Ir.

Teun v a n Dorp studied C h e m i c a l Technology at the T e c h n i c a l

University of E i n d h o v e n , the N e t h e r l a n d s . After g r a d u a t i n g in

Polymer C h e m i s t r y he j o i n e d the Research Function of the Royal

Dutch/Shell Group 29 y e a r s ago. He h a s been actively involved

in R & D , Marketing a n d Technical Support. for p o l y p r o p y l e n e ,

polyurethane and expandable polystyrene (EPS). He was

recently EPS Programme Manager at the Chemical Research

Cent.er, Shell L o u v a i n - l a - N e u v e in B e l g i u m , r e s p o n s i b l e for the

process/product. research a n d application development of Shell's

EPS(Styrocell) worldwide and, since 1993, has been co­

ordinating all market developments on St.yrocell, within the

newly established company, Shell Chemicals Europe L td . , in

London.

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 EPS TOKYO '96 Japan, 29·30 October 1996

BUILDING ON EPS G E O F O A M IN THE ' LOW- LANDS '

EXPERIENCES IN THE NETJIERLANDS

Teun v a n Dorp

Styrocell Market Development

Shell Chemicals Europe L t d . , L o n d o n , UK

A B S T RA C T : Large parts of the Netherlands. especially those in the original delta areas of our 'low-lands'

have a subsoil wi t h poor load-bearing capacity. caused by waterlogged peat and clay. C i v i l engineering projects can

o u l yb c executed after a proper treatment of the soil to improve its stability and/or reduce the load of the

construction. S i n c e t h e early 70's civil engineers have successfully e x p e r i m e n t e d with the t a l l e r option using ultra

I ightweight products based upon expanded polystyrene (EPS) gcofoam material. The growth in its use has been

supported by practical and fundamental studies from research Institutes. such as Stichting Bouwresearch (SBR)

a n d t h e Delft U n i v e r s i t y of Technology (DUT). These studies involved product properties and performance under

s t a t i c and dynamic conditions and sophisticated fi n i t e e l e m e n t analyses of temperature distributions and stress­

sl r a i n predictions in the various pavement layers. The calculated or predicted values have been validated in

laboratory e x p e r i m e n t s and/or actual instrumented road pavements. Design and construction guidelines have been

e s t a b l i s h e d together w i t h quality criteria for the EPS geofoam products. I n the past I O years more than 400.(lOOm'

E P S gcofoam has been used in civil engineering practice i n t h e N e t h e r l a n d s .

3.
The current annual rate of consumption is around SO- I 0 0 . 0 0 0 m The growing confidence in this civil

e n g i n e e r i n g m a t e r i a l through theoretical and practical experience. not o n l y i n the N e t h e r l a n d s but also world-wide,

wi l l provide o p p o r t u n i t i e s beyond those a p p l i c a t i o n s i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e case s t u d i e s .

I. INTRODUCTION

111 many p a r t s of the Netherlands but especially i n t h e western part. the subsoil is so weak, with poor load

b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y . a n d the groundwater level so near t h e surface. that a considerable amount of work is necessary,

including often ra i s i n g the ground level. to make an area suitable for constmcting buildings and other civil

e n g i n e e r i n g projects.

D i ffi c u l t s o i l conditions have been and are treated differentl y depending 011 t h e local ground conditions and

a va i l a b i l i t y of s u i t a b l e fi l l - and construction materials. A whole series of approaches arc available to the civil

e n g i n e e r. such a s :

reducing or b a l a n c i n g loads (e.g. lightweight m a t e r i a l s )

i m p r o v i n g problematic soil (e.g. surcharge. dynamic c o n s o l i d a t i o n . v e rt i c a l d r a i n s )

r e p l a c i n g problematic soil (peat and clay) by more s u i t a b l e m a t e r i a l (e.g. sand)

transferring loads to more load-bearing layers (e.g. p i l e foundation)

The most obvious solution to 'overload' problems is of course to reduce the load if possible. However. in

m a n y cases the o r i g i n a l design can not be altered and o n l y the use of l i g h t e r c o n s t ru c t i o n a n d fi l l i n g materials can

a c h i e ve t h e necessary reduction of the load.

Compared to the traditional 'heavy' materials with a bulk density of l .800kg/m' or more, the lighter

m a t e r i a l s such as wood fibre. fly-ash or slag. lightweight aerated concrete a n d expanded clay or shale. do have
3
hulk densities ranging from 300-l,600kg/m when dry. When wet the bulk density of these materials increases

s i g n i fi c a n t l y . The u l t ra lightweight expanded polystyrene (EPS) geofoam has densities ranging from IS to

I tlOkg/mJ whether 'wet' or dry and forms an excellent extension and a l t e rn a t i v e for these 'light' construction

materials [PlARC. 1 9 9 5 : Scheidt et al. 1991].

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 A discussion about the pro's a n d con's of these m a t e r i a l s would be i n t e r e s t i n g but would stretch too much

the title and scope of this lecture. However, when selecting an ( u l t r a ) l i ght we i gh t fi l l i n g material, one should not

just consider and compare the straight forward u n i t cost of t h e m a t e r i a l s . but the cost per unit 'load reduction' and

aspects like water absorption a n d breakdown or d e t e r i o r a t i o n d u r i n g i t s u s e . These 'properties' should all be taken

i n t o account in the fi n a l design a n d c o s t i n g of a c o n s t ru c t i o n , i n c l u d i n g m a i n t e n a n c e d u r i n g i t s service life.

For the past 25 years c i v i l engineers have been p u t t i n g t h e properties of EPS geofoam to good use as an

ultra lightweight replacement for m i n e r a l fi l l and drainage m a t e r i a l . Other civil e n g i n e e r i n g applications i n c l u d e ,

pressure release on ground floor-slabs. piled beams a n d rafts caused by 'heave' effects, void formers lightening

large and thick concrete structures, s o i l r e t a i n i n g (sloped) w a l l s a n d gas-venting products.

Expanded polystyrene is an extremely light material, about 100 times lighter than o r d i n a ry fi l l material.

