Super Skills

KEWI
Republic of Kenya, Ministry of Republic of Kenya, International Labour Organization

Environment & Natural Resources Ministry of Roads and Public Works ASIST, Advisory Support, Information
Kenya Water Institute Kisii Training Centre Services and Training
Skills Course Manual
Site Supervisor Course for Labour-Based

and Community-Managed Upgrading of
Urban Low-Income Settlements
Andreas Beush and Marie Winsvold

Site Supervisor Course for
Labour-Based and Community-Managed Upgrading
of Urban Low-Income Settlements
Skills Course Manual
Andreas Beusch (Intech Beusch & Co.)

and Marie Winsvold (ILO)
Republic of Kenya, Ministry of Roads and Public Works

Kisii Training Centre
KEWI
Republic of Kenya, Ministry of Environment & Natural Resources
Kenya Water Institute
International Labour Organization

ASIST, Advisory Support, Information Services and Training
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ILO ASIST Africa Regional Progamme

Andreas Beusch, Marie Winsvold
Site Supervisor Course for Labour-Based and Community-Managed Upgrading
of Urban Low-Income Settlements – Skills Course Manual
Geneva, International Labour Office, 2002
ISBN 92-2-112814-8
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Illustrations: Dan Amayo

Designed by MDP, International Training Centre of the ILO, Turin, Italy
Printed in Italy by the International Training Centre of the ILO
Preface
The ILO has promoted the concept of people’s participation since the
mid-seventies. Participation of local communities in development
decisions affecting their lives is indeed a precondition to economic,
social and political changes required to achieve better working and
living conditions for the low-income groups in society. During the
1990s, efforts to materialise “participation” were undertaken in a
number of grassroots programmes, resulting in the development of
“community-contracting” as a policy tool to define roles, rights and
obligations of each party concerned – e.g. local government and a
community-based organisation – and to introduce the principles of
organisation and negotiation in the weakly organised and informal
urban or rural areas.
Experience in the field projects, particularly with community-managed
labour-based upgrading schemes in urban low-income areas, revealed
that, for local government to effectively deliver its part of the contract,
the municipal staff needed and actually requested support to improve
and update their qualifications. Consequently, in 1999, a training
needs assessment was carried out by ASIST1 in Tanzania and Kenya,
with a view to evaluating the needs for training of municipal engineers,
technicians and foremen. The training material developed on the basis
of this assessment consists of two parts:
Y a training course for engineers and town planners, “Sustainable
community-managed and labour-based upgrading of urban
low-income settlements”; it has three components: i) Trainer’s
Notes; ii) Workbook; and iii) Handbook; and
Y a Site Supervisor Course for Labour-Based and
Community-Managed Upgrading of Urban and Low-Income
Settlements; this course consists of i) Training Manual: Basic
Course; ii) Training Manual: Skills Course; and iii) Handbook.
(This site supervisor course addresses the needs of both foremen and
technicians).
Obviously, the present training material must be completed by similar
training material addressing the needs of the communities themselves,
i.e. their technical and managerial capacity, and their organisational
and bargaining capacity2.
1 ASIST: Advisory Support Information Services and Training, is the regional support
programme of the ILO’s Employment-Intensive Investment Programme.
2 Ref.: “Community Contracts In Urban Infrastructure Works, Practical lessons from
experience” by Jane Tournee and Wilma Van Esch. 2001.
S – iii
It is hoped that this package will enable local communities and local
government to improve their ability to effectively cooperate and
succeed in their efforts to upgrade the economic and social conditions
of those who so often lack access not only to economic opportunities
and basic social services, but also to the so much needed technical
support.
The present Training Manual for the Site Supervisor Course for
Labour-Based and Community-Managed Upgrading Of Urban and
Low-Income Settlements has been prepared by Andreas Beusch and
Marie Winsvold.
I would like to thank the authors for this useful material, and express
my gratitude to DANIDA for their financial assistance.
Jean Majeres
Head,
Employment-Intensive Investment Branch
S – iv
Acknowledgement
This training material has been prepared for the Advisory Support
Information Services and Training Programme, under the
Employment-Intensive Investment Programme of the International
Labour Organization, by Intech Beusch & Co., Consulting Engineers,
in co-operation with the International Labour Organization and with
financial assistance from Danida.
Gratitude is expressed to the Kisii Training Centre of the Kenya
Institute of Highways and Building Technology and the Kenya Water
Institute for piloting the training courses where this training material
was tested. Acknowledgement is given to Wilma van Esch (Solid
Waste) and Bjorn Rydtun (Water Supply) who assisted with very
valuable contributions to the development of this training material.
Special thanks to Kelley Toole, ILO/ASIST, Harare for her valuable
contribution with the revision of the material and to Thomas Stenstrom
for assisting and commenting on the development of the training
material and the pilot courses.
All the partners have been involved in the development of the training
material. It has been a great pleasure and challenge to work with
different partners on this joint effort to develop material to be lectured
and used by two different Ministries.
Some of the material developed for this pilot course has been adopted
from publications mentioned in the list of references, and these
sources are also acknowledged.
Andreas Beusch
Marie Winsvold
December 2001
S –v
Introduction
Specialised training for Site Supervisors is an essential prerequisite for
successful labour-based and community-managed upgrading projects
in urban low income settlements.
The training of Site Supervisors for urban infrastructure works is
subdivided into two courses:
Course Duration Course Objective
BASIC Course 3 weeks At the end of this course the trainee

will have acquired the basic skills,
knowledge and have improved
attitudes to carry out day-to-day site
supervisory work under guidance
using LBCM approaches.
SKILL Course 3 weeks At the end of this course the

trainee will have the skills and
knowledge to supervise and
execute urban infrastructure
works using LBCM approaches.
This manual has been produced as reference material for the SKILLS
course. It provides the necessary information to develop during the
course the knowledge and skills that are required to qualify for a
certificate of successful completion of the Site Supervisor training.
Supplementary information will be provided by the trainers during the
course. The course participants are also advised to make their own
notes during the course.
S – vii
Background
The ongoing expanding migration from rural to urban areas contributes
to the rapid rise of urban poverty. To be able to fight and reduce
poverty, it is crucial to be proactive and focus on the long-term effects
of the changes in society. Urbanisation is a global trend. It is estimated
that half the people of the developing world will live in urban areas by
the year 2015. The lack of employment options, social structure and
poverty makes the security situation for the urban poor increasingly
worse.
Urban unplanned, low-income settlements are characterised by poor or
non-existent public infrastructure, un- and under-employment and
insecurity. By improving basic infrastructure such as access, drainage,
drinking water, sanitation and solid waste-management using the
labour-based and community-managed approaches, it is possible to
increase income opportunities and to improve health and access to
services and markets.
City and municipal councils are facing enormous challenges as they
seek partnerships with local communities to upgrade, repair or
maintain the physical infrastructure within the rapidly growing
low-income settlements. While much of this can be implemented by
well-directed labour-based methods, there is a lack of practical
experience and supervisory skills to achieve appropriate standards in a
cost effective and timely manner by use of local labour-based
technology.
The main reasons for a community-managed and participatory
approach to urban upgrading are as follows:
Y Firstly, the overall trend towards public/private partnership in the
provision of infrastructure, simply because the government, or the
city authorities, do not have the capacity (financial, technical,
human resources etc.) to provide and maintain adequate,
appropriate infrastructure.
Y Secondly, community acceptance of certain maintenance
responsibilities will largely depend on their involvement in all phases
of project execution, from the identification and planning phase
onwards, which creates a sense of ownership.
Y Thirdly, the creation of new partnerships builds capacities for further
development at three levels: the municipal administration and
technical services, community organisations, and private sector
enterprises.
Y Finally, the population living in poverty generally benefits most
when local resources, both human and material, are used in
implementation.
S – viii
Table of Contents
Module S1: Work Management
Module S2: Labour Issues
Module S3: Solid Waste Management
Module S4: Urban Roads
Module S5: Urban Drainage
Module S6: Urban Water Supply
Module S7: Urban Sanitation
Module S8: Quantities and Costing
Module S9: Contracting
Reference Material and Suggested Reading
S – ix
Subjects: Site Work Planning S1.1

Site Organisation S1.2
Resource Planning S1.3
Work Implementation S1.4
Site Planning, Reporting and Monitoring S1.5
Maintenance Management S1.6
Annexes: List of Typical Task Rates Annex A

Maintenance Planning Form (Empty) Annex B
At the end of this Module you should be able to

manage a work site.
S1 – 1
S1.1 Site Work Planning

To be able to plan for site work a number of issues need to be
considered, such as:
O What are the activities to be done?

O What are the quantities of work to be carried out for each of these
activities?
O What productivity (guidelines) should be used?
O What is the sequence (order) of carrying out these activities?
O What is the amount of time available?
O Overall, can resources be planned and utilised to the optimum?
S1.1.1 Activities and Sequence
In labour-based infrastructure improvement works, the following

operations are likely to be tackled in the sequence (order) shown.
Each operation is made up of several activities as shown below.
Type of
Item Operation Activities
Infrastructure
1 Road, Drainage, Supporting O Setting out

Water Supply, O Water carrying
Sanitation O Maintenance
O Collecting rock
O Collecting sand
O Camp work
O Tools repair
2 Road, Drainage, Clearing, stumping O Removal of vegetation

Water Supply, O Waste clearing
Sanitation
O Grubbing
O Stumping
3 Road, Drainage, Earthworks O Excavation

Water Supply, O Hauling
Sanitation
O Spreading and compacting
4 Road Work Drainage O Ditching and sloping

Activities O Spreading
O Camber formation
O Mitre and catch water drains
O Culvert outlet
S1 – 2
Type of
Item Operation Activities
Infrastructure
5 Road Work Road structures O Culverts

Activities O Drifts
O Vented fords
O Bridges
7 Road Work Road gravelling O Excavation and loading

Activities O Hauling
O Spreading and compacting
Road paving O Bitumen sealing

O Block & brick paving
O Stone paving
8 Pipe Laying Pressure testing O Pressure gauge

Activities
9 Pipe Laying Pipe laying O Pipe laying

Activities
10 Storm Drain Finishing O Finishing drain bottom

Works O Lining drain bottom and
sides
O Replacing top soil
11 Storm Drain Structures O Constructing debris trap

Works O Constructing sand trap
O Constructing walkway slabs
over drain
12 Sanitation Structures O Substructure works

(Pit latrine) O Foundation works
O Foundation walls up to DPC
O Superstructure works
O Floor slab
O Walling
O Roofing
13 Solid Waste O Collection

Management O Transport
O Storage
O Transport
O Treatment
S1 – 3
S1.1.2 Estimating Quantity of Work
To measure production or set tasks on labour-based works, you must

estimate the quantity of work to be done. Data for estimating the
quantity of work can be collected using:
Y design drawings;
Y simple surveying tools such as boning rods, profile boards, line
level, special templates, etc.;
Y tape measure.
Once data has been collected in the field, from the drawing and the Bill
of Quantities (if available), the detailed quantities of work for each
activity need to be calculated.
A water supply line is to be installed to provide clean water to

a low-income settlement community living about 2.5 km away from the
mains. An 80 mm diameter pipe will be used requiring a trench width of
500 mm and depth not less than 750 mm. When the excavation is
complete, a gravel compacted bedding of 100 mm thickness will be
provided before laying the pipe. Refer to diagram below.
Estimate:
O What is the quantity of excavation to be done in one day if progress of
100 m/day is expected?
O What will be the loose volume of the excavated material if the material
has a bulking factor of 1.2?
O How much gravel has to be brought to the site for bedding if its
bulking factor is 1.3?
2 +5 0 0
0+0 0 0 Pipelin e Ro ute
6 5 cm
10 c m
50 cm
Tre nch Cro s s -s ec tio n
S1 – 4
S1.1.3 Productivity Guidelines
Typical productivity guidelines need to reflect what each worker can

achieve in a day by working approximately 8 hrs. These are called task
rates. Examples are as follows:
Activity Task Rate
Vegetation clearing 150 – 300 m 2/md

3
Excavation, soft soil 3 – 4 m /md
Wheelbarrow hauling:
3
0 – 40 m 10.5 m /md
40 – 60 m 8.0 m 3/md
3
60 – 80 m 6.5 m /md
80 – 100 m 5.5 m 3/md
REFERENCE
A table with typical task rates is shown in Annex A to this Module.
Please note that these are guidelines only and that appropriate task
rates for each project have to be specifically established.
S1.1.4 Deciding Task Rates
The task rates mentioned so far in this book are guidelines only. A
reasonable task rate for each activity must be decided on site bearing
in mind such factors as:
Y the difficulty of the work e.g. soil hardness/wetness, bush
thickness, throwing distances;
Y the condition of the tools;
Y the temperature/weather conditions;
Y the fitness/health of the labourers and their experience of
work.
S1 – 5
To decide a task rate for an activity follow this procedure:
Step 1 Set aside one day for a trial on the activity. Organise the
labourers on a day-work basis on this activity.
Step 2 Supervise the labourers closely, making sure that they all work
hard for an eight-hour period.
Step 3 Stop works after eight hours and measure the quantity of work
completed. Divide the quantity by the number of labourers on
the activity. This gives an average task rate for the activity.
Task rate = Total work completed in 8 hours

Number of labourers on activity
Repeat this exercise frequently and adjust the task rate so that all
labourers work on site for at least six hours a day.
Suppose the supervisor wanted to establish task rates for

excavation and removal of unwanted topsoil, commonly referred to as
stripping and grubbing, the approach would be as follows:
1. Set the trial section to be, for example, 9 m wide by 120 m long.
2. Set the depth of excavation to be, say, 0.1 m.
3. Select a gang of, say, 5 labourers.
4. Set the start time and end time to be, say, from 7.30 am to
3.30 pm.
5. Measure out work actually completed to your satisfaction over the
period.
6. Work out the task rate for this activity.
Solution:
After 8 hrs, the actual work completed measures 9 m wide by 95 m long.
O Work completed = Area = 9 x 95 = 855
O Task rate = 855 / 5 = 171 m2/worker-day
Task rates are important – keep them fair!!
S1 – 6
S1.2 Site Organisation
S1.2.1 Site Office and Storage Facilities
When locating a site office the following should be considered:

Y The site office for the supervisor should include a store for
materials and tools, and provisions for a toilet.
Y There should be a source of clean water nearby.
Y It should be accessible by supervision and service vehicles.
Y It should be sited on high, well-drained ground.
Y It should be within walking distance of all the workers.
Y It should be sited away from known trouble spots.
Site office accommodation varies depending on the nature and size
of the works.
The requirement for an office should be handled carefully
depending on the particular situation. It can be very basic, e.g. only a
table in a community-provided office. It should be regarded as the
place where the supervisor will be able to sit and complete his routine
planning and monitoring activities.
The requirements for material storage are as follows:
Y A waterproof, lockable tool store should be considered to
provide a hold for all tools required plus 25% more for spares.
Y Cement storage should be in a well-ventilated shed protected from
dampness.
Y Equipment storage ground should be reasonably flat and well
drained.
S1.2.2 Labour Recruitment
The number of labourers to be employed depends on the amount of

work to be done and the time in which the project has to be
completed.
Ensure that local people are aware of the recruitment exercise and
date by meeting with the local council and community leaders and
agreeing on the date and place.
Call for community meetings to inform the community of the method
of the recruitment exercise. A ballot system should be used where
more people apply for work than needed.
S1 – 7
The recruitment process should follow this procedure:

O The recruitment of casual labourers for each site should be carried
out at a public meeting, a week or two before the start of the actual
site work.
O The casual labour force must be recruited from the population
living in the locality of the project.
O Men and women should be equally eligible for employment and
the public must be informed accordingly.
O Secret ballot should be used for the recruitment exercise if the
turnout is greater than that required.
O Each recruit should sign a casual employment contract form where
the conditions of employment are clearly stated.
O The recruitment has to be witnessed by the responsible
community-based organisation and, if possible, the local authority,
e.g. representative of the municipality.
O When recruiting casual labourers, make it clear that they are being
employed on a temporary basis and will be made redundant when
the work is completed.
Balloting:
Step 1: Determine the number of labourers required (A).
Step 2: The number of job seekers present is counted (B).
Ballot papers are prepared as follows: “yes” papers equal to the
number of jobs (A) and “no” papers equal to (B-A). These
papers are folded and placed in a container.
Step 3: Each person who wants a job draws a ballot.
Step 4: Note down the names of people who draw ballot papers marked
“yes”. These people will be recruited for the job.
Draw up a reserve list from those who draw ballot papers
marked “no”. Tell each group when they are to report for work.
The conditions for employment must be made clear before the

employees are made to participate in the recruitment exercise.
Thereafter they have to sign a Casual Employment Form. An example
is shown on the next page.
REFERENCE
For working conditions refer to Module S2.2: Labour Recruitment.
S1 – 8
CASUAL EMPLOYMENT FORM
Name of Project Employment No:
Ref. No: Place and Date:
Name: Mr/Mrs/Ms
1. You are hereby offered employment with casual conditions as

..............................................................................................................................
with effect from .......................................................................................................
2. The terms and conditions of employment are as follows:
a. You will be paid Kshs .................. per day for an eight-hour working day or an
equivalent task rate
You will not be paid for public holidays or any day not worked regardless of the reason
i.e. heavy rains, sickness, etc.
b. You will be paid at the end of each month for the days worked.
c. You are not entitled to annual leave, housing, transport or any allowances.
d. Your employment will be terminated by any of the following:
- at the end of the three-month period starting on the date mentioned above,
- at the completion of this project,
- when you absent yourself from work without permission from your supervisors,
- when you do not follow the instructions of your supervisors,
- when you behave in a disorderly manner.
e. You are responsible for any loss or damage of tools issued to you by your supervisors.
3. By signing this acceptance form you have agreed to the terms and conditions of
employment set out above.
CBO/Company Name:
Site Supervisor: ............................................................ Date: ...............................
I have read (it has been read to me) and understood the above terms and I hereby accept the
casual employment on the terms and conditions of this form.
Signature of Employee: ................................................................................................
S1 – 9
S1.2.3 Redundancy
The Site Supervisor will decide when to reduce the labour force in
order to match the work at hand. Before you make people redundant
make sure that any outstanding debts, e.g. for lost tools have been
settled. Redundancy should coincide with the time of closing of the
Muster Roll.
Do not allow progress to slow down towards the end of the job!
S1.2.4 Health, Safety and Environment
High standards for health, safety and environment protection should

be pursued with as much vigour as other management objectives.
Apart from ensuring the well-being of all concerned, it is obvious that
accidents and illnesses mean additional costs, and perhaps disruption
of the contract.
Improving safety and prevention of accidents require the
following:
Y Information and training: Good information and training of the
workforce on accident prevention is essential.
Y Record keeping: Keeping records of the types of accidents that
occur most frequently, and why they occur, puts you in a better
position to prevent them.
Y Motivating the workforce: Some special measures can be
introduced, such as organising a “safety” bonus for the workers or
gangs with the best record.
Y Use of safety equipment and clothing: Make sure that safety
equipment is available when and where it is needed. Insist that it is
always used. Take disciplinary action against workers who refuse or
frequently forget to use the equipment.
REFERENCE
For health and safety measures on site also refer to Module B5.5.
S1 – 10
Remember that accidents can occur.

