CHAPTER 3.

0
TECHNIQUES IN FIELD
INVESTIGATION
Syllabus Content
3.1 Introduction to field investigation
3.2 Safety rules in field investigation
3.3 Sampling techniques
3.4 The preservation and mounting techniques in plants
3.5 The preservation and mounting techniques in animals
“Science learning experiences occur in the classroom, in the laboratory,
and in the field. In these experiences, students discover facts, concepts,
and laws of science for themselves, much as scientists do in their
professional lives. Experiences that extend from the classroom into the
field allow students to explore, observe, and investigate things in the
natural world that cannot be brought into the classroom learning
experience.”

Chris Castillo-Comer, Director of Science

Texas Education Agency, 2002
 3.1 INTRODUCTION

 Field trips are an interactive and engaging method of learning in

environments outside the classroom

 These rules are an excellent guideline for maintaining a safe

atmosphere
 Field investigation is an investigation carried out in the field
 Provide students with first-hand experience by allowing them to explore,
observe, and investigate natural world phenomena that cannot be brought
into the classroom learning environment

 Direct observation in a field setting can provide a stimulating and

rewarding experience for the students and the lecturer

 However, field experiences require materials and procedures for students

to experience various facets of the natural world

 Safety guidelines must be maintained to ensure a productive experience

for all participants.
 The importance of field investigations:
 Essential for the application of key concepts
 Significant gains in learning may be achieved only through field
experiences
 To discover the applications of science in technology and research

 Examples: industries, governmental agencies, arboretums, zoos,

museums, and natural areas
 Field investigations should:
 contribute to the understanding of science concepts in the natural world
 allow students to experience what real scientists do
 provide an opportunity to collect real data
 model real applications of science
 connect science disciplines to future careers

 Experiences gained during a field investigation can motivate students

to learn more about what they have observed
 3.2 THE SAFETY RULES

“School districts should develop and implement safety procedures for

laboratory investigations and field trips. Teachers should learn safe
procedures for laboratory activities and field trips and follow them as a
matter of policy.”

Liability of Teachers for Laboratory Safety and Field Trips,

National Science Teachers Association,1985
 The Safety Rules

1. Safety Waivers and Permission Slips

 Most school programs have template safety waivers or permission slips

 Children under 18 must have a parent or guardian sign a legal

permission slip stating that they accept the child's participation in the
field trip

 Students 18 and older must sign a waiver stating they accept full
responsibility for their actions and legal implications of their participation
in the field trip
2. Attendance Checklist
 Make an attendance list of each participant
 Helpful : to check at periods throughout the trip, specifically getting on
or off transportation and in the middle of the trip

3. Clothing
 Appropriate attire
 long pants and sleeves and close-toed shoes
 on any circumstances eg: raining - bring umbrella, raincoat
4. Chaperones
 Chaperones help maintain safety of the group and control the large
group
 The chaperones should be lecturers or staff who all participants will
respect and follow

5. Bring a First Aid Kit

 Basic first-aid kit
 A complete kit includes: bandages, gauze, antiseptic, tape, scissors and
home-made splint material
 While you can't prevent an accident, having a first-aid kit in each group
can limit the potential for disaster in an emergency
6. Groups
 Participants can be divided into groups of 4 – 10 people

7. Rules
 Before embarking on the trip, copies of the rules and regulations are
provided for each participant

8. Stranger Danger
 Address to participants that they are only to talk to field trip chaperones/
event staff in marked uniform
 Main questions
1. What safety precautions are required?
 adequate first-aid kits
 given additional safety training before the trip
 cellular phone available for making emergency calls
 copies of the permission and medical forms with the lecturer

2. How long will this trip take?

 Can time be used efficiently?
 Job scope and time management
 3.3 THE SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

 Sample is a set of elements taken from a large population

according to certain rules

 Sampling is the act of collecting a portion of material

(elements) for analytical purposes that accurately represents the
large population of the material with respect to stated objectives
 Sampling is a scientist’s way of collecting information, and the majority of sampling is
undertaken to answer specific questions
 WHY SAMPLING??