Nevertheless it has s u ffi c i e n t strength to sustain the load occurring in the sub-base of a road structure, when

properly designed. It is also a thermal i n s u l a t i o n material and can be used i n c i v i l engineering structures to prevent

frost penetration i n s o i l . Special design c o n s i d e r a t i o n s have to be made to prevent possible icing on road surfaces.

L i g h t w e i g h t - fi l l EPS 'geofoam' blocks/boards arc used u n d e r the sub-base of a road, embankment or ramp,

b u i l t over a low load-bearing s o i l , e.g. soft clay, peat or s i l t . When properly designed such a structure ensures that

no (differential) settlement of t h e u n d e r l y i n g soil w i l l occur after c o m p l e t i o n and use of the road. EPS gcofoam

provides a n a l t e r n a t i v e to t h e more t r a d i t i o n a l o p t i o n s l i k e :

'surcharging'. i . e . p l a c i n g a n overload on t h e e x i s t i n g s o i l for m a n y years t o create a pre-settlement of the

compressible s u b s o i l :

surcharging w i t h accelerated d e - w e t t i n g of t h e s u b s o i l :

m e c h a n i c a l c o m p a c t i o n . a n e x p e n s i v e t e c h n i q u e a n d d i f fi c u l t on ve ry soft and saturated soils:

p i l e s . d r i v e n or c a st dee p i n t o the ground:

s o i l e x ch a nge. e x pensive when confronted w i t h t h i c k l a y ers of many meters of. e . g . pe a t.

L ightweight fi lls

EPS blocks or bo a rds , r e p l a c i n g p a rt of t h e e x c a v a ted materials. together w i t h t h e constr u c t ed road impose

no s i g n i fi c a n t additional stress on t h e underlying soil and he n ce do not c a u se settlement or s t a b i l i t y proble m s. No

additional time i s necess a ry to reach an equilibrium in the soil. as w i t h t h e 's u r ch a rge' method. Compared to othe r

lightweight fi l l materials EPS geofoam c a n be u sed without a ny problems in s t ru c t u r e s below the w a ter t a ble a nd is

excellently suited for sloped pro j ect s like ramps or a p p ro a ch ro a ds to yxisting dikes and higher situated areas,

so u n d b a rrier w a l l s close t o b u i l d - u p a re a s. bridge abutments and as b a c k fi l l for r e t a i n i n g w a l l s .

F ro m the pioneer y e a rs in Norway in the early ? O 's this technique has c a pt u r ed t he world a nd is now

s u ccess f u lly applied i u m a n y E u ro p ean countries. Japan, South-East Asia and N o rt h America. EPS geofoam is

accepted as a l e g i t i m a t e 'engineering' m a t e r i a l as d e m o n s t r a t e d by t h e i n c r e a s i n g number of established c o m m o n

guidelines for i t s use. as well as recognised q u a l i t y s t a n d a r d s . test methods a n d codes of practice [NRRL, 1992;

FG S V. 1 9 9 5 ; Bull-Wasser. 199]: S anders ct a l . . 19')4J.

D ra i n a g e

In our 'low-land'. with a m aj o r part below sea level. but also in mountainous areas elsewhere, drainage

t e c h n i q u e s are used to provide useful means of removing subsoil w a t e r o r d i s s i p a t e t h e b u i l d - u p of water pressu r e

respectively. EPS gcofoam drainage boards have either an integral labyrinth (e.g. 'Sickerplatte') or pre-formed

channels moulded into one or both sides of the boards. The use of a gcoicxule fi l t e r fabric ensures tluit the

efficiency of d r a i n a g e boards is not i m p a i r e d by t h e w a t e r - i n d u c e d i n g r e s s of s o i l .

Pressure release/ Heave remedies

Ground movements caused by. e . g . clay-heave or land s l i d e s a n d r e s u l t i n g i n forces, w h i c h could d a m a g e o r

d i s p l a c e rigid structures like buried fo undati ons o r concrete floor s l a b s d i r e c t l y cast on top of the ground. can be

counteracted by placing around or u n d e rn e a t h the structures EPS boards designed to yield at a p re-determined

stress. T h i s c o n t r o l l e d y i e l d i n g w i l l d i s s i p a t e t h e e a rt h ' s forces a n d m i n i m i s e possible d a m a g e .

Miscellaneous

O t h e r c i v i l e n g i n e e r i n g a p p l i c a t i o n s arc for i n s t a n c e s p e c i a l EP S m o u l d e d p a n e l s used i n the construction of

stee p slopes i n l a n d fi l l s , i n disused q u a rrics or i n v e n t i n g areas u n d e r suspended ground floor slabs of b u i l d i n g s .

E PS gcofoam blocks arc used i n fl o a t i n g c o n s t ru c t i o n s for m a r i n e a p p l i c a t i o n s . t e m p o r a ry . bridges for light traffic

a n d even fl o a t i n g i s l a n d s a n d gardens.

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 A l l these applications are possible with EPS because of i t s choice of q u a l i t i e s / d e n s i t i e s . freedom of design

a n d d u r a b i l i t y . T h e physical properties related to i t s density. such as the u n i q u e weight-to-volume ratio. which is

t vp i c a l l y I% of that of compacted soil. high thermal insulation properties. low moisture absorption and

compressive properties. can be tailored to meet a p p l i c a t i o n needs and to 1 1 1 a .\ i 1 1 1 i s c i t s cost-effectiveness.

2. D E S I G N A N D CONSTRUCTION METHODS IN T H E N E T H E R L A N D S

2.1 Introduction

The use of EPS geofoam started in the early 70's with some drainage projects. s i m p l e lightweight fills and

e s p e c i a l l y frost protection projects in (railjernbankments. u t i l i s i n g the insulation properties of thin layers of EPS.

