Unit 6: Management of Data 

Module 17 
 
What is a database? 
Database is a collection of records organized in some fashion 
 
Types of DBMSs 
Oracle 
MySQL 
MS SQL Server 
 
Data types 
James (Last name) 
Alphanumeric or text character (string data) 
623 Hill Street 
Number Integer: a whole number Floating-
4 
point:  
4.2 
a number with a decimal point (numeric data) 
10/02/2012 (order date) 
Date / Time 
10:15 
Boolean / Logical  True / False (active subscriber) 
 
DBs Categories 
Flat File 
used if the amount of data that is being recorded is fairly minimal. 
large single table without the relations between tables that a relational format provides.  
Examples are CSV files, Spreadsheets 
Relational 
Most common structure for databases. 
has multiple tables (relations) with interrelated fields. 
Hierarchical 
Organizes data using a tree-like or organizational chart type structure.  
Main data points can have multiple sub-data points (parent-child model) but not vice versa 
Not frequently used in business due to its limitations. 
 
Database Administrators 
focus is on the design, development, and support of database management systems (DBMSs).  
Their tasks include installation, maintenance, performance analysis, and troubleshooting,
specific applications, performance tuning parameters, account creation, and procedures
associated with the DBMS that are separate from those of system administrators and web
administrators. 
 integration of data from older systems to new.  
 
Module 18 
 
Define business intelligence. 
analyze data in greater depth 
Business Intelligence is knowledge. 
The goal of a Business Intelligence (BI) system is to help support management in their strategic
decision-making process. 
BI technologies provide historical, current, and predictive views of business operations, which
can help companies make more informed decisions. 
The main purposes of a BI system is to improve the timeliness and quality of the information
that goes into making strategic long term decisions. 
 
Information processing 
 
Data Warehouse 
Collection of organized databases 
 typical data warehouse uses an ETL (Extract, Transform, Load) process: 
Extract data—data comes from various sources. These sources must be identified and
understood. 
Transform data— Since data comes from different sources,  the data must be transformed to fit
the model(s) of the data warehouse. This will include altering data to relations or objects (or
whichever format is preferred), recognizing the unique identifier(s), and selecting the
appropriate attributes (fields). 
Load data—into the storage facility, that is, the transformed data must be stored in the data
warehouse using the appropriate representation format. 
 
Data marts (method) 
the means by which users obtain data or information out of the warehouse. 
 
types of information processing. 
 
Online Transaction Processing (OLTP)  
databases that a business uses to store all its transactions and records are called OLTP 
record business interactions as they occur in the day-to-day operation of the organization, and
support querying of this data to make inferences. 
not designed for analysis. Therefore, retrieving answers from these databases is costly in terms
of time and effort.  
 
Online Analytical Processing(OLAP) 
designed to help extract this business intelligence information from the data in a highly
performant way. 
 technology that organizes large business databases and supports complex analysis. 
OLAP databases are optimized for heavy read, low write workloads. 
 
OLAP operations 
Slicing: creates a subset of the data by reducing the data from multiple dimensions to one
dimension.  
Dicing: same as slicing except that the result can be in multiple dimensions, but still obtaining a
subset of the data. 
drilling down (or up): shifts the view of the data. Drilling down provides more detail and drilling
up provides summarized data. 
rolling-up: summarizes data, but in doing so, it collapses the data from multiple items (possible
over more than one dimension) into a single value.  
pivoting the data: rotates data to view the data from a different perspective.  
 

online data processing (OLDP) 

deals with data in real time. Is a live database 
Used by systems that require that data be processed in real-time. These are called Online Real-
time Systems.  
 
Event driven processing 
uses business events, such as submitting an order to a vendor, receiving goods, or creating new
employee records to trigger messages to be sent by middleware between software modules
that are completely independent of one another.  
 
Batch processing 
another form of data processing that is still used by many businesses today. 
large amounts of data that do not require any user interaction, can be prepare in advance, and
be processed all in one batch when the system is not bussy 
 
How applications interact with databases 
ODBC(Open Database Connectivity) 
intended to be independent of DBMS and operating systems.  
 
JDBC(Java Database Connectivity) 
orientated toward interactions with relational databases. 
Combined with ODBC (via a bridge) applications can interact with any database 
 
Structured  Query language (SQL) 
can query a single table or multiple tables at the same time. 
 
