and the scientific
interpretation by trained experts are the basis of the tests.

Word Association Test

 A list of stimulus and non-stimulus words are read to the subject
who is instructed to answer as quickly as possible.
 The answer to the questions may be a “yes” or a “no”.
 Unlike the lie detector , the time interval between the words
uttered by the examiner and the answer of the subject is recorded.
 When the subject is asked questions with reference to his name,
address, civil status, nationality, ect. Which has no relation to the
subject-matter of the investigation, the tendency is to answer
quickly.
 But when the questions bear some words which have to do with
the criminal acts the subject allegedly committed, like knife, gun,
or hammer which was used in the killing, the tendency is to delay
the answer.
  The test is not concerned with the answer, be it a ‘yes” or a “no”.
The important factor is the time of response in relation to stimulus
or non-stimulus words.
 Like the use of the lie detector, the subject cannot be compelled
to be subjected to the test without his consent.
Psychological Stress Evaluator
 When a person speaks, there are audible voice frequencies and
superimposed on these are the inaudible frequency modulations
which are products of minute oscillation of the muscles of the
voice mechanism. Such oscillations of the muscles micro tremor
occur at the rate of 8 to 14 cycles per second and controlled by
the central nervous system.
 When the person is under stress as when he is lying, the micro
tremor in the voice utterance in moderately or completely
suppressed.
 The degree of suppression caries inversely to the degree of
psychologic stress in the speaker.
 The psychological stress evaluator (PSE) detects, measures, and
graphically displays the voice modulations that we cannot hear.
 When a person is relaxed and responding honestly to the
questions, those inaudible frequencies are registered clearly on th
instrument. But when a person is under stress, as when he is
lying, these frequencies tend to disappear.

Procedure:
 The examiner meets the requesting party to determine the specific
purpose of the examination and to begin formulation of relevant
questions.
 A pre-test interview is conducted with the subject to help him or
her feel at ease with the examiner, to provide an opportunity to
specify matters, to eliminate outside issues, and to review
questions that will be asked.
 An roal test of about 12 to 15 “yes” or “no” questions or given
which is recorded on a tape recorder. The questions are a mixture
of relevant and irrelevant questions.
 Immediately following the test or at a later time, the tape is
processed through the Psychological Stress Evaluator for
analysis of the answers.
 If stress is indicated, the subject is given opportunity to provide
additional clarification. A retest is given to verify correction and
clarification.

b. Use of drugs that try to inhibit the inhibitor

TRUTH SERUM
 The term “ truth serum” is a misnomer. The procedure does not make
someone tell the truth and the thing administered is not serum but actually a
drug.
  In the test, HYOSCINE HYDROBROMIDE is given hypodermically
in repeated doses until a state of delirium is induced.
 When the proper point is reached, the questioning begins and the
subject fells a compulsion to answer the questions truthfully.
 He forgets his alibi which he may have built up to cover his guilt.
He may give details of his acts or may even implicate others.
 The drug acts as depressant in the nervous system. Clinical
evidence indicates the various segments of the brain particularly
the cortex.
 Statements taken from the subjects while under the influence of
truth serum are evolutionary obtained hence they are not
admissible as evidence.

Narcoanalysis/Narcosynthesis
 This method of deception detection is practically the same as
that of administration of truth serum. The only difference is the
drug used. Psychiatric sodium amytal or sodium penthotal is
administered by the subject.
 When the effects appear , questioning starts.
 It is claimed that the drug causes depression of the inhibitory
mechanism of the brain and the subjects talk freely.
 The administration of the drug and subsequent interrogation must
be done by a psychiatrist with along experience on the line.
 Like the administration of the truth serum, the result of the test is
not admissible.
INTOXICATION
 The ability of alcohol to reveal the real person behind the mask which
all of us are said to wear (“mask of sanity’) is reflected in the age-old maxim, IN
VINO VERITAS (“in wine there is truth”).
 The person whose statement is to be taken is allowed to take
alcoholic beverages to almost intoxication.
 Confessions made by the subjects while under the influence of
alcohol may be admissible if he is physically capable to recollect
the facts that he has uttered after the effects of alcohol have
disappeared.
 But in most intances, the subjects cannot recall everything that he
had mentioned or he may refuse to admit the truth of the
statement given.
 The knowledge of the truth is an essential requirement for the
administration of criminal justice. The success or failure in
making decisions may rest solely on the ability to evaluate the
truth or falsity of the statement given by the suspects or witness.
The task for its determination initially lies on the hand of the
investigator.