However. the c i v i l engineering application for EPS really took off in the early to mid 80's. probably initiated by

Norwegian experiences, being published and distributed widely via the media and technical press. Most

a p p l i c a t i o n s in the Netherlands are in less critical rather conventional designs with the majority in dike approach

roads. bridge abutments (pressure release of retaining walls). soil improvement ( again pressure release).

s c t t l e m c n t - ' f r c c ' b u i l d i n g site preparation. p a r k i n g areas. pedestrian walkways. even gardens. sportfields and ice

s ka t i n g rings. The l a t t e r application uses both the a b i l i t y of EPS gcofoam to reduce settlement and to provide

thermal insulation.

2.2. D e s i g n a n d Construction M e t h o d s

A whole series of studies and reports. have been p u b l i s h e d about design and c o n s t ru c t i o n methods with EPS

gcofoam. I n i t i a l l y from the Norwegian Road Research Laboratory. but l a t e r i n the Netherlands from the Stichting

Bouwrcscarch ( S B R ) [Heugeveld et a l . . 1 9 8 5 : Wijs et a l . , 1 9 8 8 1 and from the major s c i e n t i fi c study from the Delft

U n i n :- r s i t y of Technology. The latter -l-vear research project: " EPS as a Light Weight Sub-base Material in

P;I\ crncnt S t ru c t u r e s " [Duskov. 1 9 9 -l - 6 I carried out by Duskov, had been i nitiatcd and supported by Shell

N e d e r l a n d C h e m i c to provide a better i n s i g h t in the c i v i l e n g i n e e r i n g properties/performance of EPS foam made

front Styroccll I Duskov, 1 9 9 -l - 2 ] , such as i t s behaviour i n sub-base layers I Duskov. 1 9 ' ) -l - : , j . effect on temperature

d i s t r i b u t i o n s [Duskov. 1 9 9 0 1 and i n t e r a c t i o n s in the t o t a l pavement s t ru c t u r e s due to d y n a m i c (traffic) and static

(O\\ n weight) l o a d i n g I Duskov. 1994 --l/ 5 I . The Dutch E PS m a n u f a c t u re r s a s s o c i a t i o n "Stybenex" and the Ministry

or Trans port, P u b l i c Works and Water management ( " R i j k s w a t c r s t a a t " ) lent t h e i r support at a l a t e r stage.

The scientific data and information. together w i t h the experience gained from i n i t i a l projects, form the basis

for the i n f o r m a t i o n on EPS geofoam in the " W h i t e b o ok EPS in C o n s t ru c t i o n " prepared by Stybenex [Stybenex,

1 %(1 I a nd t h e a d m i n i s t ra t i v e and technical guidelines in the latest e d i t i o n of the Standard RAW Regulations and

Spcci fi c a t i o n s for Works of Civil Engineering C o n s t ru c t i o n s I CROW . 1 9 9 5 1 . Chapter (cf 2 2 . 8 1 - 2 2 87) of this new

R A W e d i t i o n . deals w i t h t h e technical conditions for use of EPS gcofoam as a p l a s t i c fi l l m a t e r i a l . It offers for all

participants. from commissioner. via contractor. to fi n a l owner a complete contract standard with administrative

a n d t e c h n i c a l descriptions I requirements to be used in t h e design and e s t i m a t e s o f a n EPS geofoam project.

I t c o n t a i n s cle ar descriptions and a p p l i c a t i o n a l mi es. how to h a n d l e and apply the EPS geofoam blocks. It

provides d e t a i l s about the s i t e preparation and requires a ' p l a n of p l a c e m e n t ' of the EPS b l o c k s . It prescribes for

i n s t a n c e t h a t a lightweight fi l l should consist of at least two layers of a m i n i m u m 0 . 1 5 1 1 1 t h i c k n e s s and placed in a

staggered pattern to avoid an alignment of the block j o i n t s i n adjacent lavcrs.

11
The Dutch EPS product standard. v i z . draft NEN 7 0 -l J . 2 ct Edition 1 9 ' ) I . is used to d e fi n e the q u a l i t i e s and

r c l . u c d p h vs i c a l and m e c h a n i c a l properties. A d d i t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s arc set for water a b s o r p t i o n a n d tolerances for

the block dimensions and flatness. A description of the type or quality of EPS products supplied and used.

i n c l u d i n g w hether or not the material c o n t a i n s a n a m e r e t a r d a n t a d d i t i ve . s h o u l d be provided A reference should

be made to the tests made and quality system used by t h e EPS m a n u f a c t u r e r . It also p o i n t s out a nd defines that

measures s h o u l d be taken to protect the EPS gcofoam blocks from mechanical and chemical damage. weather

i n f l u e n c e s and to counter notation forces d u r i n g and after t h e c o n s t ru c t i o n . It requests clear procedures and mies

for the compaction of the layers above the EPS blocks and application and use of t h e gcotextiles and plastic

sheeting. Information and details are provided to define the g u a ra n t e e . risk sharing and sampling for quality

c o n t ro l purposes.

As m e n t i o n e d before these standard RAW c o n d i t i o n s form t h e b a s i s for e s t i m a t e and further contract of a

c i vi l e n g i n e e r i n g project and provide guidance to a l l p a rt i c i p a n t s . front conunissiouer. contractor and material

supplier for such a project. The commissioner w i l l describe the 'what. where and under which conditions': the

c o n t ra c t o r will provide the information about 'how a n d with what'. These c o n d i t i o n s ensure an equal contract

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p o s i t i o n of the parties involved. clear l i m i t s of the responsibilities. unambiguous information in the estimates and

p l a n s for execution and financial understandings/undertakings.

The design procedures are not different from those methods for t r a d i t i o n a l materials. The Stybenex 'White

book' draws attention to the fact that special measures should be taken to address the specific nature of EPS

gcofoam. including its ultra light weight compared to traditional fi l l materials. its relative low modulus of

elasticity. its good thermal insulation and low water absorption. As a consequence design procedures should pay

attention to c.g .. the (historic) variations in the groundwater table and the durability of the structure. This

d u r a b i l i t y is n o r m a l l y investigated and calculated u s i n g e x i s t i n g m a t h e m a t i c a l models. l i k e B I S AR [Dorp, 1988:

Duskov, 1 9 9 1 1 or C I R C L Y fWijs. 1 9 8 8 1 . representing a road structure as a l i n e a r e l a s t i c m u l t i l a y e r system. Duskov

has enhanced these models by axial-symmetrical analysis (DIANA) taking into account the stress-dependent

rcsi I icnt and permanent deformation behaviour of the m a t e r i a l s in the unbound pavement layers and by a 3D finite

clement analysis (]D CAPA) considering in this model the effects of e . g . , difTerent EPS block laying patterns,

c a p p i n g layer and difTerent EPS q u a l i t i e s . First results of the l a t t e r a n a l y s i s c o n fi r m the findings of earlier more

s i m p l e numerical analyses [Duskov, 19951.

