Introduction to Computer Networks:

A computer network refers to a group of two or more computing devices that are
connected by a communication medium allowing the computers to communicate
electronically.

Types of Transmission technology

Point-to-Point

■ A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices.

■ The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices.
■ Most point-to-point connections use an actual length of wire or cable to connect the two
ends, but other options, such as microwave or satellite links, are also possible

Multipoint

■ A multipoint (also called multi-drop) connection is one in which more than two specific
devices share a single link
■ In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either spatially or
temporally.
■ If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially shared connection. If
users must take turns, it is a timeshared connection.

Data Flow

Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-

duplex

■ Simplex : In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one

way street. Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other
can only receive. Keyboards and traditional monitors are examples of
simplex devices.

■ Half-Duplex : In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and

receive, but not at the same time. When one device is sending, the other
can only receive, and vice versa Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band)
radios are both half duplex systems
.
■ Full-Duplex : In full-duplex, both stations can transmit and receive
simultaneously One common example of full-duplex communication is the
telephone network. When two people are communicating by a telephone
line, both can talk and listen at the same time. The full-duplex mode is
used when communication in both directions is required all the time.

Networking Software

Networking software is a foundational element for any network.

Network software encompasses a broad range of softwares used for design,
implementation, and operation and monitoring of computer networks.
Traditional networks were hardware based with software embedded.
With the advent of Software-Defined Networking (SDN), software is separated from the
hardware thus making it more adaptable to the ever-changing nature of the computer
network.

Functions of Network Software

• Helps to set up and install computer networks
• Enables users to have access to network resources in a seamless manner
• Allows administrations to add or remove users from the network
• Helps to define locations of data storage and allows users to access that data
• Helps administrators and security system to protect the network from data breaches,
unauthorised access and attacks on a network
• Enables network virtualizations

Networking Devices

Hardware devices that are used to connect computers, printers, fax machines and other
electronic devices to a network are called network devices. These devices transfer data in a
fast, secure and correct way over the same or different networks. Network devices may be
inter-network or intra-network.

Modem

Modem is a device that enables a computer to send or receive data over telephone or cable
lines. The data stored on the computer is digital whereas a telephone line or cable wire can
transmit only analog data. The main function of the modem is to convert digital signal into
analog and vice versa. Modem is a combination of two devices modulator and demodulator.
The modulator converts digital data into analog data when the data is being sent by the
computer. The demodulator converts analog data signals into digital data when it is being
received by the computer
.
• Types of Modems
• Simplex
• Half Duplex
• Full duplex

RJ 45 connector

Registered Jack 45 connector is an 8- pin jack used by devices to physically connect to

Ethernet based local area networks (LANs). Ethernet is a technology that defines protocols
for establishing a LAN. The cable used for Ethernet LANs are twisted pair ones and have
RJ45 connector pins at both ends. These pins go into the corresponding socket on devices
and connect the device to the network.

Ethernet card

Ethernet card, also known as network interface card (NIC), is a hardware component used
by computers to connect to Ethernet LAN and communicate with other devices on the LAN.
The NIC has RJ45 socket where network cable is physically plugged in. The MAC address
or physical address is encoded on the network card chip which is assigned by the IEEE to
identify a network card uniquely. The MAC address is stored in the PROM (Programmable
read-only memory).

HUB

A hub is basically a multiport repeater. A hub connects multiple wires coming from different
branches, Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets are sent to all connected devices. Also,
they do not have the intelligence to find out the best path for data packets which leads to
inefficiencies and wastage.

Switch

A switch is a hardware device that connects multiple devices on a computer network. The
Switch contains the updated table that decides where the data should be transmitted. Switch
delivers the message to the correct destination based on the physical address present in the
incoming message. A Switch does not broadcast the message to the entire network like the
Hub. It determines the device to whom the message is to be transmitted. Switch provides a
direct connection between the source and destination. It increases the speed of the network.

Router
A router is a network layer hardware device that transmits data from one LAN to another if
both networks support the same set of protocols. A router is typically connected to at least
two LANs and the internet service provider (ISP). It receives its data in the form of packets,
which are data frames with their destination address added.A router reads its routing table to
decide the best available route the packet can take to reach its destination quickly and
accurately. Router also strengthens the signals before transmitting them. That is why it is
also called a repeater.