c. Hypnotism by observation, interrogation and

confession
HYPNOSIS
  It is the alteration of consciousness and concentration in which the
subject manifests a heightened of suggestibility while awareness is
maintained.
 Not all persons are susceptible to hypnotic induction. Subjects
who are compulsive-depressive type, strong-willed like lawyers,
accountants, physicians and other professionals are usually non-
hypnotizable.
REASONS: (why it is not admissible in court)
 It lacks the general scientific acceptance of the reliability of hypnosis
per se in ascertaining the truth from falsity.
 The fear that the Trier of fact will give uncritical and absolute
reliability to a scientific device without consideration of its flaw in
ascertaining veracity.
 The possibility that the hypnotized subject will deliberately fabricate.
 The prospect that the state of heightened suggestibility in which the
hypnotized subject is suspected will produce distortion of the fact rather
than the truth.
 The state of the mind, skill and professionalism of the examiner are too
subjective to permit admissibility of the expert testimony.

Instruments and equipment used for diagnosing truth and

deception
a. Lafayette and Stoleting polygraph instruments
-Lafayette Instrument Company, located in Lafayette, Indiana, USA,
dominates the international polygraph market. Lafayette Instrument
Company, founded in 1947 by Max Wastl (1915-1990), has been
manufacturing polygraphs since the 1950’s, and is the unconditional
global leader in the manufacture and sale of lie detectors. Lafayette
Instrument Company polygraph instrumentation is accredited by the
leading international polygraph associations and is preferred by
polygraph examiners from the 90 countries using polygraphs. Under the
stewardship of the company's current owners Christopher L. Fausett,
Jennifer D. Rider, and Terrance G. Echard, and past-president Roger B.
McClellan, Lafayette Instrument Company has achieved a global
polygraph market share of approximately 90 percent. In addition to
polygraphs, Lafayette Instrument Company is also a world-renowned
manufacturer of laboratory instrumentation.
-Stoelting, founded in 1886, Stoelting Co. has furnished physiological
measurement instruments and psychological test materials for over a
century. Stoelting invented the first modern polygraph in 1935, and
virtually every advance in polygraph instruments since then has been by
Stoelting. Electronic Recording Channels were introduced by Stoelting in
1946; Multifunction Recording Channels in 1966; CAM in 1968; modular
design in 1977; CLC push-button re-centering in 1980; Computerized
Assisted Polygraph in 1988; and the Computerized Polygraph System in
1992.

b. Keeler and Larson polygraph instruments

In 1921, John A. Larson, a Canadian psychologist employed by the
Police Service of California, Berkeley, built what many consider to be the
original lie detector device His instrument provided continuous readings
 of blood pressure, rather than discontinuous readings of the sort found in
Marston's device. He named his instrument the polygraph, a word
coming from Greek and meaning several written because the instrument
had the ability to read multiple psychological responses at the same time
and document these responses on a rotating drum of smoked paper.
Using his polygraph, John A. Larson was the first person to measure and
record continuously and simultaneously the heart rate, blood pressure
and respiratory variations of a person during an interrogation. His
polygraph was used extensively and very successfully, in criminal
investigations.
In 1939, Leonarde Keeler patented what is considered the prototype
of the modern polygraph - the Keeler Polygraph. Today Leonarde Keeler
is known as the father of the polygraph.

c. The Lee Psychograph

The 'Berkeley Psychograph', or other wise known as the 'Lee
Polygraph' shown here was first introduced in Chicago, Illinois in 1938.
This instrument is the improved model, which was developed by Captain
LEE of the Berkeley California Police Department. This instrument was
designed to be a compact, portable unit which encompasses a novel
 arrangement of rubber 'tambours' and a manually operated stimulus key.
Visible are the pens for recording respiration, blood pressure, pulse and
stimulus response changes. The instrument includes a pressure cuff and
hand bulb, along with a pneumograph tube for recording respiration
change. The major difference with the Berkeley Psychograph in
comparison to the earlier Keeler instruments was that the Berkeley
Psychograph incorporated a new design in the pulse-blood pressure unit.
Captain LEE was also the first to introduce the use of the guilt complex
control question, and the first 'Control Test', which was later re-named
the Pre-Test. This type instrument was used primarily on juveniles during
the 1930's, as the conventional rules of evidence did not apply at this
time. The 'Lee Polygraph' was taken out of service around 1938, after Dr.
BRIL, a criminologist from New York City developed his own instrument,
a "Brilograph', which measured changes in skin resistance, ie: G.S.R.