The structures built to date do function well in practice. The large number of projects, which has been

successfully realised. has provided sufficient information and test results to verify the design premises.

The Directorate-General of Public Works and Water Management of the Ministry of Transport. Public

Works a n d Water Management (DWW-RWS). has investigated 1 1 different structures with EPS geofoam at 5

l o c a t i o n s ( S c h i e d a m . Gouda. Capelle a/ct !Jssel. R o t t e r d a m a n d A l p h e n a/ct R i j n ) . The results from falling weight

deflection measurements indicated that good compaction of the t r a d i t i o n a l materials in sub-base and road-base.

above EPS gcofoam can be achieved when e i t h e r a s u ffi c i e n t l y t h i c k layer of these m a t e r i a l s is a p p l i e d (c.g. lower

l i m i t o f 0 . 7 m ) or a rigid intermediate layer (e.g. concrete) is a p p l i e d [Woerdt et a l . . 1 9 8 9 1 . O t h e r test results show

t h a t t h e design c r i t e r i a for the dynamic stiffness m o d u l i of EPS gcofoam ( 4 - 1 2 MPa for d e n s i t i e s of 1 5 - 4 0 kg/m')

were on the safe side [Duskov. 1994-4]. An i m p o rt a n t fi n d i n g was as well that the in-situ measured dynamic

stiffness modulus of the EPS geofoam is not related to i t s age and p o s i t i o n ( i n or above t h e water table) or stiffness

of t h e subsoil. Other falling weight deflection measurements. carried out by Duskov in co-operation with the

BAST. in a programme from the Forschungsgcscllschaft fiir S i r a fs e n und Verkchrswcsen. gave interesting

i n f o n u a t i o n about t h e design p o s s i b i l i t i e s and l i m i t a t i o n s I Duskov and B u l l - W a s s e r . 19921.

I n order to avoid excessive permanent deformation of t h e EPS gcofoam sub-base. d u r i n g construction and

l a t e r use. the compressive strains in EPS should be limited to 0.4'X,. i.e. well within the elastic region of t h i s

thermoplastic material [Dorp. 1 9 8 8 : Duskov. 1994-61 To ensure t h a t t h i s l i m i t va l u e is k e p t . special measures are

needed during the construction of the fi l l . Unbound granular road base materials arc widely used in the

Netherlands. though at adequate layer thicknesses. for local roads with known traffic loads and other fi l l

applications. Medium to heavy traffic requires clearly improved load s p r e a d i n g layers like. c.g. an intermediate

c e m e n t - s t a b i l i s e d sand layer or concrete s l a b . When t h e road will be subjected to hcavv traffic loads a cement­

t r c a t e d c a p p i n g l a vc r on top of the EPS geofoam blocks w i l l s i g n i fi c a n t l y increase t h e design life of the pavement

structure.

As w i l l be l a t e r demonstrated i n some of the case s t u d i e s . the cost or EPS geofoam products is relatively

high compared to that of traditional fi l l materials. However transport. handling and labour costs are low.

Moreover. an e s s e n t i a l aspect of EPS geofoam is i t s s i m p l i fi e d design p o s s i b i l i t i e s p r o v i d i n g i m p o r t a n t savings in

costs and c o n s t ru c t i o n time. compared to those for piling and other more substantial constructions in site

preparations. embankments and abutments. Also the integrated cost of construction and maintenance.

unfortunately often divided over two or more different budgets and or commissioners. makes this product an

a u r a c r i vc alternative. especially if t i m e of c o n s t ru c t i o n and high water tables arc further limiting factors for a

project.

2.3 Q u a l i t y of EPS Geofoam Products

I n order to e s t a b l i s h the quality of the EPS geofoam products required at any p a rt i c u l a r depth it is necessary

to c a l c u l a t e the m a x i m u m forces acting on the foam at that p o i n t . T a k i n g i n t o account t h e acceptable i n i t i a l and

l o n g term deformation the q u a l i t y . i . e . density of t h e product. can be selected. Typical d e n s i t i e s used are 1 5 and

2 ( ) k g / m J . For special requirements. e.g. for enhanced load d i s t r i b u t i o n . d e n s i t i e s up to ] 0 - 1 5 k g / m J are normally

b e i n g used in c o m b i n a t i o n with lower d e n s i t i e s i n t h e lower layers of the fi l l . There arc 110 legal requirements or

s p e c i a l d e s i g n c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . w h i c h c a l l for m o d i fi e d p r o d u c t s such as fi r e - r e t a r d a n t m a t e r i a l s . They are n o r m a l l y

specified to reduce t h e risk of damage of a c c i d e n t a l i g n i t i o n from s m a l l fire sources d u r i n g t h e course of

c o n s t ru c t i o n or. c . g . of arson through v a n d a l i s m . T h i s m a l i c i o u s damage can be a s i g n i fi c a n t risk d u r i n g the

c o n s t ru c t i o n phase. especially when no proper control can be exercised d u r i n g the i n t e r m e d i a t e storage of the foam

b l o c k s and when the fi l l s are not directly covered by the road-base or w i t h s o i l at t h e verges. The use of portable

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c o n t a i n e r s for transport and intermediate storage during the construction phase can a l l e v i a t e t h i s problem. This has

been demonstrated in various projects in the Netherlands. Currentl y the use of regular. or n o r m a l . and fire­

re t a r d a n t products is about equal. The requirements on physical and mechanical properties arc governed by the

fo.un d e n s i t y and s h o u l d meet those values indicated in the draft NEN 70-D. w i t h a d d i t i o n a l requirements as stated

i II t h e s t a n d a r d RAW specifications and. for third-party product certification. the Dutch Directive BRL 1306.