Gateway

A gateway is a passage to connect two networks together that may work upon different
networking models. They work as the messenger agents that take data from one system,
interpret it, and transfer it to another system. Gateways are also called protocol converters
and can operate at any network layer. Gateways are more complex than switches or routers.
Gateway is also called a protocol converter.

Wi-Fi card

A Wi-Fi card is a card used to connect any device to the local network wirelessly. The
physical area of the network which provides internet access through Wi-Fi is called Wi-Fi
hotspot. Hotspots themselves are connected to the network through wires. A Wi-Fi card is
used to add capabilities like teleconferencing, downloading digital camera images, video
chat, etc. to old devices. Modern devices come with their in-built wireless network adapter.

Network Topologies

Network topology refers to how various nodes, devices, and connections on your network
are physically or logically arranged in relation to each other.

Point-to-point Topology

Point-to-Point topology is the simplest topology that connects two nodes directly alongside a
standard link.
The full bandwidth of the shared link is reserved for transmission between those two nodes.
The transfer of knowledge during a point-to-point topology is often in multiple directions
across the network: during a simplex, full-duplex, or half-duplex.
Eg, When you change TV channels by remote, you’re establishing a point-to-point
connection between the remote and, therefore, the TV system.

Bus Topology

The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations are connected through a
single cable known as a backbone cable.
Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable or taps.
When a node wants to send a message, it puts a message over the network. All the stations
available in the network will receive the message whether it has been addressed or not. As
signal travels along the backbone,some of the energy is transmitted into heat so it becomes
weaker and weaker as it travels so there is a limit on the number of taps a bus can support
and distance between those taps.
The bus topology is mainly used in 802.3 (ethernet) and 802.4 standard networks.
The configuration of a bus topology is quite simpler as compared to other topologies.

Advantages of Bus topology:

•Low-cost cable: nodes are directly connected to the cable. Therefore, the initial cost of
installation is low.
•Moderate data speeds: Coaxial or twisted pair cables are used that support up to 10 Mbps.
•Familiar technology: Bus topology is a familiar technology as the installation
and troubleshooting techniques are well known, and hardware components are
easily available.
•Limited failure: A failure in one node will not have any effect on other nodes.

Disadvantages of Bus topology:

•Extensive cabling: A bus topology is quite simple, but still it requires a lot of cabling.
•Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialised test equipment to determine the cable faults.
•Signal interference: If two nodes send the messages simultaneously, then the
signals of both the nodes collide with each other.
•Reconfiguration is difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down the
network.
•Attenuation: Attenuation is a loss of signal that leads to communication issues
Star Topology

In star topology each device in the network is connected to a central device called
hub. Star topology doesn’t allow direct communication between devices. If one device wants
to send data to another device, it has to first send the data to the hub and then the hub
transmits that data to the designated device.

Advantages of Star topology

•Less expensive because each device only needs one I/O port and needs to be connected
with one hub link.
•Easier to install
•Less amount of cables required because each device needs to be connected with the hub
only.
•Robust, if one link fails, other links will work just fine.
•Easy fault detection because the link can be easily identified.

Disadvantages of Star topology

•If the hub goes down everything goes down, none of the devices can work without a hub.
•Hub requires more resources and regular maintenance because it is the central system of
star topology.

Mesh Topology

Every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other device

Number of connections required = n * (n - 1) / 2
Every device must have n-1 I/O ports to be connected to other ( n-1) devices
Advantages of Mesh topology
•No data traffic issues as there is a dedicated link between two devices
•Reliable and robust as failure of one link doesn’t affect other links.
•Secure because there is a point to point link thus unauthorised access is not possible.
•Fault detection is easy.
Disadvantages of Mesh topology
•Amount of wires required to connected each system is tedious
• Since each device needs to be connected with other devices, the number of I/O ports
required must be huge.
•Scalability issues because a device cannot be connected with a large number of devices
with a dedicated point to point link.

Tree topology

Various secondary hubs are connected to the central hub which contains the repeater. This
data flows from top to bottom i.e. from the central hub to the secondary and then to the
devices or from bottom to top i.e. devices to the secondary hub and then to the central hub.
The top-most node in tree topology is known as a root node, and all other nodes are the
descendants of the root node. It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology
because if the backbone fails the topology crashes.

