STM 007 – GENERAL BIOLOGY 1

PLASMA MEMBRANE  Transport Proteins – globular

proteins, transport molecules
across cell membranes through
facilitated diffusion.
 Glycoproteins – have
carbohydrate chain attached to
them. Embedded in the cell
membrane and help in cell to cell
communication and molecule
transport across the membrane.

TRANSPORT MECHANISM IN CELL

MEMBRANE

Transport Mechanism in Cell

 The collection of mechanisms that regulate the
passage of solutes such as ions and small molecules
through biological membranes, which are lipid
bilayers that contain proteins embedded in them.
Diffusion
 The natural movement of molecules from area of high
concentration to low concentration. Happens in an
Plasma Membrane area where there is no barrier to move anywhere.
 A thin semi-permeable membrane that surrounds the Osmosis
cytoplasm of a cell  Type of diffusion where molecules are moving from
 Boundary between cell and its environment high concentration to an area of less concentration by
passing through a semi permeable membrane – type
Functions: of membrane that selective allow which substance will
 Protects the interior of the cell enter through it.
 Base of attachment for cytoskeleton Equilibrium
 Helps supports the cell and to maintain its shape  Molecules are moving from an area of high
 Regulate cell growth by balance of endocytosis concentration to an area of low concentration until it
and exocytosis attains a uniform distribution.
 Present in animal cells, plant cells, prokaryotic
cells and fungal cells. SIMPLE DIFFUSION
 Small non-charged molecules or lipid soluble
Structural Components molecules pass between the phospholipids to
A. CELL MEMBRANE LIPIDS enter or leave the cell, moving from an area of
 Phospholipids – a lipid bilayer high concentration to areas of low concentration
which is semi-permeable, allowing (they move down their concentration gradient)
only certain molecules to diffuse  Oxygen and carbon dioxide and most of lipids
across the membrane. Determines enter and leave cells.
what molecules can move into or
out of the cell.
 Cholesterol – helps to keep cell
membrane from becoming stiff. It
is not found in the membranes of
plant cells.
 Glycolipids – located in the
membrane’s surfaces and have a
carbohydrates sugar chain
attached to them. They help the
cell to recognize the other cells of
the body.
B. CELL MEMBRANE PROTEINS
 Peripheral Membrane Proteins –
exterior to and connected to the
membrane by interactions with
other proteins.
 Integral Membrane Proteins –
portions of these transmembrane
proteins are exposed on both
sides of the membrane.
 Structural Proteins – help to give
cell support and shape.
 Receptor Proteins – helps cell
communicate with their external
environment through the use of
signaling molecules.
 STM 007 – GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
FACILIATED DIFFUSION
 Process hereby a substance passes through a
membrane with an aid of an intermediary or a
facilitator- an integral membrane protein that spans
the width if the membrane.
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
Active Transport
 Movement of molecules across a cell membrane from
a region of their lower concentration to a region of
their higher concentration – in the direction against
some gradient or other obstructing factor.
 Requires the assistance of a type of protein called a
carrier protein, using energy supplied by ATP or
Adenosine Triphosphate to affect the transport.
Process
 Proteins do much of the work
 Positioned to cross the membrane so one part is
on the inside of the cell and one part is on the
outside.
 Only when they cross the bilayer are they able to
move molecules and ions in and out of the cell.
 Membrane proteins are very specific.
Examples
 The maintaining of a balance of sodium and
potassium inside and outside a cell.
Importance
 Some molecules are transported this way such
as sodium, potassium, hydrogen, amino acids,
and glucose.
BULK/VESICULAR TRANSPORT
 Predominant mechanism for exchange of
proteins and lipids between membrane bound
organelles in eukaryotic cells.
CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates
 Biological molecules that provide the body with
energy
Function
 Providing energy and regulation of blood glucose
 Sparing the use of proteins for energy
 Breakdown of fatty acids and preventing ketosis
 When the body does not have enough glucose
for energy, it burns stored fats instead.
Structural Component
 Has carbon, hydrogen and oxygen such as
Glucose, with the formula C6H12O6
Types
 Simple carbohydrates - sugars coming from the
food that we eat.
 Complex Carbohydrates – takes time to break
down into glucose.
Structure
 It can be represented by the formula (C:H2:O)n,
n is the number of carbons in the molecules.
 Ratio is 1:2:1