3. C A S E STUDIES

3.1 General

Typical applications of EPS geofoam products are illustrated below in a series of case studies. They

c o m p ri s e projects for settlement free or low-settlement c o n s t ru c t i o n s . reduction of lateral forces and enhanced

cl r;1 i nngc performance. such as :

. a p p r o a c h roads a n d ra m ps to e . g . . di k es

s i t e p r e p a r a t i o n s (n e w or r e co n st ru c t ed )

( b r i d g e ) a b u t m e n t s a n d back fi l l s

roa d w i d e n i n g or rcnovauon/recoustructiou

l o a d red u ctio n o n u t i l i t y pipes a n d duc t s

d r a i n a g e of sportsfields

3.2. l- l a r d i n x v e l d - G i e s s e n d a m ( di k e a p p roach road. 1984)

T h i s project was p ro bably the fi rst on e d e m o n s t r a t i n g t he u n i q u e pro p erties a n d a dva nta ges of EPS geofoam

products. W i t h i n narrow t i m e l i m i t s a di k e ap proa ch road h a d to be constructed close t o e x i s t i n g piled b u i l d i n g s .

An ultra lightweight s tru c tu re was chose n bec a use t he very co m pr e ssible pea ty su b soil did not allow additional

l o a d s t o be pl a ced upon it wit h out co n side ra ble s e t t l e m e n t s i n t i m e . By u s i n g EPS gcofoam bloc k s t he fol l owi n g

a d va n t a g e s could be achieved :

c o n s t r u c t i o n period was reduced from 2-:l years. required for a t r a d i t i o n a l sand fi l l . to a few m o n t h s :

loss of s t a b i l i t y . due to lateral forces. of the e x i s t i n g b u i l d i n g s next t o t h e access road was avoided:

t h e fi n i s h e d structure requires l i t t l e m a i n t e n a n c e . since o n l y very s m a l l s e t t l e m e n t s have occurred.

The access ra mp was constructed w i t h a n i ncr easing heig ht from 0 lo :l . 4 m over a length of 120111 .

Th e ra m p has a w i d t h of l 2 - 2 0 m . The structure consisted. from b o t t o m - t o - t o p . of p ea t . sand as e q u a l i s i n g l ayer.

E P S blocks . H O P E sheet (500µm). blast furnace slag and road pavement The slopes ( r a t i o 2 : :l ) were covered w ith

soil wh i l e th e b o t t o m of the slopes were fi l l e d wit h gravel to e nh ance d r a i n a g e . The t o t a l v o l u m e of EPS bloc k s

used. w i t h d i m e n s i o n s 4 x I x 0 . 5 m . was 4.600m' of wh i c h 85'X, P S l 5 and 15% P S l 7 q u a l i t v. A b ou t 4'Yo of the

E P S gcofoam is b e l o w th e water table. p r o v i d i n g some u p l i f t cl u e to buovancy forces. S i n c e t h i s s o l u t i o n involved a

( re l a t i ve l y) new tec h nology al the time. i.e. 1 9 8 4 . p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n had b een p a i d to t h e s t a c k i n g of the b loc k s

a n d s t a b i l i t v of t h e E P S bloc k structure. esp eci all y d u r i n g t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n p e r i o d . The bloc k s had been placed i n a

brick pattern an d s p ot- b onded together w i t h a n EVA-hotmclt. Since its completion t h i s d i k e approach road has

performed fu l l y s a t i s f a c t o r i l y .

3.3 K l u n d e r t (di k e access road. 1990)

Similar to the situation in Hardinxveld-Gicsscndam this project concerned a di k e access road to be

con st n r c t c d over a sett lenient sensitive subsoil. especially because of the p resence of water in t h e area. This led to

the selection of EPS gcofoam as lightweight fi l l material. About 4.000111' have successfully been used in this

project.

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3.4 C a p e l l e aid lJssel

(reuovation/reconstruction of sub-base of c i ty q u a rt e r a n d r o a d s . 1985 onwards)

I n areas i n the western part of the Netherlands t h e subsoil consists of thick holocene layers of peat and soft

c l a y . D u r i n g s i t e preparation of a new residential quarter of Capelle a/d !Jssel. viz. 'Oostgaarde', the surface, which

was about 0 . 2 1 1 1 above the groundwater level, was raised with standard m a t e r i a l s . Since then great settlements had

t a k e n place. w h i c h . through the years, had been relevelled w i t h relatively heavy traditional fi l l materials, causing

further s e t t l e m e n t s . resulting in damage of the sewage system a n d locally drainage of the top peat layers . . Though

t h e houses had been founded on piles. bearing in the pleistocene sand layer. the road embankments and other parts

a ro u n d t h e houses had often been put on top of these soft layers. Due to the load of these embankments consisting

of sand or slag or. i n case of the gardens extra compost. s i g n i fi c a n t (differential) settle ments had occurred. There

were parts where t h e original surface was 2m below the current level w i t h the settlement process s t i l l c o n t i n u i n g .

To improve this situation the advice was given to the Municipal Works of C a p c l l e a/d !Jssel to replace

p a r t l y or completely t h e materials applied during the site preparation i n the roads. courtyards a n d (public) gardens.

b� a c o m b i n a t i o n of lightweight fi l l materials. The fi l l material selected consisted m a i n l y of EPS geofoam blocks

\\ i t h a b u l k d e n s i t y of 20kg/mJ (20%) and l Skg/m" (80%). At the road areas a layer of traditional material was

placed 011 top to serve as a standard sub-base for the road. The replacement was designed to restore the original

load s i t u a t i o n in the soft subsoil thus reducing s e t t l e m e n t s to practically zero. Because of t h e high groundwater

level a n d t h e fact that the EPS blocks were completely submerged, use has been made of t h e buoyancy of the EPS

a n d a n e q u i l i b r i u m structure has been developed w i t h a safety factor of 1 . 2 a g a i n s t fl o a t i n g S t r i c t restrictions have

been put to possible v a r i a t i o n of the groundwater level.