In the cases below, the causes of accidents have been grouped
according to their nature:
Planning or organisation:
O Defects in technical planning.
O Fixing unsuitable time limits. Tiredness is a major cause of accidents.
O Assigning work to an incompetent contractor or labourer.
O Insufficient or defective supervision of the work.
O Lack of co-operation between different trades.
Materials and construction:

O Construction defects.
O Use of unsuitable materials.
O Defective processing of materials.
Equipment:
O Lack of equipment.
O Missing protective clothing and equipment.
O Unsuitable equipment.
O Defects in equipment.
O Lack of safety devices or measures.
Management and conduct of the work:

O Inadequate preparation of work.
O Inadequate examination of equipment.
O Imprecise or inadequate instruction from supervisors.
O Unskilled or untrained operatives.
O Inadequate supervision.
Workers behaviour:
O Irresponsible acts.
O Unauthorised acts.
O Carelessness.
S1 – 11
Some important measures to take on site:
O Ensuring correct use of tools and equipment

O Training work force in the correct way of lifting heavy weights
O Securing slopes and deep ditches from collapsing (strutting)
O Cordoning off open holes and ditches
O Ensuring safety of people, especially children, in the community
S1.2.5 Environmental Concerns
Important environmental factors to bear in mind are:

Y preventing dust generation;
Y avoiding cutting down vegetation in areas that will not be affected
by the project;
Y preventing practices that will enhance erosion;
Y preventing blockage of waterways that would result in flooding;
Y preserving biological cycles and eco-systems;
Y restoring soil borrow pits;
Y planting vegetation where possible to restore vegetation.
The site should have improved environmental conditions

after the work is completed.
S1 – 12
S1.2.6 Organisational Structure on Site
Different infrastructure improvement works require different

organisational arrangements. However, the most common
arrangement is a site headed by a Site Supervisor, assisted by
Gang Leaders and working with skilled and unskilled labourers.
For each position there should be a job description which outlines the
authority of the person, the tasks to be carried out and the areas of
responsibility.
A typical organisation structure looks like this:
Site Supervisor
Setting-out Preparation Structures

and Quality and or
Control Earthworks Pipe Laying
or
Plumbing
• Gang Leader • Gang Leader
• Labourers • Labourers
• Tools • Tools • Gang Leader
• Artisans
• Labourers
• Tools
REFERENCE
For more details on site organisation check in
Module B6: Work Implementation.
S1 – 13
S1.3 Resource Planning
S.1.3.1 General
The following points should be noted:
O Site activities are interrelated by nature.

O Not all activities can be simultaneously carried out at maximum
productivity level.
Therefore, there is a need to plan productivity recognising the

interrelationship of the activities. Resources needed for labour-based
improvement works are:
Y supervisory and administrative staff;
Y skilled and unskilled labourers;
Y tools and simple equipment;
Y construction materials;
Y site office and material storage facilities.
Quantities and specifications of individual resource items vary from site
to site. However, there is a need to estimate the requirement of each
resource item carefully. This also means that you have to consider how
this will affect:
Y site transport;
Y camp preparation and layout;
Y services (e.g. water, latrines, power, etc.).
S1.3.2 Skilled and Unskilled Labour
Y Skilled labourers (artisans) are required for all specialised jobs, like
masonry work, plumbing, concrete work, etc. Their employment has
to be carefully planned based on the type of work to be carried out
and the time when the respective activities have to be carried out.
Preferably artisans should be hired from the local community.
Y Unskilled labourers are required to carry out all other manual
activities and have to be recruited from the local community.
S1 – 14
Y Labour demand estimates should take into account the productivity

of the local labour, quantity of work to be performed, time available
for work, nature of the site, the availability and experience of the
supervisory staff.
Y Supervision vehicles or motorbikes and simple equipment require
drivers and/or mechanics.
S1.3.3 Tools and Equipment
You also have to plan to make available tools and simple equipment
for the site to meet the level of the expected workforce on site.
REFERENCE
Typical lists of required tools and equipment are provided in
Module B4: Materials, Tools and Equipment.
S1.3.4 Materials
Materials are needed for work on site or for site-related jobs such as
camp construction. Gravel, clay and stones may be available locally.
Cement, timber, pipes, etc., have to be purchased and delivered to the
site.
REFERENCE
Common construction materials are described in
Module B4: Materials, Tools and Equipment.
S1 – 15
S1.4 Work Implementation
S1.4.1 Establishing a Site
The Site Supervisor will advise on how many labourers should be

employed on the site and when to employ them. Early arrangements
must be made to provide tools for that number. It is the Site
Supervisor's job to organise the work. The following points are
important to remember when establishing a site:
O Most labourers have no previous experience of infrastructure works. It

is important that they are split into smaller groups so that they can be
trained. Each group is to be led by a competent Gang Leader.
O The site labour force should be increased gradually so that each group
of labourers can be trained individually and Gang Leader selected.
Each Gang Leader should be trained to do one operation and be
responsible for that operation throughout the job.
O At all times during improvement work the number of labourers working

on each operation must be balanced with the difficulty and quantity of
work. If this balance is not correct some operations will either pull
ahead or fall behind the others.
O The site will be more difficult to supervise if the operations are spread
out over a wide distance.
KEEP ALL OPERATIONS CLOSE TOGETHER!
It is essential that you carefully plan the necessary establishment

arrangement. The following example provides a list of sequenced
arrangement activities for starting a road site:
S1 – 16
Typical start-up of a site for road works:

O Step 1:
– Recruit labourers
– Split the labour force into three groups and tell each group when
to report for work. Employment starts from the date of reporting
– Employ a small number of labourers to establish the camp
– Set out chainage pegs and centreline
– Measure clearing quantities
– Start daily work planning and reporting
O Step 2:
– Employ Gang A
– Start clearing
– Start slotting
– Measure earthworks and clearing quantities
– Continue daily planning and reporting
O Step 3:
– Employ Gang B
– Start earthworks
– Select a Gang Leader from Gang A to lead Gang A
O Step 4:
– Employ Gang C
– Start drainage works
– Select a Gang Leader from Gang B to lead Gang B
O Step 5:
– Select a Gang Leader from Gang C to lead Gang C
For small jobs, only one gang of labourers is required, e.g.

construction of pit latrines for sanitation works, erecting stand posts
for water distribution, etc.
S1 – 17
S1.4.2 Incentive Schemes
Incentive schemes are ways of rewarding workers for the work done.
The method used for paying workers can have a major effect on
productivity and efficiency on the site. If an effective payment scheme
is introduced, profits can be increased through higher efficiency at the
same time as the workers earn more.
Methods of payment which reward workers with money, time off or
both are as follows:
Day work: Labourers work for a fixed wage per day.
Piece work: Labourers work for a fixed amount per unit of
work done.
Task work: Labourers are given a measured amount of work
to do. They are then allowed to leave the site
when the work has been done to the satisfaction
of the supervisor.
Bonus schemes: Labourers are paid an extra reward for efficient
work done.
The task work system, if used fairly, is a very useful system
because:
Y each labourer has to do the same amount of work;
Y the labourers know that if they work hard they can leave the site
earlier.
But, for the task work system to work properly you must:
Y measure the quantity of work to be done;
Y choose a fair task rate of work to be done;
Y set out the tasks so that each labourer knows exactly what he must
do;
Y check the work of each labourer several times during the day and
make sure it is being done properly. Approve the work when the
labourer has finished the job (quality and quantity).
REFERENCE
For details on incentive schemes refer to Module B6.2.3
S1 – 18
S1.4.3 Quality Control Measures
The purpose of establishing a quality control system is to make quality

control a matter of routine. For example:
Y all materials should be checked before they are offloaded at site;
Y substandard materials should never be accepted, even if they are
accompanied with some offer of discount.
Eyes and Experience (two “E”s)

A good supervisor will make full use of the two “E”s as front-line
weapons in the battle for quality.
REFERENCE
For details on quality control refer to Module B8.
S1 – 19
S1.5 Site Planning, Reporting and Monitoring

All partners involved in the project need to be informed of the progress
made and the quantities of work achieved. This will help them to keep
in the picture about what is going on at the site and to make a
judgement on the progress of the project (Î monitoring).
Thus, the basis for reporting and monitoring is to make available
progress information that will be used to detect any difficult situations
that may affect project time, cost and/or quality.
S.1.5.1 Periodic Work Plans and Reports
Work plans and reports should be prepared by the Site Supervisor and
sent to the partners involved with the project including:
Y local council representative
Y CBO
Y NGO or donor agency
Ideally such plans and reports should be made on a daily, weekly and
monthly basis containing information regarding:
Y input measurements (planned targets, time and resources);
Y output measurements (achieved targets, time and used resources).
Input measurements Output measurements:
O A description of all types of O A complete description of task

resources employed O The measured quantity of output
O Unskilled labour with its unit reflected
O Skilled labour O A reference to the resource or
O Tools and equipment labour gang that produced the
work
O Materials
O The period during which the work
O Payment method
was produced
O Normal site hours
O Where the task was carried out
O Location of each task in operation
O Reflect whether the task completed
O Lost time is equal to the target
O Equipment working time O If piecework was used, indicate
the piece rate
S1 – 20
DAILY SITE OPERATION PLANNING & REPORTING FORM
Site Name: Date:
Planned Actual Progress

Activity
Activity description Exp. Task Worker Actual Worker To
No. Before
output rate days output days date
1 Setting out
2 Preparation activities
2.1 Clearing + refuse removal
2.2 Grubbing
2.3 Top soil removal

2.4 Tree/stump removal
2.5 Boulder removal

Sub-total
3 Earthwork activities
3.1 Excavation (mass, e.g. road)
3.2 Excavation (drains and trenches)
3.3 Excavation (pits)

3.4 Sloping/backsloping
3.5 Shaping trench bed

3.6 Spreading material (camber etc.)
Sub-total
4 Drainage works
4.1 Placing prefabricated elements
4.2 Constructing drains (masonry)

4.3 Placing and filling gabions
4.4 Building scour checks

Sub-total
5 Structures
5.1 Constructing/casting foundations
5.2 Constructing walls (masonry)
5.3 Constructing concrete shuttering

5.4 Placing reinforcement
5.5 Casting concrete slabs and walls

5.6 Plastering walls, etc.
5.7 Installing culverts
5.8 Backfilling and compaction

Sub-total
S1 – 21
DAILY SITE OPERATION PLANNING & REPORTING FORM (cont.d)

Planned Actual Progress
Activity
Activity description Exp. Task Worker Actual Worker To
No. Before
output rate days output days date
6 Support activities
6.1 Support work
6.2 Repairs
Sub-total
7 Others
7.1
7.2
7.3
Sub-total
TOTAL
Site Supervisor’s Name Signed:
S1 – 22
S1.5.2 Production, Output and Problem Areas
Typical productivity summaries may look like the forms presented

below. As the work progresses problem areas can be identified and
reported in the remarks column.
MONTHLY PRODUCTIVITY SUMMARY FORM

Project Name: Month Ending:
Name of Site Supervisor: Date:
Input Output Productivity

Operation Worker Remarks
Resource Unit Target Achieved Unit Target Achieved
days
S1 – 23
WEEKLY SITE RESOURCE PLAN AND REPORT
Project Name: Month:
Name of Site Supervisor: Date:
Item Working Total

Resource Description Plan Actual Remarks
no. Days Actual
1 Casual labourer
Men
Women
Gang Leader
Sub-total
2 Skilled Labour
Mason
Carpenter
Plumber
Operator
Blacksmith
Sub-total
3 Staff
Site Supervisor
Foreman
Sub-total
4 Equipment
Tractor
Truck
Trailer
Water bowser
Roller
Vibrator
Sub-total
5 POL Diesel Petrol Oil
Tractor
Truck
Roller
Vibrator
Sub-total
6 Material Unit Actual
Cement Bags
Steel No.
Pipes No.
Timber FT
S1 – 24
S1.6 Maintenance Management

Lack of infrastructure maintenance in urban low-income areas is a
serious problem. The scarcity of adequate resources and management
capacity are the main constraints.
For a community-managed project it is essential

that the maintenance aspect is planned and established
before construction or rehabilitation work commences.
The community needs to develop adequate management capacities

and a maintenance plan. The following questions need to be answered:
O Who will organise and supervise maintenance?

O What are the maintenance requirements for the infrastructure
in question?
O What are the likely costs for routine and periodic maintenance?
O How will the required funds/resources be obtained and how
will they be managed?
O How will the maintenance activities be carried out?
As a Site Supervisor you will be asked to assist in the development of

a management plan and the capacity within the community. Your
co-operation will be required:
Y to identify the maintenance needs;
Y to list down the required maintenance activities for the different
types of urban infrastructure both for routine and periodic
maintenance;
Y to discuss with the CBO on how the possible resources for
implementing a maintenance plan can be obtained. (Consider all
teams in the partnership arrangement!);
Y to discuss with the CBO on how a maintenance plan can be
prepared.
It will also be your responsibility to explain to the CBO how the
maintenance activities using labour-based methods are practically
carried out.
S1 – 25
REFERENCE
For more details on road and drain maintenance management refer to
Module Section B5.3.3: Maintenance of Roads and Drains.
For details on maintenance of water supply systems refer to Module S6.
For details on sanitation systems refer to Module S7.
The following tables propose typical maintenance activities:
Roads
Routine Maintenance Activities:
O Inspection and removal of obstructions from the drainage system
O Cleaning of culverts and road crossings; inlets and outlets
O Cleaning of main drains and out-falls
O Cleaning of side drains and out-falls
O Repairing of eroded areas adjacent to drains and out-falls
O Repairing of eroded road shoulders
O Filling of potholes and ruts on road carriageway
O Reshape carriageway (in the case of gravel surface)
O Clearing of vegetation
Periodic Maintenance Activities (when repairs and rehabilitation are
necessary):
O Repair broken lining of the drain slopes, exchange broken drain elements
and drain covers
O Repair approaches to premises
O Replace the pavement top of roads, e.g. resealing, blinding, regravelling,
etc.
O Repair and reinstatement of road shoulders
Drainage
O Inspection and removal of obstructions from the drainage system
O Cleaning of drains and out-falls
O Small repairs of eroded/damaged drains
Periodic Maintenance Activities:
O Repair/replacement of drain lining
O Re-instalment/repair of gabions
O Repair/replacement of drain covers
S1 – 26
Water Supply System

Maintenance of Distribution Systems:
O Standpipes and wash places should be cleaned daily by the consumers
O Drains should be observed daily for blockage
O Weekly check-ups and further cleaning, servicing of valves and hydrants,
leak surveys, repairs and disinfections of repaired sections
O Monthly grass removal
O Leaking taps should be repaired immediately to avoid loss of water
O As pipelines age, accumulations of sediments, rust, and bacterial growth
may substantially reduce the flow capacity. Cleaning with a variety of
tools, including pigs with wire brushes, will restore a large part of the lost
capacity
O Valves are often found to be defective on inspection. Make sure the valves
are not covered with earth or dirt
Valve Chambers:
O Inspected and cleaned twice a year. Any broken slab to be replaced. All
valves to be opened and closed during inspections
Storage Tanks and Break-Pressure Tanks:
O Monthly clearing of surroundings
O Vents and drains to be cleaned monthly
O Water quality to be checked for contamination
O Check for leaks monthly by opening and closing valves
O Twice a year the tanks shall be cleaned and damage such as cracks and
leaks attended to
Sanitation
O Frequent inspections
O Clean
O Remove blockages
Periodic Maintenance:
O Pump out sludge (from septic tanks)
O Remove solid waste (from pit latrines)
O Checking and repairing of mosquito netting on vents
O Occasionally superstructures have to be repaired/maintained too, e.g.
repainting, smoking out of insects, roof repairs, etc.
S1 – 27
Once you have identified the maintenance activities and the

needs you then have to prepare a plan. This is particularly important
for routine maintenance. The most important plan is the annual routine
maintenance plan.
Ideally, the plan should list all the activities, when they have to be
carried out and the resources (mainly labour) that are required to do
the work.
It is also important to agree on who will be responsible for the
organisation and implementation of the work.
All this planning work has to be done together with the community.
Your job is to facilitate the process while the community is
responsible for the planning and execution of the work.
The next page shows you a simple annual routine

maintenance plan for the drainage of a certain urban settlement.
Most of the drains are lined with rubble stones (350 meters).
About 150 metres are protected with gabion boxes and mattresses.
S1 – 28
S1 – 29
O Issues for planning of site work:

activities and their sequence, quantities, productivity and the time
available.
O Conditions to be considered when setting task rates:
difficulty of work, condition of tools, weather and temperature,
fitness/health of labourers and their experience.
O Keep task rates fair!
O The resources required for labour-based work:
supervisory staff, skilled and unskilled labourers, tools and simple
equipment, construction material, site office and storage facilities.
O Work implementation:
Keep all operations close together! Balance the work force in
accordance with the quantity of work for each operation and the
difficulty of the jobs.
O Common incentive schemes are: day work, piece work and
task work.
O The most common incentive scheme for labour-based projects
is the task-work system.
O Site planning and reporting has to be done on a daily, weekly
and monthly basis.
O For a community-managed project it is essential that the
maintenance aspect is planned and established before
construction or rehabilitation works commence.
O The Site Supervisor’s involvement in establishing a
maintenance system consists of:
identifying maintenance needs, listing of activities, establishing
together with the CBO resource and maintenance plans.
S1 – 30
Annex A Module S1: Work Management
Typical Task Rates
TASK RATES/PRODUCTIVITY NORMS
ACTIVITY TASK RATE REMARKS
Clearing of garbage daily paid