Advantages of Tree topology

•Support for broadband transmission: Tree topology is mainly used to provide broadband
transmission.
•Easily expandable: tree topology is easily expandable.
•Easily manageable: the whole network is divided into segments known as star networks
which can be easily managed and maintained.
•Error detection: Error detection and error correction are very easy.
•Limited failure: The breakdown in one station does not affect the entire network.
•Point-to-point wiring: It has point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
Disadvantages of Tree topology
•Difficult troubleshooting: If any fault occurs in the node, then it becomes difficult
to troubleshoot the problem.
•High cost: Devices required for broadband transmission are very costly.
•Failure: A tree topology mainly relies on main bus cable and failure in main bus
cable will damage the overall network.
•Reconfiguration difficult: If new devices are added, then it becomes difficult to
reconfigure.
Ring Topology

A ring connecting devices with exactly two neighbouring devices.

A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a large number of nodes to prevent
data loss.
The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2 connections
between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.
In-Ring Topology, the Token Ring Passing protocol is used by the workstations to transmit
the data.

Advantages of this topology:

•The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.
•Cheap to install and expand.

Problems with this topology:

•Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialised test equipment to determine the
cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the communication
for all the nodes.
•Failure: The breakdown in one station leads to the failure of the overall network.
•Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down the
network.
•Delay: Communication delay is directly proportional to the number of nodes. Adding
new devices increase the communication delay.

Hybrid Topology
A combination of two or more topologies is known as hybrid topology

Addressing in Networks

Four levels of addresses are used in the TCP/IP protocol: physical address, logical address,
port address, and application-specific address
IP address

IP stands for internet protocol ( IP) , It is either 4 byte(IPV4) or 16 byte(IPV6)

● Every node in the computer is identified with the help of an IP address.

● It is the Logical address
● Can change based on location

Physical address/MAC/Hardware address

The physical address is the address of a node as defined by its LAN or WAN.
The size and format of these addresses vary depending on the network. For example,
Ethernet uses a 6-byte (48-bit) physical address that is imprinted on the network interface
card (NIC). Most local area networks use a 48-bit (6-byte) physical address written as 12
hexadecimal digits, every byte (2 hexadecimal digits) is separated by a colon.
It is assigned by manufacturer and cannot be changed

MAC IP

Media Access Control Internet Protocol

6 byte hexadecimal 4/16 byte address

Provided by NIC card manufacturer Provided by ISP

Physical Address Logical Address

Operates in Data Link Layer Operates in Network Layer

Identifies the device Identifies the connection of device on the

network

Cannot be changed Changes with time and location

Port addresses

In the TCP/IP architecture, the label assigned to a process is called a port address. A port
address in TCP/IP is 16 bits in length.

ICANN Ranges (Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers)

• ICANN has divided the port numbers into three ranges: well-known, registered, and
dynamic (or private)
• Well-known ports: The ports ranging from 0 to 1,023 are assigned and controlled by
ICANN..
• Registered ports: The ports ranging from 1,024 to 49,151 are not assigned or controlled by
ICANN. They can only be registered with ICANN to prevent duplication.
• Dynamic ports: The ports ranging from 49,152 to 65,535 are neither controlled nor
registered. They can be used as temporary or private port numbers.

Layered Architecture

Layer: group of networking functions that have related uses

The OSI model consists of seven separate but related layers, each of which defines a part of
the process of moving information across the network.
Each layer of the OSI model handles a specific job and communicates with the layers above
and below itself.

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model

The purpose of the OSI model is to show how to facilitate communication between different
systems without requiring change to the logic of the underlying hardware and software.

It is not a protocol; it is a model for understanding and designing a network architecture that
is flexible, robust and interoperable.

Application layer

Enables the users to access the network resources.

Provides interfaces and support to services like electronic mail, remote file access and
transfer, shared database management etc.
Presentation layer

• A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged between the two systems.
Syntax :Structure or format of the data
Semantics : Interprets the meaning of the bits, Knows which fields define what action

Functions of Presentation layer:

• Translation: Different computers use different encoding methods, the presentation layer
handles the interoperability between the different encoding methods. It converts the data
from sender-dependent format into a common format and changes the common format into
receiver-dependent format at the receiving end.
• Encryption: Encryption is a process of converting the sender-transmitted information into a
secure form and sending the resulting message over the network.
• Compression: Data compression reduces the number of bits to be transmitted.