U p to now more than 80,000mJ of EPS geofoam have been used to raise. on average by about 0.5111, the

,, h o l e surface o f t h i s residential area.

3.5 V l i s t n e a r G o u d a (renovation a n d new projects for general f o u n d a t i o n . 1 9 8 9 onwards)

A whole ra n g e of i n d i v i d u a l projects have been carried out i n t h i s r e s i d e n t i a l area over a period from 1989

to I < J < J :, . covering primarily renovation and construction of new lightweight fill structures under the roads and

p r e p a r i n g new b u i l d i n g sites.
3
Nearly 25.000m of EPS geofoam (60% PS 1 5 and 40% PS20) have been used to create low- settlement

structures. After the construction. extensive measurements have been carried out to investigate the effects of

d i ff e r e n t d e t a i l s i n design on the settlement behaviour. Moreover d e fl e c t i o n m e a s u r e m e n t s have been performed. at

three months intervals. over a period of 4 years by Duskov [Duskov, 19')4-41. Useful i nform ation has been

o b t a i n e d about a c t u a l properties and i n t e r a c t i o n s between t h e v a r i o u s layers i n t h e sub-base. road base a n d . i n t h i s

project. a concrete block pavement as top layer. A recent evaluation bv the local authorities indicated that EPS

gcofoam is not the magical material to cure all seulcmcnt p ro b l e m s but that this material. d e fi n i t e l y reduces

s e t t l e m e n t s considerably. compared to t r a d i t i o n a l construction methods. In an attempt to calculate the pay-back

period for t h e extra costs of the EPS geofoam structure. over t h a t of a t r a d i t i o n a l sand base. following frequencies

of pavement reconstruction had been assumed: once per 15 years for EPS and once per 5 years for 'sand'. The

ca l c u l a t c d pay-back time was then about IO years. An even more favourable period would result when in the

calculations the extra amount of sand necessary to level the settled road surfaces and the to be expected new

s e t t l e m e n t s had been taken into account. The pay-back time would further reduce the thicker the layer of poor

londbcari ng p e a t . The i m m a t e r i a l cost like social disturbance a n d loss of business d u r i n g reconstruction works have

a l s o 1 1 0 1 been i n c o r p o ra t e d i n this theoretical model. s i m p l y because 110 o bj e c t i ve figures c o u l d be attributed to these

effects. They m i g h t however be balanced by the extra d i s t u r b a n c e caused by t h e E P S r e c o n s t r u c t i o n method over a

s i m p l c pavement reconstruction job.

The fi n a l c o n c l u s i o n s after this 4 vear period or ' e x p e r i m e n t i n g ' arc that the EPS geofoam structure offers

the only solution to reduce settle ments in areas with very poor subsoil load-bearing properties. The use of

h vd r u u l i c m a t e r i a l s i n t h e road base. such as slags. i s q u e s t i o n a b l e when additional stiffness i s sought from such

m a t e ri a l s . R e g u l a r s m a l l mainten a nce should be carried 0 1 1 1 for a l l types of c o n s t r u c t i o n s .

3.6 K r i m p e n a/d/ IJssel (b u i l d i n g site p re p a r at i o n . 1996)

The i n t e n d e d b u i l d i n g site was situated i n a very wet boggy area w i t h a n extreme high water table. Next to

t h e p l a n n e d access road was a polder ditch with a n e q u a l l y h i g h water l e v e l . To avoid s e t t l e m e n t s of the new road

a n d g a i n v a l u a b l e project time, EPS geofoam was selected for t h e sub-base of the pavement structure. Two layers

o r E P S 1 5 a n d . 011 top. one layer of EPS20 were e n c a p s u l a t e d i n p l a s t i c sheet a n d covered w i t h slag ma t e r i a l and

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the fi n a l road surface. An extensive drainage system ensured that the water table could not rise further than to a

pre-selected level. used as maximum level in the buoyancy balance calculations for the EPS geofoam layer. The

whole project was completed in two weeks time.

3.7 Den Helder (fly-over) (EDO visit 17/06/91)

In 1 9 9 1 a fly-over was constructed in the main road, alongside the Noordhollands Kauaal, from Alkmaar to

Den Helder. to case and accommodate the ferry traffic crossing the canal south of Den Helder. To avoid any

excessive load on the subsoil, raising the level to the required height. layers of EPS geofoam, packed in

p o l vc t h v l c n e sheet were used, covered subsequently with sand and crushed concrete. Asfalt was used for the final

3
road surface. For the top layer 2,600111 of EPS25 was used. The other layers consisted of EPS20 q u a l i ty with a

3.
total vo l u m e of 10.-HIOm Members of the Japanese EPS De v elopment Org anisation (EDO ) visited this site in J une

I 'J'J I d uring th eir third European Technical E x change I n v e s t i g a t i o n .

1
3.8 V i a n e n (R e n o v a t i o n Great Lock comple x. 1995/1 )%)

The n ecessa ry renovat o i n of the "G rote Sluis" (G r e a t L oc k) in Vianen w as i ntended especially to reduce

and/or elimin ate the l ateral so l i forces on the i

br ck-la yed loc k w alls. ca u sed by the bac k fi l l and overload on top.

B e c au s e of its u l t ra lightweight and its low Poisson's ratio of e qu a l or below O I. EPS geofoam was well e quipped
3
t o achieve this goal. The e x ist i ng soil aro u nd the walls was remo ved and replaced b y nearl y 3 . 000m of EP S
3.
gcoloam bloc ks w i t h a d e n s i ty of 15 and 20 k g/m The foam bac k fi l l was co vered with a concrete slab (0.2m) and

additional s a nd u n d e r the fi nal concrete block p avement.