Tree & stump removal Roughly 1 wd for every 20 cm Ø of
daily paid
tree
Grubbing Considering grubbing the entire
150 – 300 m2 /wd
Light ground cover up to 5 cm thick clearing area
Boulder removal daily paid From experience
Check according to the volume of
Slotting (for road base) 2 – 4 slots/wd
earthwork
Soft/loose soil 3 – 4 m3/wd
Excavation only Hard soil 2 – 3 m3/wd Maximum throwing distance of 4.0 m
Very hard soil 1 – 1.5 m /wd
3
Depends on the hardness of the soil

Excavate laying of pipe refill 2 – 3 m/wd
and the underground infrastructure
Soft/loose soil 3 – 3.5 m 3/wd
Excavation &
Hard soil 1.75 – 2.5 m 3/wd
loading
Very hard soil 1 – 1.5 m 3/wd
Soft/loose soil 3 – 4 m3/wd
Sloping includes shaping the slope to
Sloping Hard soil 2 – 3 m3/wd
the right gradient, e.g. for drains
Very hard soil 1 – 1.5 m 3/wd
Formation of Spread material from ditching or from
camber (for First spreading 90 m 2/wd imported material
roads)
Gravel Normal weathered

1.5 –2.5 m 3/wd
excavation material
including loading Very hard material
1 – 1.5 m 3/wd
with boulders
Gravel spreading 0.20 m thick
50 – 70 m 2/wd
Stone collection and loading 2.5 – 3 m 3/wd

Sand collection and loading 3 – 4 m3/wd
This includes hand laying of the stones
Stone masonry 2 – 2.5 m 3/wd only. Mixing of mortar and preparation
of stones is not included
Bricklaying for walls This includes hand laying of the bricks
8 – 10 m 2/wd only. Mixing of mortar and preparation
of bricks is not included
wd = worker day
S1 – 31
Module S1: Work Management Annex B
S1 – 32
Subjects: International Labour Standards S2.1

Labour Recruitment S2.2
Labour Remuneration S2.3
Motivation and Discipline S2.4
Safety and Health S2.5
Duration and Termination of Employment S2.6
Rights of Association S2.7

deal with labour issues on site.
S2 – 1
S2.1 International Labour Standards

Labour standards are typically written to apply to different groups of
employers or employees. The importance of regulations in
labour-based works is that:
Y they ensure that the workers are getting what they are entitled to
under the applicable national laws;
Y they ensure that the labour-based technology is considered in the
same way as other ways of constructing and maintaining
infrastructure.
Some important labour standards relevant to labour-based technology
include:
O Equality
O Freedom from forced labour
O Freedom of association
O Minimum age
O Minimum wages
O Protection of wages
O Safety and health
O Other employment conditions
Equality
Men and women should receive equal pay for work of equal value.
Persons should be given equality of opportunity and treatment in
employment and occupation. There should be no discrimination against
persons in their employment and occupation on the basis of their race,
colour, sex, religion, political opinion, national extraction or social
origin, or on any other basis set out in national legislation.
Freedom from forced labour

Work or service should not be exacted from any person under the
menace of penalty or under circumstances where the person has not
offered himself or herself voluntarily.
Work or service should not be exacted from any person:
Y as a means of political coercion;
Y as a method of mobilising and using labour for purposes of
economic development;
S2 – 2
Y as a means of labour discipline;

Y as a punishment for having participated in strikes;
Y as a means of racial, social, national or religious discrimination.
Freedom of association
Workers and employers should have the right to establish and join
organisations of their own choosing, without previous authorisation.
These organisations should have the right to draw up their own rules,
elect their representatives in full freedom, and organise their
administration, activities and programme without interference from
public authorities.
Minimum age
No person under the age of 15 should be employed or work. No person
under the age of 18 should be employed or work in hazardous
circumstances.
Minimum wages
Minimum wages should be established for groups of wage earners
where, in consultation with employers' and workers' organisations, the
competent national authority finds it appropriate. Minimum wages,
where they exist, should have the force of law and should not be
subjected to abatement. Failure to pay minimum wages should be
subject to penal or other sanctions.
Protection of wages
Wages should be paid in cash3. Where wages are paid partially in the
form of allowances in kind, such allowances should be appropriate for
the personal use and benefit for the worker and his or her family, and
fair value should be attributed to such allowances. Employers should
not limit in any way the workers' freedom in using wages. Workers
should be informed of any deduction made from wages, and national
regulation should set down conditions for deductions from wages.
Wages should be paid regularly. Wages should be paid at or near the
place of work.
3 In works clearly defined as community works, e.g. with a clear direct benefit to the
community, it is possible that the community contribution to a project is provided in
kine (e.g. labour days). See training module B-3 on community resources.
S2 – 3
Safety and health

All appropriate precautions shall be taken to ensure that all workplaces
are safe and without risk of injury to the safety and health of workers.
Workers shall have the right and the duty at any workplace to
participate in ensuring safe working conditions to the extent of their
control over the equipment and the methods of work, and to express
views on the working procedures adopted as they may affect safety
and health.
Other employment conditions

As a matter of principle, the forty-hour working week is approved, and
is to be applied to prescribed classes of employment.
Employed persons should receive a holiday with pay of at least three
weeks duration for one year of service. A country may set a minimum
qualification period of employment for entitlement to the holiday (and
rules of its calculation), but it shall be no more than six months.
Women employed should be given special attention during pregnancy
and after confinement. They should not be dismissed during absence
related to confinement and maternity.
Working hours should not ordinarily exceed eight hours in a day and
48 in a week. Workers should ordinarily have at least 24 consecutive
hours rest every seven working days.
To ensure that contractors and/or CBOs respect labour

regulations, construction contracts should include clauses which
require contractors/CBOs to apply the conditions of employment
which prevail in the country where the work is being done.
Penalties are often imposed where this provision is not respected.
S2 – 4
S2.2 Labour Recruitment

The key issue is to engage workers voluntarily and ensuring equality of
opportunity.
Special efforts should be taken to achieve the desired gender mix. This
has been recognised as necessary as there are often biases in the
methods of recruitment against women’s involvement. Experiences
suggest that if special efforts are not taken, women’s participation
remains low.
If few women are employed, consider whether women have had the
opportunity to take up employment. If there has been a blockage on
women taking jobs, consider ways of removing it.
O Special efforts should be taken to achieve the desired gender

mix.
O Promote the use of female gang leaders and forewomen as this
will often encourage women’s participation as labourers.
O Avoid setting quotas for female employees. They may be
wrongly interpreted as limits not to be exceeded.
O Avoid requirements which can discriminate against promotion
to higher positions.
O Discuss realistic requirements with the government agency
concerned if the work is carried out through force account.
How can sufficient workers for labour-based activities be engaged,

avoiding forced labour and ensuring equality of opportunity?
The lottery system

A lottery system can be an effective and fair means of distributing
scarce employment opportunities within a community, provided that
procedures are transparent and fair.
The opening of recruitment is widely advertised by signs, word of
mouth, etc. A date and place is set for the recruitment.
All persons who would like to have a job during the project place their
name on a piece of paper. All names are collected in a container. A
neutral person selects the names out of the container one at a time
and the names are written down in the order in which they are drawn.
Persons are then offered a job in the order in which their names were
selected.
S2 – 5
Adaptations that can be made:

Limitations of those who can participate can be based on:
Y where they live (close to the project);
Y previous unemployment;
Y households with single adult heads, etc. (household names are used
instead of individuals);
Y limited number of employed per household.
Community meetings must be organised during the design stage. The
issue of the paid/non-paid community inputs for the subsequent
maintenance of the infrastructure should be taken up at this stage.
Recruitment for jobs should be conducted in a manner that

ensures:
O impartial and transparent methods e.g. lottery system/secret
ballot method;
O no distinctions such as gender, political opinion , ethnic or
social origins or any other criteria not related to the ability to
do the job;
O no force or threat of any nature;
O Enough open publicity about impending recruitment.
Before an actual recruitment exercise is conducted, publicity
about recruitment for jobs should be made.
This publicity should:
O be made well in advance of recruitment;
O be aimed at all segments of communities;
O give full information about the jobs and terms of employment;
O state that all male and female workers over minimum age are
welcome to apply/participate.
REFERENCE
For the recruitment process, refer to Module S1.3: Site Organisation.
S2 – 6
Principles of Fair Working Conditions

O The recruitment and employment procedures that will be
adopted have first to be discussed and agreed on with the
community-based organisation.
O Conditions of employment have to be worked out beforehand
and agreed on with all parties concerned. This requires
awareness of international labour laws and regulations to be
applied.
O In principle, the people to benefit from project employment
should be the people living within the project area. Specialised
personnel like craftsmen and technicians may be hired from
elsewhere if they cannot be found in the project area.
At the end of the recruitment process the employer and each worker
should know that one is obliged to the other: the worker to perform
certain work under certain conditions, and the employer to provide the
necessary inputs to get the work done, safety at site and to pay the
worker.
This implies two things:
Y first, that the employer knows what sort of work will be needed, at
what time and where. Planning is therefore required;
Y second, that these requirements are communicated to the worker,
as well as the terms of work.
S2 – 7
S2.3 Labour Remuneration

Remuneration is the rewarding/paying of the workers for the work
done. It can also be used to mean payment for services rendered.
Avoiding wage systems which discriminate between men and

women:
Avoid different wage rates for different jobs
O If women tend to take certain jobs and men tend to take other jobs –
and both jobs have equal value but different pay – the result is
discrimination. For example, the wage given to an earth carrier (often
a job done by women) and the earth digger (often a job done by men)
should be the same. Both types of work are essential to completing
the excavation job.
Set single-day task rates
O With this system, a wage is offered for an amount of production which
can be accomplished in a working day. Two elements are fixed: the
wage and the amount of production. The time it takes for either a
person or a group of persons to finish the task varies. By setting a task
which can be finished by most groups or persons within six to eight
hours the problem caused by one sex taking home substantially more
at the end of the day is eliminated, although individual workers may
have to work longer for the same wage. Each person or group must
leave the site when the task is completed and may not do more work.
Insist on the mixing of sexes in group task work
O By combining sexes in group task work, more and less able persons
depend upon each other to complete the task. Practice shows a
tendency to arrange work within the group with this in mind. This can
eliminate the possibility of discrimination.
A number of choices can be made in deciding the basis of

remuneration. Two basic systems exist for labour payment in works
carried out by labour-based methods, namely:
Y time-based system;
Y productivity-based system.
S2 – 8
1. Time-based
The worker is paid on the basis of how much time he or she is present
at the place of work.
O Daily paid
– The worker is paid a fixed sum each day in return for working a
fixed number of hours during that day. The number of hours,
number of breaks, start and finish time is established.
– Production is assured by supervision and by disciplinary measures
for workers who do not produce.
– One day’s worth: no assurance of quantity.
– Easy book-keeping, simple to organise.
– High amount of supervision required to maintain reasonable
output.
– Rate of progress can be extremely variable.
2. Productivity-based
The worker is paid on the basis of how much he or she produces. Two
typical methods of application are described below.
O Piece work
– The worker is paid on the basis of small quantities or pieces of
output. There is no reference made to the amount of time it takes
to accomplish one piece.
– Production is assured as payment is made only upon production.
– Many pieces, usually unlimited.
– Pay relates to output, so output can be maximised each day.
– Tendency to self-exploitation as no limit is placed on the amount
of work a worker can do. Difficult to control by government
administration.
O Task work
– The worker is paid a fixed wage in return for a fixed quantity of
work or task. The size of the task is usually set to be
accomplished in eight hours. The size of a task may be smaller
and more tasks may be given in a single day; the smaller the task
the more like piece work. The size of the task may be large, set to
be accomplished over several working days and perhaps with
several other workers.
– Production is assured as payment is made only upon production.
Adaptations are common.
S2 – 9
– Usually one task. Where the task is small, usually 2 or 3 per day;
where the task is larger, a fraction of one task a day. A rule may
limit the number of tasks which may be done in one working day.
– Where the task is set properly, it allows a typical worker to finish
the task and go home.
– Requires close supervision and monitoring in the daily laying out
of work and overall setting of task size. When deviations are made
from the usual model, particularly as regards the amount of work
(number of tasks and portions of tasks) which can be done every
day, there is the possibility of exploitation.
REFERENCE
For details, refer to Module B6: Work Implementation.
The basis of remuneration will impact on:

Y workers’ productivity and motivation;
Y project costs:
Y management of time and objective by the project.
S2 – 10
What is payment in kind?

Most workers like to be paid in cash money. However, for a number of
reasons:
Y they may be offered things of value other than cash money; or
Y actually prefer to receive things other than cash money for their
work; for example food, particularly where it is scarce.
The most appropriate situation where food is used for partial payment
of wages is where food is scarce. In such situations, food can really
motivate people to do their best at work.
Drawbacks to payment in kind include the following:
Y It does not stimulate micro-finance or small business development
in the community;
Y Inconsistent quality of food;
Y High real delivery costs;
Y Distortion of food production markets; and
Y Difficult logistics.
Why is it important for workers to be paid correctly in time and
amount?
Correct and timely wage payments keep labour-based infrastructure
programmes working. Without them:
Y project progress can be seriously slowed down or stopped because
of labour problems and strikes;
Y project costs go up because of delayed production;
Y the quality of the final infrastructure can go down because workers
and supervisors lose motivation to produce high quality work;
Y the social objective of providing gainful employment is weakened or
lost; and
Y the continued use of labour-based methods is threatened.
Care is needed to ensure that wages are

paid on time for the correct amount.
S2 – 11
S2.4 Motivation and Discipline

What are appropriate methods for maintaining workers' motivation
and discipline in community-managed and labour-based
programmes?
The following should be considered:
Y the basis of wages (time-based, productivity-based);
Y existing wage employment culture;
Y value of the job, i.e., high value imposes self-discipline;
Y leadership in supervision to encourage motivation and discipline;
Y fairness of supervision, i.e., likelihood of abuse of authority resulting
in labour, dissatisfaction.
The temporary status of workers often prevents motivation and
discipline from being a major issue, particularly where the need for
wages is great. Where motivating and disciplinary systems have been
necessary, transparency is fundamental. Positive steps can be taken to
promote motivation and discipline and the supervisor's attitudes and
behaviour can be critical in maintaining motivation and discipline.
Management should aim at appropriately promoting workers'
reliability in attendance, honesty in handling work and
willingness to work.
As regards motivation and willingness to work, emphasis should
be placed on the operation of the remuneration system. A project
operating on a task basis has a largely self-regulating system of
discipline. Workers in this situation are interested in completing
production and leaving work as soon as possible. A regulating system
is a greater requirement when remuneration is time-based. In such
cases, it is necessary to set minimum expected production targets
where the worker's contract will be terminated if he or she consistently
fails to meet them.
S2 – 12
S2.5 Safety and Health

What are appropriate methods for protecting workers' safety and
health at work?
Y usual risks, and special risks associated with the project;
Y potential risk-elimination measures;
Y potential risk-reduction and protective measures;
Y actual experience of contractor, client, workers, etc., of comparable
community-managed and labour-based projects with similar risks;
Y likelihood of success of potential prevention measures;
Y costs associated with potential measures;
Y provisions made in contract documentation and law.
There is little relevant legislation on safety and health requirements
related to labour-based infrastructure projects. Contract documents
sometimes cover them, and the employer may reimburse expenditure
on them. First-aid kits and safe drinking water are the most important
safety and health requirements and are easy to provide. Little
attention is paid in laws or contracts to social security or work-related
accident insurance, though the latter is particularly important.
Simple safety and health measures in labour-based activities go a
long way towards improving conditions on worksites because work
operations are simple and risks are limited as few machines are
involved. Nevertheless, there is a cost implication and a need to
change attitudes. These factors can make these small improvements
challenging to achieve. For example, a simple measure is the provision
of drinking water and first-aid kits. These are fundamental. Costs
should be borne by the employer and, if the employer is a contractor,
passed on to the client.
Account should be taken of particular risks associated with the work,
the worksite, or the environment. For example, in urban low-income
areas protective boots and gloves should be provided when digging
and trenching is carried out, and generally when working with
sanitation work and waste collection. Where work takes place in
quarries or elsewhere, with risks of landslides or falling rocks, head
protection should be provided. For rock breaking, foot and eye
protection should be provided. High quality, appropriate tools should
be provided for such work. When rock is heated during rock breaking,
gloves and boots should be provided.
S2 – 13
A positive relation between good working conditions, a good working

atmosphere on site, and high productivity usually exists and its
magnitude varies from operation to operation. The relationship should
be understood and used as a basis for promoting improvements in
working conditions. Examples include the provision of safe drinking
water on the site, which enables more productive work by reducing
physical discomfort, and the treatment of minor injuries on site, which
reduces loss of working time.
REFERENCE
For more details on safety and health on site refer to Module B.5.5.
S2 – 14
S2.6 Duration and Termination of Employment

