A Report On

Design of Sucker Rod Pumping System

Presented to the
Institute of Oil & Gas Production Technology (IOGPT)
Oil and Natural Gas Corporation, Mumbai
Summer Training Report

Submitted By
ABHINANDAN SHETTY
SHUBHAM SHARMA
ANAND PARDHE
VARUN TAMBEKAR
FAVIAN CARVALHO
ADNAN AHSAN

From MIT WORLD PEACE UNIVERSITY, Pune

Under The Guidance Of

Mr. Saurabh Rajvanshi
IOGPT, ONGC, Mumbai

1
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We wish to express our sincerest thanks to Institute of Oil and Gas Production Technology
(IOGPT), ONGC, Mumbai for us providing an opportunity to work with them and undertake a
report of such importance.

We would like to thank Mr. Saurabh Rajvanshi who provided us continuous guidance and support
to complete this report.

We also acknowledge Mr. Divyansh Sethi for providing us the basic knowledge of SRP System and
helping us complete our report.

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 ABOUT ONGC

Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Limited (ONGC) is Indian multinational oil and Gas Company
headquartered in Dehradun, India. It is a public sector undertaking of the government of India's
under the administrative control of the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas. It is India's largest
oil and gas exploration and production company. It produces around 69% of India s crude oil and
around 62% of its natural gas.

ONGC was founded on 14 August 1956 by Government of India, which currently holds a 69%
equity stake. On 31 March 2013 its market capitalization was INR 2.6 trillion, making it countries
second largest publicity traded company. It is involved in exploring for and exploiting
hydrocarbons in 26 sedimentary basins of India and owns and operates over 11, 000 km of
pipelines in the country.

ONGC has discovered 6 of the 7 commercially producing Indian Basins in the last 50 years. ONGC
has maintained production from its brown fields like Mumbai High with the help of aggressive
investments in various /OR and EOR schemes. In 2011 ONGC applied to purchase 2000 acres of
land at Dahanu to process offshore gas.

ONGC went offshore in early 70's and discovered a giant oil field in the form of Bombay high now
known as Mumbai high this discovery along the subsequent discoveries of huge oil and gas fields
in the western offshore change the scenario of the country subsequently, over 5billion tones of
hydrocarbons, which were present in the country were discovered the most important
contribution of ONGC however is its self-reliance and development of core competence in E&P
activities at a globally competitive level.

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 ABOUT IOGPT

The Institute of Oil & Gas Production Technology (IOGPT) was established in 1984 with assistance
from United Nations Development Program (UNDP) and Asian Development Bank (ADB) to meet
the production and processing related technological requirement of Oil and Gas fields and
processing plants.

The institute is located amidst picturesque surroundings at the Technology Park in Panvel, Navi
Mumbai, about 50 km from Mumbai on the Mumbai-Pune highway.

IOGPT is the first Institute in the country to provide an integrated R&D support to the entire
spectrum of Oil and Gas production, which begins at the well bore and culminates at the
consumer point. It is a centre of excellence for applied R&D and offers consultancy services.

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 Table of Contents
1 Inflow Performance Relationship ............................................................................................ 6
2 Monitoring and Analysis of Performance ................................................................................ 7
3 Troubleshooting and Analysis Guidelines ............................................................................. 11
4 Observations at the Well ....................................................................................................... 12
5 Petroleum Engineering Basics and Correlations Used In SRP Calculations ........................... 16
6 Well Testing ........................................................................................................................... 21
7 The Downhole Pump ............................................................................................................. 29
8 Sucker Rods............................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
9 Pumping Units ....................................................................................................................... 58
10 Prime movers ..................................................................................................................... 66
11 Downhole and Wellhead Equipment ................................................................................. 74
12 Data Acquisition Tools and Data Quality Control .............................................................. 82
13 Design Methods ................................................................................................................. 90
14 References ......................................................................................................................... 94

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 1 Inflow Performance Relationship

1.1 Productivity index

It is an important tool which is used to flow capabilities of reservoirs at specific time. It is
applicable to reservoirs that are producing liquid which are mostly gas free, this is a case for
reservoirs with pressure above the bubble point.

Productivity index is given by-

𝑞
J= 𝑝`−𝑝
𝑤𝑓

Where,

J= productivity index

q= liquid flow rate

p`= average reservoir pressure

𝑝𝑤𝑓 = flowing pressures inside the wellbore

6
 2 Monitoring and Analysis of Performance
The main objective in oil industries is to have maximum production for ach investment,
operation, and repair dollar of equipment. This objective can be achieved by diagnosis of
problems in a pumping well. Dynamometer and fluid level instruments are principal tools used
to determine whether the well is producing fluid of expected volume. It is desirable to maintain
accurate records of production rate, water to oil ratio and gas to oil ratio to identify those wells
which further attention and study.

2.1 Dynamometer
Dynamometer is device which records weights carried by polished rods during a stroke. The load
at polished rod is the reaction to the forced motion of the pump plunger transmitted from the
surface through the rod string. Dynamometer analysis is the best and accurate method to
determine performance of well.

Collecting dynamometer data

When operations on rod pump is to be undertaken, the operator uses dynamometer data to
make sure that recorded loads are within a fraction of a percent of the actual loads. Therefore, a
true zero load point to be known is important.

A true zero load point is recorded every time of an instrument. All loads must be removed from
polished rod when load sensors are installed. This is done by installing temporary polished rod
clamp. In this condition, the polished rod load road is zero because clamp has transferred
road load to the wellhead and brake system is holding a counterbalance load. When brake is
released and well load is picked up, clamp is removed and load sensors measure polished rod
load.

Care should be taken during process because loads can be large and carrier bar is a crushing
hazard. Hands should be kept clear of space between clamp and carrier bar.

The amount of time required to install the equipment should be noted, and recording of
dynamometer should be begin and should be continued for same amount of time to make sure
that pump has returned to normal mode of operation.

Polished road power

Polished rod power is a necessary power to pick up the rods and fluid and to overcome friction.
It is given by-

7
 ADC N
PPR=
12(33,000)

Where,

PPR= polished road power

𝐴𝐷𝐶= area inside the dynamometer card

N= pumping speed(spm)

The area inside the dynamometer can be determined manually by simply drawing grid lines over
a card and counting the squares.

𝐴 (𝑊𝑖+1 + 𝑊𝑖 ) (𝑃𝑖+1 − 𝑃𝑖 )
𝐷𝐶= ∑𝑛
𝑖=1 2

Where,

𝑊𝑖 = dynamometer ith point on card

𝑃𝑖 = position in the stroke of the ith point

n= number of points along the dynamometer card starting at the beginning of the upstroke and
ending at the end of downstroke

8
 Above table shows power calculations for dynamometer card

Valve test

After recording dynamometer data, next procedure is to ensure proper working of traveling
valve(TV) and standing valve(SV)

TV test

The test includes stopping of pumping unit during upstroke, setting the brake and monitoring the
load at polished road for 10 to 20 seconds. A decreasing load is an indication of fluid leakage in
barrel. Repeating of test is recommended and entail stopping polished rod at various positions
during upstroke in order to examine barrel’s internal diameter, because it would be worn
differently at various points of stroke.

9
SV test

If the unit is stopped during downstroke after TV has opened, the load carried by polished road
should simply be buoyed rod weight. This is because fluid load is transferred to closed SV. If SV
leaks the pressure inside the barrel and polished rod load will increase. When pump is filled with
partial liquid filage, the plunger must stop after TV opens. In some cases, this point might be
closed to the bottom of the stroke. It is important to repeat SV test at several stopping points to
ensure quality of data validity of test.

Matching pump rate to reservoir rate

It is always a good practice to match pump rate to reservoir rate using slowest possible pumping
speed. Slow speed offers great advantages in increasing life of rods, pumps, and pumping unit.
Normally some combinations of stoke length and slow speed can be found to match pump rate
and reservoir rate.

Timers

Timers are used to control how long pumping unit runs. Two types of timers are used in oil fields.
A percentage timer calculates percentage of time that pumping unit takes. An interval timers
calculate time intervals that pumping unit takes. Timers are easy to operate and inexpensive.
The main disadvantage of timers is that operator must correctly set the timer to operate pumping
system.

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 3 Troubleshooting and Analysis Guidelines
It is important to understand the potential problems and operating conditions that can prevent
or resist the objective of producing all the fluid collected in the wellbore by the reservoir in a
cost effective manner.

According to various surveys of operator and service companies, the most common problems in
sucker rod pumping are

 An inability to maintain a high volumetric efficiency

 Difficulty in handling gas in the pump
 Sand and solids in the pump
 Excessive rod and tubing wear
 Corrosion

With the help of detailed analysis and accurate data of fluid level and dynamometer records the
first four problems can be identified whereas the last one can be prevented by using particular
materials and chemicals

The information that are used to create a clear description of the pumping system that conveys
the manner in which the pumping system is expected to operate or the manner in which the
system was operating before the presence of the problem has been identified are:

 Wellbore description
 Artificial lift system description
 Artificial lift system predictive design
 Fluid properties
 Recent and representative well test
 Static reservoir pressure or fluid level
 history of production
 history of workovers, including pump changes and detailed description of pumps used
 and problems identified
 history of stroke and speed changes
 history of chemical treatment

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 4 Observations at the Well
Various observations at the well can help us jump to a conclusion in order to find the potential
problems related to it. Few common observations and the conclusions made out of it are stated
below:

Is the pumping unit not running? Reason might be failure of electricity or fuel problems or
rather engine problems.

Is there a noticeable leak? There can be a loss in the production due to a leak or is recirculated
due to faulty check valve.

Is the flow line cold? It concludes that the flow line is filled with mostly gas.

Are there any unusual noises? Noises might indicate bad bearings and gears.

Is fluid going into the tank? If no then there is a major tubing leak or the pump is
malfunctioning or the rod is parted.

4.1 ANALYSIS OF FLUID LEVEL RECORD

It is important to determine the distribution of fluid in the wellbore to calculate pressures at
the pump intake, opposite of the perforations and also to determine if the current production
rate is less than the wellbores actual potential. The result of the fluid level analysis also effects
the dynamometer analysis in the following ways:

If the fluid level is near the pump intake it is expected that the pump dynamometer card will
exhibit a pumped-off condition.

If there is no annular gas flow and the fluid level is above the pump intake it is expected that
the pump will be 100% liquid filled.

If annular gas flow is present and the pump intake is set above the perforations it is expected
that the pump dynamometer will exhibit gas interference.

4.2 ANALYSIS OF DYNAMOMETER RECORD

The analysis depends on whether there is significant pump submergence, or the liquid level is at
the pump intake.

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The following flow chart assumes that there is significant pump submergence and it uses the
relationship between measured load at the pump during the upstroke and the computed fluid
maximum fluid load to differentiate between the possible causes of incomplete pump fillage

Figure 3.1

The following flow chart assumes that that the liquid level is near the pump intake

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 Figure 3.2

The analysis of the pump dynamometer card gives an estimate of the rate at which fluid is
being displaced from the casing into the tubing. If the pump is stopped, flow will continue from
the reservoir, and liquid will accumulate in the annulus at about the same rate that the pump
was displacing the liquid.

When the pump is set high above the perforations and when there is annular gas flow, there is
presence of gas interference which is an indication of poor performance of the downhole gas
separator, which results in exceeding the separator's liquid and gas-handling capacity.

VALVE TESTS

The result of the valve test is not always accurate due to the application of wrong procedure
during acquisition and interpretation. It is advisable to do the test when the pump is filled with
liquid. In case of pumped off well the pump must be shut down for enough time for the fluid to
collect in the wellbore and fill the pump in order to conduct the test .

HISTORTICAL COMPARISION

parameters such as fluid level, rod loading, pump fillage, and pump submergence are indicators
of changes that are occurring in the pumping system and reservoir as a function of time. These

14
can be used to prepare recommendations for design modifications, scheduling maintenance
etc.

BEST PRACTICES

The pumping system must always be operated within the limits of its component and should
not be subjected to excessive loads. It will increase the operating life of the system and will also
minimize the cost of maintenance.

ACHIEVEING HIGH VOLUMETRIC SWEEP EFFECIENCY

The pumping system should be operated at a speed which matches the formation inflow. Gas
interference should be minimized by using a downhole separator. The pumping rate should be
adjusted by using interval timers or pump-off controllers if the pumping speed cannot be
reduced enough to match the pump rate to the formation inflow.

DEALING WITH SANDS AND SOLIDS

Use of gravel packs should be made to limit the entering of solids in the well bore. While
designing the pumps, materials that are less keen to get damaged by the presence of solids
must be used

CORROSION

can be prevented by using particular materials while designing the pump that resist corrosion
and using chemicals that eliminates corrosion.

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 5 Petroleum Engineering Basics and Correlations Used in SRP
Calculations

The base of the measurement of different types of parameters or mass, length and time all
other parameters like Area and volume, force, pressure are the combination of these three
basic measurements. Few other important measurements are temperature, luminous intensity,
absolute viscosity, kinematic viscosity, compress ability and permeability which is the amount
of void space present inside a rock.

UNITS CONVERSION

due the human errors involved in it. Therefore engineers rely on computerized calculations or
unit calculators available on the web which are convenient and accurate. Wrong unit
conversion is one of the main mistake done in engineering calculations

Figure 4.1

FLUID CHARACTERISTICS

All fluids, whether liquid or gas, have the same five properties: compressibility, pressure,
buoyancy, viscosity, and surface tension. If a fluid is not compressible and it has zero viscosity it
is considered an ideal fluid.

Fluid characteristics are always defined at standard conditions. Standard conditions are defined
as 60 F and 14.69 psia

The real gas law describes the relationship of the properties of the gas as a function of pressure
and temperature.

16
pV=znRT

LIQUID DENSITY

Density of liquid can be found with the help of this equation

𝜌𝑙 = 𝛾𝑙 𝜌𝑤

The dimension less specific gravity of a liquid is the density of the liquid compared with the
density of pure fresh water at standard conditions.

GAS DENSITY

The density of gas depends on pressure temperature and composition of the gas
𝑝𝛾𝑔
𝜌𝑔 = 2.7
𝑧𝑇
The dimensional less specific gravity of a gas is the molecular weight of the gas divided by the
molecular weight of the air

GAS DEVIATION FACTOR

The gas deviation factor is a non-ideal period of the hydrocarbon gases and varies depending on
gas composition pressure and temperature
(1+x+x2−x3)
Z= – Ax+Bxc
(1−𝑥)3

HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
62.4𝛾𝑙
PH= (TVD) 144

pressure exerted by or existing within a liquid at rest with respect to adjacent bodies.

PHASE BEHAVIOR

17
There can be mixtures of hydrocarbon present with different types of combination such as
liquid or a gas, gas liquid combinations which depend on the composition pressure and
temperature face diagram is an envelope inside of which we have both liquid and gas
percentages given on the tie line

MECHANICS OF MATERIALS

The mechanics of materials, typically refers to various methods of calculating the stresses and
strains in structural members, such as beams, columns, and shafts which predict the response
of a structure under load and its susceptibility to failure.

In the mechanics of materials, the strength of a material is its ability to withstand an applied
load without failure or plastic deformation. A load applied to a mechanical member will induce
internal forces within the member called stresses. The stresses acting on the material cause
deformation of the material in various manners including breaking them completely.
Deformation of the material is called strain.