3.9 Linschoten-"Bijleveld" a n d Rotterdam-"Oude Plantnge"

( S h e l l Petrol statio ns. 1 986 a nd 1 987: sub- b ase)

3
In the s umm e r of 19 86 abo ut 1,500111 E PS geofoam h ad been used un d e r the pa v ement of a self-se rvice

pe t ro l statio n alo ng the motorway from the Hague to Utrecht. Altho ugh the site had bee n prepared using the

'surcharging' tech nique. still f urther settlement of te n' s of c e n t m e t r e s i were e xpected. Su c h settlements , especiall y

"hen 1 111c,·en. could d a ma g e the concrete bloc k pa vements structure. which should be li quid ti ght u n d er all

circumstances to avoid any leak a ge of c.g . . petrol or oil i nto the soil. M oreo v er se n- i c e pipes and other types of

c o n d u i t s cou l d bre ak b y mo v eme n ts i n the s ubsoil. To reduce the press ur e 0 11 the soft s ubsoil. about 2 m sand ha d

be e n re placed b y 1. 5 1 1 1 EP S geofoam bloc ks co mpletely pac k ed i n HOPE sheet chemic ally resista nt to the possib e l

I i q u i d s at this site. A f ur ther safeg uard. this ti me against possible diggi n g a c t i vi t i e s . provided a 0 . 1 m t hick concrete

slab A f u rther O . < , m of sand , a stabilised road base an d the 'liquid tight ' concrete bloc k pave m en t c om p le ted the

structure a ro u n d t he piled pet rol p u mps and b uilding. The po sitive e xperience gained with th i s type of ultra

l i g h t wc i g h ! fi l l res ulted in another project one y ear later for a petrol st ation. this ti me in R otterdam t
a the
3
esplanade along the ri ver Maas . u s i ng abo ut 2 . 6 0 0 m of EPS geo foam bloc ks. de monstrating agai n hat t hi s
t t ype of

!ill material pro vides v i a b l e lasting sol utions to b uilding o n soft soils.

3.10 Vinkeveen-Herenweg (restructuring roa d sub - bas e . 1989)

This old road had a rather long histor y. C reated a lo ng ti me ago b y tippi ng rubbish an d gravel an d

s ub s e q u e n t l y a pplying s urface tre atments a nd thin layers of a s p h alt co ncrete. the e ver incre as i ng tra ffic weight an d

f r e qu e n c y had res ulted in a deterior ation of the pavement. Strengtheni ng of the road pav e m e n t was o nly a short

ter m s o l u t i o n and ca u sed even additional settleme nts. The e ver i ncreasing weight of the pavemen t stmctu re an d

t raffi c co n d i t i o n s (1 - 4. 0 0 0 ve hicles/day) res u lted i n u na c c e p t a b l e un eve n settleme nts. which lea d to the d e c i s ion to

re-construct the old road , consistin g ori ginally of 0.1-lUm asphalt . 0 . 5 - 1.< , m g ra vel c o n t a i n i n g rubbish, 6 . 0 - 6 . 6 1 1 1

peat w i t h sand belo w. Three desi gns had bee n i nv e s t iga t e d of w h i c h o n e w i t h EP S geofoam a n d one with c e llul a r

co ncrete. T he a l l o wa b l e settlements sho u ld be li mited to 0.05111 o v er 10 y e a rs and no sc h edu l e d reconstruction of

t he s urface within 10 years. The EPS geofoa m m ethod was fi n a l l y l

se ected for e conomic a nd te chnical

implementation re a so n s . s uch as the longer installatio n ti me with cell ular co n c r e t e du e to the n e cessary waiting

(curing) ti me a nd possible a pp l i c a t i o n p roblems with cellular co n c r e t e at th e hi g h water ta ble. In he r e gion of the

t

utility t ra c t a co ncr e t e slab was placed over the EPS geofoam to o ffer p ro t e c t i o n during future maintenance on

pipes and c ables. In the pav ement structure no co ncrete slab was used b ut a s u ffi c i e n t thick layer of foamed slag

- 66-
and crushed concrete (total thickness 0 . 6 m ) was placed on a plastic sheet covering the EPS. The geofoam was

separated from t h e subsoil with a geofabric.

The total l e n g t h of t h i s project was I . 2 0 0 m and is. to the best of my knowledge. the longest single stretch of

road b u i l d on t h i s u l t r a lightweight fi l l material EPS geofoam.

3.11 M a t l i n g e w e g , Rotterdam (road reconstruction. 1990)

The Matlingeweg is situated in the north-western part of Rotterdam. The road is an alternative route

between two h e a v i l y used motorways A l J and A20 a n d ii crosses a new i n d u s t r i a l estate. T h i s part of Rotterdam

\ l a s once pan of t h e Maas delta. The o r i g i n a l s e d i m e n t s were l a t e r covered by material dredged from the nearby

h a r b o ur . The existence of s i l t and dredged material at va r i o u s depth in the subsoil explains its poor bearing

c a p . i c i t v. S c u l c m c n t s va ry i n g from a few tens of m i l l i m e t r e s to 200mm or more per year resulted from the heavy

traffic. E s p e c i a l l y t h e ' c o n s t ru c t i o n ' t r a ffi c . d u r i n g the d e v e l o p m e n t o f a new i n d u s t r i a l e s t a t e . w i t h a x l e loads close

o r even above t h e m a x i m u m a l l o w a b l e values. caused t h i s road a lot of problems. r e q u i r i n g s u b s t a n t i a l repair.

In the r e c o n s t ru c t i o n design v a r y i n g thicknesses of EPS geofoam were used. d e p e n d i n g on the s e t t l e me n t s

ex p e r i e n c e d . to obtain a gradual changeover between those pans of the road built upon different load bearing

subsoils. D e n s i t i e s of :1 0 and 25kg/mJ were used i n t h e u p p e r a n d lower (second) layer respectively. The road base

c o n s i s t e d of crushed masonry/concrete w i t h i n between a layer of sand on l o p of t h e EPS covered with plastic sheet.