d. The Darrow Photopolygraph

In the early 1930's, C.W. Darrow developed his Photopolygraph.
Manufactured by the C.H. Stoelting Company it retailed for $999. It had
five channels; pneumograph, cardiograph, galvanograph, a stimulus
marker, and one additional channel that could be used to record either
an abdominal respiration, a gastrointestinal balloon, a plethysmograph,
or carotid or radial pulse. It’s recording system was unique in that all
tracings are recording on photographic paper. It was used by the U.S.
Bureau of Prisons at Lewisburg and the Narcotic Farm in Kentucky
 e. The Reactograph
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References:
Murphy, James K. The Polygraph Technique, Past and Present 1980 FBI Law
Enforcement Bulletin.

Reid, John E. et al. Truth and Deception: The Polygraph (“Lie Detector”
Technique. 2nd edition

Curugan, Rose Marie B., et al. Handbook on Polygraph:

TheBasics. JC Palabay Enterprises, Inc. Marikina, Philippines

Handbook on Polygraph: Man Wong

Internet Sites:
a. http//www.polygraph.org
b. http//www.apa.org

Personal compilation of Polygraph movie clips

Personal compilation of Polygraph movie clips

DEVELOPMENT OF THE MODERN POLYGRAPH
LEONARD KEELER
- he incorporated the galvonograph with the measurement of blood
pressure and respiration
- he formulated a method of questioning
- he developed the keymograph

THE POLYGRAPH MACHINE

  The polygraph instrument

usually measures four to six physiological reactions recorded by three
 different medical instruments that are combined in one machine. Older
polygraph machines were equipped with long strips of paper that
moved slowly beneath pens that recorded the various physiological
responses. Newer equipment uses transducers to convert the
information to digital signals that can be stored on computers and
analyzed using sophisticated mathematical algorithms.

FOUR MAJOR COMPONENTS OF THE POLYGRAPH

1) PNEUMOGRAPH
o the component of the polygraph that records the respiratory rate
changes of the subject
o made up of two (2) units:
a) pneumograph chest assembly
o composed of the rubber-convoluted tube and beaded chain
o the tube is around 10 inches long
b) recording unit
2) GALVANOGRAPH
- the component of the polygraph that records the skin resistance of
the subject to very small amount electricity
- composed of:
a) finger electrode assembly
b) amplifier unit
c) galvanometer-recording unit
3) CARDIOSPHYGMOGRAPH
- the component that records changes of systolic blood pressure and
pulse rate of the subject
- composed of:
a) blood pressure cuff assembly
b) pump bulb assembly
c) sphygmomanometer
d) resonance control
e) recording unit
4) KEYMOGRAPH
- a motor that pulls or drives the chart paper under the recording pen
simultaneously at the rate of 6 or 12 inches per minute
- a chart or paper feed mechanism
- chart paper is driven past the recording penshaft at uniform speed
of 6 inches per minute
- chart rolls are about 100 feet
- paper is imprinted with horizontal lines at ¼ inch interval at 20
divisions and vertical lines at 1/10 inch interval with heavy lines at ½
inch divisions across the paper

CHART MARKINGS

X - start of the test

+ - “Yes” answer to question
- - “No” answer to question
M - movement
T - subject talked
S - sigh
L - laughs or chuckles
Y - yawn
B - burb or belch
CT - clearing throat
SN - sniff
SZ - sneeze
XX - end of the test

CHART INTERPRETATION

PNEUMOGRAPH TRACINGS WHICH MAY BE INDICATIVE OF

DECEPTION
1) change in rhythm or regularity
2) change in amplitude or volume
3) change in the inhalation or exhalation ratio
4) notched or serrated inhalation or exhalation strokes
5) change of baseline
6) loss of base line
7) hyperventilation
8) suppression
9) respiratory block