 To study /get information about large populations with

 Less costs
 Less field time
 More accuracy i.e. Can Do A Better Job of Data Collection
 Sampling techniques?
 A sampling technique is the method used to collect information from a single sampling unit

 Therefore the focus of a sampling technique is on the equipment and/or the way the count is
accomplished

Sampling programs?
 A sampling program is the procedure for employing the sampling technique to obtain a
sample and make an estimate

 Sampling programs direct how a sample is to be taken, including sampling unit size, number
of sampling units, spatial pattern of obtaining sampling units, and timing of samples
3.3.1 ECOLOGICAL SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
 It is virtually impossible to identify and count every organism in a
habitat
 Only small sections of the habitat are usually studied in detail. These
can be the representative for the whole area

 There are 4 basic sampling techniques:

- Quadrats
- Point frames
- Line transect
- Belt transect
 A quadrat is a sampling unit consist of a square
frame, the most frequently used size being 1m²

 often designed as a sturdily built wooden frame,

so it can be folded to make it more compact for
storage and transport.

 It is placed on the ground and the species

present within the frame are identified and their
abundance recorded

 If the species are small and/or densely packed,

one or more of the smaller squares within the
frame may be used rather than the quadrat as a
whole

 Sampling with a quadrat may be random or

systematic
 Random sampling
 can be as simple as throwing a quadrat randomly and counting the
species within that area.
 However, this is usually unsatisfactory because a personal element
inevitably enter into the throwing and it is not truly random (personal bias)

 A better method of random sampling is to map the area and then lay
a numbered grid over the map
 Using random numbers generated on a computer or certain calculators, a
series of coordinates can be obtained
 The quadrat is placed at the intersection of each pair of coordinates and the
species within it recorded
  Systematic sampling
 Is when samples are taken at fixed intervals, usually along a line
 Normally involves doing transects where a sampling line is set
up across areas where there are clear environmental gradient
 Examples:

 Use a transect to show the changes of  To investigate the effect on species

composition of pollutant radiating out
plant species as you moved from from a particular source
grassland into woodland
In these circumstances a rectangular
area of ground may be marked out
by boundary stakes which are
connected by rope. This is known as a
permanent quadrat
 A point frame, or point quadrat, consists of
vertical legs across which is fixed a
horizontal bar with small holes along it

 A long metal pin, resembling a knitting

needle, is placed in each of the holes in turn

 Each time the pin touches a species, it is

recorded

 The point frame is especially useful where

there is dense vegetation as it can sample
at many different levels
A. LINE TRANSECT

 A line transect can made using a string

or tape is stretched out along the ground
in a straight line

 so that systematic sampling of an area

can be carried out

 A record is made of the organisms

touching or covering the line all along
its length, or at regular intervals

 This technique is particularly useful

where there is a transition of flora
and/or fauna across an area, down a
seashore for example.
 A. BELT TRANSECT

 This is similar to the line transect method but gives information on

abundance as well as presence, or absence of species

 It may be considered as a widening of the line transect to form a

continuous belt, or series of quadrats
 A belt transect is a strip, usually a metre wide, marked by putting a second
line transect parallel to the other
 The species between the lines are carefully recorded, working a metre at a time

 Another method is to use a frame quadrat in conjunction with a single line

transect
 In this case, the quadrat is laid down alongside the line transect and the species within it
recorded
 It is then moved its own length along the line and the process repeated
 This gives a record of species in a continuous belt, but the quadrat may also be used at
regular intervals, e.g. every 5 m, along the line (a ladder transect)
 Quadrats are sampled all the way down the transect line, at each marked point on the
line, or at some other predetermined interval (or even randomly) if time is short
 It is important that the same person should do the estimations of cover in each quadrat,
because the estimation is likely to vary from person to person
1
m

6
m

11
m

16
m

24m
50m
28m 29m 30m
 ESTIMATING THE SIZE OF
A POPULATION OF A PLANT SPECIES

 Plants are sessile, they do not move around

 They can be sampled using a quadrat

 Our aim is to estimate the size of the population of a plant species

 You will need to:

 Clearly identify the species of plant you are investigating
 Determine the area in which the population is to be sampled using tape
measures
 Use a suitable sized quadrat to sample the plants
 ESTIMATING A PLANT POPULATION