What method should be established for terminating the employment of
community-managed labour-based workers, both for disciplinary
reasons and at the end of the project?
Y expected duration of employment;
Y provisions in national laws and collective bargaining agreements
governing employment termination and employment contracts;
Y national policy, if any, dealing with the desired employment terms of
labour-based workers and relevant international obligations;
Y national and local practices relating to employment terms,
particularly regarding benefits and entitlements;
Y if existing practices are not in line with applicable legislation, would
it be useful to rationalise the approach?;
Y enterprises desire to retain skills.
Workers' discontentment and disruption of work can occur where there
is misunderstanding about the anticipated duration of work and/or
where workers are laid off without notice. This can also occur when
workers feel that the dismissal of even a single worker was unfair;
conditions concerning termination of employment should be well set
out in documentation and communicated to workers. Unskilled workers
often work for several months at a stretch, making the term
temporary, rather than casual, more appropriate for their status.
Labour legislation often entitles workers who have been employed for
a certain period to benefits which impose costs or administrative
demands on the employer. Unskilled labour-based workers are
sometimes dismissed when the employer wants to avoid paying for
these benefits. Steps should be taken to prevent this by discussing,
with the involvement of the social partners, ways to deal with these
benefits in the particular circumstances of labour-based jobs.
Nevertheless, if community-managed labour-based programmes are to
be considered mainstream, and not relief or second class work,
applicable labour legislation should be respected.
Workers should be told that dismissal would occur only for one of
two reasons:
Y either the period of employment has been completed;
Y or there has been a breach of work rules justifying dismissal.
The employer should dismiss only for these reasons.
S2 – 15
Workers should be recruited with a clear understanding of the

expected period of employment. For example, where the employer
hires workers on a daily basis but intends, in fact, to keep the same
workers together until the completion of work, this should be made
known to the workers, and the implications in terms of benefits should
be acknowledged.
Where jobs are to be rotated so that the available work will be shared
among a greater number of workers (social objective), and the period
of an individual's employment is thus shorter than the project's
duration, that period should be made known. The contract of
employment can be fixed for that period. Where workers are expected
to work for the duration of the project, the period of the employment
contract can be specified for as long as work continues, but in this case
some reasonable minimum estimate should be given to the worker.
Care should be taken that the workers receive the benefits to which
they are entitled as they relate to particular periods of employment.
For example, the national labour law may stipulate that leave days
should be provided to workers employed for three months or longer.
Adjustment of the organisation of work may be necessary to take
account of the national law.
S2 – 16
S2.7 Rights of Association

What steps can be taken to protect, respect and promote workers',
employers' and the community’s rights of association?
Y national laws on rights of association;
Y international obligations on rights of association;
Y relevant associations;
Y prevailing attitudes towards rights of association;
Y practical impediments to the exercise of these rights;
Y benefits derived by various groups if they form organisations.
In practice, benefits can accrue through employers establishing
associations and workers forming organisations, at both enterprise and
sectoral levels. Benefits can accrue from the establishment of
community organisations and their active involvement in infrastructure
construction and maintenance projects. In general, workers and
employers pay too little attention to the benefits of organising or the
possibilities of promoting it. Existing labour-based contractors'
associations are more concerned with issues related to the effective
execution of their contracts than with issues related to their role and
obligations as employers. Where conditions are objectionable to
workers, they will organise themselves or reduce productivity out of
dissatisfaction. Early organisation is therefore desirable before
problems appear.
Community members should be free to organise, and to join
organisations of their own choice. In practice, associations of
community groups can be extremely effective in identifying, executing,
supervising and maintaining labour-based infrastructure projects. Care
must be taken to properly identify interests and responsibilities of
community associations. Adequate safeguards should be created to
avoid corruption and ensure that works are finished and maintained
according to the obligations undertaken. NGOs can provide support
and training to newly established community organisations. Members
of community organisations do not always share the same interests.
Members of the community who are workers employed by community
contractors may have interests closer to those represented by a
workers' organisation. Thus, full respect should be given to the
possibility of different activities of the various associations within the
same community. Contracts can be used to mobilise and actively
involve the community and various associations. Such involvement can
be a sound basis for labour-based infrastructure construction and
maintenance. Workers and employers should be free to organise,
and to join organisations of their own choice.
S2 – 17
The temporary nature of labour-based activities tends to discourage

workers and employers from organising. However, workers'
organisations can be useful in communicating grievances, negotiating
wages and improving conditions of work. Employers' organisations,
e.g., through labour-based contractors' associations, can be useful in
negotiating with the government as a client, negotiating unit rates,
wages and conditions of work for the labour-based sector, and
promoting procedures to ensure that, among other things, contract
awards and payments are transparent and streamlined
Projects can promote workers' and employers' organisations. For
example:
Y Workers can be asked to select a spokesperson (or a group) from
among themselves to represent them in any discussions with
supervisors. Initial subjects of discussions can include: improving
working conditions on site, relations with supervisors, better
working methods, payment regularity, bonuses, etc.
Y Projects can be a catalyst to encourage contractors to come
together to discuss business relations and issues common to their
industry, such as access to clients, access to tools and equipment,
payment of contracts and tendering procedures.
Y They may also want to discuss issues faced as employers, i.e., wage
levels, working conditions, and contact with government agencies
and workers' organisations.
Y Existing workers' and employers' organisations can be made aware
of the labour-based industry and particular problems and interests.
They may then consider promoting organisation within the industry.
S2 – 18
O Labour recruitment should be done in co-operation with the

CBO.
O Recruitment of workers should ensure: impartial and transparent
methods; no discrimination; no force or threat of any nature; enough
publicity about recruitment drive.
O Recruitment to take place at public meetings; labour force to
be recruited from the population living in the locality; men and
women are equally eligible for employment; a secret ballot is
used; casual employment forms are signed and witnessed by
the CBO; and it is made clear that the employment is of a
temporary nature.
O Measures to ensure safety and accident prevention on site:
information and training of work force; record-keeping of accidents;
motivating and training of the labour force; use of safety equipment
and clothing.
O Labour laws and regulations include: minimum wages; social
security provisions; conditions of work; employment termination;
employment contracts; equal pay for equal work; minimum age;
protection of wages; safety and health; freedom of association.
O Steps to attain gender mix: advertise jobs in places where women
are found; be careful not to set requirements which can discriminate;
ensure that women are fully aware of their terms of employment;
promote the use of female gang leaders and forewomen; avoid setting
quotas for female employees.
O Principles of Fair Working Conditions: discuss recruitment and
employment procedures with CBOs; conditions of employment to be
worked out beforehand and agreed on with all parties concerned; the
people to benefit from project employment should be the people living
within the project area.
S2 – 19
S2 – 20
Module S3:
Solid Waste Management
Subjects: Introduction S3.1

Types and Quantity of Waste Generation S3.2
Storage of Solid Waste S3.3
Collection, Transportation and Disposal
of Solid Waste S3.4
Minimising Generation and Maximising
Recycling of Waste S3.5
Safety Related to Solid Waste Handling S3.6
Stakeholders in Solid Waste Management S3.7

supervise safe and efficient collection and disposal of
solid waste within the settlement.
S3 – 1
S3.1 Introduction to Solid Waste Management
REFERENCE
Module B5.4 of the Basic Course notes provides a general overview of
solid waste management.
Please read it again as an introduction to this Module.
S3.1.1 Background
The World Health Organisation (WHO) estimates that in African towns

less than 20% of urban solid waste is collected and disposed of
properly. This mainly affects the health and quality of life of the urban
poor living in high-density, low-income squatter areas or shanty towns.
Waste is something that is unwanted, something left over which has
lost its value for the initial user. Each individual produces waste.
The waste thrown away by you

might be picked up by someone else and re-used.
Solid waste is any waste that is hard and not water-like, for example
broken glass, paper, plastic bags, leftover food, yard sweepings, etc.
This Module deals with how best to manage solid waste on a
neighbourhood level.
S3.1.2 Solid Waste Management
Good practice in solid waste management

is the collection and proper disposal of solid waste
in a systematic manner, regularly and always on time.
On the other hand, mismanagement of solid waste implies that
waste is not disposed of in a proper way or not collected regularly,
so that this causes risks to human’s health and the environment.
Uncontrolled burning of waste, burying of waste and uncollected
piles of garbage are all examples of waste mismanagement.
S3 – 2
Why is mismanagement of waste a risk to peoples' health and

the environment?
Y Uncontrolled burning of waste pollutes the air you need to
breathe. It may produce poisonous gases which might cause
diseases like cancer. Also, certain kinds of waste like spraying cans
can explode.
Y Uncontrolled burying of waste can pollute the ground water and
in turn the water you drink. This also may produce poisonous gases
which might cause diseases like cancer, or produce gases which
might burst into flames.
Y Uncollected piles of garbage attract animals and insects which
are harmful and can spread diseases. Sharp objects like needles,
broken glass and blades, and other dangerous (hazardous) waste
might be present in waste piles and harm children, scavengers and
animals. Piles of waste look ugly, smell badly and make people
nearby feel uncomfortable. It also block drains, leading to flooding
and blocked access routes.
Therefore, good practice in solid waste management is very important
in order to avoid these risks to our health and the environment we live
in. There are three main options for dealing with waste:
Y The first option is collection, storage, transporting and disposal of
waste at a legal and well protected dump-site. In this case waste
remains as waste.
Y The second option is the re-use of waste, or recycling of waste,
including composting of any waste which can rot. In this case waste
becomes something useful again or becomes a source of useful
products.
Y The third option is treatment of waste which includes controlled
burning and controlled burying of waste. In this case waste can
become a source of useful energy, for example gas for cooking.
Usually a combination of all three is necessary to efficiently manage
waste.
S3 – 3
S3.1.3 Law and Regulations
Although waste is seen as something with no value to us, which we

would like to throw away as soon as possible, it can cause harm to
people and the environment. Experience has shown that when proper
waste management is not in place, people dump waste near their
neighbours' houses or in their back or front yard. They also throw it on
the roads, footpaths, in drains, in rivers and streams, etc.
To avoid such bad waste dumping which harms the environment and
the community, the government provides rules and regulations on how
solid waste is to be collected and dumped or disposed off. Various
government authorities have been given power to supervise these
rules and regulations, such as the municipal council and the Ministries
of Environment and local authorities.
By-laws have been put in place to regulate safe solid waste
management. These by-laws address issues such as:
Y prohibiting the burning of waste in public places;
Y specifying fees to be charged for the removal of waste from
non-domestic premises;
Y defining the obligation of property owners to provide waste bins with
lids;
Y stating that the storm drainage system has to be kept clear;
Y forbidding the deposition of waste in public streets and the
unauthorised disposal or dumping of waste.
Remember to check with the Health Officer of the

Municipal Council which by-laws related to waste are in place
in the municipality. It is especially important to ensure that
waste is always disposed of on a site approved by the local
authorities and that all waste collectors have been
authorised to handle waste.
S3 – 4
S3.2 Types and Quantities of Solid Waste

Generation
S3.2.1 General
The waste pile in a town or any low-income urban settlement will in

most cases consist of:
Y bottles,
Y cans,
Y papers,
Y plastic materials,
Y broken utensils,
Y ashes,
Y rags,
Y rubber,
Y leather,
Y glass,
Y dust,
Y kitchen waste (such as fruit peel and seeds, vegetable leftovers, egg
shells, rotten fruit) as well as,
Y garden waste (such as leaves, rotten flowers, cut grass, bones,
faecal matter of animals, etc).
Waste can be grouped into general types. For example vegetables,
leftover food, potato peel, banana peel and all other waste which can
rot belong to the type or group known as organic waste.
Plastic, iron, glass and all other waste which cannot rot belong to the
type or group called inorganic or non-organic waste. This is where
we find recyclable waste.
It is also important to note whether a certain type of waste is
dangerous or not. Dangerous waste is waste which can bring about
health risks or health problems. Such dangerous waste is called
hazardous waste. For example batteries, needles, knives, blades,
chemicals, expired drugs, etc. are hazardous.
S3 – 5
S3.2.2 Classification and Sources of Solid Waste
Solid waste can be classified as follows:
O Household waste
O Commercial waste
O Industrial waste
O Medical wastes
O Street waste and litter
O Garden/agricultural waste
O Dead animals
O Household waste:
This is solid waste composed of garbage generated by households or
homes. In high-density neighbourhoods up to two-thirds of this
category consists of organic waste, including ash produced through
traditional cooking and soil from floor sweeping. In communities
where there are not enough toilets (sanitation facilities are limited)
the waste might also include human excreta.
Experience has shown that:
– many people use and store a variety of different hazardous
products in their home, such as polish, wood preservatives, stain
removers, paint thinner, batteries, pesticides, expired drugs, rat
poison, chemicals, etc.;
– some homes mix human excreta with waste;
– some households have small industries in their backyards and
tend to mix waste from these industries and home waste. Such
activities/industries include hair salons, tie and dye/batik,
garages, welding, blacksmiths, etc.
It is necessary to use protective gear,

as you cannot be sure of the contents of the pile of waste
or waste in a bag you are collecting.
S3 – 6
O Commercial waste:
This is all solid waste coming from business places such as stores,
markets, office buildings, restaurants, shops, bars, etc. Commercial
waste typically consists of packaging and container materials, used
office paper, wood shavings, food waste, etc.
O Industrial waste:
Industrial waste comes from processing industries. Industrial waste
might include chemical waste, which is hazardous waste.
It is not the responsibility of normal waste collectors to handle

hazardous waste. Such waste is to be handled by specialised,
well-trained and well-equipped people. Industries or producers
of hazardous waste are responsible for their own waste.
O Institutional waste:
Waste from police barracks, schools, hospitals, prisons, and other
public buildings. Where the institution involves residents, the waste
composition is similar to those from households. Some institutions,
e.g. hospitals, can generate hazardous waste.
O Street sweepings:
These include dust/sand, leaves, paper, etc. In high-density
neighbourhoods, street sweepings might also contain household
refuse, drain cleanings, and human and animal excreta.
S3.2.3 Waste Generation Rates and Composition
As indicated above, the amount and composition of the waste differs

from different sources. Waste collectors need to know the waste
generation rates in their area of operation for the following reasons:
Y to help them plan for the collection and dumping or disposal of
waste;
Y to know the number and type of waste collection equipment and
tools and the waste storage and disposal facilities that will be
needed;
Y to determine the frequency of collection or how often waste should
be collected from households in a certain area/street or compound;
Y to design or plan routing.
S3 – 7
The composition of the waste determines the density,

which is the amount of waste in kilos per cubic metre.
Waste generation rate means the weight and volume of
waste produced per unit household or per person or per business
entity or per a known area, in a certain amount of time.
To estimate the weight and the volume of waste per person in a given
period of time (per day, per month), you will have to collect waste
samples from households and businesses in the area in question.
Weigh the samples to see how much is thrown away and check what is
contained in the samples.
Example of characteristics of domestic waste in high-density
compounds in Lusaka:
Solid waste
Households Business
particulars
Amount of
0.6 per person 1.7 per stall
kilograms/day
Density (kg/m 3) 395 207

Composition O Mixed soil 66% O Mixed soil 50%
O Vegetables, fruit, garden, O Vegetables, fruit, garden,
leftovers 25% leftovers 23%
O Paper and cardboard 3% O Paper and cardboard 12%
O Plastics 3% O Plastics 7%
O Other 2% O Other 4%
The above figures might be taken as a starting point for your own
analysis, but it is very likely that they vary distinctively from
compound to compound. They vary because of different ways of living,
activities taking place, culture, income, etc. Therefore, to obtain exact
figures it is necessary for you to conduct your own analysis for a
particular compound.
Rates with regard to household waste can be calculated after knowing
the number of houses or households and how long it took a certain
amount, say 50 kg of waste, to be produced. Similarly rates with
regard to markets can be obtained if the number of stalls and days are
known.
S3 – 8
Calculation examples:
Consider the following examples for obtaining waste generation rates
(WGR), just to give you a rough idea. Suppose there is compound
named Kabuye with 200 households each having an average number of
8 people. If you find that a household in the area generates 50 kg of
waste in 2 weeks, then on average:
O The WGR of each house in Kabuye is: (50 kg / 14 days) =
3.57 kg/day. That is, each household produces 3.57 kg of solid
waste per day.
O From this it follows that the WGR of any individual in Kabuye is:
(3.57 kg / 8 people) = 0.45 kg/person/day. That is, each person
generates 0.45 kg of solid waste per day.
If a transfer station has a capacity of 10 tons (10,000 kg), and it is full

after 2 weeks, then:
O The WGR of Kabuye compound is: (10,000 kg / 14 days) =
714.3 kg/day. That is, the whole Kabuye compound (or the 200
households) produces 714.3 kg of solid waste per day.
O As a result, the WGR of any individual household in Kabuye is:
(714.3 / 200) = 3.57 kg/household/day. That is, each household
O Consequently it follows that the WGR of any individual in Kabuye is:
(3.57 / 8 people) = 0.45 kg/person/day. Therefore each person
If a community waste collection point has a capacity of 2 tons
(2,000 kg), and it is full after 3 days, calculate the WGR of an individual
person. (Answer is 0.42 kg/person/day).
Such calculations on the amount of waste generated are rough

estimates because:
O you cannot be sure whether all the waste generated is legally
dumped;
O business places producing different types and amount of waste
compared to households are not considered. Realistic data and
physical observations are required for realistic calculated
results.
S3 – 9
S3.3 Storage of Solid Waste
S3.3.1 General
Storage, collection, transport and disposal are the four principal

elements of a solid waste management system. The success of a solid
waste management system depends on the frequency of collection,
transport, disposal and storage.
The first step in a solid waste management system is the storage of
waste.
Waste will often be stored several times before it can be dumped at
the landfill. For example, people may store their waste for some days
in their homes. A waste contractor may then collect this waste with
small handcarts and store it in a transfer station until there is enough
to hire a truck to transport it to the landfill. If the contractor does not
have enough money to hire a truck s/he will not be able to transport
the waste to the landfill. The contractor’s storage point will become too
full and might cause problems, like rotting (smell) or flies.
To avoid overflowing, bad smelling waste collection points,

it is important to decide in advance how much waste
is expected (waste generation rate) and how frequently the
collection point can be emptied.
There are two global methods to store solid waste:

Y at the source;
Y communal storage.
S3.3.2 Storage at the Source
Usually all solid waste will be stored at the source for some time.
Sources of waste are individual households, shops, industries or
offices. Sometimes waste is stored in a container or a bag which is
easy to empty and clean, and sometimes it is stored in an uncontained
pile. Ideally, waste of individual households/commercial entities is
stored in galvanised steel or plastic bins with a lid. However, these
types of containers are usually not available. Many low-income
households use small containers for which no other use can be found,
or make a small pile of waste outside the house.
S3 – 10
For people in the high-density unplanned settlements, storage at the

source can be a big problem. Often they do not have enough space to
store a large amount of waste or enough money to buy a nice
container (with a lid). What can be done in this case? An alternative
might be to use a communal storage system.
S3.3.3 Communal Storage
Sometimes waste is dumped by households in a community

collection point and from there it is transported to a transfer station
which will be emptied by the local authorities.
Transfer stations are established for economical reasons in urban
areas which have long haulage distances to the final disposal sites.
Small collection vehicles (handcarts, wheelbarrows) bring in waste
collected at their source of generation or from communal bins, and
larger vehicles from the council or a private contractor transport them
away to the final disposal site.
Communal storage, such as collection points within the settlement or
transfer stations at the border of the settlement, can have different
forms:
S3 – 11
Y The cheapest form is open dumping places called collection

points. The waste is dumped somewhere on the street, square or in
an open area. The environment is not protected against the
waste. Open dumping places are sometimes improved by fencing
them with a wall made of concrete, masonry, timber or iron
sheets. The dumping place is still easily accessible (see job sheet).
Open dumping places have some disadvantages as they are easy
accessible by scavengers and they can be smelly. Their location
must consider: a) accessibility – if it is too far from peoples' houses,
people will continue to dump indiscriminately; b) risk of damage to
health and the environment. Nobody wants a dumping site with the
associated risk of flies, rats, smells etc. near their home or
workplace. It may be difficult for a community in a high-density area
to agree on the location of a communal storage point as space is
scarce.
Y Another form of permanent dumping places are little buildings/
constructions. These buildings can look like a box, or can be
portable containers. They sometimes have special facilities for easy
dumping and collection for further transport by a truck.
S3 – 12
JOB SHEET
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT OPEN DUMPING PLACE
WORK METHOD:
Note: An open dumping place (container) is a relatively simple construction. It has the shape
of an open box where waste can be temporarily stored. The size depends on the number
of users, waste generation rate, and the frequency of clearing the box.
The box can be constructed using locally available materials like bricks or stones.
Also, cement/concrete blocks or cast concrete can be used, but these are more
expensive. In areas where there is a lot of rain a simple roof made of corrugated iron
sheets could be added.
The capacity of a communal container:
C=Nx RxI
C = capacity in litres
N = number of users
R = waste generation rate (litres per day)
I = emptying interval (days)
CONSTRUCTION:
O Calculate the required size as shown above.
O Set out the trenches for the foundation. Use
pegs and strings to mark the edges and
corners.
O Excavate the foundation trenches.
O Construct the foundation.
O Build the walls and plaster with cement
mortar. Use mortar with a mix of 1 : 7
Î for details check Module B5.
O If funds are available construct a slab inside
the container (either concrete or plastered
stones).
O For rainy places add a simple roof Æ add post
at all four corners, with front posts higher
than rear posts. Connect the corner posts
with wooden trusses (e.g. 8/12cm) Æ add
grid for roofing sheets Æ add roofing sheets
(e.g. corrugated iron sheets).
O Cure walls and slab for 14 days before use.
LABOUR: TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT: MATERIAL:

O 1 Gang Leader O Tape measure O Sand
O 1 Mason O Plumb bob O Cement
O Labourers O Masonry tools O Bricks, stones or cement
O Shovels blocks
O Watering can O (Posts, trusses and iron
sheets)
ASSUMED PRODUCTIVITY: ACTUAL PRODUCTIVITY:
Day work = Day work =
S3 – 13
The whole process of transfering the waste from a community

storage point to a transfer point into a truck to take it away
is not only a lot of work, but also poses health risks.
The workers have to be protected against the dust, smell and
dangerous or hazardous waste. It is best to reduce the handling of
waste to a minimum, and therefore storage points should be well
designed (easy disposal and storage) and the waste should be
transferred from the household to a legal transfer or
landfill site as directly as possible.
In order to design a waste storage point the capacity of the storage

point needs to be calculated. The capacity will depend on the amount
of waste generated in that neighbourhood, the density of the waste
and the frequency of emptying the communal storage point.
Calculation example:
Calculate the size of a transfer station for a settlement with 5,000 people
who generate 0.6 kg of waste per day per person. The density of the
waste is on average approximately 400 kg/m3 and the council can only
empty the transfer station once a week.
Answer:
O Total waste generated per day is 5,000 x 0.6 kg = 3,000 kg per day.
O With a density of 400 kg/m3 this would lead to a volume of
3,000 / 400 = 7.5 m3.
O The volume of the transfer station needs to be big enough to store the
waste for 7 days : 7 x 7.5 = 52.5 m3.
O If the height of the transfer station is 1.0 m the ground surface needs
to be 52.5 m 2 (approximately 7 by 8 meters).
To design a waste storage point you must take into account:

O the required storage volume (based on waste generation,
density and frequency of emptying),
O how people are going tol dump the waste (wheelbarrow,
handcart, in buckets, etc.),
O how the communal storage point will be emptied. For example,
if a city council truck is to empty the storage point the height of
the storage point should correspond to the height of the truck
to facilitate easy collection of the waste.
S3 – 14
S3.4 Collection, Transportation and Disposal

of Solid Waste
S3.4.1 Collection of Waste
In general there are two ways to collect waste:

Y street sweeping;
Y collection of stored waste.
Street sweeping
Sweeping of the streets can be done with both manual labour and
equipment. In most developing cities street sweeping using manual
labour is the most appropriate option to collect and transport the
waste from the streets. It is important to find out how much time is
needed to clean streets and drains.
Fir street sweeping three kinds of tools are needed:
1. brooms;
2. shovel;
3. collection carts (wheelbarrows or handcarts).
The most convenient types of collection carts are wheelbarrows or
handcarts. The use of buckets and containers is normally not cost
efficient, as it increases the time and effort required to transport the
waste.
Collection of stored waste

The collection of waste can be divided into primary collection and
secondary collection.
Y Primary collection refers to the collection and transport of waste
within the community.
Y Secondary collection refers to the collection and transport of
waste from the community to the municipal disposal site, usually
the legal landfill. Local authorities normally carry out secondary
collection using a truck or tractor and trailer for free. However in
some cases the council request the community to pay part of the
cost of secondary collection, or the community needs to hire a
private contractor to take care of the secondary transport.
This section will only deal with the primary waste collection system
that can be carried out by the community.
S3 – 15
Choice of the primary collection and transport method depends

on many factors like:
Y storage method (see previous session);
Y waste generation rate and composition (see previous section);
Y availability and cost of collection equipment;
Y participation of the community;
Y population density in the area, the width of the streets, road
conditions, distances, etc.;
Y willingness and ability of residents and/or council to pay for waste
collection services.
Waste collection methods involve:
1. collection of waste at household level and transportation to
transfer site;
2. collection of waste from a communal collection point and
transportation to transfer site.
The collection of communally stored waste can only be successful
with the participation of the community. If the people in the
community think that the distance to these communal dumping points
is too far, they will not make use of them. A global rule is that the
distance should not exceed 150 to 200 metres.
In case of collection at household level, the collection vehicle
passes and people can deposit their garbage in the vehicle. An
advantage of this method is that only two workers are needed. The
collection has to take place at the same time at fixed intervals with a
maximum interval of three days.
The waste collector can also collect the waste from dustbins,
containers or bags placed along the roads. The people only have to put
these dustbins, containers or bags at the roadside. It is very important
that the waste is collected on time, otherwise scavengers will search
the dustbins, containers or bags or even steal them. If the dustbins or
containers are pushed over, they may hinder the traffic.
S3 – 16
S3.4.2 Transporting of Waste
Transport equipment:
There is a whole range of possible vehicles to transport waste from one
place to another. Waste collectors will probably choose different
vehicles depending on the system of waste collection.
When you select vehicles (motorised and non-motorised) you need to
consider the following:
Y There should be enough spare parts in the compound as well as
enough experienced mechanics to maintain the vehicles.
Y The vehicles' reliability and cost.
Y Using the same kind of vehicles in similar situations.
Y If the vehicle is loaded by manual labour the height should not
exceed 1.5 metres.
Y Make sure that the vehicle is easy to unload.
Y Even for the most simple handcart or wheelbarrows, use appropriate
(rubber) tyres as there may be sharp objects on the roads.
Possible transport vehicles are:
Handcarts and wheelbarrows:

It is difficult to unload handcarts. The
efforts to unload the handcart can be
reduced by using portable containers. For
example loading carts with bags of waste.
But this also reduces the amount of waste
that can be transported. Using handcarts
and wheelbarrows requires a lot of
collection points or small transfer stations.
For smaller amounts of waste and short
distances (up to 200 meters)
wheelbarrows can be used. For handcarts
the distance between the collection points
and transfer stations should not be more
then 2 kilometres. The use of handcarts
and wheelbarrows in areas with steep
slopes is difficult and some areas are so
crowded that handcarts cannot go
through.
S3 – 17
Animal drawn carts:

Pack animals can also be used to pull the
carts. They are more appropriate to carry
waste in areas with steep slopes. Often
these carts are easy to unload. The
distance between the transfer stations
should be about six kilometres.
Engine-driven vehicles:
Engine-driven vehicles can be used on
high quality roads. Usually these are
motorbikes on three wheels with a box of
about two cubic metres. Due to their high
speed, the distance between the transfer
stations can be increased up to 20
kilometres. On bad roads it is better to
use tractors with trailers. Open trucks are
the most common form of vehicle to
transport the waste from the transfer
station to the landfill. The waste on a
vehicle should be covered by a wire-net to
prevent it from being blown off by wind.
S3.4.3 Organising Primary Waste Collection
The waste collector may be a small enterprise or community-based

organisation that gets paid by the individual households for collecting
the waste. The waste collector needs to get a community contract or
authorisation from the council that allows him/her to collect the waste
and to be paid for this.
This system is operational in Dar es Salaam (80 small

community-based enterprises have a contract with the council to collect
waste) and has also started in Lusaka.
In both cases the collector gets paid directly by customers so that
households which haven’t paid the fee will not have their waste
collected. Another advantage is that it creates long-term employment for
residents.
S3 – 18
The waste collector might also be a sub-committee from the

community representative organisation (CBO), the waste being
collected by community volunteers or by community members who are
paid for the work. This still means that some payment needs to be
made by residents to the CBO for basic equipment and/or labour.
It is important that agreements are drawn up clarifying who

collects the waste and who gets paid for the waste collection.
The agreement should include issues such as:
O what service will be delivered;
O the organisation or person who will deliver the service;
O how often the waste will be collected;
O the equipment necessary;
O the fee the residents need to pay for waste collection;
O who will construct and maintain collection points;
O arrangements made for secondary collection.
S3 – 19
S3.5 Minimising Generation and Maximising

Recycling of Waste
S3.5.1 General
You will now have understood how much work and organisation is
involved in collecting, transporting and disposal of solid waste. It
therefore makes sense to reduce the amount of waste generated.
In addition, some materials thrown away as waste may actually be
useful. Making the most of recycling possibilities creates opportunities
for income generation and reduces the amount of waste being
returned to the environment.
In most urban towns, including those in Kenya, the major constituents
of solid waste are organic matter (vegetable matter) and paper, glass,
metal, textile, rubber and fine earth materials. It is estimated that
40% of all waste is recyclable.
Minimising waste generation

O Produce less waste, e.g. avoid buying goods wrapped in paper, in
plastic bags or in tins. Residents should be made aware on how to
avoid generating unnecessary waste.
O Make compost out of kitchen, market and garden leftovers. Compost
is a good fertiliser and at the same time the bad smell and hygiene
risk of waste is eliminated.
O Utilise some of the leftovers for new and useful purposes. For
example bags, bottles and tins can be cleaned and reused. Some may
even be decorated to add further value.
O Separate those leftovers which can be used by others, e.g.
glass, tins, papers, plastic bottles or bags, etc. These recyclables can
be given away or sold to scavengers.
S3.5.2 Recycling
Waste recycling refers to methods of isolating certain waste materials

and using them to produce new goods. Materials with a high potential
for recycling are:
Y waste paper , like newspapers, magazines, cardboard, books,
letters and so on;
Y metal, for example scrap metal, aluminium (beverage) cans, iron,
copper, etc.;
S3 – 20
Y textile cut-offs that can be used for the production of door mats,
cushions, mattresses, kid’s underwear, homemade caps and duster
coats, stuffing dolls and so on;
Y plastic, such as broken buckets, containers, etc., that can be
re-melted and made into new products.
The sale of recyclables (items which can be recycled) can be a
profitable business. Before starting a business possible clients need to
be identified and the value of the recyclables determined. All
recyclables need to be separated from waste, and they need to be
sorted and cleaned. They then need to be transported, processed and
marketed. The cost of all of these activities must be compared to the
potential price received for the finished product.
Recyclables can be separated at different locations. Separation at
source means that the producers (of the waste) are already sorting the
recyclables from the waste. In fact, the recyclables do not mix with the
waste.
It is also possible to separate the recyclables at the transfer stations.
The disadvantage of this method are that the recyclables are more
contaminated and that it takes more effort to clean them.
S3.5.3 Composting
A special form of recycling is composting. Compost is used by farmers

to improve soil condition as it is a fertiliser, it gives the soil more air
and it has a high capacity to bind water. Especially in arid areas this is
a great advantage. Unfortunately there is often no existing demand for
compost. Before you start commercial production you need to study
how best to use the compost for example for growing vegetables for
the market or to sell the compost directly.
Compost is made of organic matter (vegetable leftovers, etc.) stored
under certain temperature and humidity conditions. Like any other
recyclable it is important to use unpolluted organic matter, thus no
glass, metal, plastics, paper or stones. Compost is produced by
micro-organisms, which eat the organic material. The best compost is
produced when these micro-organisms have enough oxygen. The
outside 15-20 cm of the pile have to have enough oxygen for the
composting process. The amount of oxygen can be increased by laying
the compost on a rack made of timber, bamboo or any pieces of wood.
In most developing countries the amount of oxygen can be increased
efficiently by turning the pile every two or three days for a period of
two or three weeks.
S3 – 21
The optimal moisture content for composting is between 50 and 65%.

Like all other organisms, micro-organisms need water to live but do
not want to drown. To prevent evaporation by wind and sun, it is
advisable to fence the composting area and cover the piles. The cover
also protects the piles against rainfall. The cover should be in the form
of a roof.
A compost hut of this kind could have a dimension of 2 metres by

2 metres with posts on the four corners to hold the roof. Simple planks
can be used for the walls. The timber should be treated to avoid fast
rotting.
O Recycling and composting are useful and can generate income,

bBut they can only be of economic interest if they are well
organised and if there is a market for the products. Therefore,
you are advised to concentrate first on setting up a waste
collection and disposal system and later to explore the
possibility of recycling and composting as additional sources of
income generation.
O You will also need further training before undertaking
composting and recycling.
S3 – 22
S3.6 Safety Related to Solid Waste Handling

The main dangers in solid waste management are:
Y cuts and wounds from sharp objects;
Y contamination from hazardous waste such as hospital waste,
chemical waste or handling dead animals;
Y respiration problems from the fumes that are generated by waste as
well as dust created by sweeping;
Y diseases transmitted through solid waste and through direct contact
with exposed skin;
Y muscle and back strain due to wrong posture or having to lift heavy
waste;
Y risk of road accidents, particularly for road sweepers.
90% of accidents are caused by negligence and could easily be
prevented. For safety and health protection measures, the following
things are important:
O Educate workers about specific occupational hazards.

