Statistics assignment RYN

1 discuss the evaluative factors born in mind before choosing a specific sampling method
Choosing the best sampling method

Before choosing a specific sampling method one should consider the following factors:

Research objectiveness

One should think of the research objectives because refined research questions and goals would
help to define the population of interest. The objectives helps in determining or calculating the
sample size which is a constituent element in choosing the sampling technique as well budgeting
the resources needed to handle a random sampling method.

Sampling frame availability

Secondly, one has to think of the availability of a sampling frame. This has effect on the choice
of the sampling technique. Sample frame determines the choice of using simple random
sampling, stratified, systematic or cluster sampling.

Study design

In addition, there is need also to consider the prevalence of the topic in the population, and what
would be the suitable study design. Checking if the target population is widely varied in its
baseline characteristics is also important. For instance, a population with large ethnic subgroups
could best be studied using a stratified sampling method.

Random sampling

it has to be in the researcher’s mind that the best sampling method is always the one that could
best answer the research questions while also allowing for others to make use of the results
(generalizability of results). When it is not feasible to use a random sampling method, a non-
random sampling method can be applied.

2(a) with the aid of a diagram discuss any four components of time series

Components of time series Trend

The trend shows the general tendency of the data to increase or decrease during a long period of
time. A trend is a smooth, general, long-term, average tendency and it is not always necessary
that the increase or decrease is in the same direction throughout the given period of time.

It is observable that the tendencies may increase, decrease or are stable in different sections of
time, but the overall trend must be upward, downward or stable.

Periodic Fluctuations

These are some components in a time series which tend to repeat themselves over a certain
period of time. They act in a regular spasmodic manner.

Seasonal Variations

These are the rhythmic forces which operate in a regular and periodic manner over a span of less
than a year and they have the same or almost the same pattern during a period of 12 months. This
variation will be present in a time series if the data are recorded hourly, daily, weekly, quarterly,
or monthly. Seasonal variations come into play either because of the natural forces or man-made
conventions. The various seasons or climatic conditions play an important role in seasonal
variations for example, production of crops depends on seasons, the sale of umbrella and
raincoats in the rainy season shoots up in summer seasons.

Cyclic Variations

These are variations in a time series which operate themselves over a span of more than one year
and these oscillatory movements have a period of oscillation of more than a year. One complete
period is a cycle. A good example of a cyclic variation is a business cycle which is a four-phase
cycle comprising of the phases of a boom, recession, depression, and recovery. The upswings
and the downswings in business depend upon the joint nature of the economic forces and the
interaction between them.

Random or Irregular Movements

There is another factor which causes the variation in the variable under study. They are not
regular variations and are purely random or irregular. These fluctuations are unforeseen,
uncontrollable, unpredictable, and are erratic. These forces are earthquakes, wars, flood, famines,
and any other disasters.
3 (b) Factors to consider when choosing a Data collection methods

The factors to consider when choosing a data collection method include the following:

Nature, scope and object of enquiry: The method selected should be such that it suits the
type of enquiry that is to be conducted by the researcher. This is important in deciding
whether the data already available (secondary data) are to be used or the data not yet
available (primary data) are to be collected.

Availability of funds: Availability of funds for the research project determines to a large

extent the method to be used for the collection of data. When there are limited funds for the
research, then a comparatively cheaper method which may not be as efficient and effective as
some other costly method can be selected. Finance, in fact, is a big constraint in practice and
the researcher has to act within this limitation.

Time factor: Availability of time has also to be taken into account in deciding a particular
method of data collection. Some of the data collection methods take relatively more time,
whereas with others the data can be collected in a comparatively shorter duration. The time at
the disposal of the researcher, thus, affects the selection of the method by which the data are
to be collected.

Accuracy Required: The selection of an appropriate method of data collection is also

influenced by the accuracy required in an investigation by the researcher.