1. ESTIMATING DENSITY

 Density is the mean number of individuals (n) per unit area (a)
 Density is valuable for comparing given species in different habitats
2. ESTIMATING PERCENTAGE FREQUENCY

 Frequency is the number of quadrats in which a species occurs,

expressed as a percentage
 Frequency is rapidly assessed, and is a useful means of comparing two
similar plant communities with same quadrat size

3. ESTIMATING PERCENTAGE COVER

 Cover is the percentage of the ground covered by a species within the

area sampled
 Cover is a valuable way of considering the relative contribution of the
different species in a given community or in different communities
 3.3.2 SOIL SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

 Technique used must be one that maintains the soil sample in its
natural condition

 The results can illustrate the actual characteristics of the soil

 Methods usually used for soil sampling include:

A. Soil bore
B. Corer
C. Scoop
A. SOIL BORE
 to obtained soil samples from various depths
 suitable for the study of the characteristics of different layers of soil
profile
B. CORER
 to isolate a soil sample by pulling out the piston from its cylinder
 large portion of the natural structure of the soil is maintained in its original
state
C. SCOOP
 to obtain soil samples from different depths
 difficult and may destroy the soil that are being studied
 SOIL ANALYSIS

 Mechanical analysis to determine the texture of a soil

 Content of organic matter

 Analysis of water content

 Analysis to determine the percentage of air in soil

 ANALYSIS OF
SOIL TEXTURE
Clay Soil Loam Sandy Soil
Particle size is less than 0.002 Particle size from 0.06 mm to
mm (2 µm) 2.0 mm

Small air spaces between Large air spaces between

particles; poor aeration
Poor drainage; soil easily
compacted
Good water retention
(water logging possible)
A wet soil; evaporation of water
causes it to be cold
Particles attract many mineral
ions; nutrient content is high
particles; good aeration
Good drainage; soil not
compacted
The properties of loam soils are
intermediate between those of Poor water retention
clay and sandy soils (no water logging)
Less water evaporation,
therefore warmer
Minerals are easily leached so
mineral content is low

Particles aggregate together to Particles remain separate; the

form clods; the soil is heavy and soil is light and easy to work
difficult to work
 ANALYSIS OF
ORGANIC MATTER CONTENT
 These include parts of dead plants and animals in various stages
decay. These included 3 groups:
 Non-nitrogenous compounds – sugar ,starch, cellulose, lignin (C,H,O)
 Nitrogenous compounds – most are proteins
 Inorganic substances or minerals – P, Ca, Mg, K, Si, S, Al, Fe (present in
various compounds)

 Humus
 the dark-coloured amorphous colloidal material that constitutes the organic
component of soil.
 It is formed by the decomposition of plant and animal remains and
excrement and has a complex and variable chemical composition
 Humus is an important factor in the aeration, water retention potential and
granulation of soil
 ANALYSIS OF
PERCENTAGE OF AIR IN SOIL
 Aeration of soil is absolutely essential for the absorption of water by the
roots

 Absorption is better in well aerated soils because O2 is needed for

respiration of roots

 O2 deficiency retards the growth and development of fresh roots and

disturbs their metabolic activity
 ANALYSIS OF
SOIL pH
 Soil pH is an important factor that influences the types of organisms
living in the soil in a particular area

 The methods that can be used to determine soil pH include:

 Using a pH meter
 Using universal indicator
 Using pH paper
3.4 THE PRESERVATING & MOUNTING
TECHNIQUES IN PLANT
 INTRODUCTION

 One of the most useful references for proper plant identification is a

collection of dry plant specimens

 Collection of dry specimens are usually found in educational or

research institutions, but can also prove useful on an individual basis
for a farm or region

 Herbarium
 A collection of dried plants that are mounted, labeled, and
systematically arranged for use in scientific study
HERBARIUM
VALUE OF COLLECTING & PRESSING PLANTS