O Ensure use of protective gear such as gloves, boots, dust
masks, goggles, etc.
O Ensure availability of first-aid kit within reasonable reach of the
worksite.
O Use reliable equipment and maintain it in good condition.
O No alcoholic drinks or drugs during work.
O Undergo medical check-ups regularly.
O Do not eat or drink anything while working.
O Wash hands and face before leaving the place of work.
S3 – 23
S3.7 Stakeholders in Solid Waste Management

For any activity to take place, people have to be committed.
In solid waste management the stakeholders include City/Municipal
Council, private companies, local government authorities,
community-based organisations (CBOs), NGOs and individual waste
collectors.
In the table below you will find some of the roles the various
stakeholders in solid waste management can play.
Your remarks on
Stakeholder Possible role
appropriateness
The City 1. Issuing contracts

Council 2. Supervision
3. Monitoring
4. Making regulations
5. Enforcement of regulations
6. Fee collection
7. Payment of services
8. Secondary transport
9. Landfill management
10. Managing special waste
11. Other:
The 1. Making regulations

Environmental 2. Enforcement of regulations
Council
3. Issuing licences
4. Managing the landfill
5. Other:
Community 1. Issuing contracts

Development 2. Supervision
Committee
3. Monitoring
4. Awareness raising
6. Fee collection
7. Payment of services
8. Provide waste collection
services
10. Primary transport
11. Other:
S3 – 24
Your remarks on
Stakeholder Possible role
appropriateness
Waste service 1. Provide waste collection

provider services
2. Awareness raising
3. Monitoring
5. Fee collection
6. Primary transport
8. Cleaning of roads
9. Cleaning of drains
10. Other:
Community 1. Payment of services

members 2. Handing waste to service
provider
3. Bringing waste to collection
points
4. Awareness creation
5. Cleaning of paths and small
drains
6. Minimising waste produced
7. Separating recyclables
Truck owners 1. Secondary transport

2. Other:
Recycling 1. Buy materials for recycling

enterprises 2. Other:
S3 – 25
S3.7.1 Community Participation
There are various ways in which a community can be involved, such

as:
Y in decision making (for example in deciding that waste should be
collected and that residents have to pay a fee);
Y in planning and design (for example in discussions on where the
transfer station should be located);
Y in implementing the work (in constructing the transfer station,
collection of waste, recycling);
Y in operation and maintenance (by repairing the transfer station,
or improving the path to the transfer station);
Y by contributing money (by paying the waste collection fee);
Y by contributing labour (by supporting a cleaning campaign on
Saturdays, or attending meetings without being paid).
Experience shows that important strategies for low-income/

high-density areas include:
O creating awareness on the hazards of waste;
O educating residents on how waste can be properly stored, how
best to reduce waste generation and/or recycle waste;
O applying user charges – waste services should be paid for to
reflect the marginal cost of providing the service;
O separating primary and secondary waste collection and
agreeing on a partnership between the municipality
(responsible for secondary collection) and communities
(responsible for primary collection).
S3 – 26
O The waste thrown away by you might be picked up by someone

else and re-used.
O Good practice in solid waste management is the collection and
proper disposal of solid waste in a systematic manner,
regularly and always on time.
O It is especially important to ensure that waste is always
disposed of at a site approved by the local authorities and that
all waste collectors have been authorised to handle waste.
O To avoid overflowing, bad smelling waste collection points, it is
important to decide in advance how much waste is expected
(waste generation rate) and how frequently the collection
point will be emptied.
O To design a waste storage point one needs to take into
account: the required storage volume, how people are going to
dump the waste, how the communal storage point is to be
emptied.
O Waste generation rate means the weight and volume of waste
produced per unit household or per person or per business entity
or per a known area, in a certain amount of time.
O It is important that agreements are made up on who collects
the waste and who gets paid for the waste collection.
O Minimising waste generation: produce less waste, make
compost, utilise some of the leftovers, separate those
recyclables which can be used by others.
O Recycling and composting are useful and can generate income.
O Always use protective gear, as you cannot be sure of the
contents of the pile of waste or waste in a bag you are
collecting.
S3 – 27
S3 – 28
Subjects: Introduction S4.1

Preparation Activities S4.2
Sub-Base and Base Activities S4.3
Drainage Structures S4.4
Paving Activities S4.5
Road Maintenance S4.6
At the end of this Module you should be able to supervise

the construction and maintenance of urban roads.
S4 – 1
S4.1 Introduction
Good access is the right of every community to enable economic and
social activities.
Roads and paths are essential for access to houses, premises and all
kinds of social facilities in low-income settlements. Size, type and
quality standards, however, change from place to place. It is essential
that planners identify the realistic requirements and set them against
what is practicable under the prevailing circumstances of a certain
community.
REFERENCE
Details on planning aspects, types, options and standards are provided
in Module B5: Basic Technical Skills.
It is recommended that you revisit Subject B5.3 (Road and Drain
Construction) before you go ahead with this Module.
The same Module also explains the common terminology used in
road works and outlines the usual construction process for
labour-based road works.
In order to enable you to carry out your work as a supervisor on site

the actual construction activities are shown on job sheets in the
following pages. A job sheet is an activity summary on one page where
all the essential information is provided. We recommend that you use
job sheets as your daily reference records. You are also advised to add
your own notes based on your own experiences.
Road construction in an urban setting can be very complex.

There is no standard approach applicable to all situations.
On the contrary, appropriate solutions have to be found
for each individual project.
Therefore, the approach described in this Module considers
construction principles with one particular case in mind.
During the course and in your real job you will have to adjust
to the prevailing situation on site.
S4 – 2
S4.2 Preparation Activities

PREPARATION
Drainage +
Paving Structures Formation Clearing Setting Out
Preparation consists of all those activities which you have to carry out
before you can actually start with the construction work.
Our diagram shows that these are the setting out and clearing
activities. These are the first activities which are carried out directly on
the road site. They usually consist of:
1. Setting out the centre line (and edges of road formation).
2. Removal of waste and vegetation which may be within the
road reserve.
3. Cleaning of existing drains.
4. Locating and marking of existing service lines, like power,
water and sewerage.
But before you can start the site operations there are some other
activities which must be carried out in order to allow you to operate on
site. These are the support activities and may consist of:
1. Setting out alignment: This is done before construction starts as
part of the planning work. In urban areas the alignment of a road
may be a critical issue and has to be agreed upon by all parties
concerned.
2. Work at camp: You may not have an actual site camp but on
urban sites you may be given some other facilities where stores
can be kept. Whatever facility you may be given you have to
organise the storage, issue and maintenance of material and tools.
You have to engage one or two separate labourers to look after the
tools and material.
3. Water supply: Labourers will get very thirsty and need to be
supplied with clean drinking water. This is also a support activity.
S4 – 3
JOB SHEET
ROAD CONSTRUCTION SETTING OUT (centre line and road edges)
WORK METHOD:
O Establish the centre of the road at the start of a section of the road (either in the centre of the
available space between the buildings or along the agreed alignment – could be off-centre
along one side of the road reserve, or along an existing drain).
O Establish the centre of the road at the end of the road section, which is either a straight line or
a curve.
O Establish the centre line and mark it with centre pegs at 10 metre intervals between the two
end points; for a straight section set out a straight line (Æ see drawing below); for curves use
one of the setting out methods shown on the job sheet “Setting out curves”.
O When the centre line is identified the edge pegs can be established (roadway width = total
width of the road structure including drains, if they are part of the road). Set out a right angle
(use the 3 : 4 : 5 method) to the centre line and measure from the centre half of the roadway
width to establish the edge peg. Repeat the same procedure for the other side of the road.
O Mark all established centre points with pegs or steel rods, which are driven firmly into the
ground. It is advisable to mark reference points on permanent structures in case centre pegs
are removed.

O 1 Site Supervisor and/or one O 3 ranging rods O Pegs or steel rods
trained Gang Leader O Tape measures, long and O String lines
O 2 Labourers short O Paint for marking reference
O 1 big hammer points
O Brush for marking
Metres / Day / Gang = Metres / Day / Gang =
S4 – 4
JOB SHEET
ROAD CONSTRUCTION SETTING OUT CURVES
WORK METHOD:
Most standard geometric methods to set out curves require space, which in urban areas is rarely
available. This job sheet explains a practical alternative method, which is suitable for places with
restricted space and where there is already an existing alignment.
O Establish the centre line pegs at each end of the curve (A and B).
O Set intermediate pegs at 5 metre intervals along the approximate centre line.
O Tie a string along all centre pegs.
O Adjust pegs which do no appear to be on a smooth curved line until the entire curve appears
to be a uniform round.
Tie string along all centre pegs
5m B
Adjust these two pegs to

the right until the curve
appears uniform

O 1 Site Supervisor and/or one O 3 ranging rods O Pegs or steel rods
trained Gang Leader O Tape measures, long and O String lines
O 2 Labourers short O Paint for marking reference
O Brush for marking
Metres / Day / Gang = Metres / Day / Gang =
S4 – 5
JOB SHEET
REMOVING OF WASTE, SILT
ROAD CONSTRUCTION
AND VEGETATION
WORK METHOD:
O Set out with pegs the width of the area to be cleaned from waste and silt (usually the entire
area between houses and premises).
O In the case of vegetation determine the plants which need to be cleared, e.g. trees at the
roadside may not have to be cut.
O Define quantities and allocate gangs for cleaning and clearing.
O Clear and load onto transport.
O Deposit waste at approved dump ground.

O 1 Gang Leader O Tape measure O Pangas (and axe) O Pegs or steel rods
O Labourers O 1 big hammer O Slashers O String lines
O Shovels O Wheelbarrows
O Rakes O Hauling equipment
O Hoes
3 3
Waste removal: m /day/labourer = Waste removal: m /day/labourer =
Vegetation removal: m2/day/labourer = Vegetation removal: m2/day/labourer =
S4 – 6
JOB SHEET
ROAD CONSTRUCTION CLEANING OF EXISTING DRAINS
WORK METHOD:
O Identify the drains which need to be cleaned and calculate the volume of silt and waste in
them.
O Allocate labourers.
O Deposit waste at approved dumping ground.
O

O 1 Gang Leader O Tape measure
O Labourers O Shovels
O Hoes
O Pick-axes or forked hoes
O Wheelbarrows
O Hauling equipment
Waste/silt removal: m3/day/labourer = Waste/silt removal: m3/day/labourer =
S4 – 7
JOB SHEET
ROAD CONSTRUCTION MARKING SERVICE LINES
WORK METHOD:
O Identify all service lines which are within the perimeters of the road.
O Identify their exact location, e.g. by means of digging investigation trenches.
O Measure the exact location and mark on permanent structures, e.g. house walls, posts, drain
linings, etc.
O Enter the location of the service lines with measurements onto the site sketch.
EL = Electric Line
S = Sewerage Line
W = Water Line
WP = Water Collection Point

O 1 Site Supervisor O 3 ranging rods O Pegs or steel rods
O 1 Labourer O Tape measures, long and O String lines
short O Paint for marking reference
O Brush for marking
Day work Day work
S4 – 8
S4.3 Sub-Base and Base Activities

SUBBASE
BASE
Drainage +
Paving S tructures Formation Clearing Setting Out
The sub-base and the base together are called “formation”. These are
two distinct operations when using labour-based methods.
Our diagram shows that these are the first actual construction
activities. Most of the work is earthwork. Construction of the base
courses consists of the following activities:
1. Sub-base construction: setting out, excavation to level,
compaction.
2. Base construction: excavation of ditch or borrowing material for
the camber, spreading of fill material to cross-fall, compaction.
The two activities require many labourers. The balancing of the gangs
and proper task allocation are essential for these activities to be cost
effective.
REFERENCE
See Module S1: Work Management
These activities should not commence before the road is completely

cleared and all measurements have been taken.
S4 – 9
JOB SHEET
ROAD CONSTRUCTION SUB-BASE CONSTRUCTION
WORK METHOD:
For this activity, it is assumed that the road follows an existing track and that major earthwork is
not required. Sub-base construction is also referred to as “excavation to level” when applying l.b.
methods.
O From the established centreline set out the formation width. Where the drains are part of the
road the formation width includes the drains. Where the drains are not directly adjacent to the
road, the formation width ends with the actual road edge (end of shoulder).
O Establish the longitudinal profile for the sub-base; identify the actual level of the sub-base in
the centre. Repeat the same for the end of every straight line and/or curve.
O Balance the levels in between the end points by using boning rods or profile boards at 10 m
intervals.
O Dig slots where the sub-base has to be lowered and set pegs at the correct levels where it has
to be lifted. Balance where necessary to avoid big fills or cuts.
O Calculate the volume of earthwork required and allocate labour gangs.
O Level the sub-base by borrowing material where cuts have to be made, and fill it into areas
where the sub-base has to be lifted until a uniform terrace is formed.
O Compact sub-base, if possible using a pedestrian vibrating roller or dead weight roller.
Minimum 6 passes.

O 1 Site Supervisor O 3 ranging rods O Pick-axes and/or O Pegs or steel rods
O 1 to 2 Gang Leaders O Tape measures forked hoes O String lines
O Labourers O Straight edge and O Rakes
spirit level O Wheelbarrows
O Hoes and shovels O Compactor
O Boning rods or
profile boards
Setting out = Day work Setting out = Day work
Excavation to level: m3/day/labourer = Excavation to level: m3/day/labourer =
S4 – 10
JOB SHEET
ROAD CONSTRUCTION BASE CONSTRUCTION
WORK METHOD:
O The base course is constructed by using in-situ material as much as possible. In the case
where side drains are constructed the material from the drain excavation can be used to form
the camber.
O In the case where drains are already in place, material for the camber has to be borrowed.
Note: The same construction principle can also be adopted for a road with a middle drain as shown in
Module B5.3.1

O 1 Site Supervisor O Ranging rods O Pick-axes and/or O Pegs or steel rods
O 1 to 2 Gang Leaders O Boning rods forked hoes O String lines
O Labourers O Tape measures O Rakes
O Camber board and O Wheelbarrows
spirit level O Compactor
O Hoes and shovels
3
Excavation: m /day/labourer = Excavation: m3/day/labourer =
3 3
Spreading: m /day/labourer = Spreading: m /day/labourer =
S4 – 11
S4.4 Drainage Structures
Drainage +
This operation consists of all the drainage activities which include:

Y culverts for cross water drainage;
Y water crossing structures, like footbridges, box culverts, multiple
culverts, etc.;
Y side drains (or storm water drains) with outlets Î see Module S5;
Y erosion control measures, like planing grass, scour checks, etc.
It is essential that these structures are designed

and drawings are made by specialised technical personnel.
Construction of these structures requires special skills.
Much of the work is concrete and masonry work which
needs to be carried out by specialised tradesmen.
We will therefore not deal in detail with theses activities. For you as
the supervisor it is important that you are able to direct the
construction work according to the design and drawings.
REFERENCE
Module B5.2: Masonry and Concrete Works.
Module S5.4: See samples of simple drain crossing structures.
S4 – 12
S4.5 Paving Activities
Drainage +
For urban roads it is essential to have a paved road surface. This does
not always have to be an asphalt, concrete or bitumen surface. There
are alternative pavement options which are more suitable for urban
areas; they are cheaper, they can be constructed by labour and using
local materials, and they are easier to maintain.
The following tables describe the most suitable options for urban
roads, particularly for low-income areas.
HAND-PACKED STONE
Description: Natural stones of 15 – 30 cm dimension laid on a 5-cm

sand/gravel bed with the top surface set to the final
cross fall. The large stones are packed together with
smaller stones hammered into place and the surface is
blinded with a gravel/sand/clay mixture. The finished
paving is compacted by roller.
S4 – 13
CLAY BRICK OR CONCRETE BLOCK PAVING
Description: Burnt clay bricks or concrete blocks (typically 200 x 100

x 80 mm) laid on a layer of clean sand (30 to 50mm) on
a normal road base. This pavement has a load carrying
capacity, is durable and can be upgraded to asphalt
standard.
SURFACE DRESSING
Description: A thin film of bitumen applied mechanically or by hand

onto the road surface (well compacted gravel base
course) and covered with a layer of stone chipping, then
lightly rolled. Used as an initial surface for a road
pavement. Multiple coats may be applied.
This method can also be applied to upgrade stone, brick
and block pavements.
GRAVEL SURFACE
Description: A gravel layer of 12 to 15 cm compacted thickness is

added onto the base course. The gravel has to be of
approved material.
Gravel is not the best alternative for urban areas but is
often the only affordable option if available within the
vicinity of the site. A gravel surface is more maintenance
intensive then the other pavement options.
S4 – 14
JOB SHEET
ROAD CONSTRUCTION STONE, BRICK OR BLOCK PAVING
WORK METHOD:
The basic work method is more or less the same for all three options.
O Before paving work can start ensure that the base course is well compacted, smooth and has
the correct cross fall.
O Set out the centre line and the edges of the pavement. Fix steel rods every 3 to 5 metres
along these lines. Fix strings along the rods at the correct level of the finished surface.
O Lay the edge stones in concrete along the

pavement edges. Ensure they are in a straight
line and to the correct level. They may be
slightly higher than the surface itself.
O Add a layer of clean sand (3 to 4 cm) and

compact with a hand rammer. Lay stones and
ensure good bonding. Various patterns are
possible for Bricks and Blocks. Commonly
used are running bond and herringbone bond.
O Fill shoulder with gravel and compact.

Brush and wash sharp sand into the joints.
Compact carefully with a pedestrian or
dead weight roller.