Figure 4.2

THE BUBBLE POINT

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The pressure at which the first bubble of gas appears is called the bubble point for that oil the
bubble point pressure can be determined experimentally in the laboratory it can also be
estimated with the help of Vasquez Beggs correlation

The bubble point pressure can be calculated by two equations depending on the API gravity of
the oil
27.67𝐺𝑂𝑅
For API oil gravity <30 degrees API 𝜌𝑏= [𝛾 ]1/1.0937
𝑔𝑠 (1011.172𝐴 )

56.06𝐺𝑂𝑅
For API oil gravity>30 degrees API 𝜌𝑏= [𝛾 ]1/1.187
𝑔𝑠 (1010.392𝐴 )

SOLUTION GAS OIL RATIO AND OIL FORMATION VOLUME FACTOR

The solution gas or ratio GOR is a general term for the amount of gas which is dissolved in the
oil heavy oils which have lower API gravity has lower capacity to contain dissolved gas if
compared with lighter oils the gas oil ratio in black oil system is typically ranges from 0 to
approximately 2000 scf/bbl whereas Oil formation volume factor is defined as the volume of oil
and also dissolved gas which is at a reserve or pressure and temperature required to produce
one stock tank barrel of oil at the surface

For GOR

Oil gravity <30 degrees API 𝑅 𝛾

𝑔𝑠 𝑝1.0937
𝑠= (1011.172𝐴 )
27.64

Oil gravity >30 degrees API 𝑅 𝛾

𝑔𝑠 𝑝1.0937
𝑠= (1011.172𝐴 )
27.64

Whereas,

For oil formation volume factor

Oil gravity <30 degrees API Bo = 1.0 + 4.677 * 10-4 Rs + 1.751 * 10-5 F - 1.8106 * 10-
8 RF

Oil gravity >30 degrees API Bo = 1.0 + 4.677 * 10-4 Rs + 1.1 * 10-5 F - 1.337 * 10-
9 RF

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SINGLE PHASE FLOW IN PIPES

Equations for single phase fluid in pipe are developed from the mechanical energy balance.
Equations for liquid and gas are as follows:

MULTIPHASE FLOW IN PIPES

The physical phenomenon of more than one state or phase like gas, liquid or solid
simultaneously flowing is defined as multiphase flow. The overall performance of multiphase
flow is more complex compared to single phase flow through pipeline

Figure 4.3

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 6 Well Testing
Well Testing Purpose

In order to develop an ideal artificial lift system for any well it is important to understand the
flow capability of the well. Well testing is the approach taken to get this understanding. The main
aim is to find the maximum stabilized production rate the reservoir can deliver to the bottom of
the well. With well testing we can also find out other factors such as skin damage, permeability,
initial reservoir pressure etc, and with diagnosis of these factors, remedies can be implemented
to improve the productivity of the well.

In beam lifting, well testing particularly finds application in determining the load acting on beam
lifting equipment’s and liquid level in the well- two important factors concerning beam lifting.

6.1 Data Required for Well Testing

One or more flow rates and their corresponding bottomhole pressure needs to be measured for
well test operations.

Flow Rates

Since more than one flow rates are required, a different rate can be measured by simply changing
the size of choke in the well giving us a new flow rate which can be either greater or smaller than
the previous rate depending on the size of choke. An important factor to note here is that the
flow rates and their corresponding pressure need to be stabilized before being accepted as viable
data for predicting well performance.

Stabilized pressure and rates mean that pressure and rate values cease to change over a period.
Most reservoirs are in state of continuous pressure decline and may require artificial lift to flow.
So even though a rate and pressure might be stable one day, that rate and pressure could change
over time. In such cases stabilized conditions are considered when rate and pressure cease to
change for a short period of time, that is the well test must continue until flow rate and pressure
at the bottom of the well don’t change for a short term.

Stabilized rates can also be obtained with the help of a test pumping unit- submersible, electrical,
beam etc. Different flow rates can be obtained by altering the speed of pump or changing the
frequency of electrical pumps. Other artificial lift such as gas lift can also be used if gas supply at
the correct injection pressure is available. In gas lift operations in order to avoid gas cycling back
to the surface the injection pressure of gas should be less than static bottom hole pressure
(SBHP). In this operation CO2 or Nitrogen can be used in place of natural gas but both come with
their own set of problems. Carbon Dioxide will react with water creating carbonic acid which will
create a corrosive environment harming the equipment whereas nitrogen pumping unit is an
expensive option. Different flow rates can be measured by changing the volume of gas injected.

21
In order to measure the flow rate accurately portable test separators are used in facilities that
separate liquid, oil and gas and meters each stream. Test separators are considered the most
accurate way to measure flow rates.

Bottomhole Pressure

The flowing bottomhole pressure can be measured directly using bottomhole pressure gauge. If
it is not advisable to run the bottomhole pressure gauge then pressure can be computed by the
amount of fluid in the annulus, the density of the fluids at the given depth. This relation is given
by the formula:

p= 0.433𝛾𝐿 × (𝐷 − 𝐹𝐿) + 𝑝𝑔

p= pressure at depth D (psig)

𝛾𝐿= specific gravity of the liquid below the liquid level (dimensionless)

D= depth in the well from surface (ft)

FL= depth from surface to gas free liquid level (ft)

pg= gas pressure at the top of liquid level (psig)

The gas pressure at the top of liquid level can be computed using the mechanical energy balance:
FL
pg= pS + (1 + 40000)

pS = surface pressure on the annulus (psig)

The liquid level in the well can be determined using swab line, wireline conveyed pressure gauge
or an acoustic sounder.

The wireline conveyed pressure gauge is run inside the tubing and can measure pressure at any
depth. Care should be taken to not run the wireline in the annulus space between the tubing and
the casing as the wireline could become wrapped and tangled around the tubing making its
retrieval very difficult. The gauge is stopped at every 100ft to 200ft to take a pressure reading.
This data is used to create the pressure traverse plot. The liquid level can be identified by the plot
at the point where the line changes slope. This change in slope is due to the change in pressure
caused by the presence of a denser fluid.

22
The liquid specific gravity can also be computed using two pressure data points and is given by
the formula:

𝑝2 −𝑝1
γL = ( )
0.433(𝐷2 −𝐷1 )

Figure 5.1 Pressure Traverse Graph

Swab line is also used to determine the liquid level in the well. The swab cup falls into the tubing
in freefall hindered only by friction. When the swab cup falls into the liquid there is sudden loss
of weight as a result of momentum transfer caused by swab cup falling into the denser fluid. This
weight loss can be detected by a weight indicator. The liquid level can be determined by the
length of swab line in the tubing at this point.

Well testing can also provide us with the static or average pressure of the reservoir. This pressure
can be found out by carrying out either of the transient pressure tests. The average reservoir is
estimated in the shut-in period between the well tests and the installation of artificial lift
equipment. If the shut-in pressure in reservoir ceases to change then it’s the average pressure of
the reservoir. The time taken to achieve this static pressure depends upon the reservoir rock and
fluid characteristics. The time taken to reach average reservoir pressure can be computed by the
formula:

23
 1200 × ∅ × 𝜇 × 𝐶𝑡 × 𝑟𝑒2
𝑡𝑠𝑖 =
𝑘
𝑡𝑠𝑖 = approximate shut-in time (hrs)

∅ = reservoir porosity (fraction)

𝜇 = reservoir fluid viscosity (cp)

𝐶𝑡 = reservoir total compressibility (1/psi)

𝑟𝑒 = reservoir drainage area (ft)

𝑘 = effective permeability to the reservoir fluid (md)

6.2 Use of the Data to Create Productivity Index

The data gathered from well test is further used to create the productivity index (PI) of the
reservoir. Depending upon the condition of the reservoir fluids one of the two well performance
models can be used to define the productivity index.

6.3 Pressure above bubble point

Single phase liquids are present in oil reservoirs with pressure greater than the bubble point
pressure of oil. In this condition, water is present but there is no presence of gas. Radial form of
Darcy’s Law can be used to describe the flow rate of oil reservoir with pressure above bubble
point:

𝑘0 ℎ(𝑝𝑒 − 𝑝𝜔𝑓 )
𝑞𝑜 =
141.2𝐵0 𝑢𝑜 [𝑙𝑛( 𝑟𝑒 ) + 𝑠]
𝑟𝜔

𝑞𝑜 = oil flow rate (stock tank barrels of oil [STBO]/day)

𝑘0 = permeability to oil (md)

ℎ = reservoir thickness (ft)

𝑝𝜔𝑓 = flowing pressure at the bottom of the well (psig)

𝑝𝑒 = reservoir pressure at the drainage boundary (psig)

𝐵0 = oil formation volume factor (bbl/STB)

𝑢𝑜 = oil viscosity at reservoir conditions (cp)

24
𝑠 = skin factor (dimensionless)

𝑟𝑒 = drainage radius (ft)

𝑟𝜔 = wellbore radius (ft)

Figure 5.2 IPR based on Productivity Index

Productivity index of the well can be calculated by rearranging this equation in terms of oil flow
rate per reservoir pressure drop.

𝑞0 𝑘0 ℎ
𝐽= =
𝑝𝑒 − 𝑝𝜔𝑓 141.2𝐵0 𝑢𝑜 [𝑙𝑛( 𝑟𝑒 ) + 𝑠]
𝑟𝜔

𝐽 = Productivity Index (STBO/day/psig)

The productivity index of the well remains constant if the reservoir and fluid properties on the
right side of equation remain constant. The productivity index is plotted as oil flow rate vs flowing
BHP and this plot is known as the Inflow Performance Curve (IPR). The slope of this line is the
reciprocal of the productivity index.

25
6.4 Pressure below bubble point
A free gas phase develops in the reservoir if the reservoir pressure is less than the bubble point
pressure. In this situation, gas along with water and oil compete for flow path to the well. As gas
saturation increases, permeability to gas also increases leading to decrease in oil permeability.
Radial form of Darcy’s Law is sued with combined flow of oil and gas for both the cases.
2
𝑘0 ℎ(𝑝𝑒 − 𝑝𝜔𝑓 ) 𝑘𝑔 ℎ(𝑝𝑒2 − 𝑝𝜔𝑓 )
𝑞𝑜 + 𝑞𝑔 = +
141.2𝐵0 𝑢𝑜 [𝑙𝑛( 𝑟𝑒 ) + 𝑠] 1424 ̅𝑢𝑔 𝑧̅𝑇[𝑙𝑛( 𝑟𝑒 ) + 𝑠]
𝑟𝜔 𝑟𝜔

𝑞𝑔 = 𝑞𝑜 (𝐺𝑂𝑅)
2
𝑘0 ℎ(𝑝𝑒 − 𝑝𝜔𝑓 ) 𝑘𝑔 ℎ(𝑝𝑒2 − 𝑝𝜔𝑓 )
𝑞𝑜 = +
141.2(1 + 𝐺𝑂𝑅)𝐵0 𝑢𝑜 [𝑙𝑛( 𝑟𝑒 ) + 𝑠] 1424(1 + 𝐺𝑂𝑅)𝑢̅𝑔 𝑧̅𝑇[𝑙𝑛( 𝑟𝑒 ) + 𝑠]
𝑟𝜔 𝑟𝜔

𝑢̅𝑔 = average gas viscosity in the reservoir (cp)

𝑘𝑔 = permeability to gas (md)

𝑞𝑔 = gas flow rate (Mscf/day)

𝐺𝑂𝑅 = gas-oil ratio (Mscf/STBO)

𝑧̅ = average gas deviation factor in the reservoir (dimensionless)

𝑇 = reservoir temperature (◦R)

In order to use this equation, the permeability of both oil and gas must be known but this
information is often not available. Vogel’s equation can be used to find out the oil flow rate in
reservoirs with pressure below bubble point. It is given by the formula:

𝑞0 𝑝𝜔𝑓 𝑝𝜔𝑓 2
= 1 − 0.2 [ ] − 0.8 [ ]
𝑞max 𝑝̅ 𝑝̅

𝑞max = maximum oil flow rate at maximum drawdown (STBO/day)

𝑝̅ = average reservoir pressure (psig)

26
This equation can only be used under the condition that reservoir pressure is below bubble point
and gives us the value of maximum flow rate and average reservoir pressure using two flow rates.

Figure 5.3 IPR comparing Productivity Index & Vogel’s Equation

6.5 Pressure above and below bubble point

It can be possible that the reservoir has pressure above bubble point initially which gradually falls
below bubble point as reservoir pressure declines. In such case the IPR is given by the
combination of productivity index and Vogel’s equation. IPR defines the portion above the bubble
point and Vogel’s equation defines the part below it. The two models meet at the bubble point.

If the tests show that one point is above bubble point and the other below it, the well can be
retested to obtain both the points above or below the bubble point. In this case the above
discussed methods can be used to find out the reservoir pressure, maximum oil flow rate
resulting IPR. When the test points show values above and below bubble point, assuming the
productivity index model can be used, an estimate of reservoir pressure can be given using the
two test points. Although, this estimate will be too large as second test point is below the bubble
point.
𝑞1 𝑝2 − 𝑝1 𝑞2
𝑝𝑒 =
𝑞1 − 𝑞2

The estimated reservoir pressure is now used to compute the flow rate at the bubble point using
the two models.
𝑞1
𝐽=
𝑝𝑒 − 𝑝𝜔𝑓1

27
𝑞𝑏𝐽 = 𝐽(𝑝𝑒 − 𝑝𝜔𝑓1 )

𝑞2
𝑞max = 𝑝𝜔𝑓 𝑝𝜔𝑓 2
1−0.2[ ̅ ]−0.8[ ̅ ]
𝑝 𝑝

𝑝𝜔𝑓 𝑝𝜔𝑓 2
𝑞𝑏𝑣 = 𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥 [1 − 0.2 [ ] − 0.8 [ ] ]
𝑝̅ 𝑝̅

6.6 Well Testing Best Practices

 Static BHP should be determined when well is not producing either by using downhole
pressure gauge or by fluid level measurement method.
 Well test should be carried out periodically and at different flow rates. The tests should
measure the flow rate of liquid, oil and gas, the fluid level, the flowing wellhead pressure
and specific gravities of all the fluids. All the data should be recorded in the official well
record.
 Only stabilized flow rates should be considered, and the tests should be carried out for
subsequent time to reach this stabilized condition.
 Special care needs to be taken for the presence of gas.

28
 7 The Downhole Pump
This chapter discusses the basic components of downhole plunger pump and its operations. The
downhole pump is commonly used in rod pumping installations. A surface unit operated by a
prime mover has a rod string connected to it. This rod string drives the plunger pump axially over
a linear stroke.

Figure 6.1 The Rod Pumping System

The pressure difference between the wellbore and the reservoir causes the fluid to flow into the
wellbore. The fluid which enters the wellbore are aggregated into the casing and the annular
casing between the tubing and casing. The fluids are settled here according to their densities with
gas at the top and liquid at the bottom. The subsurface pump delivers the pumped fluid to a
surface flowline which in connected to a gathering station.

7.1 The Function of the Downhole Pump

A pressure traverse diagram (pressure vs depth) can provide us with better understanding of the
operation and function of the downhole pump, being able to analyze the pressure distribution in
various parts of the pump.

The right side of the graph depicts a subsurface pump installed at the depth of 5000 ft and it has
been operating long enough for the flow at the surface to be stabilized to the point that it

29
matches the flow from the formation. Therefore, the GOR and WOR values also become constant.
This stabilized condition also gives constant values for casing head pressure (10 psi), tubing head
pressure (40 psi), annular producing fluid level depth (4500 ft).