 Very helpful way of learning to know plants

 Can secure plant specimens when they are in flower and identify
them later

 Can check with an expert if you are not sure with identification

 The pressed specimen serves as a useful reference to help identify

other specimens found or received later for identification

 A collection of plant specimens provides a record of plant species of

an area
 EQUIPMENT NEEDED FOR COLLECTING AND
PRESSING PLANTS

1. Digging tool to collect root samples or dig

entire specimen plant if desired

2. Pocket knife or pruning shear to clip off

desired portion of plant

3. Plastic bags of assorted sizes to keep plants

from drying out until they can be pressed

4. Sheets of folded newspaper to place plants in

for pressing

5. Cardboard and blotter sheets for insertion

between specimens in plant press
6. A plant press constructed of two sheets of
plywood / a lattice design of wood strips
nailed together and bound with straps or a
rope to apply pressure

7. A field notebook to take notes about the

plant specimen. Include data collected,
location where collected, notes on size of
plant if entire plant is not collected, type of
root, flower color, whether plant has milky
juice, odor, or any other characteristics that
will be lost when the plant is collected

8. Index cards to label mount

9. A camera
 (1) SAMPLE COLLECTION

 The collected plant should be fresh and dry

 Dirty samples should be cleaned

 Usually the whole plant should be collected. Collect a plant with flower
or fruit parts present if possible. Collect roots of plant or if roots are too
large, note carefully type of root system

 Information on samples such as date, soil condition and location

should be noted
 Locate and collect a range of flower color, type,
etc. If possible, arrange to collect plants in
vegetative as well as flowering stages

 If plant is dioecious (having male and female

reproductive organs in separate plants or
animals), collect both male and female plants,
if possible.

 If plant has basal leaves which are different from

leaves on stem, collect samples of these - or
collect whole plant.
 Plant that very few in quantity and rare need approval letter for
collected. Obtain permission before you collect plants on private
property, State Parks, etc.

 Collection done in dense area

 Collection must be avoided at the:

 roadside
 construction area
 contaminated area
 (2) SPECIMIEN PRESSING

 Apparatus needed for pressing :

 Plant press/Wood
 Rope
 Corrugated cardboards
 Papers/newspapers
 Pressing process involves the arrangement of
papers layer by layer. The sizes of specimen must
be within the board sizes (33 cm x 50 cm)

 The specimen should be in good condition and the

leaves should not overlap each other. Arrange the
plant so the floral parts and other identifying
characters are well displayed

 The layers of specimens are press between two

boards and wood pressers. The rope is used to
tighten the press wood
 STEP OF PRESSING PLANT

 Open up newspaper so that it is in two halves, with the unfolded

newspaper on the bottom half

 Place your fresh cutting onto the newspaper, and then fold the
newspaper so that it covers the plant. Make sure to put the plant in the
center area of the newspaper.
 Place the corrugated cardboard and then the wood top halves over
the folded newspaper

 Layer the cardboard and the wood on top and bottom

 Put the press together

 Place the rope around the entire press, push it all the way together
(it's best to stand on it so it's closed tightly), and tie the rope tightly
 (3) SPECIMIEN DRYING

 Two techniques of drying

 using solar
 using oven where the temperature can be controlled

 Drying using solar

 Leave the specimen in the press wood under the sun light
 Change the layer of papers the day after
 Repeat the technique until the specimens are truly dry
 This process would take about a week

 Drying using oven

 More appropriate technique and faster
 The temperature was controlled at 45°C - 60°C that would take 3 to 7
days
 The layers of papers should be changed when necessary.
 Succulent plants may need blotter change every day. If blotter
paper is not available, you can use additional folded sheets of
newspaper between specimen sheets
 (4) SPECIMIEN MOUNTING

 The dry specimens are ready to be mounted

onto herbarium paper
 The standard herbarium paper size is 16½” x
10½” (42 cm x 27cm)

 The purpose is for storage and therefore it’s

important to ensure those specimens are
proper mounted on the paper

 The specimens are fixed on the paper using

thread, cellophane tape or resin gum

 Each specimen using different paper

 METHOD FOR MOUNTING
LARGE WEED SPECIMENS

 In many cases, weed specimens will be too

large to mount on the sheet

 There are several solutions to this problem:

 Bending Plant
 Sectioning plant: Omitting duplicate
sections of plant
 Cutting plant into sections and mounting each
 (5) SPECIMIEN LABELLING