O 1 Site Supervisor O Ranging rods O Rakes O Steel rods
O 1 Gang Leader O Tape measures O Wheelbarrows O String lines
O Labourers O Straight edge and O Hand rammers
spirit level O Mason hammers
O Boning rods or O Brooms
profile boards O Compactor
O Shovels
Setting edge stone: m/day/labourer = Setting edge stone: m/day/labourer =
2
Laying sand bed: m /day/labourer = Laying sand bed: m2/day/labourer =
2 2
Laying stones/bricks/blocks: m /day/labourer = Laying stones/bricks/blocks: m /day/labourer =
S4 – 15
S4.6 Road Maintenance
REFERENCE
For road maintenance organisation and activities refer to Module B5.3.3.
The purpose of road and drainage maintenance is:

O to reduce the deterioration of the roads and drains, thus
prolonging life span and reducing the total cost over the years
the roads and drains are used;
O to allow traffic to pass comfortably and therefore provide
access;
O to ensure safety of the user and people staying near the road;
and
O to ensure proper drainage at all times and therefore reduce
health hazards.
Most important is a well- functioning routine maintenance system. This

has to be well planned and established together with the community.
The usual routine maintenance activities to be carried out are the
following:
1. Inspection and removal of obstructions from the

drainage system
2. Cleaning of culverts and road crossings; inlets and
outlets
3. Cleaning of main drains and outfalls
4. Cleaning of side drains and outfalls
5. Repairing of eroded areas adjacent to drains and outfalls
6. Repairing of eroded road shoulders
7. Filling of potholes and ruts on road carriageway
8. Reshaping carriageways (in the case of gravel surface)
9. Clearing of vegetation
S4 – 16
1. The purpose of road and drainage maintenance is to reduce

the degree of deterioration, to allow traffic to pass freely,
to ensure the safety of users, to ensure drainage to reduce
health hazards, and to reduce the total costs.
2. Routine maintenance is required to ensure drains are clean,
road surfaces are smooth, erosion does not take place and
vegetation does not grow extensively.
3. Periodic maintenance is required to repair broken drains and
re-surface roads.
4. Maintenance activities must be planned in accordance with
actual requirements (e.g. weather, traffic).
S4 – 17
S4 – 18
Subjects: Introduction and Terminology S5.1

Objectives and Planning Drainage
Systems S5.2
Types and Options S5.3

Construction Works S5.4
Maintenance S5.5

the construction and maintenance of urban drainage.
S5 – 1
S5.1 Introduction and Terminology

S5.1.1 Introduction
Drainage is an infrastructure that needs to be developed together with

neighbouring communities of the area and the city at large.
Sustainable solutions can only be found if an overall drainage concept
is in place.
Communities play an important role in the planning, implementation
and maintenance of drainage projects. The most important area of
community participation is in the field of maintenance and it is
therefore essential that the maintenance approach and funding
capacity of the CBO is established before the construction or
improvement work of the drainage system commences.
In order to enable you to carry out your work as a Site Supervisor it is
important that you first understand some of the functional and
planning principles of drainage systems.
The actual construction activities are shown on job sheets. A job
sheet is an activity summary on one page where all the essential
information is provided. We recommend that you use these job sheets
as your daily reference records. You are also advised to add your own
notes based on the experiences you will make in your daily work.
Drainage works in an urban setting can be very complex.

There is no standard approach applicable for all situations.
The options and approaches described in this Module consider
basic construction principles only. Tailor-made solutions
have to be found for each individual case.
During the course and in your real job you will have to adjust
to the prevailing situation on site.
S5.1.2 Terminology
As a Site Supervisor you need to be conversant with the common

terminology involved in drainage systems and works. The following list
explains in alphabetic order the most important terms:
O Alignment
The horizontal direction of a drain (or road).
O Backfill
The earth-fill surrounding the drainage channel.
S5 – 2
O Catchment area
The total surface area from which any given point in a certain area
receives runoff water.
O Culvert
A culvert is a transverse drain built under the road and its function
is to lead water from the higher side of the road to the lower.
O Deposition
Accumulation of soil and/or debris deposited by a water stream into
a drain.
O Depression
A basin, dip or otherwise low-lying area to where the runoff water
flows.
O Ditch
An unlined drain.
O Drain
All natural or man-made arrangements to carry water, sewage and
other unwanted liquids. They may take the form of natural ditches,
pipes, channels, trenches, dips, etc.
O Drainage
Structures and facilities for collecting and carrying away water.
O Drained area
The total surface area serviced by the drainage system.
O Erosion
Removal of soil by the action of water and wind.
O Flow velocity
Speed and runoff water in meters per second.
O Gradient
Amount of slope, inclination to the horizontal Î see also Module B2.
O Ground water level

The elevation to which the water surface will rise in a well.
S5 – 3
O Retention capacity
The amount of water a low-lying area (depression) can hold.
O Runoff ratio or coefficient

The part of the total quantity of rainwater that does not evaporate
or soak into the ground but runs off to lower areas. Expressed as a
number between zero and one.
O Scouring
The washing away of soil around and beneath a structure or on a
drain bottom (and on earth or gravel road surfaces).
O Sewage
All waste water from washing, food preparation, wasted tap water
and from flushed water toilets.
O Sewer
The pipe that carries away the waste water.
O Sewerage
The system which carries away the waste water.
O Slope
Difference in level between two ends of a drain, road or other
project (also refer to gradient).
O Soakage point
A place where water can penetrate ground which is otherwise
impervious in order to reach the groundwater level.
O Subdrain or underdrain
A structure beneath the ground surface for collection underground
water and carrying it to an outlet.
O Sullage
Waste water from washing, food preparation and wasted tap water.
It does not contain excreta.
O Surface drainage
Collection and removal of water from the surface of the road and the
ground.
S5 – 4
S5.2 Objectives and Planning Drainage

Systems
S5.2.1 Objectives
There are two principal objectives for urban drainage:
O drainage of sullage; and

O drainage of surface water.
Many low-income settlements are located on land that is either

low-lying or steeply sloping. Flooding and drainage deficiencies are
often key problems for poor communities. Accompanying this problem
are health and access problems associated with poor drainage, e.g.
stagnant waste and rainwater.
The purpose of urban drainage is to control storm and waste water so
that it:
Y does not damage roads and houses,
Y reduces the frequency, duration and extent of flooding, and
Y reduces health risks.
The layout of informal settlements and the lack of off-site drainage
channels may make it impossible to use conventional means to remove
all floodwater from the area as it falls. Some temporary flooding may
have to be accepted but this should be concentrated where it causes
least damage, e.g. in streets and on open ground rather than in
houses.
S5.2.2 Planning Drainage System
The starting point for planning improvement of any drainage system is

to understand the existing drainage system.
As a Site Supervisor working for a CBO you will most likely be involved
in the improvement of drains in a relatively restricted locality.
However, for the planning process of a local drainage system it is
important that you are aware of the total drainage system. This
usually consists of a hierarchy of drains.
S5 – 5
O The primary system: This is the ultimate “recipient” of the waste and
rainwater Æ the river, lake or sea. Usually this primary system has a
water level that is below the average water level of the urban area.
However, there are cases where this is not guaranteed.
O The secondary system: This is also called the collector and leads the
water from the various urban areas to the primary system. In most
cases, these are man-made drains.
O The tertiary system: This is the system of the local area and is the
basic system, which leads the water from the households to the
secondary system. It can consist of:
– natural runoff from buildings, paved areas and vegetation covers,
– natural runoff through permeable soil layers,
– open drains (ditches, channels, trenches, and gutters),
– closed drains (pipes, conduits, culverts).
It is this tertiary drainage system with which CBOs and consequently

you as the Supervisor will be dealing with.
When starting the planning process for a tertiary drainage system
some important questions have to be answered:
O What are the main drainage routes?

O Where is the next secondary drainage line where the water from the
tertiary system can be offloaded?
O Does the existing secondary drainage have the capacity to take the
addition waste water?
O What will the system in question include: will it comprise sullage
and runoff water, or will it be for runoff water only?
O How are existing drainage channels maintained?
O Where does flooding occur at present and what are the reasons for
it?
O What can local upgrading do and what can it not do?
O Should new drains be covered or not?
Such parameters will assist the planner to design an appropriate

drainage system. In the case where sullage and runoff water are
combined, the amount of sullage and the amount of rainwater flowing
through the drainage has to be carefully calculated.
It is the job of a technician or engineer to calculate the suitable drain
size, shape and type.
For you it is important to be aware of the principal types of
drains and their purpose as described in the following section.
S5 – 6
S5.3 Types and Options
REFERENCE
For some basic information on drain types also refer to Section B5.3.2
of Module B5: Basic Technical Knowledge.
S5.3.1 Drain Types and Options
A good drainage system is able to handle normal as well as heavy

rains. For this reason drains usually have a “V” section as shown in the
drawing below:
When little water flows through the drain, only

the narrow bottom of the drain is used. This is
particularly suitable for sullage discharge. When
the water rises high, e.g. during rains, a larger
section of the drain is used. The advantage is
that the water will have a steady flow speed and
will keep the channel clean whether the water
level in the drain is low or high. Water in this
section flows most evenly, reducing deposits of
dirt to a minimum. However, the parabolic
shape at the bottom is relatively expensive to
construct.
A “V” section can be classified by the type of lining:

Y unlined drains;
Y partially lined drains;
Y lined drains.
Unlined drains can be constructed manually

with the help of hoes, picks and shovels. They
must be built on land with gentle slopes
otherwise they may be damaged by scouring if
the gradient exceeds 1%. Stepping the bottom
of the ditch will decrease the slope. The side
slopes have to be constructed in accordance
with the natural soil angle and have to be
protected by planting grass.
S5 – 7
Partial lining of drains is necessary where

slopes range from 1% to 5%, to prevent
scouring. Between these slopes the water
velocity is between 1 and 5 m/sec. A partial
lining may also be necessary for the most
vulnerable sections of unlined drains, like
culvert inlets and outlets, drain junctions, sharp
bends and steeper sections.
Fully lined drains are expensive and need to be

provided only when the threat of erosion from
high water velocity is real. When slopes exceed
3% water velocity exceed 2 m/sec. This will
cause erosion.
The only reason for using drains with a “U” section is lack of space.
This section is often used for drains in narrow

roads and next to houses. The vertical sides
allow drains to occupy less than half the surface
that “V” drains use. It is also much easier to
provide “U” drains with a cover or to build
approaches to houses as the span is reduced.
Instead of brick walls drains can also be

constructed with in-situ cast concrete.
In cases where sullage has to be carried by the

“U” drains it is advantageous to provide the
drain with a semi-circular invert, for the same
reason as the V-section.
Drains can be lined using several methods:

Y stabilisation with bitumen, cement or lime;
Y paving with stones or bricks;
Y paving with concrete drain elements, either prefabricated or cast on
site.
S5 – 8
Drains can also be differentiated whether they are:

Y open; or
Y covered.
Wherever they are used, open channel drains take up space and pose a
hazard to road users and residents, especially if the drain is very wide or
deep or passes through a busy area. If this situation can be avoided and
resources are available, then drains should be constructed covered with
removable slabs, allowing access for the rainwater and sullage.
S5.3.2 Steep Slope Drainage
Slopes of more than 5% are considered steep. These slopes create

many technical and practical problems. They are prone to erosion and
landslides, have difficult access, are expensive to build and are
inconvenient to use. Options for leading water down gradually and in
manageable quantities include:
Y diverting the water horizontally through sideway drains, thus
reducing water speed;
Y stepping the drains to form a series of almost horizontal sections;
Y leading the water in a controlled zigzag manner through baffles built
into drains;
Y combining stepping and zigzag construction so that the soil settles
behind the baffles and gradually builds a stepped drain.
REFERENCE
See details in Section S5.3.6
S5 – 9
S5.3.3 Flat Land and Depression Drainage
In order to achieve a satisfactory ground water level in flood prone

areas, the following options can be used:
Y Ditches (unlined drains) can lead surface water to lower ground
areas. Outlets can include rivers and lakes.
Y Low-lying retention areas have to be identified for temporary
storage of sudden inflow.
Y Polder units: A polder is a land area protected by a dike and/or a
steep ditch all around. Water is pumped out regularly. This method
is not suitable for sandy soils.
Y Land fill: This can be done either by raising all or part of the surface
of the area.
Depressions are low-lying parts of the terrain, which collect rainwater.
They can be dealt with as follows:
Y Building a drain from the lowest point of the depression and
connecting it the overall drainage system.
Y Convert the depression into a retention area with a permanent pond
in the middle.
Y Build soakage pits into the depression. Soakage may consist of deep
boreholes filled with stones, which will lead surface water into the
ground water.
S5.3.4 Roadside Drainage
The construction of open roadside drains is an economic way to ensure

the stability of the road and to drain the adjacent land at the same
time. The correct positioning of roads can effectively control erosion. If
the road reserve is large enough, then drains can be provided on both
sides. If not, then drains can be provided on one side only or covered
drains along the centre line. Water must not be allowed to penetrate
the road base as it flows to the side drain.
REFERENCE
More details on road side drainage is provided in
Module S4: Urban Roads.
S5 – 10
S5.3.5 Gabions
Gabions are wire mesh boxes filled with stones and tied together to
form basic structures. The standard size of the boxes is 2 m x 1 m x
1 m.
Gabions are used to:
Y Protect vulnerable places such as bends
in unlined drains and culvert outlets.
Y Protect steep slopes from erosion by
forming terraces.
Y Protect vertical parts of terrain from
collapsing or sliding down by forming an
embankment.
Y Protect steep drains against scouring.
Y Construct entire drains in erodable soils.
S5.3.6 Scour Protection
Besides using gabions there are a number of other measures that can
be taken to protect unlined drains from scouring.
One of the scour protection techniques, scour checks made out of
sticks and/or stones, are an effective way of preventing drains from
erosion. This is successfully implemented on rural road drains, which
are constructed using labour-based methods, and can also be adopted
for urban drains (see drawing below).
S5 – 11
Scour checks can also be constructed with cement bound masonry or

concrete. These options, however, are much more expensive.
For very steep sections drains can be baffled or stepped as shown in
the diagram below. These solutions are also relatively expensive. The
use of gabions might be much cheaper as local material can be utilised
(stones).
S5 – 12
S5.4 Construction Works

As for any other construction work, before you can start the site
operations to build drains some other support activities must be
carried out to facilitate your construction activities.
REFERENCE
For support activities check Module S4: Urban Roads,
Section S4.2: Preparation Activities.
Drain construction can be subdivided into the following main activities:
O Setting out
O Removal of waste and vegetation
O Cleaning of existing drains (sections of drains)
O Locating and marking of existing service lines
O Excavation
O Shaping and slopping (for unlined and lined drains)
O Laying of prefabricated drain elements (drain bottoms, full
sections)
O Lining: masonry, concrete slabs, etc.
O Construction of pedestrian crossings
In this Module it is assumed that the construction of drains is done

independently from road construction.
In cases where drains are constructed as part of the road some
of the activities will be integrated into the road construction
process, e.g. setting out, removal of waste and vegetation, cleaning
of existing drains, locating and marking service lines, and excavation
of drains.
REFERENCE
Module S4: Urban Roads.
S5 – 13
JOB SHEET
DRAIN CONSTRUCTION SETTING OUT (alignment and levels)
WORK METHOD:
O Determine drain sections: a section is a straight or curved stretch of the drain which has the
same gradient. Wherever the gradient, curve or direction of the drain changes, a new section
starts.
O Set out the centre line of these sections. Establish first the straight lines by fixing pegs at the
end points of the sections. For curves set centre point pegs at closer intervals, e.g. 1 metre.
O Determine the inlet and outlet levels of drain sections. Place a profile board at the two end
points (marked by the centreline pegs), with top of profile board 150 cm or 200 cm above the
completed drain bottom level.
O Mark the boards clearly with the measurements to be used to find the levels, e.g. +150 or
+200. These will be your reference levels for all other intermediate levels.
O These profile boards can then also be used to set out all the following construction activities. A
wire stretched from one profile board to the next one assists in ensuring a straight drain line
at any point. All important measurements (cross-sectional) can be marked on the profile board
and the wire used to set out all intermediate points, e.g. edges of excavation, placing of drain
elements, etc.
O Place reference points for the centre line pegs as well as for the levels at the section ends on
permanent structures since the centre pegs will eventually be removed during excavation.

O 1 Site Supervisor O 3 ranging rods O 1 sledge hammer O Pegs or steel rods
and/or one trained for centre pegs
O Tape measures O 1 carpenter hammer
Gang Leader O Poles, boards and
O Tools for digging O Brush for marking
O 2 Labourers steel wire for profile
holes (Æ posts)
O Paint for marking
Metres/Day/Gang = Metres/Day/Gang =
S5 – 14
JOB SHEET
DRAIN CONSTRUCTION REMOVING OF WASTE AND VEGETATION
WORK METHOD:
O Set out with pegs the width of the area to be cleaned from waste and vegetation. Use the
profile boards with the wire as your reference line.

O Labourers O 1 hammer O Slashers O String lines
O Shovels + hoes O Wheelbarrows
3 3
S5 – 15
JOB SHEET
DRAIN CONSTRUCTION CLEANING OF EXISTING DRAINS
WORK METHOD:
O Identify the drains which need to be cleaned and calculate the volume of silt and waste in it.
O Allocate labourers. Make sure necessary protective clothing is available and used.

O 1 Gang Leader O Tape measure O Wheelbarrows
O Labourers O Shovels O Hauling equipment
O Hoes O Protective clothing
O Pick-axes or forked
hoes
Waste/silt removal: m3/day/labourer = Waste/silt removal: m3/day/labourer =
S5 – 16
JOB SHEET
ROAD CONSTRUCTION MARKING SERVICE LINES
WORK METHOD:
O Identify all service lines which are within the perimeters of the drains (and road).
linings, etc.
EL = Electric Line
S = Sewerage Line
W = Water Line

O Brush for marking
Day work Day work
S5 – 17
JOB SHEET
DRAIN CONSTRUCTION EXCAVATION
WORK METHOD:
O Set out the edge lines for excavation using the profile boards as reference points. Use a plumb
bob to transfer the edge line from the wire to the ground. Mark the edges with pegs and string
lines.
O Use the level reference points from the profile boards to find the correct excavation levels at
the two end points. Dig a slot next to each profile board. Dig slots at 10 m intervals to
determine the levels and quantities for excavation. Use boning rods to transfer the levels to
these slots
O Excavate and deposit the excavated material well away from the drain.

O 1 Gang Leader O Tape measure O Shovels and hoes O Pegs and strings
O Labourers O Plumb-bob O Pick-axes or forked
O Boning rods hoes

Slots: number/day/labourer Slots: number/day/labourer
3
S5 – 18
JOB SHEET
ROAD CONSTRUCTION SHAPING AND SLOPING
WORK METHOD:
O Depending on the drain type, the exact profile has to be shaped after the excavation has been
completed.
O Use templates to determine the exact shape and boning rods to check the levels of the
excavation. Use the profile board with the wire to check the alignment.
O Pay attention to the slopes; they have to be uniform and to the correct slope gradient. This is
particularly important for drains which will be lined.
O In cases where too much material was excavated (e.g. holes in slope) backfill carefully and
compact with an earth rammer until the wanted shape is achieved.