Session layer

Functions of Session layer:

• Dialog control: It allows the communication between two processes which can be either
half-duplex or full-duplex.
• Synchronisation and recovery: Session layer adds some checkpoints when transmitting
the data in a sequence. If some error occurs in the middle of the transmission of data, then
the transmission will take place again from the checkpoint. This process is known as
Synchronisation and recovery

Transport layer

Responsible for process-to-process delivery of the entire message

The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data completely.
It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into smaller units known as
segments.

Responsibilities of transport layer

•Service-point/port addressing: The transport layer adds the header that contains the
address known as a service-point address or port address. The responsibility of the network
layer is to transmit the data from one computer to another computer and the responsibility of
the transport layer is to transmit the message to the correct process.

•Segmentation and reassembly: When the transport layer receives the message from the
upper layer, it divides the message into multiple segments, and each segment is assigned
with a sequence number that uniquely identifies each segment. When the message has
arrived at the destination, then the transport layer reassembles the message based on their
sequence numbers.
•Connection control: Transport layer provides two services Connection-oriented service
and connectionless service. A connectionless service treats each segment as an individual
packet, and they all travel in different routes to reach the destination. A connection-oriented
service makes a connection with the transport layer at the destination machine before
delivering the packets. In connection-oriented service, all the packets travel in the single
route.

•Flow control: The transport layer is also responsible for flow control but it is performed
end-to-end rather than across a single link.

•Error control: The sender transport layer ensures that message reach at the
destination without any error.

Network layer

The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets from the source host to
the destination host

Functions of Network Layer:

• Internetworking: Internetworking is the main responsibility of the network layer. It provides

a logical connection between different devices.

• Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination address to the header of the
frame. Addressing is used to identify the device on the internet.

• Routing: It determines the best optimal path out of the multiple paths from source to the
destination.

• Packetizing: A Network Layer receives segments from the upper layer and converts them
into packets. This process is known as Packetizing. It is achieved by internet protocol (IP).

Data link layer

This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.

• It defines the format of the data on the network.
• It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or more devices

Responsibilities of data link layer:

Framing : DLL translates physical raw bit streams into packets known as frames .

Physical Addressing : DLL adds header to the frame, header contains hardware
destination and source address. The frame is transmitted to the destination address
mentioned in the header.
Flow Control : It is a technique through which the constant data rate is maintained on both
sides so that no data gets corrupted . It ensures that the fast transmitter does not exceed the
rate of the receiver with low processing speed .

Error Control : It is achieved by adding CRC bits placed in the trailer which is added to the
message before sending it to the physical layer. In case of error, the receiver sends an
acknowledgement for retransmission of corrupted frames.

Access Control: When two or more devices are connected to the same communication
channel, then the data link layer protocols are used to determine which device has control
over the link at a given time.

Physical Layer

Coordinates the functions required to carry a bit stream over a physical medium.
Deals with the mechanical and electrical specifications of the interface and transmission
medium.
Defines the procedures and functions that physical devices and interfaces have to perform
for transmission

Functions of a Physical layer:

• Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or more devices can be connected
physically.
• Data Transmission: It defines the transmission mode whether it is simplex, half-duplex or
full-duplex mode between the two devices on the network.
• Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged.
• Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the information.
TCP/IP Protocol suite

Originally four layers.: network interface, internet, transport and application layer

Network Access Layer

• A network access layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.
• A network access layer is the combination of the Physical layer and Data Link layer defined
in the OSI reference model.
• It defines how the data should be sent physically through the network.
• This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data between two devices on
the same network.
• The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP datagram into frames
transmitted by the network and mapping of IP addresses into physical addresses.
• The protocols used by this layer are ethernet, token ring, FDDI, X.25, frame relay.

Internet Layer
• An internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.
• An internet layer is also known as the network layer.
• The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets from any network, and
they arrive at the destination irrespective of the route they take.

Following are the protocols used in this layer :

IP Protocol: IP protocol is used in this layer, and it is the most significant part of the entire
TCP/IP suite.

Following are the responsibilities of this protocol:

IP Addressing: The IP addresses are used by the internet and higher layers to identify the
device and to provide internetwork routing.

Host-to-host communication: It determines the path through which the data is to be

transmitted.

Data Encapsulation and Formatting: An IP protocol ensures that the data is sent and
received securely, it encapsulates the data into a message known as IP datagram.

Fragmentation and Reassembly: The limit imposed on the size of the IP datagram by data
link layer protocol is known as Maximum Transmission unit (MTU). If the size of the IP
datagram is greater than the MTU unit, then the IP protocol splits the datagram into smaller
units so that they can travel over the local network. Fragmentation can be done by the
sender or intermediate router. At the receiver side, all the fragments are reassembled to form
an original message.