 Each specimen should be labeled

at the right bottom of paper

 The information includes,

 family name
 collected location
 scientific name
 collector name
 general/local name
 collected date
 reference number
 STEP OFMOUNTING &
LABELLING PLANT
 Before sticking anything down work
out where the plant, capsule and label
will be positioned on the sheet

 The label must be stuck down in the

bottom right hand corner of the sheet

 The capsule can be placed anywhere

on the sheet that fits in well with the
shape of the plant but it is usually
placed on the top right or top left
corner
 Dilute some PVA glue with water and
spread it on a sheet of glass that is
slightly larger than the mounting sheet
(herbarium paper) you are using

 Place the plant on the glass, in the glue.

The idea is to get an even covering of
glue on the side of the plant that will be
facing the herbarium paper
 Flip the plant over on a clean sheet
of newspaper and check that no
areas have been missed. If they
have you can add more glue with a
brush

 Place the plant on the herbarium

paper in the position that you
planned earlier. If there are any
plant parts that overlap you will
have to slip a little glue between
them. If you don't do this they will
flap up and eventually break off
 Very carefully blot any excess glue off the
specimen using greece-proof paper or
newspaper

 Build a multi-layer sandwich of specimens,

greece-proof paper and thick blotting paper

 The greece-proof paper should be place on top

of the specimen to stop it from sticking to the other
layers

 The blotting paper acts to absorb any extra glue

and as a padding layer
 Place weights on the top of the
sandwich and leave it to dry for at
least 24 h

 When the specimens have dried any

thick twigs and branches should be
made extra secure by sewing down
with strong thread

 Finer twigs and leaves can be made

extra secure using small strips of
gummed paper
 The finished product!
A good herbarium specimen should last for hundreds
of years provided:

 It has been prepared properly using acid-free materials

 It is handled with care
 It is protected from water, insect and fungal attack
3.5 THE PRESERVATING & MOUNTING
TECHNIQUES IN ANIMALS
 TAXIDERMY

 Taxidermy is process of skinning,

preserving, and mounting vertebrate
animals, so that they still appear lifelike

 The fur or feathers are cleaned, and the skin

treated with a cleansing and preserving
preparation, is mounted on a man-made
skeleton

 Used for the preservation of skins, hunting

trophies, and travel souvenirs

 Employed mainly by museums of science

 The true contours of the specimen are
preserved by making a clay model, exactly
duplicating the animal's muscle structure,
over an armature that includes the original
skeleton or parts of it

 A plaster mold is then made, from which is

produced a light, durable frame that holds
the skin in position

 Synthetic materials, especially celluloid's

often used to reproduce the true color and
translucence of specimens such as
reptiles and fishes

 Taxidermy not just mounting and

preservation but has become an art form
with a few Wildlife Artists
HEAD MOUNTS
LIFESIZES/ FULL BODY MOUNTS
RUGS
 BACIS RULES FOR FIELD CARE OF ALL
MAMMALS
 Whenever possible, bring it in fresh for the
taxidermist to skin

 NEVER SLIT THE THROAT OF ANY ANIMAL !

 When field dressing any animal, always make your

cuts with the sharp edge of the knife up

 When field dressing ANY animal that you want to

have as a FULL BODY MOUNT, you must leave
his/her genitals and bung hole attached. DO
NOT cut these off

 If you must skin the animal yourself, make as few

cuts as possible
 NEVER hang or drag any animal by the neck! This damages the
skin and stretches the neck. Hang any animal with the head down and
drag out by the antlers or front legs

 Place tags carefully in the skin, doing as little damage as possible

 Keep every animal as COLD as possible and bring in as SOON as

possible

 DO NOT SALT any animal unless it's head (and feet) are completely
skinned and fleshed

 Freeze or keep cold any skin that is not fully prepared

 EQUIPMENTS USED IN FIELD WORK

 Organisms should be identified on site

 When collecting specimens, as much information as possible should be

recorded at the time

 This should include details of the time, date, location, substrate,

climate and any other relevant data
 THE COLLECTING APPARATUS

1. Beating tray

 This is a fabric sheet on a collapsible frame

 It is held under a part of a bush or a tree which

is then shaken or disturbed with a stick

 The organisms which are dislodged are

collected by hand

 It is used to collect small non-flying terrestrial

organisms, e.g. beetles, spiders, caterpillars.
2. Light traps

 Any light source will attract certain nocturnal flying insects

 A very simple light trap may be made by placing a vertical

sheet at the side of a light source, and a horizontal one
beneath it
 This is necessary as some insects prefer to rest vertically and
others horizontally