 The term “carbohydrates” is bases on its
components: carbon “carbo”, water “hydrate”.
Subtypes
 Monosaccharides – one sugar unit
 Disaccharides – two sugar units
 Polysaccharides – multiple sugar units
 STM 007 – GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
Proteins
LIPIDS
Lipids
 One of the four major classes of biologically essential
organic molecules found in all living organisms.
 Any of the large group of organic compounds that are
esters of fatty acids.
 Fats, oil, steroids, and waxes
Classification
 Monoglycerides / Simple Lipid – are storage lipid
such as neutral fats and waxes
 Diglycerides / Triglycerides / Compound Lipid –
phospholipids, glycolipids and lipoproteins
 Polyglycerides / Derived Lipids – the building
blocks for simple and complex lipid such as fatty
acid and alcohols, hydrocarbon, fat soluble
vitamins A, D, E and K and steroids
Structure
 It contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
 Have far less oxygen than carbohydrates
 Comes from the French word lipid and Greek
word lipos which means animal fat or vegetable
oil.
 Lipid is another word for fats.
Functions
 Energy storage
 Serve as an important constituent of the
structure of cells
 Providing energy to produce hormones
 Insulates the body
 Protection of skin from drying up
 Buoyancy, it keeps one afloat
 Helps in food digestion
Types
 Simple Lipids – fats and waxes or closely
related substances
 Compound Lipids – phospholipids are not
usually not soluble in water but soluble in
alcohol and other organic solvents.
PROTEINS
 Any of a class of nitrogenous organic compounds that
consist of large molecules composed of one or more
long chain of amino acids.
 An essential part of all living organisms, especially as
structural components of body tissues such as
muscle, hair, collagen, etc., and as enzymes and
antibodies.
Amino acids – the building blocks of proteins and
these are classified as essential and non-essential
amino acids.
Types
 Motility Protein – allow movement of cells and
their organelles
 Structural Protein – provides support , strength
and protection
 Enzymes – catalyze or speed up biochemical
reactions in the body
 Transport Proteins – carry molecules from one
place to another or across cell membranes
 Hormones – signaling between different cell
types; stimulation or inhibiting function
 Cell Surface Receptor – label cells for targets for
hormones, viruses, growth factors, recognition of
self-transmission or nerve impulse.
 Neurotransmitter – signaling between neurons or
brain cells
 Immunoglobulins – recognition of foreign
substances that enters the body (antigen)
 Poisons/Toxins – chemicals for defense and
capture of food such as snake venoms
Structure
 Primary Protein Structure – with a long chain of
monomers (single amino acid) connected by
peptide, as it becomes a long chain, it is called
polypeptide.
 Secondary Protein Structure – the long chain of
polypeptides folded and form into sheets of
helices
 Tertiary Protein Structure – resulted when chain
interactions happen and it went to three-
dimensional folding pattern
 Quaternary Protein Structure – Combination of 4
chains polypeptides into a single unit such as the
hemoglobin protein.
Functions
 Structural support for nails and hair, collagen and
ligaments, skin, nails, and hairs are waterproof.
 Transporting molecules. Less hemoglobin less
oxygen
 Receiving and sending signals
 Produce brain chemicals that allow us react
faster
 Movement-muscle have proteins that allow
movement these are actin and myosin
 Antibodies, fight viruses and bacteria
 Speed up of biochemical reactions
 Cellular construction: growth and repair of cells
and tissue and source of energy
 STM 007 – GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
adenine, guanine, cytosine, and uracil (U);
Enzymes when DNA is transcribed into an RNA
 A protein, reason why we need protein in our diet. transcript, G pairs with C and A pairs with U
 Biological catalyst; speed up a reaction without being in opposite direction.
used up; can be used over and over again
 Can affect the change of a large amount of chemical
 Can be destroyed by excessive heat
 Reactions are reversible
 Specific, they control only one reaction
Types
 Metabolic Enzymes – intra-cellular 9inside the
cell), produced by the body to help the cells carry
out a variety of functions and complex
biochemical reactions
 Digestive Enzymes – produce by the body to
break food substances into forms that can be
absorbed and assimilated by the body.
Structure
 Nucleotides
 Composed of nucleotide monomers linked
together to form a polynucleotide chains and has
3 parts:
1. Nitrogenous Base
2. Five-Carbon Sugar
3. Phosphate Group
3 components:
1. Sugar
2. Nitrogen containing hetero cyclic base
3. Phosphoric acid unit