Routing: When IP datagram is sent over the same local network such as LAN, MAN, WAN, it
is known as direct delivery. When source and destination are on the distant network, then
the IP datagram is sent indirectly. This can be accomplished by routing the IP datagram
through various devices such as routers.

ARP protocol:

ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol.

ARP is a network layer protocol which is used to find the physical address(MAC) from the IP
address.

ICMP Protocol

ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol.

It is a mechanism used by the hosts or routers to send notifications regarding datagram
problems back to the sender.
A datagram travels from router-to-router until it reaches its destination. If a router is unable to
route the data because of some unusual conditions such as disabled links, a device is on fire
or network congestion, then the ICMP protocol is used to inform the sender that the
datagram is undeliverable.
Transport Layer

• The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control, and
correction of data which is being sent over the network.
• The two protocols used in the transport layer are User Datagram
protocol and Transmission control protocol.

User Datagram Protocol (UDP) :

• provides connectionless service and end-to-end delivery of transmission.
• It is an unreliable protocol as it discovers the errors but does not specify the error.
• User Datagram Protocol discovers the error, and ICMP protocol reports the error to the
sender that user datagram has been damaged.

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

• It provides a full transport layer of services to applications.
• It creates a virtual circuit between the sender and receiver, and it is active for the duration
of the transmission.
• TCP is a reliable protocol as it detects the error and retransmits the damaged frames.
Therefore, it ensures all the segments must be received and acknowledged before the
transmission is considered to be completed and a virtual circuit is discarded.
• At the sending end, TCP divides the whole message into smaller units known
as segment, and each segment contains a sequence number which is
required for reordering the frames to form an original message.
• At the receiving end, TCP collects all the segments and reorders them based
on sequence numbers.

Application Layer
• An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.
• It is responsible for handling high-level protocols, issues of
representation.
• This layer allows the user to interact with the application.
• When one application layer protocol wants to communicate with
another application layer, it forwards its data to the transport layer.

Following are the protocols used in application layer

•HTTP: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. This protocol allows us to access
the data over the world wide web. It transfers the data in the form of plain text,
audio, video. It is known as a Hypertext transfer protocol as it has the efficiency to
use in a hypertext environment where there are rapid jumps from one document to
another.
•SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It is a framework
used for managing the devices on the internet by using the TCP/IP protocol suite.
•SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. The TCP/IP protocol that
supports the e-mail is known as a Simple mail transfer protocol. This protocol is used
to send the data to another email address.
•DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. An IP address is used to identify the
connection of a host to the internet uniquely. But, people prefer to use the names
instead of addresses. Therefore, the system that maps the name to the address is
known as Domain Name System.
•TELNET: It is an abbreviation for Terminal Network. It establishes the connection
between the local computer and remote computer in such a way that the local
terminal appears to be a terminal at the remote system.
•FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. FTP is a standard internet protocol used
for transmitting the files from one computer to another computer.
Connection-Oriented Service

A connection-oriented service is used to create an end to end connection between the

sender and the receiver before transmitting the data over the same or different networks.
packets are transmitted to the receiver in the same order the sender has sent them. It uses a
handshake method that creates a connection between the user and sender for transmitting
the data over the network. Hence it is also known as a reliable network service.

Suppose, a sender wants to send data to the receiver.

First, the sender sends a request packet to a receiver in the form of an SYN packet.
After that, the receiver responds to the sender's request with an (SYN-ACK) signal/packet.
That represents the confirmation is received by the receiver to start the communication
between the sender and the receiver.
Now a sender can send the message or data to the receiver.
Similarly, a receiver can respond or send the data to the sender in the form of packets.
After successfully exchanging or transmitting data, a sender can terminate the connection by
sending a signal to the receiver. In this way, we can say that it is a reliable network service.
Connectionless Service

Connectionless service is used in the network system to transfer data from one end to
another end without creating any connection. So it does not require establishing a
connection before sending the data from the sender to the receiver. It is not a reliable
network service because it does not guarantee the transfer of data packets to the receiver,
and data packets can be received in any order to the receiver. Therefore we can say that
the data packet does not follow a defined path. In connectionless service, if the transmitted
data packet is not received by the receiver due to network congestion, the data may be lost.