 More effective traps involve mercury vapour lamps. These

emit much ultra-violet light which is particularly attractive to
nocturnal insects such as moths
3. Tullgren funnel

 This is used to extract small animals from a sample of soil or leaf litter

 The soil sample is placed on a coarse sieve

 Light and moderate heat are used to drive the animals downwards through
the sieve

 They fall into a funnel which directs them into a collecting vessel
4. Baermann funnel

 This is used to extract soil animals and is particularly effective for worms,
especially nematodes

 The soil sample is contained within a muslin bag which is then submerged in
water in a funnel.

A tungsten bulb may be used as

a source of heat which, along
with the water, induces the
organisms to leave the sample.
They collect in the neck of the
funnel from where they can be
periodically removed
5. Mammals trap

 The best live trap is the Longworth trap

 It is placed in situations which small mammals such as mice and voles frequent, like a
runway
 It comprises a metal box with a single entrance which closes firmly behind the mammal
when it enters
 The box is baited with bedding and the appropriate food to entice the animal to enter
 The behaviour of many small mammals creates problems when this trap is used to
assess population sizes, because some individuals, called ‘trap-shy’, never enter the trap,
while others, called ‘trap-happy’, actively seek them out for the meal and bed they provide
6. Pitfall traps

 A jam-jar or similar vessel is sunk into the

ground with its rim level with the soil

 It is baited with the appropriate food, e.g.

decaying meat to attract scavenging insects
such as beetles, or honey to attract ants

 Having fallen in, the insects are unable to

climb the smooth walls of the jar to escape
7. Netting

 Hand-held net with short handle give greater

precision for catching insects in flight

 Kite net - for some insects is better to stalk

them until they settle before netting them

 Sweep net – used to collect insects from

foliage. It is swept along grass or through
bushes, dislodging insects which fall into the
net. It also been used to collect aquatic
animals by sweeping it through streams or
ponds
 Plankton net – made of bolting silk
because its fine mesh, while allowing
water through, traps even microscopic
organisms

 It has a wide mouth held open by a circular

metal frame and narrows down to a small
collecting jar at the other end in which
plankton accumulate

 The net is towed slowly through the water,

usually behind a small boat
 THE PRESERVATION APPARATUS

 Small vials are useful in collecting

arachnids, larvae, and other soft-
bodied organisms that must be
preserved immediately in alcohol

 The killing jars are prepared for collecting

insects
They contain potassium cyanide that is
deadly and poisonous and advisable to
purchase the jars ready-made
 SPECIMEN PRESERVATION

 Animal specimens are divided into two types:

 Soft-bodied specimens
 Hard-bodied specimens

 Preserving soft-bodied specimens

 Soft-bodied animals include jellyfish, hydras, flatworms, soft-bodied
mollusks, crustacean and etc.
 Should be preserve first in 50% alcohol for a few days, then transferred to
70%, and finally to 90% alcohol
 Formaldehyde may also be used as a preserving fluid, although it tends to
make the specimen more brittle
 Puncture the body of animal at several places with a dissecting needle to
ensure complete penetration of the preservative (alcohol) takes place

 Later, the preserved specimens can be mounted in jars. Each specimen

can be supported against a glass slide and fastened to the glass with
thread

 Use uniformly sized, wide-mouthed jars and seal the jars with paraffin to
prevent evaporation of the preserving fluid

 Label the jars

 In time, the specimens will bleach and fragment; that is a signal to get new
specimens and fresh fluid
 Preserving hard-bodied specimens
 Preserve the following, where possible, in the dry state
 Sponges may be mounted on Bristol board after drying in the sun
 Starfish may be dried in the sun and weighted down in a flat position before
complete drying, then mounted
 Sea urchins should be dried in the sun after removing the internal organs