Figure 6.2 Pressure traverse in a well produced by pumping

On the left side of the graph, we have a pressure distribution vs depth that exists in the tubing
string, wellbore and the annulus. Ath the depth of producing fluid level (4500 ft) the casing head
pressure increases from 10 psi to 15 psi due to the presence of gas column. The pressure goes
on increasing further below from this point to 50 psi at the depth of pump intake. This pressure
is known as the pump intake pressure (PIP). The wellbore pressure near the formation increases
further due to heavier fluid mixture below the pump intake. This pressure is known as the
producing bottom hole pressure (400 psi). The pressure difference between the producing BHP
and the static reservoir pressure (2600 psi) is known as the pressure drawdown.

On the tubing side, pressure increases rapidly with depth. The pressure at the bottom of the
tubing above the pump is 2500 psi and this pressure is known as the pump discharge pressure
(PDP).

From the pressure distribution diagram, we can say that the pump has three main tasks:

 Admit the fluid through the pump intake at pressure equal to PIP.
 Compress the fluid into pressure greater than PDP.
 Discharge the fluid from pump into the tubing.

30
7.2 Pump Rate and Efficiency
The oil production rate of subsurface plunger pump is given by the formula:

𝑞 = 0.1485(𝑁)𝐴𝑝 𝑆𝑝 𝑒 ∕ 𝐵0

𝑞 = production rate (STB/day)

𝑁 = pump speed (spm)

𝐴𝑝 = plunger area (in2)

𝑆𝑝 = effective stroke length at the pump (in)

𝐵0 = oil formation volume factor (bbl/STB)

𝑒 = pump volumetric efficiency (fraction)

The plunger stroke mentioned in this formula doesn’t consider rod acceleration (called
overtravel) and rod and tubing stretching. The actual plunger stroke is given by the formula:
𝑛
40.83𝐿2 (𝑎𝑣 + 𝑎𝐷 ) 5.2𝛾𝑓 𝐿𝑁 𝐴𝑃 𝐿 𝐿𝑖
𝑆𝑝 = 𝑆 + − { + ∑𝑖 = 1 }
𝐸 𝐸 𝐴𝑡 𝐴𝑟𝑖

𝑆𝑝 = plunger stroke length (in)

𝑆 = surface stroke length (in)

𝐿 = pump depth (ft)

𝑎 = dimensionless acceleration constant for upstroke and downstroke

𝛾𝑓 = specific gravity of the pumped fluids (dimensionless)

𝐿𝑁 = net lift of the pump (ft)

𝐴𝑃 = pump plunger area (in2)

𝐸 = Youngs Modulus

𝐴𝑡 = metal area for the tubing (in2)

𝐿𝑖 = length of each rod segment (ft)

31
𝐴𝑟 = rod area (in2)

𝑖 = subscript for each rod diameter used

The volumetric efficiency of the pump changes due to the increase in plunger to barrel clearance
caused by wear and tear with time. For a new pump, the volumetric efficiency can be calculated
based on the slippage of fluid back past the plunger. Fluid slippage is given by the formula:

ⅆ𝛥𝑝𝐶 1.52
𝑞𝑠 = (1 + 0.14𝑁)453
𝐿𝑝 𝜇

𝑞𝑠 = in situ slippage in the day (bbl/day)

𝑁 = pump speed (spm)

ⅆ = plunger diameter (inches)

𝛥𝑝 = pressure differential across the plunger (psi)

𝐶 = plunger clearance with the barrel (inches)

𝐿𝑝 = plunger seal length (in)

𝜇 = fluid viscosity (cp)

The difference between the PDP and the PIP less the pressure drop across the standing valve is
the pressure differential across the plunger.

𝛥𝑝 = 𝑃𝐷𝑃 − (𝑃𝐼𝑃 − 𝛥𝑝𝑠𝑣 )

The friction in this equation is not considered.

The volumetric efficiency for 100% liquid fillage is given by the equation:
𝑞𝑝 − 𝑞𝑠
𝑒𝑝 =
𝑞𝑝

𝑒𝑝 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 (𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)

𝑞𝑝 = in situ pump rate (bbl/day)

𝑞𝑠 = in situ pimp slippage (bbl/day)

32
7.3 Types of Subsurface Pumps
There are generally two classes of pumps recognized by the American Petroleum Institute (API),
these are tubing pump and the rod pump. The fundamental parts of these subsurface pumps are:

 the barrel
 the plunger
 the standing valve (SV), or insert valve
 the travelling valve (TV), or discharge valve
 the hold down seal assembly

According to the API classification, the rod pump is designated as ‘R’ and is lowered into the
tubing at the bottom of the rod string as a complete assembly. The rod pump is anchored to the
tubing with the help of landing nipple which is connected to the tubing and provides a landing
space for the hold down seal. After the seating of the pump the plunger is spaced on the
downstroke favorably as close as possible to the SV. To improve the compression ratio of the
pump the Tv is made to nearly touch the bottom. This also helps in valve clearance at the bottom
of the stroke.

According to the API classification, the tubing pump is designated as ‘T’. The final spacing of
tubing pump is done when the plunger assembly fits into the pump barrel and the SV sits on the
seating nipple. The final spacing is done when the fluid level and well flow have stabilized.

7.4 Types of Rod Pumps

There are three basic types of rod pumps, given as follows:

 Stationery Barrel, Top Anchor Pump

 Stationery Barrel, Bottom Anchor Pump
 Travelling Barrel, Bottom Anchor Pump

7.5 Operation of Plunger Pumps

Expansion Cycle: During upstroke, when the plunger rises upwards the space between the TV and
SV increases i.e., the volume increases and the fluid present in the space expands causing a
corresponding decrease in pressure. This decrease in pressure is accompanied by the closing of
TV and expansion continues until the pump intake pressure (PIP) exceeds the pressure inside the
pump barrel opening the SV ball valve. This is known as the expansion cycle.

Intake Cycle: The volume created by the rise of TV is filled in by the fluid from the wellbore
entering through the standing valve. This is the intake cycle of the pump.

33
Compression Cycle: During downstroke, the motion of plunger is reversed, and it moves
downwards causing decrease in volume in the barrel between the TV and SV. This leads to
compression of the fluids present causing a corresponding increase in pressure. This increase in
pressure is accompanied by closing of the SV and compression continues until the pressure inside
the barrel exceeds the pump displacement pressure (PDP) opening the TV valve. This is known as
the compression cycle.

Discharge Cycle: With the travelling valve open, the plunger freely movies through the fluid in
the pump barrel. This is the discharge cycle of the pump.

Figure 6.3 Pumping Cycles

7.6 Guidelines for Selection of Subsurface Pumps

Pump selection is made in accordance with the environmental conditions and the advantages
and disadvantages offered by the pump. Pump behavior of different to some characteristics
which will aid in pump selection are discussed below.

7.7 Tubing Pump

Used when maximum production is required.

Flow characteristics  Greatest capacity for a given tubing size,

 Plunger diameter is only 1/4 inch smaller than tubing inside
diameter (ID).
 Large flow areas minimize pressure drops for viscous fluids
 Low compression ratios due to spacing difficulties

34
 Operational  Continuous pumping in high-volume wells
characteristics  Limited solids handling
 Setting depth below 5,000 ft for larger plunger sizes requires
special design consideration

Mechanical  Simple and rugged construction, no valve rod

characteristics  High rod loading transmitted to pumping unit due to larger
plunger
 Barrel subjected to tensile and burst stress cycling
 Significant rod and tubing stretch

Servicing  Requires pulling tubing to overhaul pump barrel

 Repair of plunger and valves by pulling rod string

7.8 Stationary barrel, Bottom Anchor Rod Pump

This pump finds application in deep wells.

Flow characteristics  Requires minimum rathole below end of tubing

 Requires minimum pump submergence
 Small-diameter TV causes compressive loads on rod string
when pumping viscous fluids.
 Requires a downhole gas separator if pump intake is above
gas producing zone.

Operational  Maximum setting depth with heavy wall design

characteristics  Not applicable to intermittent pumping if solids are produced,
unless accessories are attached
 Corrosion and scale might form on outside of barrel.

Mechanical  Valve rod is weakest link in tension.

characteristics  Compression loads cause wear of valve rod and guide.
 Barrel subjected to collapse stress cycling

Servicing  Complete pump retrieved and installed with rod string

 May be difficult to unseat

7.9 Stationary Barrel, Top Anchor Rod Pump

Used in moderate depth, sandy wells with continuous operation.

35
 Flow characteristics  Pump discharge valve just above hold-down prevents solids
from settling,
 Pump barrel can function as dip tube in downhole gas
separator.
 Small-diameter TV causes compressive loads on rod string
when pumping viscous fluids

Operational  Maximum setting depth with heavy-wall design

characteristics  Not applicable to intermittent pumping if solids are
produced, unless accessories are attached
 Corrosion and scale might form on outside of barrel,

Mechanical  Valve rod is weakest link in tension,

characteristics  Compression loads cause wear of valve rod and guide.
 Barrel subjected to burst stress cycling

Servicing  Complete pump retrieved and installed with rod string

7.10 Travelling Barrel, Bottom Anchor Rod Pump

Used in intermittently pumped sandy wells.

Flow characteristics  Flow enters pump through stationary plunger attached to

bottom anchor.
 Barrel attached to bottom of rod string via TV cage
 Barrel reciprocation maintains in motion the fluid in barrel-
tubing annulus,
 When pumping stops, closure of TV prevents solids from
settling inside pump.

Operational  Most applicable to intermittent pumping if solids are produced

characteristics Both valves have open cages to decrease pressure drop.
 Requires adequate pump submergence to fill pump through
pull tube,
 Relatively small SV compared with other pump types, which
makes this unsuitable for viscous fluids or oil with a substantial
dissolved gas component

Mechanical  Rod string connects directly to TV cage.

characteristics  Long pull tube subjected to compression loads

36
  Compression loads might cause buckling and wear of pull tube
 Barrel subjected to collapse stress cycling

Servicing  Complete pump retrieved and installed with rod string

Burst Loading

The allowed setting depth based on burst is given by the formula:

2(𝑆)(𝑡)(𝑆𝐹)
(𝐴𝑆𝐷)𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑠𝑡 =
𝐹𝑆(0.433𝛾𝑓 )𝐷0

(𝐴𝑆𝐷)𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑠𝑡 = allowed setting depth based on burst (ft)

𝑆 = endurance limit (psi)

𝑡 = minimum barrel thickness at thread root (in)

𝑆𝐹 = service factor (≤1.0)

𝐹𝑆 = design factor of safety (>1.0)

𝛾𝑓 = specific gravity of produced fluids (dimensionless)

𝐷0 = minimum barrel OD (in)

Axial Loading

The allowed setting depth based on axial load is given by the formula:

𝑆(𝐴𝑡 )(𝑆𝐹)
(𝐴𝑆𝐷)𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 =
𝐹𝑆(𝐴𝑖 )(0.433𝛾𝑓 )(𝐾)

𝐴𝑖 = internal area of barrel (in2)

𝑆 = endurance limit of barrel material (psi)

𝐴𝑡 = cross sectional area of the barrel (in2)

(𝐴𝑆𝐷)𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 = allowed setting depth based on axial load (ft)

37
𝑆𝐹 = service factor (≤1.0)

𝐹𝑆 = design factor of safety (>1.0)

𝛾𝑓 = specific gravity of produced fluids (dimensionless)

𝐾 = stress concentration factor = 2.8 for standard machined “V” threads

Collapse Loading

Allowed collapse pressure for elastic failure is computed using the following formula:

(𝑂𝐷 ∕ 𝑡) − 1 𝑆𝐹
𝑝𝑐𝑎 = 2𝑌𝑚 [ ]
(𝑂𝐷 ∕ 𝑡)2 𝐹𝑆

𝑝𝑐𝑎 = collapse pressure allowed (psi)

𝑌𝑚 = minimum yield point (the end of plastic behaviour in psi)

𝑂𝐷 = outer diameter of the barrel (in)

𝑡 = bore wall thickness (in)

𝑆𝐹 = service factor (≤1.0)

𝐹𝑆 = design factor of safety (>1.0)

The maximum allowed setting depth for collapse for whichever allowed collapse pressure applies
is computed by:
𝑝𝑐𝑎
(𝐴𝑆𝐷)𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒 =
0.433𝛾𝑓

(𝐴𝑆𝐷)𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒 = allowed setting depth based on collapse (ft)

𝑝𝑐𝑎 = collapse pressure allowed (psi)

𝛾𝑓 = minimum yield point (the end of plastic behavior in psi)

Factors of Safety

For material and dimensional variations, a minimum design factor of safety of 1.25 is generally
considered and a service factor of less than or equal to 1 is taken depending upon the well
conditions. Special consideration should be given to the following pump service conditions:

 tubing head back pressure

38
  corrosive environment
 tagging bottoms
 sand problems
 scale problems

7.11 Pump Size Limitations

The pump size selection depends on the diameter of casing and tubing used in the well. Table
shows the maximum pump size that can be used for a casing of given diameter.

Figure 6.4

7.12 Materials for Subsurface Plunger Pumps

Subsurface pumps operate under harsh conditions such as heigh pressure and temperature, thus
they must overcome the problems of corrosion and abrasion. The material selection for
downhole pump is done according to the individual well conditions as material selection based
on one well condition won’t necessarily work in other well conditions. The types of corrosion the
pump is subjected is mentioned below.

Types of Corrosion

 Erosion corrosion

39
  Stress corrosion
 Pitting
 Corrosion fatigue
 Galvanic Corrosion
 Sulphide stress cracking

These factors are also considered as failure mechanisms for subsurface pumps including
mechanical wear and tear and abrasion.

Abrasion
When the subsurface pump is operating many abrasive materials such as sand and other solids
pass through the pump. This can hamper the working of the pump and to avoid this problem
plated metals are used in sections of pump exposed to high velocity fluid flow.

Barrels
Also known as tubes or barrels tubes, they have standard length of 2 to 40 ft in increments of 1
ft.

API barrels are classified as follows:

 Thin wall
 Heavy wall for rod pump
 Heavy wall for tubing pump
 Thin wall for soft packed pumps

Barrel Materials and Recommended Applications

Carbon Steel: Used in all pumping condition with no abrasion and corrosion.

Carbon Stell Carbonitrited: Used in abrasive and mild corrosive environments.

Corrosive Resistant Steel: Used in severe abrasive and mild H2S or moderate carbon dioxide
corrosive environment.

Brass: Used in severe corrosive environment with no abrasion.

Plungers
According to API specifications, there are three types of plungers:

 One piece pin end plungers for insert pumps

 One piece box end plungers for tubing pumps

40
  Soft packed plungers

Out of the three above mentioned plungers the design of soft packed plungers has not been
standardized.

Rules of Thumb:
The following is the rules of thumb for plungers:

 The length of metal plungers is calculated using fluid slippage equation. Metal plungers
should have 1 ft of depth per 1000 ft of depth, with a minimum of 3 ft and maximum of 8
ft.
 For soft packed plungers there should be 4 valve cups per 1000 ft of depth.
 For lubrication between metal plunger and barrel, it should have a fluid slippage
corresponding to 2% of fluid produced.
 For heavy crude applications, box end plungers are more favorable as larger Id minimizes
the pressure drop across the plunger.

Valve Cage
Valve cages are used to adjust the flow rate. According to API specifications, a variety of cages
are manufactured. Stainless steel, brass, alloy steel, carbon steel etc are used in their
construction. When viscous crude needs to be pumped, an open cage is preferred as it offers
least resistance to flow.

Ball and Seats

The ball and seats serve the purpose of fluid flow control. For handling different types of fluids,
balls of alternate sizes are used. Smaller valves allow low of viscous fluids through it, though this
additional clearance leads to increase in wear and tear.