3 (C) discuss any 4 probability and non-probability sampling methods

1. Probability Sampling/random sampling

Probability sampling means that every item in the population has an equal chance of being
included in sample. Brown (1947), states that probability or random sampling has the greatest
freedom from bias but may represent the most-costly sample in terms of time and energy for a
given level of sampling error. Somme of the probability sampling methods include simple
random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified random sampling and cluster sampling and
these are discussed below:
Simple random sampling

Simple random sample means that every case of the population has an equal probability of
inclusion in sample. It is a sampling method which is easily understood and the results are results
projectable. Disadvantages associated with simple random sampling as given by Ghauri and
Gronhaug (2005) include:

 A complete frame (a list of all units in the whole population) is needed hence difficult to
construct sampling frame
 In some studies, such as surveys by personal interviews, the costs of obtaining the sample
can be high if the units are geographically widely scattered;
 The standard errors of estimators can be high.

Systematic sampling

Systematic sampling is where every nth case after a random start is selected. The advantage of
this sampling technique is its simplicity. The sampling technique can increase representativeness,
easier to implement than simple random sampling, sampling frame not always necessary.
However, it can decrease representativeness

Stratified random sampling

Stratified sampling is where the population is divided into strata or subgroups and a random
sample is taken from each subgroup. A subgroup is a natural set of items which might be based
on company size, gender or occupation. Stratified sampling is often used where there is a great
deal of variation within a population. According to Ackoff (1953), its purpose is to ensure that
every stratum is adequately represented. Its major advantages are that, it includes all important
sub-population and precision. However, it is difficult to select relevant stratification variables,
not feasible to stratify on many variables, expensive.

Cluster sampling

Cluster sampling is where the whole population is divided into clusters or groups and
subsequently a random sample is taken from these clusters, all of which are used in the final
sample (Wilson, 2010). Cluster sampling, according to Davis (2005), is advantageous for those
researchers whose subjects are fragmented over large geographical areas as it saves time and
money. The cluster sampling can be undertaken through the following stages which include
choosing cluster grouping for sampling frame, such as type of company or geographical region,
numbering of each of the clusters and selection of the sample using random sampling. Cluster
sampling is easy to implement and cost effective, however, it is difficult to compute and interpret
results

2. Non probability Sampling

Non probability sampling is a sampling method often associated with case study research design
and qualitative research.as given by Yin (2003), case studies tend to focus on small samples and
are intended to examine a real-life phenomenon, not to make statistical inferences in relation to
the wider population. A sample of participants or cases does not need to be representative, or
random, but a clear rationale is needed for the inclusion of some cases or individuals rather than
others.

Quota sampling

According to Davis (2005), a quota sampling is a non-random sampling technique in which

participants are chosen on the basis of predetermined characteristics so that the total sample will
have the same distribution of characteristics as the wider population. The argument for a sample
is that it can be controlled for certain characteristics however, it can be affected by selection bias.

Snowball sampling

Snowball sampling is a non-random sampling method that uses a few cases to help encourage
other cases to take part in the study, thereby increasing sample size. This approach is most
applicable in small populations that are difficult to access due to their closed nature, for example
secret societies and inaccessible professions (Breweton and Millward, 2001). The major
advantage of snowball sampling is that it can estimate rare characteristics though time-
consuming.

Convenience sampling

It is when participants are selected because they are often readily and easily available. It is the
most favored sampling technique among students as it is inexpensive and an easy option
compared to other sampling techniques (Ackoff, 1953). Convenience sampling often helps to
overcome many of the limitations associated with research, for instance, using friends or family
as part of sample is easier than targeting unknown individuals. It is also the least expensive and
the least time-consuming method, hence the most convenient sampling technique. However it is
affected by selection bias, sample not representative and not recommended by descriptive or
casual research.

Purposive or judgmental sampling

According to Maxwell (1996), purposive or judgmental sampling is a strategy in which particular

settings persons or events are selected deliberately in order to provide important information that
cannot be obtained from other choices. It is where the researcher includes cases or participants in
the sample because they believe that they warrant inclusion. It is argued to be a low-cost,
convenient and not time-consuming method which is ideal for exploratory research design.
However, it is affected by subjectivity and it does not allow generalization.