ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND

BONDING
Types of bonds between atoms determine
arrangement of atoms in lattice.
Different arrangement, different atomic
structure, affect materials properties.

Composition of a material also influence

materials properties and behavior.
Control composition and structure →
control materials properties
Electronic structure of atoms

Atom – the smallest unit of matter “indivisible”

Helium atom : electron

Atomic number (Z) = 2

Atomic weight (A) = 4

Subatomic particles :
1. Neutrons
2. Protons
neutron
3. electrons proton
Atomic mass

Atomic mass is the mass in grams of 6.022 x1023

atoms.

The number of atoms or molecules in a mole is

called Avogadro’s number, NA = 6.022 x 1023.

Chemist measure quantity of atoms and

molecules in moles.
Electronic structure of an atom
a) Atomic number = number of Electrons
Atomic weight = no. of proton + no. of
neutron

b) Electrons vary in the amount of energy

they possess, and they occur at certain
energy levels or electron shells.

c) Electron shells determine how an atom

behaves when it encounters other atoms
 Why are electrons important?
Elements have different electron
configurations, therefore different levels
of bonding
Valence electrons determine all of the
following properties in materials
◼ Chemical

◼ Electrical

◼ Thermal

◼ Optical
Octet Rule = atoms tend to gain, lose or share electrons so
as to have 8 electrons
✓C would like to Gain 4 electrons
✓N would like to Gain 3 electrons
✓O would like to Gain 2 electrons
1s22s2 1s22s22p4

1s22s22p63s23p4
Element Atomic # Electron configuration
Hydrogen 1 1s 1
Helium 2 1s 2 (stable)
Lithium 3 1s 2 2s 1
Beryllium 4 1s 2 2s 2
Boron 5 1s 2 2s 2 2p 1
Carbon 6 1s 2 2s 2 2p 2
... ...
Neon 10 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 (stable)
Sodium 11 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 1
Magnesium 12 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2
Aluminum 13 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 1
... ...
Argon 18 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 (stable)
... ... ...
Krypton 36 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 3d 10 4s 2 4p 6 (stable)
 Electron Dot Structures
Symbols of atoms with dots to represent the valence-shell
electrons

H• He:
• • • •• •• •• ••

Li• Be• •B • • C• • N• • O• : F • :Ne :

• • •• •• ••

• • • •• •• •• ••

Na• Mg• • Al• • Si • •P• • S• :Cl • :Ar :

• • •• •• ••
Bonding
Chemical bondings are result of an attempt
to fill electron shells (reach octet)

3 different types of primary chemical bond

found in solids :
1. ionic
2. covalent
3. metallic bonding
IONIC BOND
bond formed between two ions by the
transfer of electrons
◼ Between metals and nonmetals with large
different in electronegativity
◼ Lead to structures of high symmetry
(coordination number (CN) is high)
◼ Produce charged ions all states. Conductors

and have high melting point. (p61 Mc Graw

Hill)
Examples; NaCl, CaCl2, K2O
◼ The ionic bonding is termed nondirectional
(no preferred orientation); that is, the
magnitude of the bond is equal in all directions
around an ion
◼ Ionic materials are characteristically hard and
brittle
◼ Its also thermally insulative. Electrically
insulative if ions are static. It exhibits high
melting temperature
Ionic bond – metal + nonmetal
donates accepts
electrons electrons

Dissimilar electronegativities

ex: MgO Mg 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 O 1s2 2s2 2p4

[Ne] 3s2

Mg2+ 1s2 2s2 2p6 O2- 1s2 2s2 2p6

[Ne] [Ne]
 The reaction of sodium with chlorine

Cl atom
Cl ion
Na atom

Na ion
 Na+ and Cl- forming an ionic bond. The
electron orbitals generally do not overlap
Ionic bonding (NaCl)
Covalent bond

bond formed by the sharing of electrons

between atoms

◼ Many nonmetallic elemental molecules (H2, Cl2 F2,

etc.) as well as molecules containing dissimilar
atoms, such as CH4, H2O, HNO3 and HF
◼ Polar (unequal sharing (H2O, NH3)) and non-polar
(equal sharing (H2, CH4)) covalent bondings
◼ The number of covalent bonds that is possible
for a particular atom is determined by the
number of valence electron, N’ .
◼ For N’ valence electrons, an atom can
covalently bond with at most 8- N’ other
atoms.
◼ For example N’ for chlorine =7.
Therefore, Cl can bond with 8- 7 = 1 other
atom, as in Cl2.
◼ The covalent bond is directional ; that is, it is
between specific atoms and may exist only in
the direction between one atom and another
that participates in the electron sharing.
◼ Covalent bond may be strong, as in diamond,
which is very hard and has a very high melting
temperature, > 3550ºC or they may be very
weak as with methane, which melts at about
-183ºC. (p67 McGraw Hill)
Discussion of network covalent solids vs
molecular covalent gases and liquids
 Example : Covalent bonding in CH4

◼ The C atom has N’ =4.