Use of double valves

The use of double valves has its set of advantages as well as disadvantages. The installation of
double valves either at the pump intake or discharge leads to increase in pressure drop required
to flow fluid into or out of the pump at given rate. This increase in pressure drop is due to the
operation of both the valves in tandem. This also means that increased pump submergence will
be required to fill the pump barrel. Another effect is the need of greater compressive load to be
applied to the rod during downstroke to move the plunger through the fluid in the barrel of the
pump. The use of double valves is also detrimental when gas interference is present. The
presence of gas reduces the compression ratio as a result of additional volume between two
valves. This scenario becomes more severe when one valve is placed on the top and other at the

41
bottom plunger as the volume between the valves is so large that it may require several
downstrokes to completely compress the present gas to the discharge pressure. This is known as
gas locking, and it can be avoided by placing both the valves at the bottom of the plunger.

The presence of double valves certainly helps in highly abrasive environments. Service life of
valves is reduced when pumping abrasive fluids from deep wells. The use of double valves helps
in countering this problem.

Hold Down Seal Assemblies

A seal between the bottom of the tubing and the wellbore is provided by the combination of
seating nipple and hold down assembly as it attaches the insert pump into the tubing. There are
mainly two types of hold down assemblies, a cup type and a mechanical type. Both hold down
assemblies can be used at temperatures below 2500 F.

Mechanical hold downs have metal springs that lock into the gaps in the seating nipple. The
presence of hard metals makes this arrangement susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement and
hence cannot be used in highly corrosive environments.

In deep wells, sanding is a persistent problem, but it can be solved by the application of both top
and bottom hold down. This combination isolates the body of the pump from sands and other
solids.

Pump Anchor
The pump anchor serves to install the seating pump in a well where tubing has been put in
without the seating nipple. It allows the repeated setting at releasing of insert pump using slips
and packing assembly.

Seating Nipples
Seating nipples are used to place insert pumps in the tubing. They are made according to the API
classifications and proper set of seating nipples and hold downs need to be used to avoid
problems with retrieval and installation.

Special Pumps and Associated Hardware

The pumps manufactured according to API standards are able to efficiently function given that
they are installed correctly and chosen according to the well’s flow characteristics. Simple pumps
designs give us less probability of failure, easy installation, operation and repair.

42
There are some pumps which are designed according to the specific problems encountered in
the well. Some of these problems are:

 High GLR
 Solids Production
 Deviated Wellbore
 High viscosity fluids
 Large flowrates
 Small wellbore diameter

Pumping Fluids with High GLR

This pump is designed specifically to navigate through the problem of gas locking. This problem
occurs due to the presence of large volume of gas. It hampers the operation of TV and SV during
upstroke and downstroke.

Figure 6.5 Pump dynamometer cards illustrating gas lock cycles

Gas locking can be easily identified with dynamometer data as the graph has shape of gas
compression/expansion during both the strokes.

In this scenario, the fluid from the wellbore is not transported in the tubing. It also leads to fluid
slippage between the barrel and the plunger, causing the barrel to be filled with fluid and as a
result the fluid circulates in the pump itself giving net zero displacement.

43
Special pumps are designed with multistage compression units, vents in the barrel which drain
the gas which help the pump to operate under condition of high GLR. Some of these pumps are
as follows.

Two Stage Hollow Valve Rod Pump: This pump is designed to reduce gas locking and small
amounts of solids. It uses fluid turbulence to keep the solids in suspension and this turbulence is
provided by the hollow section between the two parts of the pump.

Loc-No Plunger: The use of mechanically actuated TV combined with a special plunger used in
conjunction with standing top valve remedies the problem of gas locking. This combination
allows the gas trapped in the barrel of the pump to move through the plunger and vent out

Pumping Fluids with Solids

The presence of solids causes abrasion and wear and tear of metal reducing the service life of the
pump. It also causes scale accumulation and in some cases corrosion. In order to avoid these
problems some special pumps are used; these are as follows.

Stroke Through Pump: This pump solves the solid problem by making the plunger stroke out of
the barrel. This is made possible by tubular extensions that have an ID larger than the ID of the
barrel, thus making the plunger stroke out of the barrel eliminating any build-up of scales and
sands.

Pampa Pump: The solids are prevented from entering the space between the barrel and the
plunger using a long plunger which gets a tight fight inside the barrel providing no space for solids.
The plunger is wiped clean at every stroke making its operation even more efficient.

Pumping Large Flow Rates

Pumping of fluids with large flow rates can be accomplished by operating two pumps in tandem
or by increasing the plunger area. Some of the pumps which apply this concept are discussed
below.

Double Displacement Pump: This pump consists of two plungers and two barrels to handle fluids
with high flow rates. The two plungers are connected by a connected through a hollow tube and
the plungers are connected by a sealing section. The total area of the plunger is given by sum of
areas of both the plungers minus the area of hollow tube.

Oversized Tubing Pump: Handling of fluid with high flow rates is carried out using plunger having
ID greater than that of the tubing above the pump. Greater diameter of the plunger leads to
greater loads at the rod string. Therefore, the pump must be designed considering the additional
load on the rod string and the pumping unit.

44
Pump Failure Tracking
Optimization of pump design in various working conditions can carried out by maintaining a
record of pump performance and maintenance as shown in the below given table.

Figure 6.6

45
 8 Sucker Rods
Sucker rods are jointed steel rods or fiber-reinforced plastic (FRP) rods that connect the
pump plunger at the bottom of well to the polished rod that is connected to the pumping
unit at the surface. The rods are pulled up through the stroke length by the motion of
pumping unit and fall back into the well on the downstroke as a result of gravity. The
objective is to transmit this motion to the pump plunger at the bottom of the well, thereby
causing it to move the fluid from the wellbore into the pump barrel and discharge it
through the pump into the bottom of the tubing at a pressure that allows the fluid to flow
to the surface.

Steel sucker rods are commonly manufactured in lengths of 25 ft, although longer rods are
possible. Figure 7.1 shows a short sucker rod (pony rod) with the parts labeled.

Common rod diameters and weights (including the couplings) for both steel and FRP rods
are given in table 7.1.

Fig.7.1 Ref. The Beam Lift Handbook (First edition, Revised)

Table 7.1. Sucker rod sizes and elastic constants

Diameter Weight Elastic Constant Weight Elastic Constant

(inches) (lbf /ft) [inches/lbf (ft)] × 10 (lbf /ft) [inches/lbf (ft)] × 10
–6 –6

0.5*
0.726 1.99 – –
0.625* 1.135 1.27 – –
0.75 1.634 0.883 0.48 4.308
0.875 2.224 0.649 0.64 3.168
1.0 2.904 0.497 0.8 2.425
1.125* 3.676 0.393 – –
1.25* 4.538 0.318 1.29 1.552
1.5 6.262 0.27 – –

46
 This means that FRP rods will stretch more than steel rods of the same size when subjected
tothe same axial load. This is due to the difference in Young’s Modulus for steel and for
FRP. Equation 7.1 shows the relationship of Young’s Modulus to the elastic constant.

12
𝐸= 𝑤 𝑔 Eq.7.1
𝐸 𝑟 144
𝜌 𝑔𝑐

𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠
Er = elastic constant ( 𝑙𝑏 )
𝑓(𝑓𝑡)

𝑓 𝑙𝑏
Er = young’s modulus ( 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 2
)

E = 30 ×106 psi for steel

E = 6.3×106 psi for FRP

Wr = unit weight of the rod (lbf/ft)

ρr = density of rod (lbm /ft3)

ρr = 489 lbm /ft3 for steel
ρr = 156.3 lb m/ft3 for FRP
gc = gravitational acceleration (32.2 ft/sec2)
g = force unit conversion (32.2 lbm-ft/lbf-sec2)

8.1 STEEL SUCKER ROD CLASSIFICATION

• Steel sucker rods are classified by the American Petroleum Institute (API) with a letter that
corresponds to the metallurgy and the strength of the steel1,2. A general description of each
API category is as follows:
• API class C rods are made from carbon-manganese steel and are made to withstand lightto
medium loads in a noncorrosive environment (AISI 10XX or 15XX series steel).
• API class K rods contain less carbon and more nickel-molybdenum than class C rods andare
made to withstand light to medium loads in an inhibited environment (AISI 46XX series
steel).
• API class D rods generally contain more manganese and chrome than class K rods and are
probably the most common rod type used, except in deep and/or very heavy load
applications. Class D rods are made to withstand medium to heavy loads in inhibited
environments and are available in three grades: D carbon, D alloy, and D special (AISI 10XX,
15XX, or 41XX series steel).
• Non-API high-strength rods contain more nickel than class D rods and are made with
special hardening techniques. These rods are not an API-specified category. They are made to
withstand the heaviest loads in a noncorrosive or a corrosion-inhibited environment.

47
8.2 SUCKER ROD COUPLINGS
Sucker rod couplings are threaded tubes that are screwed onto one pin end of a sucker rod.
Couplings are manufactured in accordance with API Specification 11B. Couplings, also
called rod boxes,come in standard diameters and in a smaller diameter called a “slim hole”
coupling, as well as in two finishes. The standard (API type T) is manufactured with American
Society of MechanicalEngineers 8630 steel and is coated with an oxide to decrease friction.
The API type SM couplingis made from similar metal stock but is coated with a chrome-style
spray to increase the surface hardness and to help resist abrasion.
Table 7.2 shows the dimensions and strengths of rod couplings. It is good practice to match
the coupling and rod strengths. For example, an API type T coupling will be acceptable for
API grade C and K rods. An API type SM or special coupling is acceptable for API grade D or
high-strength rods.

Table 7.2

Rod Coupling Specifications

API Type T API Type SM Special

Coupling Coupling Minimum Minimum Minimum
Diameter Diameter Tensile Tensile Tensile
Rod Diameter Standard Slim Hole Strength Strength Strength
(inches) (inches) (inches) (psi) (psi) (psi)

H and L 1H 1G 95,000 100,000 120,000

I 1L 1H 95,000 100,000 120,000
M 113/16 1L 95,000 100,000 120,000
1 23/16 2 95,000 100,000 120,000
1J 2K – 95,000 100,000 120,000

8.3 SUCKER ROD LOADS

Sucker rods are subjected to a fluctuating load during each stroke. During the upstroke, the
rodsare lifted out of the well by the motion of the pumping unit. The traveling valve (TV)
in the pump closes, transferring the fluid weight from the tubing to the rods. During the
upstroke, theforces on the rods at a given depth are the weight of the fluid, the buoyed rod
weight below thegiven depth, and the forces caused by the motion of the rods and the
fluid. The maximum or peak load that the rods must support occurs at some point during
the upstroke. The maximum load is shown in equation 7.2.
Wmax = Wrf + Fo + WDup

Wmax = maximum rod load during the upstroke (lbf)

Wrf = weight of the rods suspended in the fluid (lbf)

48
 Fo = fluid weight (lbf)

WDup = dynamic load during the upstroke (lbf)

During the downstroke, the rods are in free fall into the well. After the TV opens, the fluid load
is transferred to the standing valve (SV) and from the SV to the tubing string. The rods sup-
port the buoyed rod weight, which is reduced by the dynamic forces that act to resist
movementinto the well. The rod load at some point during the downstroke is the minimum
load supportedby the rods (equation 7.3).
Wmin = Wrf – WDdown

Wmin = minimum rod load during the downstroke (lbf)

Wrf = buoyed rod weight (lbf)
WDdown = dynamic loads during the downstroke (lbf)

If a sucker rod were subjected to a static tensile load that was less than the minimum
tensile strength of the rod and if the rod were in a noncorrosive environment, the rod would
never break.As described previously, all the rods in the string are subjected to a fluctuating
load on every stroke. Continuous repetition of the load cycle through which the rods
move causes the rodsto fail after a set number of cycles (strokes). This is true even if the
rods are in a noncorrosive environment and the loads on the rods are below the minimum
tensile strength of the rods. Indeed, the apparent rod stress when the rods fail is below
the minimum tensile strength of therods. This type of failure is called fatigue.

• The number of strokes before failure is greatly increased if, for a given minimum stress,the
maximum stress can be reduced below the maximum allowed on the Modified Good- man
Diagram.
• Rod life in terms of years is greatly extended if the slowest practical pumping speed is used
while still producing the required daily rate. Slower speed also reduces the dynamicloads on
the rods, which reduces the magnitude of the stress fluctuation.

8.4 AXIAL COMPRESSION

Axial compression in sucker rods can occur only during the downstroke and is the result of
dynamic forces that resist the fall of the rods back into the well. From a buckling standpoint,
the most severe compression force occurs at the bottom of the rods where they are
connected to the pump. This is because there is no rod weight below this point that acts
to keep the rods in tension. The axial compression force that exists at this point is caused
by forces in the pump that resist the downward motion of the plunger during the

49
 downstroke.
Sinker bars (also called weight bars or K bars) are used at the bottom of the rod string and
juston top of the pump in order to add weight to the bottom of the rod string. The added
weightis designed to keep the forces on the rods above the critical force that would cause
the rods to buckle. Some wells might not require sinker bars if the rod forces during the
downstroke are above the critical buckling force.
FRP sucker rods are about one-third lighter than steel rods and are used to reduce the total
weightof the rod string and, in some cases, to increase the plunger travel. This is particularly
important in deep wells or in wells in which fluid loads are large, because it might be
difficult to keep an all-steel string within the stress limits of the Modified Goodman
Diagram. A lighter rod load will also allow for the use of a smaller pumping unit and require
less power. FRP rods have a tensile strength between 120,000 and 180,000 psi. They are as
strong in tension as API grade Dor high-strength rods with less than one-third
If done correctly, sucker rod string design should strive to achieve the following goals
simultaneously:
• The design should allow for the production of all the liquid that the reservoir can flow into
the bottom of the well on a continuous basis.
• The correct rod grade must be used for the fluid environment, or the fluid environment
must be changed to fit the rod type through chemical inhibition.
• The maximum rod loads shown as rod stresses must be less than the maximum allowedon
the Modified Goodman Diagram. The maximum stress must also be belowthe maximum
stress recommended for a given rod type and material.
• The life of the rods should be extended as much as possible through the reduction of
dynamic loads and pumping speeds.
• Fiberglass rods must never be placed in compression. Steel rods should never have a
compressive load exceeding the critical load that will cause buckling. Sinker bars shouldbe
used at the bottom of the rod string when needed in order to prevent compressive loadsin
the upper sections of the rod string.
• Sucker rod couplings must have at least the same strength as the rods and be correctly
made up (tightened) in the field.

8.5 Rod Sizes and the Tapered Rod String

It is certainly possible that the entire length of the sucker rods can be constructed using
rods ofonly one diameter. For example, a 5,000-ft well can be pumped under the correct
circumstancesusing only I-inch class D rods. However, the same rods at 6,000 ft with the
same operating conditions will have a maximum stress that exceeds the recommended
level for class D rods andis above the maximum recommended value determined using the
Modified Goodman Diagram.A larger rod will allow the well to be pumped with only one
50
rod size at 6,000 ft, but similar difficulties will occur for every rod as the well depth is
increased. This is in no small measurecaused by the increasing weight of the rods as the rod
size is increased. As the weight of the rodstring increases, the size of the pumping unit and
prime mover must also increase.

8.6 DYNAMIC LOADS

One advantage of the API method is that it takes dynamic loads into consideration. As
discussedpreviously, dynamic loads are caused by the motion of the rods and include the
drag or frictionthat exists between the rods and tubing, the rods and fluid, the fluid and
tubing, pump friction, stuffing box friction, and inertial forces due to the acceleration of
the rod string and the fluid. Dynamic loads can be estimated in a variety of ways.