SELECT fields FROM tables WHERE fields from tables match criteria; 
 
Select: Used to inform the DBMS what fields or attributes are of interest (and where they are
located, i.e., which table/relation they can be found in). 
From: Used to inform the DBMS what tables are to be interrogated by the query and, if more
than one table contains the data of interest, how they are to be combined or joined. 
Where: Used to inform the DBMS of the specific criteria the data should match to be returned
as the output of the query. 
 
Operator  Description  Example 
=  Equal to  Author = 'Hubbard' 
Not equal to (most DBMS also accept !=
<><>  Dept <> Marketing 
instead of ) 
>>  Greater than  Hire_Date > '2014-01-01' 
<<  Less than  Sales < 1000 
>=>=  Greater than or equal  Sales >= 250000.00 
<=<=  Less than or equal  GPA <= 3.5 
Cholesterol BETWEEN 150.00 AND
BETWEEN  Between an inclusive range 
500.00 
LIKE  Match a character pattern  Last_Name LIKE 'Smith' 
IN  Equal to one of multiple possible values  ProjectCode IN (56, 60, 75) 
IS or IS
Compare to null (missing data)  Email IS NOT NULL 
NOT 
Used to change the table names when
AS  SELECT employee AS 'department1' 
viewing results 
 
SQL commands for manipulating data (DLM [Data Manipulation language]) 
Insert which is used to add record(s) to a table within a database. 
Delete which is used to remove record(s) from a table within a database. 
Update is used to modify the data that already exists in a table within a database. 
 
SQL commands for data definition (DDL [Data Definition language]) 
Create is used to create a new table within the database 
Alter is used to modify an existing table 
Drop is used to delete a table (be careful with this one) 
 
Unit 7: Business of IT 
Module 20 
 
Mission, Vision, and Goals 
Mission – identifies the reason the organization exists, including the people it serves and the
principles and standards of practice that should guide everyday operations. 
Vision – describes future aspirations of the organization. 
Goals – translate the organization’s philosophy into specific, measurable outcomes the
organization plans to achieve. 
 
Insourcing vs. outsourcing. 
Insourcing is best when the company wants to hire more employees. 
best opportunity to ensure that the company’s specific needs are met. 
 
If staff time is constrained or the existing staff does not have the appropriate skill set 
 the company does not want to hire new employees 
The company lose the opportunity for internal growth and skill development by outsourcing. 
possible that the organization will have less control over the project. 
Sometimes outsourcing can be a cost-effective way of accomplishing the work. 
 
Module 21 
 
Project management 
is the application of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to project activities to meet the
project requirements. 
 
Project 
project is an undertaking with a defined start and end, specified goals, and tasks that need to
be performed to reach those goals.  
 
Phases of a Project 

 
P1 – Initiation - Key Elements 
Problem definition 
Team defines the problem or what the project expects to address (project scope) 
Resource allocation 
Team determines resources available to meet the needs of the project 
Resources = time and capital 
Time: * Deadline is critical for success. * In business, time is money 
Capital: * Money or assets available to fund the project. * Project need to be review and revisit,
if there is not enough capital the scope of the project need to be reduced  
Risk assessment 
Team must identify risks associated with the project. Determine if the benefits of the project
outweigh the risks 
 
P2 – Planning - Key Elements 
Objects and Activities 
The team break down the project into a step-by-step process consisting of manageable
activities. 
Organize Activities 
Organize activities in a useful order 
Identify which activities depend on other activities 
Identify which activities can be completed simultaneously because they require different
resources 
Time Estimation 
Project managers estimate how much time is required to fulfill each activity and consider other
factors that influence when each activity can be completed. 
Tools to determine how long a project may take: PERT (Program Evaluation and Review
Technique) and GANTT chats 
Cost Estimation 
Estimate the cost associated with each activity 
 
P3 – Executing and Monitoring & Controlling - Key Elements 
Variance Reports 
indicate differences between planned resources (what has been allocated for each activity or
task) and actual resources (what has been used thus far in the project). 
Status Reports 
indicate the state of the project on the achievement of objectives and completion of activities. 
Resource Allocation Reports 
indicate how time and capital have been used thus far for the project. 
 
P4 – Closing - Key Elements 
Once all deliverables have been met, a project is considered closed. 
teams often need to write a final report detailing the processes and outcomes of the project. 
 