Therefore, it can covalently bonded with
8- N’ = 4 other atom.
◼ As in this case, it can covalently bond with 4 other H
atoms that each has a single valence electron.
◼ Each H atom acquire a helium electron configuration
whereas C now has four additional shared electrons,
one from each hydrogen and obtained neon
configuration.
Covalent bonding (CH4)
 Metallic bonding
◼ Found in metals and their alloys
◼ Metallic materials have one, two or at most,
three valence electrons. These valence
electrons are not bound to any particular atom
in the solid and are more or less free to drift
throughout the entire metal forming a “sea
electrons” or an “electron cloud”
◼ Therefore, the metallic bonding is
nondirectional.
◼ The free electrons shield the positively charged ion
cores from mutually repulsive electrostatic forces,
which they would otherwise exert upon one other. In
addition, these free electrons act as a “glue” to hole
the ion cores together
◼ The remaining nonvalence electrons and atomic
nuclei form ion cores which possess a net positive
charge equal in magnitude to the total valence
electron charge per atom.
◼ The attraction force between positive ion core and
negative electron cloud (metallic bonding) keeps
metallic atoms together

Examples; Na, Fe, Al, Au, Co

 Schematic illustration of metallic bonding

Ion
cores

Sea of
electrons
Metallic materials have moderate melting point. No
breakage of bonds needed for melting process. (p69-70
Mc Graw Hill)
Metallic materials are soft and deformable thus
mechanically different than ionic and covalently bonded
materials.
Metallic materials are excellent electrical conductors due
to delocalized nature of electrons.
Metals are also thermal conductors due to thermal atomic
vibrations across the metallic body.
Primary Bonding – mixture
◼ Metallic Bond -- delocalized as electron cloud

◼ Ionic-Covalent Mixed Bonding

 (X A −X B )2 
 −
4

% ionic character = 1− e  x (100%)
 
 
where XA & XB are Pauling electronegativities
Example: MgO  XMg = 1.3
XO = 3.5

 (3.5 −1.3)2 
 − 
% ionic character = 1 − e 4  x (100%) = 70.2% ionic
 
 
SECONDARY BONDING
(INTERMOLECULAR BONDING)
Arises from interaction between dipoles
• Fluctuating dipoles (H bond)
asymmetric electron ex: liquid H 2
clouds H2 H2

+ - + - H H H H
secondary secondary
bonding bonding

• Permanent dipoles-molecule induced (van der Waal, S-link)

secondary
-general case: + - bonding
+ -

secondary
-ex: liquid HCl H Cl bonding H Cl

-ex: polymer secondary bonding

 Summary: Bonding
Type Bond Energy Comments
Ionic Large! Nondirectional (ceramics)

Covalent Variable Directional

large-Diamond (semiconductors, ceramics
small-Bismuth polymer chains)

Metallic Variable
large-Tungsten Nondirectional (metals)
small-Mercury
Secondary smallest Directional
inter-chain (polymer)
inter-molecular
Bond energies – type of materials
Ceramics Large bond energy
large Tm Tm = melting
(Ionic & covalent bonding):
large E temperature
small a a = thermal
expansion
Metals Variable bond energy
(Metallic bonding): moderate Tm
moderate E
moderate a

Polymers Secondary bonding dominates

(Covalent & Secondary): small Tm
small E
large a
Calculation examples :

1 a) Calculate the mass of 1 mol of Zinc

blend (ZnS) [AW Zn = 65.4,
AW S = 32.07]

b) Methane (CH4) is the principle

component of natural gas. How many
moles of CH4 are present in 6.07 g of
CH4? How many H atoms are present
in the sample?
2. Calculate and compare the number of
atoms per cubic centimeter in:
a) Lead
[density = 11.36 g/cm3 ; atomic
weight = 207.19]
b) Lithium
[density = 0.534 g/cm3 ; atomic
weight = 6.94]
3. Aluminum has been widely used as food
wrapping. If 15 cm x 15 cm weighing
0.002537 g of the aluminum foil is
required to wrap a piece of cake,
calculate the number of aluminum atom
per square cm.
[ Al atomic weight = 26.982]
4. In order to plate a steel part having a
surface area of 200 cm2 with a 0.002 cm
thick layer of nickel. (AW Ni =
58.71g/mol, density = 8.902 g/cm3 )

a) how many atoms of nickel are required ?

b) how many moles of nickel are required?
5. Cubic zirconia (ZrO2) is a polycrystalline ceramic with a
melting point of 2700 °C. Briefly explain the suitability of this
material as oxygen gas sensors in automotives that operates at
725 °C and what type of bonding that cubic zirconia has ?

6. a) Explain and sketch a diagram that represents the formation

of bonding in potassium (K). Label the diagram. (AW K =19)
b) When iodine react with potassium, a new chemical
compound of potassium iodide (KI) is formed. It is a white
crystalline salt that is used in photography and radiation
treatment. Name the type of bonding of this compound and
reason out your answer.