8.7 FLUID INERTIA

The fluid in the tubing has a change of inertia during the pumping cycle. Changes in inertia
can create significant forces, such as those created with a water hammer. For most
pumping wells,the fluid has sufficient compressibility so that the fluid inertial forces are
absorbed or are small enough to be ignored. Shallow wells pumping large volumes of
relatively incompressible liquid(high water cut) are a special case and can introduce fluid
inertial forces that are significant.

8.8 SUCKER ROD GUIDES

Sucker rod guides are sacrificial protrusions that are larger in diameter than the rod body
and the rod box. They can be made of plastic or of another material that is softer than the
steel used in the tubing. Guides are intended to prevent the metal of the rod or rod box from
contacting the tubing at points where the wellbore trajectory deviates from vertical. The
material of the guide does touch and over time will be worn away by abrasion. The softer
material will not wear a hole in the tubing and prevents the rods from wearing as a result of
contact with the tubing.
8.9 DEVIATED WELLS
As discussed in the previous sections, deviated wells pose a special rod pumping problem
caused by the increased friction between the rods and the tubing. The extra wear shortens
the life of the rods and tubing. In highly deviated wells, the rods might be pushed into
compression in the deviated section, causing buckling and increasing rod fatigue. Wear
can be slowed by the careful placement of rod guides. The forces on the rods can be
estimated using the 1-D wave equation by adjusting the friction coefficients.

51
8.10 Rod Bending Loads
When a rod passes through a bend, a tensile load is placed on the outside of the bend, and
a compression load is placed on the inside. There are two types of bending loads that can
be placed on a rod passing through a part of the well that is deviated from vertical. The less
severeof the two is when the rods are completely supported along their length by the wall
of the tubing. This is called pure bending and was shown by Lubinski26 as the following
(equation 7.4):

Fpb = 64αdrw Eq. 7.4

Fpb = pure bending tensile force on the rod (lbf)

dr = rod diameter (inches)
w = unit rod weight (lbs/ft)
α = dogleg severity of the hole (degrees/100 ft)

Friction
Coulomb friction between two surfaces is defined by equation 7.5.
Ff = f Fn Eq. 7.5

Ff = friction force (lbf)

f = dimensionless friction coefficient
Fn = static force normal to the direction of motion (lbf)

Compression and Buckling

In compression, rods might buckle. Buckling in steel sucker rods causes them to contact
the wall of the tubing, which increases wear due to abrasion .

Buckling also introduces extra axial and radial stressesas a result of bending. The stress due
to bending plus the axial stress due to the pumping loads might exceed the maximum
recommended stress for the rod, which resultsin microscopic cracks that will lead to fatigue
failure.

Pumps
Although not strictly a rod problem, pump performance in the deviated portion of the well
should be briefly discussed. Pumps placed in the deviated portion of a well should be designed
as discussed in chapter 6 in order to handle the expected fluid type and flow rate. The pump
plunger and barrel will experience accelerated wear due to the plunger being pulled by
gravity into contact with the barrel on the low side of the hole. This is especially true for

52
pumps placed in a horizontal section. For pumps that are placed in highly deviated sections,
it may be possible to use soft-packed orringed plungers if the discharge pressure required
is not so large that it causes excessive slippage of fluid past the plunger.

Pressure Drawdown and Inflow Performance

Pressure drawdown hasa large effect on the production rate from the well. In keeping with
the goals of artificial lift, drawdown should be made as large as possible in order to create
the largest possible flow rate from the reservoir, as long as the drawdown does not cause
harm to the reservoir, the tubing, orthe rods and pump. This statement drives the designer
to place the pump as close to the point of fluid entry as possible. However, some PIP is
required to feed liquid into the pump.

POLISHED ROD
A polished rod is a highly surface-finished rod at the top of the rod string that allows linear
motion through the seal of the stuffing box without any leakage of fluids. Without the
polishedrod, the stuffing box packing would be quickly worn and begin to leak pumped
fluids. The polished rod is clamped above the carrier bar on the pumping unit with a
polished rod clamp. This secures the rods to the pumping unit. The polished rod is normally
larger in diameter thanthe top rod in the rod taper. For example, a polished rod with a 1G-
inch diameter is normally used for M-inch rods, and a polished rod with a 1H-inch diameter
is normally used for 1-inch rods. The larger polished rod diameter reduces the stress
fluctuation carried and extends the life of the polished rod.

SUCKER ROD FAILURE

The vast majority of sucker rods fail due to fatigue, the causes of which are many and
varied. Fatigue failures are the result of a crack that begins at a flaw or a damage site on a
rod. The crack grows through the rod cross section as strokes accumulate until finally the
remaining intact rod area can no longer support the load. At this point, the rod fails suddenly.

CORROSIVE ATTACK
Corrosion reduces the area of metal avail- able to support a given load. Corrosion pits can
be the initiation site of a fatigue crack. Corrosion is set up in a corrosion cell that contains
an anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte, in addition to the metal surface. The produced
water is the electro-lyte, and it must contain either hydrogen sulfide (H2S), carbon dioxide
(CO2), or oxygen (O2) in order to complete the reaction with the metal surface. The anode
and cathode create an electrical circuit. The anode is the place where metal is actually
removed and where a hole in the metal will eventually form unless something occurs to
slow down or stop the reaction. The circuit forms initially at some surface flaw or damage
site where there are microscopic differences in the metal structure.

53
CORROSION CONTROL
Corrosion is controlled by using a metal that is resistant to corrosive attack, by coating the
metalwith a corrosion inhibitor, or both. Corrosion-resistant metals are common in oilfield
tubing and pumps. For example, steel with high chrome content resists CO2 corrosion.
Alloys that aremore corrosion resistant are available for combinations of CO2 and H2S at
elevated temperatures. These metals are expensive compared with the metal normally
used in sucker rods. FRPsucker rods are not affected by corrosion but can only be used in
the upper portion of the well in order to avoid compression failures. So, fiberglass rods will
prevent corrosion in the portion of the rod string in which they are used, but they do not
stop corrosive attack of the metal rods used beneath them, corrosion of their steel
couplings, or corrosive attack on the metal tubing.

PARAFFIN
Paraffin is wax that can crystallize from some oils at or below the cloud point temperature.
It is often the case that oil in the tubing will cool below the cloud point and paraffin will
crystallize. The crystals then agglomerate around a nucleating agent and adhere to the
surface of the rods andthe tubing. Nucleating agents can be asphaltene particles in the oil
or formation fines, sand, or corrosion by-products in the produced fluid28. The paraffin can
become a blockage to fluid flowin the tubing, increase rod loads through friction, and make
pulling the rods and pump difficult.

Hollow Rods
Hollow sucker rods, originally developed for injecting diluents in order to reduce the
viscosityof high-density crudes, are available for pumping wells completed using small,
tubing-sized pipe. Small tubing (1.05-inch outside diameter, 0.824-inch inside diameter) is
sometimes usedas a hollow sucker rod. Small coiled tubing could be used as a continuous
hollow sucker rodif the pump anchor can be set and the special arrangements for running
and retrieving with a coiled tubing unit can be accommodated. The pump discharges fluid
to the inside of the rod, where it is pumped to the surface. The polished rod is also hollow.
The fluid exits the top of the polished rod through a flexible hose that allows the
reciprocation of the rod string by the pumping unit. The pump is secured in the tubing with
a mechanical anchor. Figure 7.2 shows hollow sucker rod assembly.

54
 Figure 7.2
Continuous Rods
Solid continuous rod strings have no sucker rod boxes. As such, they are lighter
weight and do not have the larger diameter of the rod box. Long sections can be
welded together to meet depth requirements. Appropriate couplings are installed at
the top and bottom to attach to the polished rod and the pump rod. When
continuous rod strings are used, the weight of the rod string is reduced, as is the
friction between the rod boxes and the tubing. If the well is not vertical, the
continuous rod will abrade the tubing along the entire length of contact, as opposed
to conventional rod boxes that act as a bit of a centralizer for the rods. The rods must
be spooled into and out of the well for workover operations, and if they should
break, careful procedures for welding the rod back together must be used. Because
continuous rods do not have the large diameter rod box associated with jointed rods,
the clearance between the tubing and the rod is increased, as shown in figure 7.3.
This is an advantage when pumping high-viscosity, low-API-gravity oil.

55
 Figure 7.3 Continuous rod clearance compared with conventional rod couplings

8.11 BEST PRACTICES FOR SUCKER RODS

• The rods must have adequate clearance inside the tubing.

• The correct rod material must be used for the fluid environment, or the fluid environment
must be changed to fit the rod type through chemical inhibition.
The sucker rod string should be designed using a 1-D wave equation solution specific to the
individual well. This requires the use of a computer program like QRod® or RODSTAR®.The API
RP11L method is a solution of the wave equation but has been generalized and, as such, is not
as good a choice for a given well, unless the well happens to operate according to the
assumptions used to generalize the API solution. Additionally, the API RP11L method is
intended only for steel sucker rods.
• During the design stage, it is important to ensure that the maximum rod stress on the top of
each rod taper does not exceed the maximum recommended stress from the API Modified
Goodman Diagram and is below the recommended maximum stress forthe grade of the
rod.
• When considering rod life, it is desirable to make the maximum stress fall as far below the
API recommended value as is practical, because rod life increases exponentially as the
maximum stress declines below the recommended maximum. This is generally
accomplished through the reduction of rod string dynamic loads, which are reduced by
pumping as slowly as possible.
• The bottom of the rod string where the rods attach to the pump should not be allowed to
have an axial compressive load that is large enough to buckle the rods. Sufficient sinker bars

56
 should be used to prevent buckling.
• FRP (fiberglass) rods should never be allowed to go into compression.
• In the field, sucker rods should be handled according to the guidelines of the manufacturer or
the API in order to prevent damage from impact and bending.
• Sucker rod couplings must have at least the same strength as the rods and must be made
up (tightened) in the field according to the manufacturer’s specifications.
• Rod guides should be used at any point on the rod string in which excessive coupling or tubing
wear is observed. Rod guides should be run through any sections of the well that are
purposely deviated. As a rule of thumb in deviated wells, rod guides should be placed at
the top, middle, and bottom of a rod through the deviated portions of the well. The guides
used in these cases must be molded-on guides, because snap-on guides tend to move on
the rod over time.

57
 9 Pumping Units

Pumping units are the machines installed at the surface that lift the rods and fluid the
length ofthe surface stroke at the desired pumping speed. This is the only function of the
pumping unit.The rods fall back into the well during the downstroke as a result of gravity. The
motion impartedto the rods causes the pump plunger to cycle.

There are several types of pumping units, the most common of which are the beam-balanced
pumping unit and the crank-balanced pumping unit. Other types are the long-stroke
pumping unit and the surface-hydraulic pumping unit. These types will be discussed in the
sections that follow.

9.1 BEAM-BALANCED AND CRANK-BALANCED PUMPING UNITS

Beam-balanced and crank-balanced units are the most common types of pumping units.
They are robust and, when properly designed and maintained, have service lives of many
decades.

9.1.1 Type I Levers

The oldest pumping unit design is the type I lever unit, as shown in figures 8.1 and 8.2.
Oilfieldapplications of this design can be traced back to the early cable tool rigs, in which
the walkingbeam was used to raise and lower the cable tools while drilling and, afterwards,
could be usedduring production to operate a pump in the well.

Figure 8.1 Type I lever

58
9.1.2 Type III Levers
Pumping units that use a type III lever have the same components as units that use a type
Ilever, but some of the components are at different locations on the structure. For units
using a type III lever, the samson post has been moved to the rear of the walking beam, and
the gear boxand cranks, pitman arms, and equalizer bar have been moved into the middle
of the structure. This arrangement has some advantages with regard to the acceleration
of the rods and will be discussed in the section describing how to choose unit geometry.
(As a side note, a type II lever is a wheel barrow, andno pumping units using this type of
lever are made.)

Figure 8.2 Type III lever

9.1.3 American Petroleum Institute (API) Unit Designations

The API has established a descriptive code for pumping units, as shown in figure. 8.3. The
unit described by the example presented in figure 8.9 is a crank-balanced, conventional
geometry unit (type I lever) with a double reduction gear box with a torque rating of 320,000
in.-lbs, a beam rating of 30,500 lbs, and a maximum stroke length of 100 inches.

59
 Figure 8.3 API pumping unit designation code

9.1.4 Specialty Units

Several special-purpose pumping units are also available, two of which are meant to be
used in fields that are irrigated using moving overhead pivots. This requires that the unit
be placed lower than normal so that the irrigation equipment can pass over the top of the
unit. One type can be stopped and folded to a height of 15 ft. A second type is a low-profile
unit that is 11.8 fttall. The folding unit uses the type code “LC,” and the low profile unit
uses “LP.”

9.2 Choice of Unit Type

The size of the pumping unit (the gear box and beam rating for a given set of operating
conditions)is determined from the design of the pumping system. The choice of the type of
pumping unit isoften dictated by availability or price. Another method for choosing a type
is to investigate the way a pumping unit moves, otherwise known as the kinematics of a unit.

Table 8.1

Largest and Smallest Pumping Units by Class

Unit Type Largest in Class Smallest in Class

Crank-balanced, type I lever C1824D-305-240 C25D-53-30

Beam-balanced, type I lever B80D-76-64 B6.4D-28-12
Reverse Mark, crank-balanced type I lever RM1824D-427-192 RM228D-173-74
Air-balanced, type III lever A2560D-470-240 A114D-173-64
Mark II, type III lever M1824D-427-216 M114D-143-64
Low-profile, crank-balanced, type I lever LP320D-246-86 LP114D-133-54

60
The stroke length created by the lengths of the components, as defined by Gray, is given as
follows (equation 8.1):
S = A(ψb – ψt )

Eq. 8.1

S = surface stroke length (inches)

A = distance from the samson post bearing to the center of the polished rod (inches)
ψb = maximum value of the angle at the bottom of the stroke (radians)
ψt = minimum value of the angle at the top of the stroke (radians)

9.2.1 The Gear Box

The gear box serves as a speed reducer between the prime mover and the pumping unit.
The gears must have sufficient strength to withstand the net torque created by the well
load offset by the counterbalance load. The more gears that are placed inside the gear box,
the larger the speed reduction can be. Many older pumping units had only one set of gears
inside the gear box, which created a single-speed reduction.

9.2.2 Torque
The torque carried by the crankshaft of the gear box is generated by a force acting through
a moment arm. The units of torque are therefore length multiplied by force or, in English
units, ft-lbf . Using a dynamometer, it is convenient to measure the loads carried by the
pumping unit at the polished rod. This is done through the use of a strain gauge load cell
inserted between the polished rod clamp and the carrier bar. A potentiometer or
accelerometer is used to determinethe position of the polished rod in the stroke for every
measurement of load.

The crankshaft torque created by a force at the polished rod positioned at given crank angle
adjusted for the natural counterbalance of the structure can be computed using equation
8.2.
Tθ = TFθ (Fθ – B)

Eq. 8.2

Tθ = crankshaft torque at a given crank angle (in.-lbf )

TFθ = torque factor at a given crank angle (inches)
Fθ = force measured at the polished rod at a given crank angle (lbf )

61
B = unit structural unbalance (lbf ) (see counterbalance section for definition
θ = crank angle (degrees)

9.2.3 Counterbalance
The purpose of counterbalance is to offset some of the well load in order to reduce the
torque carried by the gear box. Because torque and power are related, smaller torque
requirements result in smaller power requirements. Thus, the correct use of
counterbalance allows for the use of the smallest and least expensive gear box and prime
mover and the consumption of the smallestamount of fuel or electrical power.