 Food Enzymes – ingested by the body through ATP-ADP CYCLE

the raw food that we eat daily.
ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)
 Considered by biologists to be the energy currency of
life.
 High-energy molecule that stored the energy we need
to do just about everything we do.
 The carrier of energy to cells that requires energy.

Structure
 Composed of nitrogenous base Adenine bound
to sugar ribose linked to 3 phosphate groups.
 Bonds between the phosphate groups are high
NUCLEIC ACID energy packed into 3 bonds.
Nucleic Acids
 Biopolymers, or large biomolecules Functions
 Composed of monomers-nucleotides made of three  Used as the main energy source for metabolic
components: a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, functions.
and a nitrogen base.  Consumed by energy-requiring (endothermic)
 Molecules that allow organisms to transfer genetic processes and produced by energy-releasing
information from one generation to the next. (exothermic) process in the cell.
 Use for synthesis of organic molecule
Types  Power up the muscle contraction
 DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)  Used in active transport of large molecules in the
- Contains instruction for the performance of plasma membrane
cell functions; when cell divides, DNA is
copied and passed.
- Organized into chromosomes and found
within the nucleus of our cell
- Composed of a phosphate-deoxyribose
sugar backbone and four nitrogenous bases:
adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and
thymine (T); in double strand DNA, A pairs
with T and G pairs with C
 RNA (ribonucleic acid)
- Essential for the synthesis of proteins
information contained within the genetic
code is typically passed from DNA to RNA to
the resulting proteins
- Commonly exist as a single-strand molecule Importance: it serves as an energy carrier in the
- Composed of a phosphate-ribose sugar cells.
backbone and the nitrogenous bases
 STM 007 – GENERAL BIOLOGY 1

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Photosynthesis
 The process by which green plants and some other
organisms use sunlight to synthesize foods from
carbon dioxide and water.
 Involves green pigment chlorophyll and generates
oxygen as byproduct

Major Events
 Sunlight and carbon dioxide are absorbed.
 Chloroplasts’ chlorophyll traps heat to start the
photosynthesis
 Photosynthesis strips hydrogen from water
molecule leaving only oxygen
 Oxygen which left back from the transformation is
released back into the air.
Light-dependent Reactions
 Light reaction; need light to produce organic
energy molecules (ATP and NADPH)
 Initiated by green colored pigments, chlorophyll.
 Purpose: convert solar energy into chemical Cellular Respiration
energy in the form of ATP and NADPH to fuel the  A set of metabolic reactions and processes that takes
assembly of sugar molecules. place in the cells of organisms to convert biochemical
Functions of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate
NADPH (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (ATP), then releases wastes product.
phosphate)  Respiration is one of the key ways a cell releases
chemical energy to fuel cellular activity.

Types
 Aerobic Respiration
- The process of producing cellular energy
involving oxygen.
- Happens in mitochondria
- Produces 36 ATP
- First step is glycolysis, second is citric acid
cycle, and the third is the electron transport
system.
 Anaerobic Respiration
- Type of respiration that does not use oxygen
- Used when there is not enough oxygen for
ATP and NADPH were created aerobic respiration
- Glucose > lactic acid (+released)

Light-independent reactions Major Features

 Dark reactions; makes use of ATP and  Glycolysis – splitting of sugars
NADPH molecules.  Pyruvate oxidation and Formation of Acetyl CoA
 Also called as Calvin Benison Cycle, – pyruvate travels into the mitochondrial matrix
occurs in the stroma. and is converted to a two-carbon molecule bound
 Chemical reactions that convert carbon to coenzyme A, called acetyl CoA.
dioxide and other compounds into  Citric Acid Cycle or Krebs Cycle
glucose.  Electron Transport Chain – oxidative
CELLULAR RESPIRATION phosphorylation
 Chemiosmosis
STM 007 – GENERAL BIOLOGY 1