Project Risk Analysis and Management 
Scope Creep 
changes, continuous or uncontrolled growth in a project's scope, at any point after the project
begins. This can occur when the scope of a project is not properly defined, documented, or
controlled. 
Unnecessary Requirements 
unnecessary requirements consume resources that may be better used elsewhere and create
an unintended risk. 
Cutting Corners 
team may try to cut corners to save time or money 
Overly Optimistic Time Frame 
Rather than allocating too little time to a project, organizations should make sure they are
being realistic during the planning phase and develop contingency plans to address any
miscalculations of time estimates. 
Improper Skill Sets 
the organization may not realize that they do not have staff members with the correct skill sets
to complete the project. 
the project can take longer than expected or remain incomplete. 
User Resistance 
The true indication of a project’s success is whether the end users adopt the service or
product.  
the most effective ways to reduce resistance is to include the intended users in the early stages
of project planning and throughout the duration of the project. 
Training is also very important to minimize discomfort and eliminate questions or concerns that
could prevent users from adopting the service or product. 
 
Module 22 
 
Importance of SDLC (System Development Life Cycle) 
Referred as Waterfall model 

Preliminary Investigation 
Problem discovery that a new system could be developed to address 
Assessment of project feasibility and selects a development methodology 
Tools: Surveys, research, task force, committees, leadership requests, strategic planning 
Analysis 
requirements for the new system and development of  logical models of the system 
Tools: Documentation, interviews, questionnaires, requirements gathering, meetings 
Logical Design 
logical models are revised to ensure that the new system will meet the user requirements
identified in the first step. 
Logical diagram example 
 

 
Physical Design 
The logical models are converted into physical models. 
Physical diagram example 

 
Implementation 
Programmers begin converting the models from the previous steps into the actual system 
testing is conducted. We categorize this testing as alpha testing, beta testing, and user
acceptance testing. 
Alpha: occurs where the system will be used. system developers often assist end users as they
interact with the new system. Simulated data to be used to prevent any damage to a user’s
actual data. 
Beta: the tests are performed by the end user without any assistance from the system
developers. Beta testing uses actual (i.e., live) data in the real working environment. 
User acceptance: whether the system does what the user expects and to ensure that it
functions in a way that is useful to the user. 
 
During deployment, three things usually occur: 
System conversion (which means replacing the old system with the new system) 
Direct Conversion: The old system is “turned off” and the new system is “turned on” at a
specific date and time. After the conversion, the old system is no longer                                       
available to end users. 
Parallel Conversion: There is a period of time in which both systems (the old and the new) are
operating concurrently. the output of the new system can be compared with the output of the
old system. Once it is confirmed that everything is working as expected, the old system is shut
down and the new system continues to operate. 
Pilot Conversion: involves starting the conversion with a portion of the end users. Once the
pilot program is confirmed to be operating according to plan, the system is deployed on a larger
scale. 
Phased Conversion: team deploys a subset of the system first, rather than deploying the whole
system at once. The old system continues to offer some functionality until all subsets of the
new system have been turned on and the new system is confirmed to be working effectively. 
Final documentation 
End-user training 
 
Maintenance 
During this step, modifications or corrections to the system are made. 
 
Module 23 
What is Business Continuity or BCP (Business Continuity Plan)  
the activity performed by an organization to ensure that critical business functions will be
available to customers, suppliers, regulators, and other entities that must have access to those
functions.  
 
Developing the plan 
an inventory of critical activities 
Data lost, how much is acceptable 
how quickly must an activity be restarted 
develop threat and risk assessments for each of the critical activity protected 
the plan must be tested periodically 
 
Strategies for Ensuring Business Continuity 
Data Backups 
Data Mirroring 
Off-Site Storage 
Hot Site 
Cold Site 
Sharing Site 
 
Module 24 
Cloud Computing - Services 
Software as a Service (SaaS) 
businesses can access and use software through the Internet. 
can reduce costs and time associated with maintaining hardware and updating software 
subscription model is used instead of a license 
Platform as a Service (PaaS) 
able to quickly and reliably develop and deliver applications. 
Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) 
all the resources (e.g., servers, data storage) an IT department needs are located outside of the
organization and are accessible by anyone, anywhere. 
 