9.2.4 Crank-Balanced Units

Crank-balanced units are the most common types of units in which the weights are placed
on the cranks. The counterbalance can be adjusted by adding or removing weight and/ or
moving the weights in or out on the crank. The torque at the crankshaft is the weight of
the counterweight and cranks multiplied by the length of the moment arm from the center
of the crankshaft to the corresponding center of gravity of the weights and of the cranks
(equation 8.3).
TC = WC R

Eq. 8.3

TC = crankshaft torque from the crank weights and cranks (in.-lbf )

WC = weight of the counterweights on the crank and the cranks (lbf )
R = moment arm length (inches)

9.2.5 Beam-Balanced Units

The weights can be placed on the tail of the beam of a type I lever pumping unit. The
counterbalance now is a function of the weight of the counterbalance and the acceleration
of the weights on the beam (c).
𝑾
Wθ = W + 𝒈 a θ

Eq. 8.4

Wθ = counterweight at a given crank angle (lbf )

W = weight of the counterbalance (lbf )
g = acceleration of gravity
a θ = acceleration of the beam at a given crank angle (ft/sec2)

62
9.2.6 Air-Balanced Units
The counterbalance effect at the polished rod is created by air pressure in a large cylinder.
The counterbalance effect at any crank angle is given by equations 8.5 and 8.6.
CBEθ = G(Paθ – S) Eq. 8.5

CBEθ = effective counterbalance at the polished rod for crank angle θ (lbf )
G = geometry constant (inches2)
G = (DSAAp )/DSP Eq. 8.6

DSA = distance from the samson post bearing to the air cylinder bearing
DSP = distance from the samson post bearing to the center of the polished rod
Ap p = area of the air piston in the cylinder (inches2)
Paθ = air pressure in the cylinder at the given crank angle (psi)
S = air pressure required to offset the structural unbalance (psi)

9.2.7 Balancing the Unit

It is not possible to perfectly offset the well load at every point in the stroke because the
well loads are never the mirror image of the counterbalance. It is possible to add or
subtract counterbalance to make the largest values of the net gear box torqueduring the
upstroke and downstroke equal. Counterbalance adjustment is done by adding or
removing crank or beam weights, adjusting the position of the weights on the cranks, or
raisingor lowering the air pressure for air-balanced units.

9.2.8 Structures, Bearings, and Bases

Pumping unit structures are very robust and not subject to failure if the maximum beam
load is not exceeded, the pumping unit base is level and solid, and the bearings are working
properly. This is also the case for the gears in the gear box.
First, if the maximum beam load is exceeded, bearing failure can follow. The welds that hold
the structural members together can also fail, and it is possible to bend or twist the walking
beam.
Second, the unit must be secured to a level, firm base. Any motion in the unit due to an
unsound base can lead to structural failure.
And third, it is very important that the bearings and the gears in the gear box are properly
lubricated and that the maximum gear box torque is not exceeded. If they are properly
maintainedand not overloaded, units have a service life of many years, even decades.

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 9.2.9 Efficiency
Overall pumping efficiency is a measure of the hydraulic power required to produce fluid
from the well as compared with input power from the prime mover. There are several
sources of powerloss, including the following:
• friction in the tubing and pump
• friction in the pumping unit
• friction in the prime mover

The prime mover efficiency is a function of the type of prime mover and the efficiency
ofpower transmission through the sheaves and belts to the high-speed input shaft of the
gear box.

9.3 Alternative Pumping Units

Long-Stroke Units
Long-stroke pumping units can have surface stroke lengths up to 366 inches (or 30.5 feet),
com-pared with 240 inches, which is the longest stroke available on type I or type III lever
pumpingunits. The longer stroke allows the unit to be run at low speeds. This combination
has the benefitof extending rod, pump, and tubing life. The slow speed and long stroke also
allow for a larger fluid load, because the dynamic loads have been reduced. The unit
operates with a conventional gear box driven by a motor. The counterweights are held
inside a steel box attached to one sideof a long belt, the other side of which connects to
the polished rod. The unit has a reversing gear that determines when the end of the stroke
has been reached and switches the direction ofthe belt. Figure 8.4 shows a long-stroke
unit made by Rotaflex® (Weatherford International).

Hydraulic Pumping Units

These units use a hydraulic piston to raise the polished rod. Some units also combine
nitrogenthat is compressed on the downstroke to supply part of the power requirement
of the unit during the upstroke. Switches reverse the stroke. These units are easy to set up
and are very usefulas test units. Speed control is simple and fast, requiring only a change
of setting on the controlpanel. Due to a more abrupt change in velocity, hydraulic units can
have increased acceleration loads at the beginning and end of the stroke when compared
with the other types of units.
Units have stroke lengths from 24 to 192 inches and can pump at speeds up to 9 spm. The
maximum beam load can be as high as 40,000 lbs depending on the unit. Figure 8.5 shows
a unit from Microlift.

64
 Figure 8.4 Long-stroke pumping unit Figure 8.5 Microlift hydraulic pumping unit

9.4 BEST PRACTICES

To achieve the longest service life at the least expense, pumping units should be selected
andused according to the following rules:
• Always operate the unit below the manufacturer’s rating for the gear box and the maxi-
mum beam load.
• Keep the unit balanced. For large units, the use of a minimum of beam weights will keep
momentum transfer small at the beginning and end of the stroke.
• Operate the unit at the slowest speed possible to match the pump capacity to the reservoir
inflow capacity.
• Select the correct pumping unit geometry for the application.
• Follow the manufacturer’s recommended lubrication and maintenance schedule.
• Make sure the foundation is level and firm and that the unit is securely tied to the foundation
and correctly aligned with the wellhead.
• Use prime mover and gear box sheaves that create belt speeds that are within the general
belt velocity guide lines (between 2,000 and 5,000 ft/min).
• Follow the guidelines of the manufacturer to adequately shield the moving parts of the
pumping unit in order to protect people and animals.

65
 10 Prime Movers
The source of power for the rig location. On modern rigs, the prime mover consists of one to four
or more diesel engines. The power required to start and keep a pumping unit in motion is
provided by an external source called a prime mover. These engines commonly produce several
thousand horsepower.

10.1 PRIME MOVER SIZING

The prime mover must be able to supply sufficient power to start the pumping unit from
a deadstop and then keep the unit in motion.

Starting Power

The torque needed at the gear reducer and the inertia that needs to be overcome in
order to accelerate the unit's articulating components and the rods to the optimum
pumping speed are connected to the power needed to start a unit from a complete
stop. When measuring a prime mover, it is impossible to know in advance what will
happen.

Due to the inertia of the parts, the peak torque needed to start the unit is greater
than the running maximum. For starting inertia, it is recommended that the peak
torque be raised by around 10%.
TS max dPM
TPMs = Tsmax dPM / Z * din
Z din

TPMs = starting prime mover shaft torque (in.-lbf)

TS max = maximum torque entering the slow-speed shaft of the gear box (in.-lbf)
Z = gear box gear reduction ratio (rpm out/rpm in)
dPM = prime mover sheave pitch diameter (inches)
din = external gear box input sheave pitch diameter (inches)

The power required by the prime mover is

Pms = 2π ωs TPMs/12(33,000) ePM

PPMs = prime mover starting power (hp)

ωs = prime mover speed at the required torque (rpm)
ePM = prime mover efficiency under starting conditions (fraction)

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 Running Power
After the unit is in motion, the power required to keep it running can be computed
using
Ppm = Phyd * CLF / ew * eu *epm

Ppm = input power from the prime mover

(hp)Phyd = hydraulic power to produce fluid
(hp) ew = efficiency in the well (fraction)
eu = pumping unit efficiency (fraction
epm = prime mover efficiency (fraction)
CLF = cyclical load factor (dimensionless)

Table 9.1 - Empirical Cyclical Load Factors3

NEMA* D
Slow- Multicylinder NEMA
Unit Type Speed Engines Motors B and C
Engines Motors
Conventional,
Reverse
Mark, and 1.375 1.897 1.375 1.897
air-balanced
Mark II 1.1 1.517 1.1 1.517

10.2 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

To move a piston down in the cylinder and drive a crankshaft, internal combustion engines ignite
a fuel-air mixture in a cylinder. The clutch that connects to the crankshaft can either keep the
engine away from the load or bring it into touch with it. The prime mover sheave is located on
the clutch's output shaft, and power belts connect it to the gear box sheave on the pumping unit
gear box.

Two types of internal combustion engines are distinguished: two-stroke engines and four-stroke
engines.

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Two-Stroke Engines

Because there is a compression stroke and a combustion stroke on each cycle of the piston, two-
stroke engines get their name (also known as a power stroke). Figure 1 depicts a cutaway diagram
of a single-cylinder, two-stroke pumping unit engine.

The spark plug burns, the air-fuel mixture explodes, starting with the piston at the top of the
stroke. This spins the crankshaft and forces the piston back down into the cylinder. The
combustion stroke, often known as the power stroke, is the piston's backward motion.

Figure1 Two-stroke cycle

Four-Stroke Engines

Figure 2 illustrates the four strokes (two piston cycles) needed for these internal
combustion engines to produce power.
The intake stroke, often called the induction stroke, is the initial stroke. The piston is
lowered by the crankshaft. As a result, the intake valve can open, allowing the air-fuel
mixture to enter the cylinder above the piston and creating a vacuum inside the cylinder.

68
When the piston reaches the bottom of the stroke, the intake valve closes as a result of
the camshaft's rotation and the intake valve's spring.

The piston is pushed back up into the cylinder by the crankshaft during the compression stroke,
which is the next stroke. The piston's initial cycle is finished at this point. The spark plug fires
during the third stroke, which is known as the power stroke. The crankshaft is propelled by the
explosion of the air-fuel mixture, which drives the piston to descend in the cylinder.

The exhaust stroke comes after the fourth one. The crankshaft forces the piston back up into
the cylinder after the camshaft opens an exhaust valve. The open exhaust port is where the
combustion gases are released. The piston's second cycle is now complete. The exhaust valve
is shut by the camshaft at the peak of the exhaust stroke, and the cycle is then repeated.

Figure 2 Four-stroke engine cycle

Power and Efficiency

The power created by an engine and delivered to the crankshaft outlet is bhp, which is a function
of engine speed and is most often shown as a rating at a given speed

Pout = Tω 2π / 33,000

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Pout = bhp at the crankshaft outlet
T = torque at the crankshaft (ft-lbf)
ω = crankshaft speed (rpm)

The efficiency of an engine is calculated asthe power delivered by the fuel compared with
the output bhp.
epm = Pout/ Pin = T (2π) ω (60) / mf H (779)

epm = engine prime mover efficiency (fraction)

Pout = bhp at the crankshaft outlet
Pin = power delivered by the fuel (hp)
T = shaft output torque at a given speed (ft-lbf )
ω = output shaft speed (rpm)
mf = mass flow rate of fuel (lbm/hr) = qf ρf
H = heat content of fuel (Btu/lbm )
qf = fuel flow rate (gal/hr)
ρf = fuel density (lbm/gal)

10.3 ELECTRIC MOTORS

Three-phase induction motors, which have been standardized by the National Electric Manufacturers
Association based on their performance characteristics, make up the bulk of electric motors used as
pumping unit prime movers (NEMA). The most frequent types utilized in pumping units are the NEMA types
B, C, and D. The typical electric power source is 460 volts of three-phase, 60 Hz electricity. Input power,
output power, motor efficiency, service factor, and motor controls are the primary factors utilized to choose
the proper motor type.

Input Power
The input power of a motor is the electric power delivered from the transmission
line. Input power can be calculated

Pin = n (V ) i (PF ) / 745.7

Pin = electric power input to the motor (hp)

n = number of phases (single-phase = 1; three-phase = 3)
V = voltage drop (volts)
i = current flow (amperes)
PF = power factor (dimensionless)

70
The power factor is the ratio of the motor's power consumption to the transmission
line's available power. A wattmeter can be used to assess power factor.

Output Power
The output power from a motor is the mechanical power needed to turn the output
motor shaft at a certain speed and produce a certain torque. Output power can be
computed using

Pout = Tω 2π / 33,000

Pout = bhp at the crankshaft outlet

T = torque at the crankshaft (ft-lbf)
ω = crankshaft speed (rpm)

Motor Efficiency
Motor efficiency is the ratio of the mechanical output power to electrical input power.
Losses oc- cur in the motor as heat, which results from the way the motor is made

epm = Pin / Pout = {n (V ) i (PF ) / 745.7} / { Tω 2π / 33,000}

Pin = electric power input to the motor (hp)

n = number of phases (single-phase = 1; three-phase = 3)
V = voltage drop (volts)
i = current flow (amperes)
PF = power factor (dimensionless)
Pout = bhp at the crankshaft outlet
T = torque at the crankshaft (ft-lbf)
ω = crankshaft speed (rpm)

Motor Slip

Slip is the percentage difference between the motor’s synchronous speed and shaft speed under
a load

Slip = {(ωsyn – ω) / ωsyn }*100

The synchronous speed is the speed of the motor shaft at zero load. The synchronous

71
speed of an induction motor can be calculated

ωsyn = 120f / N

ωsyn = synchronous speed (rpm)

f = current frequency (Hz)
N = number of poles in the motor

Service Factor

The service factor is the amount of overload a motor can carry continuously without
damage resulting from overheating, as long as the voltage and frequency are
maintained. For motors larger than 3 hp, the NEMA service factor is 1.155

 NEMA type B and C motors are designed for relatively constant loads and
have minimal slip (5% or less)
 NEMA type D motors are designed for the high torque and rapid acceleration
changes thatare more typical of beam pumping cycles. These motors come in
normal-slip (5 to 8%) and high-slip (8 to 13%) variations

Generally speaking, the NEMA type D motor is considered the most efficient motor
choice for beam pumping applications.

Motor Controls
Motors are connected to the electric transmission line transformer by a ventilated,
weather-proof, lockable control panel. The panel normally contains an on-off switch,
undervoltage protection, overload protection, a lightning arrestor, grounding wire, a
fused disconnect switch or circuit breaker, and a timer.

INTERMITTENT SERVICE

Timer or pump-off controllers make it simple to turn on and off motors. Unlike
engines. Motors are therefore practical to utilise in circumstances requiring sporadic
pumping service. The power required to start the unit will be significantly higher than
the running power, but the start-up time is only a matter of seconds.
Therefore, the cost of electricity for restarting the unit is minimal. The operator
should be aware that several starts do increase the cost of electricity.
About 11.7 kW of power is typically needed for one typical pump stroke.

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10.3.1.1.1 TOTAL SYSTEM EFFICIENCY
The total efficiency of the pumping system is the ratio of the hydraulic output power to
the inputpower from the prime mover.
esys = 7.362x10 * ( q LN γL ) / Pin

esys = pumping system efficiency (fraction)

q = surface liquid production rate (STBL/day)
γL = liquid-specific gravity (dimensionless)
LN = net vertical lift (ft)
Pin = input power to the prime mover (engine)

73
 11 Downhole and Wellhead Equipment

11.1 THE PUMP INTAKE

It usually takes a lot of time and money to design a pumping system, including
choosing the pump, rod string, surface unit, prime mover, etc., and creating a
thorough installation plan that is then sent to the field crew for execution.

However, it is doubtful that the designer is present at the site when the hardware is
inserted into the well or that a significant effort is made to ensure that the design
plan is performed without modifications that may be necessary due to unanticipated
events. These factors frequently lead to discrepancies between the recorded
description of the gear that is installed in the pumping system and its actual
configuration.