GALVANOGRAPH TRACINGS WHICH MAY BE INDICATIVE OF

DECEPTION
1) vertical rise at point of deception
2) double saddle response
3) long duration and/or degree of response following point of
deception
4) plunging galvo tracing
CARDIOSPHYGMOGRAPH TRACINGS WHICH MAY BE INDICATIVE OF
DECEPTION
1) increase or decrease in blood pressure
2) increase or decrease in pulse rate
3) increase or decrease in amplitude
4) change in position or disappearance of dicrotic notch
5) extrasystoles

GENERAL RULES TO FOLLOW IN CHART INTERPRETATION

1) There must be a specific response.
2) To be specific, the response must form a deviation from the norm of
the subject.
 3) It must appear in at least two (2) or more test charts
4) The best indication of deception is the simultaneous specific
responses in the three (3) tracings of the chart (pneumograph,
galvonograph and cardiosphygmograph)

SPECIFIC RESPONSE
- one that is exhibited by a subject to particular questions, which
constitute a deviation from the subject’s individual norm

NORMAL RESPONSE
- the established norm of the individual
- the tracings representing the subject’s answer to irrelevant
questions

LIMITATIONS OF THE POLYGRAPH

1) It is an important investigative aid but never a substitute for an
investigation.
2) It cannot determine facts but it can record the difference in the
responses.
3) Its accuracy depends greatly on the competency of the polygraph
examiner himself.

FOUR PHASES OF THE POLYGRAPH TEST

1) INITIAL INTERVIEW WITH THE INVESTIGATOR HANDLING THE
CASE (investigator and examiner)
o the information supplied by the investigator handling the case
becomes the basis for the formulation of questions of the
polygraph examiner to be asked during the instrumental test
o as much as possible, information must be supplemented by
crime scene sketches, statements taken, photographs,
laboratory results and available background information on the
subject

2) PRE-TEST INTERVIEW WITH THE PERSON TO BE EXAMINED

(subject and the polygraph examiner)
o conducted to condition the subject psychologically for responses
o the subject is informed of his right against self-incrimination and
his written consent is taken
o the personal data of the subject is also taken
o the mechanics of the polygraph examination and the functions of
the polygraph machine is explained to the subject
o the subject is made comfortable and relaxed in preparation for
the instrumental test
o the period is usually from twenty to thirty minutes
 3) CONDUCT OF THE INSTRUMENTAL TEST ( subject and the
polygraph)
o the main part of the examination
o the prepared questions are asked to the subject while all the
components of the polygraph are attached and functioning

4) POST-TEST INTERVIEW (subject and the examiner)

o the polygraph is still attached to the subject but is no longer
functioning
o if, based on the result of the examination, the polygraph
examiner is convinced that the subject is lying, he will conduct a
short interrogation
o if, based on the result of the examination, the polygraph
examiner is convinced that the subject is telling the truth, he will
just release the subject and thank him for his cooperation

EXAMINATION ROOM

1) It must be spacious for two persons, furnished with a polygraph

desk, a subject’s chair with arm rest and an examiner’s stool.
2) It must be adequately lighted and well-ventilated.
3) It must be devoid of pictures, paintings, decorations and other
ornaments.
4) It must be private and generally free from all outside noise and
distracting influences, preferably, soundproof.
5) It may be furnished with an observation one-way mirror and remote
sound system or video for monitoring of test proceedings by
authorized personnel.

KINDS OF TEST QUESTIONS

1) RELEVANT QUESTIONS
o the primary or key questions asked by the examiner in order to
resolve a specific subject matter
o that verbal stimulus of primary importance projected in the form
of a question that overcomes the psychological statement level
and causes the pneumograph, cardiosphygmograph and
galvonograph tracing to change from the subject’s physiological
norm
o further classified according to their stimulation effect:

i. strong relevant or primary relevant

 questions with intense and specific relationship to the
crime or problem being considered
 designed and constructed to test for direct involvement
only and specifically designed to produce an emotional
response in guilty subjects
ii. secondary relevant or weak relevant
 concerned with some secondary elements of the crime or
problem
 deals mostly on guilty knowledge and partial involvement
 further classified as follows:
1. sacrifice relevant question:
 designed to absorb the response generally
generated by the introduction of the firm relevant
question in the series
 it reveals the subject’s norm plus stimulus and
excitement level
2. evidence-connecting question
 designed to stimulate the guilty subject and focus
his attention on the probability of incriminating
proof that would tend to establish his guilt

3. knowledge question
 designed to probe whether the subject possesses
information regarding the identity of the offender or
as to the location of evidence or other secondary
elements or facts of the case