benefits for businesses 
Reduced costs 
Increased speed of development for projects 
The ability to quickly and easily scale operations 
Less reliance on internal IT expertise 
Risks for businesses 
dependent on the reliability and performance of a third-party vendor 
concerns about data ownership and compliance issues, as well as security 
 
Unit : Ethics 
Module 26 
 
The 10 Commandments of Computer Ethics 
Thou shalt not use a computer to harm other people. 
Thou shalt not interfere with other people’s computer work. 
Thou shalt not snoop around in other people’s computer files. 
Thou shalt not use a computer to steal. 
Thou shalt not use a computer to bear false witness. 
Thou shalt not copy or use proprietary software for which you have not paid. 
Thou shalt not use other people’s computer resources without authorization or proper
compensation. 
Thou shalt not appropriate other people’s intellectual output. 
Thou shalt think about the social consequences of the program you are writing or the system
you are designing. 
Thou shalt always use computers in ways that ensure consideration and respect for fellow
humans. 
 
Issues that any organization must tackle with respect to proper computer ethics 
Privacy —under what circumstances should an administrator view other people’s files? Under
what circumstances should a company use the data accumulated about its customers? 
Ownership —who owns the data accumulated and the products produced by the organization? 
Control —to what degree will employee actions be monitored? 
Accuracy —to whom does the responsibility of accuracy fall, specific employees or all
employees? To what extent does the company work to ensure that potential errors in data are
eliminated? 
Security —to what extent does the company ensure the integrity of its data and systems? 
 
Security relates to three components of IT—communications, hardware, and software. 
 
 
Confidentiality requires that data be kept secure so that they are not accidentally provided to
unauthorized individuals and cannot be obtained by unauthorized users. 
Integrity requires that data is correct. This requires at a minimum three different efforts. 
Data gathering 
Input data accurately 
Data modification must be tracked 
Availability requires that information is available when needed.  
 
Two additional areas often associated with the CIA triad are authenticity and non-repudiation.
Important in e-commerce situations 
Authenticity is most commonly implemented by security certificates or other form of digital
signature.  
Non-repudiation is a legal obligation to follow through on a contract between two parties. The
customer is obligated to pay for the transaction and the business is obligated to perform the
service or provide the object purchased. 
 
Government regulations in ethics 
 
Privacy Act of 1974 
Establishes a code of fair information practices that governs the collection, maintenance, use,
and dissemination of information about individuals that is maintained in systems of records by
federal agencies. 
 
The Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act of 1974 (FERPA) 
 Is a federal law that protects the privacy of student education records. The law applies to all
schools that receive funds under an applicable program of the U.S. Department of Education. 
 
Electronic Communication Privacy Act of 1986 (ECPA) 
Establishes regulations and requirements to perform electronic wiretapping over computer
networks (among other forms of wiretapping). 
 
Computer Matching and Privacy Protection Act of 1988 
Amends the Privacy Act of 1974 by limiting the use of database and other matching programs
to match data across different databases. Without this act, one agency could potentially access
data from other agencies to build a profile on a particular individual. 
 
Drivers Privacy Protection Act of 1994 
prohibits states from selling data gathered in the process of registering drivers with drivers’
licenses (e.g., addresses, social security numbers, height, weight, eye color, photographs). 
 
Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA) 
requires national standards for electronic healthcare records among other policies (such as
limitations that a health care provider can place on an employee who has a preexisting
condition).  
 
Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998 (DMCA) 
implements two worldwide copyright treaties that makes it illegal to violate copyrights by
disseminating digitized material over computer. 
 
Digital Signature and Electronic Authentication Law of 1998 (SEAL) 
permits the use of authenticated digital signatures in financial transactions and requires
compliance of the digital signature mechanisms. It also places standards on cryptographic
algorithms used in digital signatures.  
 
Security Breach Notification Laws 
since 2002, most U.S. states have adopted laws that require any company (including nonprofit
organizations and state institutions) notify all parties whose data records may have been
compromised, lost, or stolen in the event that such data has been both unencrypted and
compromised.  
 
Policies should cover all aspects of IT usage. Specifically, policies should define: 
The role that IT plays in the company 
Proper employee usage of IT 
The employee’s rights to privacy (if any) 
Proper usage of data 
Security and privacy of data 
Ownership of ideas developed through IT in the company (intellectual property) 
How the company handles copyright protection issues