The standing valve is the single point of entry for fluid into the barrel, thus only that
fluid may be moved by the pump (SV). For most applications, the time needed to fill
the barrel is often just a few seconds (about 3 seconds when pumping at 10 spm,
depending on the geometry of the pumping unit). However, the equipment that is
put underneath the pump frequently comprises of whatever was previously utilised
or whatever was on hand while the pump was being used. It is advised that additional
thought be given to design considerations including constructing the proper intake
system and filling the pump barrel with liquid.

11.2 Filling the Barrel with Liquid

The goal of the pump intake design should be to guarantee that every plunger
upstroke results in a barrel that is fully filled with liquid in order to achieve efficient
functioning. The liquid volume that enters the pump is then transmitted to the tube,
and finally should be produced at the surface providing that other losses—such as
those brought on by slippage, valve leaks, tubing leaks, etc.—are minor. The
following are the three basic reasons why liquid filling is incomplete:

• inadequate reservoir inflow to match pump displacement (pumped-off well)

• limited inflow as a result of frictional losses in the pump's input (choked pump)

• the movement of a gas-liquid combination entering the SV (gas interference)

74
11.3 Flow Rate Through the SV

The rate at which liquid must flow through the pump intake depends on the plunger
velocity multiplied by the cross-sectional area of the plunger, assuming there is
enough liquid outside the SV to fill the volume of the barrel at the top of the plunger
stroke. The geometry of the pumping unit, pumping speed, and elastic properties of
the rod string all play major roles in the plunger's velocity. The plunger's velocity
typically varies constantly during a stroke in beam pumping, ranging from zero to
maximum values towards the centre of the upstroke or downstroke. The velocity of
hydraulic or long-stroke mechanical devices is constant for the majority of the stroke,
with the exception of the very top and bottom when the direction of motion is
reversed.

11.4 Pressure Drop Through Valve and Cage

The submergence of the pump needed to produce enough flow to fill the pump
barrel during the upstroke and the force needed to move the plunger through the
liquid during the downstroke are both influenced by the pressure drop through the
entire valve assembly (cage, ball, and seat), which is a crucial parameter. In both
circumstances, an excessive pressure drop should be avoided because it is harmful.
The added force during the downstroke may result in rod buckling and severe pull
rod wear. The pressure drop through the SV during the upstroke may prevent the
barrel from filling completely.

11.5 Harbison-Fischer Tests

In order to demonstrate the anticipated performance, the effects of different valve

cage configurations and sizes on pressure drop have been examined using water as
the flowing liquid.

If the SV is supposed to function as a nozzle, it is possible to estimate the pressure

drop via the SV for water. The flow of energy can be described by the mechanical
energy balance.

Δp = { 2q / 8081.7Cdi2 }2

Δp = pressure drop through the SV (psi)

ρ = liquid density (lb /ft3)

75
q = average daily pump rate (bbl/day)
C = discharge coefficient (dimensionless)
di = nozzle ID (inches)

11.6 GAS INTERFERNCE

The bulk of pumping wells are drawing their energy from reservoirs where the
pressure has dropped below the level at which the hydrocarbon fluid mixture in
question would bubble, resulting in a considerable amount of permeability to the
gas phase throughout the reservoir. The drainage radius will allow gas and liquid to
flow to the wellbore.

Even if the pressure away from the wellbore is higher than the bubble point
pressure, using a pumping system creates an additional pressure drawdown that
further lowers the pressure in the area around the wellbore, resulting in a mixture
of gas and liquid fluid flowing through the perforations in most cases. This two-phase
system works when the pump intake is above the perforations.

The amounts of liquid and gas entering through the SV during the upstroke of a rod
pumping system will be in a ratio that roughly corresponds to the in situ gas-liquid
ratio at the pump intake. The pressure of this gas and liquid mixture will be quite
similar to the annulus pressure at the depth of the pump intake (except in those
cases in which the pump intake is obstructed).

If the wellbore diameter is small and the pump rate reaches a specific limiting value,
as detailed in the following sections, it is feasible to draw to the pump some of the
free gas that enters through the perforations even when the pump intake is below
the perforations.

A significant percentage of the plunger downstroke will be used to compress the gas
to the pressure necessary to open the TV because the compressibility of the fluid
increases with gas volume in the pump barrel. This problem can be remedied in part
through the use of downhole gas separators (also known as gas anchors).

11.7 DOWNHOLE GAS SEPARATORS

At the bottom of the well, efficiently separating free gas from liquid improves any
pumping system's efficiency and, eventually, increases pump life. Effective free-gas
separation guarantees that the majority of the generated gas flows up through the

76
casing-tubing annulus and that the majority of the produced liquid enters the pump.

The casing annulus is the best annular area for natural gravity separation of liquid
and gas to occur, making it the most effective gas separator. Gas can be produced
through the casing-tubing annulus and nearly none of the gas will enter the pump
when the pump intake is positioned below the perforations and there is an enough
flow area. When it is impossible to lower the pump input below the holes the
majority of the gas in the fluid should be removed before it reaches the intake by
installing a downhole gas separator before the pump.

Figure 1 - Downhole gas–liquid separator

The sole processes preventing gas and liquid separation are buoyancy forces, which
depend on the disparity in densities between the two, and viscous forces, which
depend on the velocity and viscosity of the liquid. To distinguish them from
centrifugal separators used in rotary-driven pumping systems, such as electrical
submersible pumps and progressive cavity pumps, these separators are referred to
as gravity-driven separators.

11.8 Basic Functioning of Downhole Gas Separators

A gravity-driven static downhole gas separator installed beneath a downhole plunger

pump is shown schematically in Figure 1. Through either casing holes or an open-
hole formation positioned some distance below the pump, free gas enters with the

77
liquid. The bulk of the gas in the annular space travels past the separator as the two-
phase mixture approaches the depth of the separator, through the gaseous liquid
column, through the upper portion of the well, and eventually reaches the top of the
well where it flows into the surface flow line.

In order to replenish the fluid allowed into the pump during the upstroke, the
separator's outer barrel or mud anchor contains entrance apertures via which liquid
and some gas enter the separator. The dip tube forces the gas-liquid combination to
flow downward in the separator's annular area, then upward to the pump intake. It
is a small-diameter tube inside the mud anchor that is connected at the top to the
pump intake.

Gravity is the main force behind flow from the well annulus into a separator that has
entry ports with sufficient flow areas; liquid that is present at the separator intake
flows into the separator as though it were flowing over a weir. The pressure inside
the separator will be lower than the pressure in the annulus when the entry ports
are too small, requiring a pressure drop to push the fluids to enter. This will prevent
the gas from the separator from exiting and returning to the annulus. In either
scenario, some gas is entrained with the liquid into the separator in the form of
bubbles.

Compared to the denser phase, the mixture's less dense phase (the gas) moves
upward (the liquid). The gas bubble slip velocity—also known as the gas bubble slip
velocity—of each gas bubble in the separator annulus—the annular region between
the mud anchor and the dip tube—relates to the bubble's diameter and the
characteristics of the gas and liquid. Some of the smaller gas bubbles inside the
separator are transported by the liquid into the dip tube, while other larger gas
bubbles flow upward and out through the separator vent ports, eventually venting
out through the casing-tubing annulus, depending on the liquid downward velocity
and the individual gas bubble's slip velocity.

Thus, the two main parameters that control the efficiency of the separator are given
as follows:

• Gas Bubble Slip Velocity

A gas bubble submerged in a moving liquid is subject to the force of buoyancy as well
as the action of viscous drag. The gas bubble only experiences gravity and buoyancy
while the liquid is motionless, which causes it to move upward at a rate known as

78
the gas bubble slip velocity.

• Liquid Downward Velocity

11.9 Natural Gas Separator

The cross section of the wellbore has the largest accessible flow area in a well. Therefore, when
the intake of the pump is positioned below the lowest perforations, employing the wellbore as
the separator will result in the largest liquid capacity.

Figure 2 - Natural gas–liquid separator

The performance of this separator is similar to the performance that can be achieved by setting
the pump intake below the perforations.

11.10 Cup Separator

The two-phase flow patterns that have developed in a vertical wellbore annulus provide the
foundation for the cup separator design. These patterns can be observed, and they demonstrate
that when a gas-liquid mixture flows upward, liquid tends to sink back while gas bubbles or slugs
percolate upward. This is particularly clear when the gas-liquid ratios in the annulus produce
churn or slug flow regimes.

When the tubing is not centralised the flow patterns that emerge in a wellbore annulus to
increase gas flow rates. In particular, the slug and churn flow conditions show how the liquid is
affected by gravity, which results in sporadic upward and downward liquid flow.

79
 Fig – 5 Original Gilbert cup separator

11.11 Wellheads
When a beam lift system is installed, the wellhead used in a flowing or gas-lift well will need to
be modified. The upper tree assembly is removed if a flanged wellhead has been utilised, and the
tubing is then fastened to an adapter flange with a threaded connection for the pumping tee or
rod blowout preventer (fig. 6). The tubing will extend over the top of the casinghead if a thread-
on wellhead was used, and the pumping tee or the rod blowout preventer can be screwed into
the top tubing (fig. 6).
POLISHED ROD
STUFFING
BOX

SAMPLING

PUMPING TEE

ROD BLOWOUT
PREVENTER

Figure-6 Flanged wellhead

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The tubing will extend over the top of the casinghead if a thread-on wellhead was used, and the
pumping tee or the rod blowout preventer can be screwed into the top tubing (fig. 6).

The flanged wellhead is more durable than the other two kinds, but it is also more expensive. By
positioning it below the flange, it safeguards the top of the tube. The tubing is visible above the
well's top in the thread-on type.

11.12 BEST PRACTICES

Downhole and wellhead equipment should be selected and used according to the following rules:

• No downhole gas separator is required if the pump intake can be positioned below the
casing perforations. Results of experiments have shown that when entry ports are
positioned one to two feet below the lowest casing perforations, virtually 100 percent
separation is achieved. This ostensibly little distance is adequate to provide for total
separation and ought to be used in practice. The restriction of 6 inches/sec for the
downward liquid velocity in the annulus still places a limit on the liquid capacity of this
"natural gas separator."

• For gravity-driven separators used in low-viscosity fluid applications, excellent gas-liquid

separation happens when the surface downward liquid velocity inside the separator is 6
inches/sec or less. However, significant gas velocity (greater than 10 ft/sec) in the casing
annulus prevents inhibits separator performance

• More than one row of slots is not required. Only if port plugging is anticipated based on
the chemical analysis of the fluids should additional rows be considered.

• If the liquid velocity through the entire entrance port area is high, gas vent holes above
the entry ports are required. If the separator entrance ports are long and wide enough,
liquid enters the separator mostly at the bottom of the ports, leaving space for gas to
escape through the top.

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 12 Data Acquisition Tools and Data Quality Control

Introduction:
From the time when rod pumping first began to be used in oilfield production operations, it
became necessary to understand the performance of the pumping system and the well based on
observations and measurements that could be carried out at the surface.

12.1 Dynamometer it’s types, and Direct and indirect rod measurement:
The second part of the objective is achieved by transforming the measured load and position of
the polished rod to the load and position of the pump plunger, which is achieved by accounting
for the elasticity and dynamics of the rod string. Direct Rod Load Measurement Polished rod load
is assessed using a sensor by locating the sensor between the polished rod clamp and the carrier
bar. Donut Load Cell Although the donut load cell was developed in the 1950s in order to provide
diagnostic analysis of beam pump systems, its main use today is as a permanent installation as-
sociated with electronic pump-off controllers and supervisory control and data acquisition
systems.

The polished rod clamp is installed on top of the load cell, thus applying the full polished rod load
to the sensor.

 Temporary installation requires slipping the load cell over the polished rod and resting it
on the permanent polished rod clamp, attaching an additional polished rod clamp above
the load cell, and loosening the bolts on the lower clamp, with the potential of causing.
 With the horseshoe design, the load cell is installed under the permanent polished rod
clamp by simply separating the clamp from the carrier bar either by lifting the polished
rod (using an external hoist) or by resting the rod string on the wellhead after installing a
temporary clamp below the carrier bar.
 Hydraulic Lift Load Cell The hydraulic lift load cell, was developed to overcome the
installation disadvantages of horseshoe load cells. With hydraulic lift load cells, the load
cell is combined with a hydraulic jack that lifts the polished rod and clamp a short distance
so that a loading spacer can be installed in order to transfer the polished rod load to the
sensor3 .
 A hand pump is used to transmit hydraulic fluid under pressure to the jack in order to lift
the load cell enough to support the rod string and then another G inch to allow a steel
spacer to be installed below the load cell. Bleeding the hydraulic pressure from the jack
lowers the load cell onto the plate and carrier bar so that the polished rod load is fully
supported by the load cell, which results in an accurate reading of the load without the
damping effect of the hydraulic fluid.

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  Proving Ring Load Cell Originally developed for accurate load measurements in material
testing, the proving ring load cell was adapted to dynamometer measurements and
became the standard dynamometer tool for many years.

By separating the vibratory and inertia forces from plunger forces, including rod and tubing
stretch and taking into consideration polished rod velocity, “dynagraph analysis” yields a
complete picture of how the entire pumping system is functioning, including plunger travel and
motion, pump fillage, torque analysis and balancing, and the determination of maximum and
minimum loads at the polished rod and throughout the rod string1 .The advantages of proving
ring load cells are as follows:

Polished rod load can be measured directly using a calibrated sensor. Indirect Rod Load
Measurement The objective of sensors meant to measure rod load indirectly is to obtain a
measurement of the load at the polished rod by sensing a quantity that is proportional to the
load, such as pressure or deformation of one of the beam systems components and converting
that quantity to the value of the load by means of calculation or calibration against a direct
measurement of load.

Hydraulic Pressure one of the earliest means of monitoring polished rod load was to interpose a
hydraulic cylinder between the carrier bar and the polished rod clamp and to read the resulting
hydraulic pressure on a calibrated pressure gauge2,5.The current electronic version of this
dynamometer includes a pressure transducer and an encoder to generate the necessary signals
for digitally recording the polished rod position and the pressure change caused by the variation
of the polished rod load. Installation requires simply stopping the polished rod at the bottom of
the downstroke and clamping the sensor below the carrier bar at two spots in which the polished
rod is free of corrosion and/or pitting . A quantitative polished rod sensor was developed based
on the measurement of the radial deformation of the polished rod as a function of the change in
pump load.

The instrument is attached to the polished rod at the bottom of the stroke while the polished rod
is loaded by the weight of the rod string . This software uses the measured loads to calculate
corresponding pump dynamometer cards using the wave equation model of the rod string and
iteratively shifting the polished rod loads until obtaining a value of zero load at the point of the
downstroke when the traveling valve opens. Direct comparison with horseshoe-type load cells
has shown that the dynamometer records obtained with both instruments are within a few
percentage points of one another, provided the polished rod sensor is properly installed and is
free of interfering input due to bending of the polished rod, as discussed later in the data quality
control section of this chapter.

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Beam Deflection The load at the polished rod is supported by the unit’s walking beam and causes
the beam to bend during the pumping cycle.