The a s p h a l t package o n t h e top was l a i d i n two phases. F i r s t l y . a n open a s p h a l t concrete layer with a further layer

o f dense a s p h a l t concrete. The second phase had been p l a n n e d a year after reconstruction when the works on the

roads in the s u r ro u n d i n g area would have been completed. However. opening of t h e road for t ra ffi c . alarming

f a i l u re s were observed a month after the first phase. C r a c k i n g occurred i n t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l d i r e c t i o n of the s e c t i o n

wi t h t h e o 5 1 1 1 t h i c k EPS geofoam sub-base. These fa i l u r e s p ro m p t e d t h e c o m m i s s i o n e r 10 change h i s p l a n s and a

thicker than planned overlay of dense asphalt concrete was laid at the trouble spots. Moreover the road base in

t h e s e p o s i t i o n s was a l s o improved to increase i t s b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y .

11 was in this road that asphalt strain measurements had been planned by Duskov (OUT) with a falling

we i g h t d c fl c c t o m c t c r 10 learn more about this criterion used for t h e design of fl e x i b l e p a v e m e n t structures. These

m e a s u re m e n t s and further i n v e s t i g a t i o n s have lead to a n e x p l a n a t i o n why t h i s l i g h t w e i g h t s t ru c t u r e did 1101 behave

as expected. From t h e a n a l y s i s it was concluded t h a t most of t h e problems could be a t t r i b u t e d to a less than o p t i m a l

d e s i g n such as c o n t i n u o u s open j o i n t s between EPS blocks and i n s u ffi c i e n t stiffness of the structure. The lessons

learned have been put to good practice in further EPS geofoam lightweight s t ru c t u r e s . Further details about this

project can be found i n t h e various a r t i c l e s w r i t t e n by Duskov, i n c l u d i n g t h e one for t h i s conference.

3. 1 2 S p o r t fi e l d s

( A m s t e r d a m . Gouda a n d R o t t e r d a m : reduce s e t t l e m e n t s a n d i m p r o v e d r a i n a g e . 1971-1977)

The s p o r t fi c l d s were probably t h e first projects. s t a r t i n g e a r l y 70's w i t h E P S gcofoam. The E P S q u a l i t y used

\las a drainage material with a foam density of l Skg/m". To raise the level and drain the area. any traditional

m a t c ri n l w o u l d have caused too excessive (uneven) s e t t l e m e n t s due 10 t h e very poor l o a d - b e a r i n g properties of the

subsoil. W i t h t h e u l t r a l i g h t 'drainage' m a t e r i a l . of w h i c h about 50'Yo was placed below t h e water table. the surface

or the sportficlds c o u l d be raised about 0.15111 without c a u s i n g any settlement problems. A survey 15 years later

showed that no renovation. normally required cvcrv I O years w i t h a traditional method. was necessary. giving a

t u rt h e r cconomica I i nccnt ive for t h i s t h e n sti I I e x p e r i m e n t a l met hod of r a i s i n g a n d d r a i n i n g s p o r t fi e l d s . S a m p l e s of

EPS gcofoam taken after .8 and 1 4 years at two of t h e s p o r t s fi c l d s showed the good durability of the foam. The

ma m had not aged. t h o u g h a s l i g h t per ma 11e11t c o m p r e s s i o n was e v i d e n t . a n d st i 1 1 s a t i s fi e d a I I rcqu i remcnts for t h i s

application.

4. FlJTlJRE

I n the Netherlands more t h a n 400.000m-' EPS gcofoam has been used as u l t r a lightweight fi l l over the last

1 0 vc a rs . In t o n n a g e t e r m s t h i s is more t h a n X k t . The average a n n u a l c o n s u m p t i o n is now a r o u n d 5 0 - I O O . O O O m J .

v vi t h i n d i vi d u a l s t a n d a r d projects of 1 - 5 . 0 0 0 m J a n d s p e c i a l o n e s from 2 0 . 0 0 0 m J o n wa r d s

- 67 -
 Considering the large area with unstable peaty subsoil and the many old river beds plus possible

a p p l i c a t i o n s i n r a i l w a y and road embankments for settlement and v i b r a t i o n absorption. the future looks bright for

EPS geofoam. A l s o the developments on a v a i l a b i l i t y and price of sand. used in the traditional techniques like

s u r c h a r g i n g and s a u d fi ll are, compared with those of EPS. advantageous for an increased use of EPS geofoam.

The more experience is gathered. the more confidence will be built up and the more projects can be

expected to become designed and executed. Now most use is s t i l l i n 'less' c r i t i c a l civil engineering applications. but

t h i s increase i n experience and confidence in the design c a p a b i l i t i e s for EPS gcofoam, w i l l also open more critical

a p p l i c a t i o n s l i k e motorways, which need urgent widening to cope with the ever increasing traffic intensity.

T h i s p o s i t i ve and encouraging experience not only in the Netherlands. but in nearly every other part of the

wo rl d . gives us the assurance that we are on the right road. u s i n g EPS geofoam as lighweight 'foundation' material.

10 remedy the p r o b l e m s of settlements and other c i v i l e n g i n e e r i n g problems caused by weighty constructions.

References

R 1 1 I I - \ V a s s c r . R. ( I 9 9 1 ) "EPS-Hartschau111 a l s Baustoff fiir S t r a l k n " . B e r i c h t e der B u n d e s a n s t a l t fur

St ra flc1m cscn. St raflenbau Heft S-L Bergisch G l a d b a c h . Gcr111a ny. November I ')91.

CROW ( 19')5) " G r o u d wc rk c n . o p h o o g m a t c r i a l c n Yan k u n s t s t o f" S t a n d a r d R A W B c p a l i n g c n . Hoofdstuk 2 2 .

paragraaf 8 1 t/m 8 7 . Centre for Research a n d Contract S t a n d a r d i s a t i o n i n C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g ( C R O W ) . Ede.

the Netherlands. 1995.

Dorp. T van ( 1 9 8 8 ) . " E x p a n d e d Polystyrene Foam as L i g h t F i l l a n d F o u n d a t i o n M a t e r i a l i n Road S t ru c t u r e s " .

P r e - p r i n t paper. The I n t e r n a t i o n a l Congress on Expanded Polystyrene - Expanded Polystyrene-Present and

P u t u re -. M i l a n . I t a l y . May 1 9 8 8 .

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