12.2 ACOUSTIC FLUID LEVEL SURVEYS AND CALCULATION OF PRODUCING AND

STATIC BOTTOMHOLE PRESSURES:
The Newton-Laplace equation for an ideal gas can be adapted for use with a real gas as follows:

vg = √ {(cp/cv) * (p/ ρ) }

vg = sonic velocity in gas (ft/sec)

cp/cv = specific heat ratio (dimensionless)

p = gas pressure (lbf /in.2 )

ρ = gas density (lbm/ft3 )

12.3 Adapting the Newton-Laplace equation to a real gas where:

ρ = 2.7 γgP/zt

z = gas deviation factor

T = temperature (°R)

γg = gas specific gravity

The conversion of travel time to the actual distance from the microphone to the anomaly can be
made using equation , if the average acoustic velocity for the gas present in the wellbore between
the gun and the anomaly can be determined

D= (Δt/2)*v

D = distance between the gas gun and the anomaly (ft)

Δt = RTTT (sec)

v = average sonic velocity in the gas (ft/sec)

As discussed earlier, the average acoustic velocity is a function of pressure, temperature, and
composition of the gas and, consequently, is different at various points in the well due to the
variation of pressure and temperature as a function of depth and also the possible stratification
of the gas column due to the difference in density of the various hydrocarbon component

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In practice, the following four methods are used to determine the average acoustic velocity:

• determination using identification and counting of echoes from tubing collars

• determination using the distance to a known anomaly in the wellbore

• calculation from gas gravity or composition

• estimation based on experience or previous measurements

All four of these methods involve varying degrees of uncertainty, but generally, it is considered
that the first two (the collar count and anomaly methods) yield the best estimates.

v = average acoustic velocity over the interval measured (ft/sec)

Nj = number of tubing collars in time interval

Δt c Lj = average tubing joint length in the interval measured (ft/joint)

Δt c = RTTT to point C, the point at which the tubing collars can no longer be distinguished (sec)

The average joint length should be computed from the tubing tally of the specific well and should
include only full-size tubing joints (not pup joints).

12.4 Fluid and Pressure Distribution in Pumping Wells:

The casinghead pressure is measured and is used to compute the pressure at the bottom of the
annular gas column using the gas properties and the geothermal temperature profile. In rod
pumping, the objectives of such analysis are to determine the following:

• pump intake pressure (PIP) or pump submergence

• producing BHP

• static BHP (SBHP)

The PIP determined acoustically is the pressure in the casing–tubing annulus at the depth
specified as the pump intake. Acoustic fluid level measurements are routinely used to compute
downhole pressures in wellbores that contain mixtures of gas and liquids. Calculation of Pressure
Distribution Calculation of pressure assumes that, when the fluid level is measured, a pumping

85
well is operating at a stabilized condition so that the volumes of fluids produced at the surface
are equal to the volumes of fluids entering the well from the formation.

The wellbore pressure is primarily controlled by the casinghead pressure and the density of the
gas, because very little liquid is present in the wellbore. Some of the gas will enter the pump,
and the remaining volume of gas will flow to the surface and bubble through the annular liquid,
which will generate an annular gaseous liquid column.

In all cases, the pressure at a certain depth in the wellbore is computed as the sum of the
measured surface pressure plus the pressure resulting from the columns of fluids that exist above
the point of interest, as shown in equations

pi = pc + pfi

pi = pressure in the well annulus at depth “i”

(psi) pc = surface pressure on the casing–tubing annulus (psi)

pfi = hydrostatic fluid pressure at depth “i” (psi)

pfi = ∇pfi (Li )

∇pfi = hydrostatic pressure gradient of the fluid to depth “i” (psi/ft)

Li = true vertical distance to depth “i” (ft)

The pressure resulting from a column of fluid is expressed as the product of its height [true
vertical depth (TVD)] and the gradient of the fluid. Because fluid gradients should be computed
at the pressure and temperature conditions that exist in the wellbore, an iterative calculation is
undertaken, beginning with the known pressure and temperature at the surface in order to
calculate initial values of the fluid densities and then stepping down to the point of interest in
small increments of pressure and temperature.

Assuming that there is well stabilization, as discussed earlier, and considering the configuration
of fi, once the depth to the gas–fluid interface has been computed, the main issues are as follows:

• determining the casing gas gravity

• determining the fraction of liquid that is present in the annular gaseous liquid column These
values are required in order to compute the corresponding fluid gradients.

86
12.5 Fraction of Liquid in Gaseous Column
The fraction of liquid present in the gaseous liquid column may be determined directly using the
test known as the Walker Liquid Level Depression Test15 or using one of the accepted
correlations that relate the annular gas flow rate to the fraction of liquid

p1 = pressure at time 1 (psi)

V1 = gas volume at time 1 (ft3 )

z1 = average gas deviation factor at time 1 (dimensionless)

n1 = number of lb-moles of gas at time 1 (lb-mole)

R = universal gas constant 10.73

T1 = average temperature at time 1 (°R = °F + 460)

Assuming the gas volume (V), gas temperature (T), and gas deviation factor (z) do not change
significantly during the short duration of the test,

qg = 0.00068*(ΔpAaLf / Δt)

qg = gas flow rate (Mscf/day)

Δt = test time interval (minutes)

Δp = casing pressure increase during the test (psig)

Aa = annular cross-sectional area

Lf = measured distance to the fluid level in the annulus (ft)

The density of the fluid below the fluid level can be computed using equation

ρf = 2.7 (ygp/zt) * (1 – f L ) + 62.4γL f L

ρf = fluid density (lbm/ft3 )

γg = specific gravity of the gas (dimensionless)

p = pressure in the fluid column (psig)

z = gas deviation factor (dimensionless)

T = temperature in the fluid column

87
 (deg R = deg F+460)

γL = specific gravity of the produced mixture of liquid (dimensionless)

f L = liquid fraction below the fluid level.

The only problem with equation is the requirement to know in advance the pressure in the fluid
column.

pwf = bottomhole pressure inside the wellbore (psig)

pc = shut-in surface pressure on the casing (psig)

As an example consider the test shown is where the pressure in the casing increased 3.2 psig
over the test interval of 4 minutes.

All correlations have limitations related to the range of parameters used in their construction.

12.6 Calculation of SBHP in Pumping Wells:

The same balance of pressures performed using equations is used to calculate the SBHP, with
one modification: the oil–brine interface cannot be assumed to be at the depth of the pump
intake but has to be calculated from the produced water-oil ratio and the gas-free liquid present
above the pump before the pump was shut down or the lift system failed.

In those wells in which the pumping system is powered by electrical motors, current (amps) and
power (kW) measurements have been used routinely as a tool to achieve balanced torque
conditions at the gear box of pumping units. Electrical Safety The level of current passing through
a human body is the key factor in any electrical shock accident. Whenever dealing with electrically
powered equipment—such as motors, switch boxes, control boxes, etc.—the integrity and
grounding of which is unknown by the operator, prudent practice should result in the following
precaution: if the operator has to touch electrically powered devices and is not wearing
protective insulating gloves, the initial contact should always be made using the back of the hand.

Motor Current Measurement The motor current probe consists of a conventional split jaw
ammeter. If the motor is operating properly and is wired correctly, and if the power supply is
balanced, any of the power wires will yield approximately the same value of current. When the
jaws of the instrument are clamped around a conductor carrying AC current, that current is
coupled through the jaws—similar to the iron core of a power transformer—and into a secondary
winding, which is connected across the shunt of the meter’s input.

If the secondary has 1,000 windings, then the secondary current is 1/1,000 of the current flowing
in the primary, or in this case, the conductor being measured. Thus, 1 amp of current in the

88
conductor being measured would produce 0.001 amps or 1 mA of current at the input of the
meter.

89
 13 Design Methods

13.1 Predictive methods:

Predictive methods are mathematical models based on assumed pump conditions that estimate
at a minimum, the loads on the rods and pumping unit and the necessary counterbalance, gear
box size, and prime mover power for the pumping unit.

The fundamental data set necessary to estimate the rod loads, pumping unit size, and power
requirement includes the following:

• Q = desired surface liquid production rate (STB/day)

• Bo = oil formation volume factor (bbl/STB)

• γf = fluid specific gravity (relative to fresh water)

• μf = fluid viscosity at pump intake conditions (cp)

• L = pump setting depth (ft from the surface)

• Ln = working fluid level or net lift (ft from the surface)

• S = surface stroke length (inches)

• Dp = pump plunger diameter (inches)

• C = plunger–barrel clearance (inches)

• Lp = plunger length (ft)

• e = pump volumetric efficiency (fraction @ 0.9)

• Dt = tubing internal diameter (inches)

• di = rod diameters in the rod string (inches)

• Pumping unit type = type I or III lever

The initial estimate for pumping speed can be obtained using equation.

N= QBo / 0.1166eD

N = pumping speed (spm)

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The initial estimate for pumping speed will require adjustment because the pump stroke length
differs from the surface stroke length and is a function of pumping speed.

First Method:

Computer Solution of the One–Dimensional (1-D) Wave Equation

This method is listed first because it is the most general and the most accurate of the three
methods of pumping design discussed in this chapter . This requires knowledge of the pumping
unit characteristics and assumed pump operating conditions in order to define the boundary
conditions used to create the solutions . information that can be determined using the RODSTAR,
SROD, and AccuPump Beam programs includes the effects that fluid inertia and changes in speed
of the prime mover have on the loads of the pumping unit.

The dimensionless groupings of input variables are as follows

Fo / S / kr = rod stretch caused by the fluid load

N / No = pumping speed for a straight rod taper

N / No ′ = pumping speed for a tapered rod string

Wrf / S / kr = rod stretch caused by buoyed rod weight

In which

Fo = fluid load on the plunger (lbf ) = 0.34γf Ln D2p

Wrf = buoyed rod weight (lbf )

wi = ith rod air weight per foot (lbf /ft)

n = number of rod tapers in the string (integer)

N = pumping speed (spm)

No = natural frequency of a single taper rod string (spm)

No = vs/4L

vs = speed of sound in rod material = 16,300 ft/sec for steel

No @ 245,000/L (spm)

No ′ = frequency of a tapered rod string = No Fe

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Fe = frequency factor for a tapered rod string (dimensionless)

The frequency factors for tapered rod strings can be found in the three parts of table , or they
can be computed using numerical methods and information contained in reference 2.

13.2 NUMERICAL EXAMPLE COMPARING THE METHODS:

Data for the numerical example are given as follows:

• Q = surface liquid production rate (STB/day) = 100 STB/day

• Bo = oil formation volume factor (bbl/STB) = 1.0

• γf = fluid specific gravity (relative to fresh water) = 1.0

• μf = fluid viscosity at pump intake conditions = 30 cp

• L = pump setting depth (ft from the surface) = 7,000

• Ln = working fluid level or net lift (ft from the surface) = 7,000

• S = surface stroke length (inches) = 100

• Dp = pump plunger diameter (inches) = 1.5

• C = plunger–barrel clearance (inches) = 0.002

• Lp = plunger length (ft) = 7

• e = pump volumetric efficiency (fraction) = 0.85

• Dt = tubing internal diameter (inches) = 2.441

• di = rod diameters in the rod string (inches), M-inch and I-inch, API code 76; Class D sinker bars
are 1H inches, 6.262 lb/ft

• Rod service factor = 0.9

• Pumping unit type (class I or III lever): new conventional

13.3 Solution of Numerical Example Using the 1-D Wave Equation

The solution given is the result of using the RODSTAR program. The pump friction creates a
compressive force in the I-inch rods that is larger than the critical force required to cause
buckling, which for I-inch rods is approximately 38 lbs .

13.4 Solution of Numerical Example Using the API RP11L Method

The following information is for a type 76 rod string with a 1H-inch plunger and was

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• Er = 0.804 × 10–6 in./lbf -ft

• Fe = 1.082

• M inch = 33.8%

• I inch = 66.2% Using the above information, the following can be calculated:

Fo = 0.34*(1)*7000*(1.5)*2 = 5,355 lbf

kr = 1/[0.804 × 10–6(7,000)] = 177.68 lbf /inch

Fo / S / kr = 0.3

No = 15(16,300)/7,000 = 34.9

No ′ = 34.9(1.082) = 37.8

Comparison between measured and predicted loads, with the predicted load shown as a
percentage of the measured load (100% being a perfect match) The data for the wells shown in
figure are outlined in table the significance is that it shows that the predictive models did a good
job of estimating the peak polished rod load (±15%) over the speed range considered but an
increasingly poor job of predicting the minimum polished rod load when the speed was higher
than approximately 8 spm.

93
 14 References

 V. Ehimeakhe, “Comparative Study of Downhole Cards Using Modified Everitt-Jennings

Method and Gibbs Method,” Proceedings of the 57th Annual Meeting of the SWPSC,
2010.
 T. A. Everitt and J. W. Jennings, “An Improved Finite Difference Calculation of Downhole
Dynamometer Cards for Sucker Rod Pumps,” SPE 18189, Annual Technical Conference
and Exhibition, 1988.
 S. G. Gibbs, “Applications and Assumptions of the API Rod Pumping Design Method,”
Proceedings of the 42nd Annual Meeting of the SWPSC, 1995.
 API, “Electric Analog Study of Sucker Rod Pumping Systems,” API Drilling and Production
 L. F. Allen and J. G. Svinos, “Rod Pumping Optimization Program Reduces Equipment
Failures and Operating Costs,” SPE 13247, Annual Technical Conference and
 S. G. Gibbs, “A General Method for Predicting Rod Pumping System Performance,” SPE
6850, Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, 1977.
 Renn Rothrock Jr., “Downhole Maintenance Costs Approach $2 Billion,”
PetroleumEngineer, July 1977.
 Michael J. Economides, Daniel A. Hill, and Christine Ehlig Economides, Petroleum
Production Systems (Prentice Hall, 1994).
 Mark P. Walsh and Larry W. Lake, A Generalized Approach To Primary Hydrocarbon
Recovery (Elsevier, 2003), section 9.1.
 G. Albert, “Downhole Dynamometer Tool,” Proceedings of the 41st Annual Meeting of
the SWPSC, 1994.
 J. R. Waggoner and A. J. Mansure, “Development of the Downhole Dynamometer
Database,” SPE 37500 presented at the SPE Production Operations Symposium, March
1997.
 Roberto L. Soza, “Review of Downhole Dynamometer Testing,” SPE 35217 presented at
the Permian Basin Oil and Gas Recovery Conference, March 1998.
 C. L. Dunham, “Supervisory Control of Beam Pumping Wells,” SPE 16216, March 1987.
 A. B. Lindsey, “Applying Pump Off Controllers to Marginal Producers,” Proceedings of the
45th Annual Meeting of the SWPSC, 1998.
 Randy A. Gill, Roberto L. Soza, and Russell E. Ott, “Using Pump-Off Controllers (POC) to
Their Fullest,” Proceedings of the 44th Annual Meeting of the SWPSC, April 1997.
 T. M. Horn and W. R. Sherrill, “Applying Statistical Process Control (SPC) to Automated
POC Systems Data,” Proceedings of the 44th Annual Meeting of the SWPSC, 1997.
 C. G. Guffey et al, “Field Testing of Variable-Speed Beam Pump Computer Control,” SPE
Production Engineering, May 1991.
 D. R. Skinner, “Speed Control” U.S. patent 4125161, August 1977

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 C. J. Merryman and D. K. Lawrence, “Dynamometer Testing for Analyzing the Pumping
Well Problem,” Proceedings of the 5th Annual Meeting of the SWPSC, 1958.
 F. W. Gipson and H. W. Swaim, “Beam Pumping Fundamentals,” Proceedings of the 16th
Annual Meeting of the SWPSC, 1969.
 R. L. Soza, “Use of Rod Pump Database for Improving Artificial Lift Operations,”
Proceedings of the 43rd Annual Meeting of the SWPSC, 1996.
 A. L. Lee, “The Viscosity of Natural Gases,” Journal of Petroleum Technology, 1966.
 R. B. Bird, W. E. Stewart, and E. N. Lightfoot, Transport Phenomena (John Wiley and Sons, 1960).
 Alton R. Hagedorn and Kermit E. Brown, “Experimental Study of Pressure Gradients Occurring
During Continuous Two-Phase Flow in Small-Diameter Vertical Conduits,” The University of Texas,
1965

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