O 1 Gang Leader O Tape measure O Shovels and hoes O Pegs or steel rods
O Labourers O Plumb-bob O Pick-axes or forked O String lines
O Boning rods and hoes
templates
2 2
Shaping: m /day/labourer = Shaping: m /day/labourer =
S5 – 19
JOB SHEET
LAYING OF PREFABRICATED
ROAD CONSTRUCTION
DRAIN ELEMENTS
WORK METHOD:
Prefabricated drain elements:
O drain bottom consisting of semicircular O full drain profile
concrete segments
O Drain elements must be laid onto

compacted in-situ soil. A sand
bed is required where the soil is
stony and where the exact levels
cannot be easily cut out of the
soil, e.g. in-situ gravel.
O Each element must be in full
contact with the ground (no
hollow spots).
O Place each element at the exact
level
(check with the boning rod and
profile board)
O Align (plum bob on profile board
wire).
O Seal joints with cement mortar.
O Backfill, where necessary and
compact.

O 1 Gang Leader O Tape measure O 2 crow bars O Wooden wedges
O 1 Mason O Boning rods O Shovels and hoes O (Sand)
O Labourers O Plum-bob O Hand rammer
Laying: m/day/labourer = Laying: m/day/labourer =
S5 – 20
JOB SHEET
ROAD CONSTRUCTION LINING
WORK METHOD:
O Type: most drains are lined either using rubble stones or prefabricated concrete slabs (tiles).
O Preparation: the slopes to be lined have to be uniformly shaped with the correct slope
gradient. There should be no loose soil on the slopes Æ compact and fill possible pockets and
holes.
O Base layer: for high quality lining a layer of approximately 5 cm lean concrete (1 : 4 : 8) is
added. Compact well using a hand rammer. Where lower quality lining (cheaper) is used the
lean concrete layer is not required. However, the base has to be very well compacted and
shaped.
O Lining with rubble stones: First place some shovels of mortar (1 : 6) loosely onto the
ground and spread evenly (do not compact). Place moistened rubble stones close to each
other onto the mortar bed and “waggle” the stones into position. Î Ensure that there are
good joints between the stones (1 cm to 4 cm) and that there is some good bonding. Î
Ensure that the surface of the lining is as uniform as possible. Î Fill joints with mortar. Î
Cover lined area with old sacks or leaves. Î Keep wet for 7 days.
O Lining with concrete slabs: Place slabs directly onto the prepared ground. Î Ensure that
the slabs interlock. Î Ensure proper bonding. Î Slabs without interlocking joints have to be
placed to allow for mortar joints of approximately 1 cm to 2 cm.

O 1 Gang Leader O Shovels O Mason trawl O Cement
O 1 Mason O Wheelbarrows O Brush O Sand
O Labourers O Mason hammers O Ballast (if lean
concrete)
2 2
Lining: m /day/labourer = Lining: m /day/labourer =
S5 – 21
Construction of pedestrian crossings

Pedestrians have to cross drains to access premises. This is no
problem where drains are covered. However, for open drains crossings
have to be constructed. These can be simple concrete slabs (e.g.
120 mm thick with reinforcement) as shown in the following drawing:
For unlined or partial lined drains, which have a semicircular bottom,

culverts are better suited. Such approaches, however, require
headwalls.
S5 – 22
S5.5 Maintenance
REFERENCE
For general maintenance organisation and activities
refer to Module B5.3.3.
This Section (S5.5) provides you with specific information on

maintenance of drainage systems.
S5.5.1 Maintenance Requirements
Maintenance of the drainage system is necessary to avoid blockage or

collapse.
Causes of blockage Causes of collapse
O Accumulation of refuse, leaves and soil O Erosion of the bottom and sides of the
in the drain. drain (scouring).
O Excessive growth of vegetation in the O Root growth through the drains’ walls.
drain (unlined drains). O Excessive pressure on the drains’ sides
O Soil deposits (silting) in low sections of (vehicles, soil pressure).
the drain, e.g. in culverts.
Frequent inspections are essential to identify the detailed

maintenance needs. A Drainage Committee appointed by the CBO
should be made responsible to carry out such inspections and to
organise the maintenance operations.
Inspection is required to assess:
Y blockages and silting;
Y erosion (drain bottom, drain edges and slopes);
Y condition of lining (masonry, slabs Æ holes, washouts,
displacements);
Y condition of prefabricated elements (cracks, displacements);
Y condition of drain crossings (cracks, washouts at the edges, etc.).
S5 – 23
S5.5.2 Maintenance Activities
Routine maintenance should be subdivided into single activities and

grouped as suggested in the list below:
1. Inspection and removal of obstructions from the drainage

system
2. Cleaning of culverts and drain crossings: inlets and outlets
3. Cleaning of main drains and outfalls
4. Cleaning of side drains and outfalls
5. Repairing of eroded areas adjacent to drains and outfalls
6. Clearing of vegetation next to the drains
For some of the routine maintenance activities special tools are

required. These include:
Y long-handled hoes;
Y long-handled shovels;
Y long-handled spokes (to open blocked culverts and water crossings).
Routine maintenance activities can be easily handled by the CBO. The
resources required are minimal (mainly labour and tools).
Periodic maintenance is required:
1. to repair damaged lining or masonry work,

2. to repair damaged concrete elements,
3. to repair heavy erosions, e.g. placing of gabions, scour
checks, etc.,
4. to repair water crossings, e.g. culverts, access slabs.
For these activities extra resources and specialised labour are

required. Such repair work should be planned for in the annual
maintenance plan of the Drainage Committee.
S5 – 24

Planning of Urban Water Supply S6.2
General Information on Conveying Water S6.3
Maintenance S6.5
At the end of this Module you should be able to supervise the

construction and maintenance of urban water supply work.
S6 – 1
S6.1.1 Introduction
Water is a precious resource and vital for life. Access to a safe and
affordable supply of drinking water is a pre-condition for the
development of human livelihoods. Water shortage, poor water quality
or unreliable supply has profound effects on peoples' well-being. Safe
water supply also requires adequate and appropriate sanitation
facilities to prevent transmission of diseases through the provision of
water.
Supply of safe water for domestic use may include water for drinking,
food preparation, bathing, laundry, dishwashing and cleaning. In some
cases domestic water may also be used for watering animals and
vegetable plots or gardens.
There are specific requirements, guidelines and national laws regarding
safe water (quality) and accessibility (distance to nearest water point).
However the source of water, its location, yield and quality must also
be considered before planning a water supply system.
S6 – 2

planning principles of urban water supply systems.
S6.1.2 Terminology

terminology involved in water supply schemes and works. The
following list explains in alphabetic order the most important terms:
O Interruption chambers or break-pressure tanks

Chamber with a control valve which limits the total pressure in a
pipeline downstream of the same tank.
O Wash out
Point of full pipe opening where the water may be drained out of a
pipeline.
O Pipe fitting
Bend, socket, branch piece, reducer, etc. fitted onto a pipe length.
O Air valve
Valve which allows entrained air to escape the distribution system.
O Vacuum valve
Valve which allows air to be sucked into the pipe distribution system
if suction pressure is experienced.
O Flow velocity
Speed of water in metres per second.
O Gradient
Amount of slope, inclination to the horizontal Î see also Module B2.

S6 – 3
S6.2 Planning of Urban Water Supply

It is important to note that the planning process of a water supply
system has to be done in combination with planning the sewage and
possible electrical cables systems.
Planning of water supply systems is a process which will require some
consideration of the following factors:
Planning tasks:
O CBO to inform local government and water authorities of the
project, establishing the geographical and administrative
situation, population count, infrastructure and plans for further
development, economical aspects.
O Searching out water sources.
O Water quantity and quality at source.
O Water quantity needed.
O Survey pipe routing and trench lines.
O Occurrence and quality of local building materials:
sand, gravel, stones and wood.
O Technical Report: estimate.
O Organisation of community work.
O Implementation of project.
O Planning and organisation of maintenance.
S6.2.1 Information Collection and Dissemination
As a first step the CBO shall inform the local government and water
authorities of the project.
The people in the area to be provided water should be informed of the
planned water scheme and the benefits it might provide.
O All influential organisations or people which may have an

impact on the projects planning, construction or maintenance
should be informed. This includes people who may not agree
with the project, e.g. water vendors.
O What are the attitudes and reactions towards the project and
what are the felt needs within the community to be served?
O What are the land and eventual water rights in the areas?
S6 – 4
The following issues should be investigated:
O Health impact:
It is useful to explain some issues of water contamination and the
health impact it might cause. A water supply scheme will
significantly improve the quality and quantity of the available water
and consequently diseases are likely to be reduced.
O Knowledge of the diseases:

Endemic in a particular area is an important factor in the selection of
water sources and sanitation provision. Planners have to be aware
of the locally common diseases and ensure that the facilities they
are involved in providing do not increase rather than decrease the
incidence of disease. For example, surplus water around wells and
standposts should be drained and disposal methods for sullage and
waste water should be included in plans.
Diseases can be caused by the presence of certain bacteria called
pathogtenic bacteria, and also by other organisms which are not
bacteria, such as viruses, protozoa and worms.
Bacterial diseases include cholera, typhoid fever and dysentery
which can be contracted by ingestion of water contaminated by
infected human faecal material. Diarrhoea may be contracted from
pathogens transmitted through water, amoebiasis and amoebic
dysentery sometimes can be water-borne when untreated water is
used from heavily contaminated sources. Virus diseases differ from
bacteria in that they require a host cell in which they produce
changes which give rise to a range of diseases. Worm diseases often
cause widespread damage to the liver and other vital organs and
may be controlled through proper filtration and chlorination.
S6.2.2 Water Sources
The next step will be to search out water sources and check water
quantity and quality at source.
Y A sanitary survey is necessary to determine the reliability of a
water system to continuously supply safe and adequate water to the
consumer. It is also necessary to interpret the results of water
analysis and the effects of actual and potential sources of pollution
on water quality.
Y Location of potential pollution sources which might influence
the water source or distribution system should be identified, such as
sewage and waste disposal systems, bathing areas and storm water
drains, etc.
S6 – 5
Y Water sampling and analysis have to be made according to the

type of water source investigated.
Water sources providing water for the supply may be from an existing
water supply scheme. In this case it is important to know the supply
system’s capacity and quality to determine whether sufficient water
can be provided to the extended system and in acceptable quality.
If no water supply system is available, water sources might be:
Y Ground water: This is water which reaches the ground water table
by percolating through the ground. The quality depends on the
thickness of the soil layer (stratum) which covers the water bearing
soil. This is important to know because of the indirect contamination
from latrines, fertilisers, disposal sites and industrial activities. The
quantity depends on the annual rainfall, condition and storage
capability of the ground.
Y Surface water: This is water from lakes, streams, rivers as well as
water confined within rainwater catchment basins found in the sand
sub-layers of rivers or similar. The quantity must be determined
from assessment of volume flow or storage capacity. The quality
depends on the activities associated with the area concerned:
community, industrial and agricultural discharge into the water
source. Surface-water supplies are all subject to continuous or
intermittent pollution and must be treated accordingly.
Y Rainwater harvesting: This is the direct collection of rainwater
from surfaces. The water is led into storage and used by households
and community institutions. Normally the storage tank is sufficient
for serving a house or an institution and therefore no distribution
system is required. See two examples of rainwater harvesting on
the next page.
S6 – 6
Two examples of rainwater harvesting methods
S6 – 7
S6.2.3 Water Quality
Generally water supplied must:

Y be free from pathogenic (disease causing) organisms;
Y contain no compounds that have an adverse acute or long-term
effect on human health;
Y not be saline;
Y contain no compounds that cause an offensive taste or smell;
Y not cause corrosion or encrustation of the water supply system;
Y not stain clothes washed in it.
Bacterial quality
The bacterial content of water plays a dominant part in the quality. An
analysis is used to denote bacterial quality by the count of coliforms of
both faecal and non-faecal origin. Water in a distribution system
should not contain any organisms of faecal origin.
Classification of Raw Water According to Bacterial Numbers
Total coliform bacteria Faecal coliform bacteria

Classification
per 100 ml per 100 ml
Applicable to disinfection
0–50 0–20
only
Requiring conventional
treatment; coagulation,
50–5000 20–2000
flocculation, separation and
disinfection
Requiring extensive types
5000–50000 2000–20000
of treatment
Unacceptable unless special
treatments used, source to
More than 50000 More than 20000
be used only when
unavoidable
Chemical quality
Chemical analysis plays an important role in the investigation of water
supplies and water quality. Attention is largely directed at the
detection and estimation of certain toxic chemical substances which
may affect health.
Organic constituents of health significance are: arsenic, asbestos,
cadmium, cyanide, fluoride, mercury, nickel, lead, silver, sodium,
some nitrogen derivatives, etc. Others are related to more complex
organic substances such as phenols, chlorides, benzins, etc.
S6 – 8
Other parameters relate to the aesthetic quality (chloride, copper, iron,

sulphate, zinc, etc.).
Other constituents
Turbidity, colour, taste and odour, oxygen, pH, temperature, alkalinity
hardness, etc. are also constituents related to quality of water.
S6.2.4 Water Treatment
If the water is not of sufficient quality it must be treated to achieve an

acceptable standard.
One of the simplest methods of treating water based on a reasonable
initial quality is to settle out the particles if possible and vigorously boil
for a minimum of 5 minutes. However, this is impractical for
community water supply schemes and therefore other methods have
to be sought.
The water quality at source will to some extent dictate the need for
treatment before distribution. The distribution system chosen, the
water demand, the water source yield and cost of implementation will
also define what water quality standards will apply. Again, it has to be
noted that it is sometimes better to use water that is bacteriologically
safe despite the fact that it contains some excess of non-toxic material
instead of using water which has a higher risk of conveying
water-borne diseases.
Water quality can be best be assured by maintaining water clarity, a
chlorine residual in the distribution system, confirmatory absence of
bacterial indicator organisms and low bacterial population in the
distributed water.
On the following page a very brief presentation is made of the most
common methods in water supply:
S6 – 9
Process Effect Design Notes
Screening Remove larger Substantial bar Inclined to provide

particles, rags, bottles, (25 mm) size and easy cleaning by rake.
etc. at intakes. 25–50 mm spacing. Band and drum
Band screens of 6mm screens can be cleaned
holes. by water jets.
Micro-strainers Screening stored water Wire fabric with fine Lake supplies and
without a large mesh 23–35 microns. large storage water.
amount of suspended
matter, but which
might contain
plankton, algae, and
other microscopic
sized particles.
Sedimentation and Permit suspended Settling test will Chemical(s) dosed

settling tanks solids to settle out of determine the tank according to water's
water by gravity. size, the need for initial colour and
chemical assisted content of solids.
sedimentation Sludge must be
(coagulation and removed regularly.
flocculation to form a
precipitate).
Filtration for removal Removal of particles Usually sand is the Backwashing needed
of settleable and by physical action, filter media including for cleaning.
unsettleable solids although grain sizes from 0.4 to
physiochemical 1.5 mm.
considerations may
enter.
Aeration Increase the dissolved Weirs and waterfalls

oxygen content, may serve as aerators,
reduce tastes and beds of coke,
odours caused by limestone and
dissolved gases, anthracite also is used
decrease CO2 content specially for CO 2
and thereby the removal. Spray,
corrosiveness, convert injection and surface
iron or manganese to aerators are also used.
insoluble form.
Disinfection Reduction of Commonly by tropical The disinfection of

organisms in water chloride of lime (TCL) water is a subject of
including bacteria, or calcium some complexity and
viruses, cysts, hypochlorite, also UV further study is
protozoa, worms and radiation, iodine, required for the choice
larvae to such levels potassium of a disinfectant and
that no infection of permanganate or its efficiency.
disease results. boiling can be used on
a small scale.
S6 – 10
Disinfection
Disinfecting with chlorine is usually done in larger water supplies, but
is often an unreliable process in smaller water community systems as
the chlorine has to be dosed regularly, and if it isn't there is no easy
way of knowing if the water is no longer safe.
Chlorine can be obtained pure in gas or liquid form, but for smaller
water supplies liquid laundry bleach or bleaching powder can be used.
The latter loses its strength more rapidly when exposed to the
atmosphere or sunlight and during more than half a year storage in a
cool dark place it will have lost half its strength. A stronger disinfectant
which is slightly more stable is hypochlorite solution or powder.
Chlorine should never be applied before settling or filtration as dirty or
cloudy water will absorb the chlorine into its particles, thereby not
achieving disinfection.
There is no point in using a chlorinator which is not reliable,

and you should seek expert advice before
choosing appropriate equipment
Chlorine should be added to water in a well or tank, the amount being

regularly checked as the dosage may vary according to the level of
pollution of the raw water.
The water should be tested at the tap for residual chlorine (the amount
of free chlorine still left to kill bacteria). The residual level should be at
least 0,3 mg/l which usually requires an initial dose 10 times higher.
Allow a 30 min contact time for the chlorine to work before delivering
it to taps.
Chlorine should not be added to water flowing straight to a tap as it
would be difficult to adjust the necessary dosage to changes in flow
and maintain a minimum of 30min residence time for the chlorine to
act.
S6 – 11
Chlorinator with constant feed of chlorine:

Prepare a tank of 1% solution of
chlorine by adding 20 ml of
hypochlorite or 40 g of bleaching
powder or 250 ml of liquid laundry
bleach to a tank of 200 litre capacity.
A bowl floating on the tank surface will
provide a constant supply through a
3 mm pipe fixed to the height of the
water level in the bowl. A feeding pipe
fixed to the bowl bottom feeds chlorine
at a constant rate through a flexible
hose to the water source.
The discharge rate is adjusted by
adjusting the level of the 3 mm outlet
pipe in the bowl.
S6.2.3 Water Quantity Needed and Projected
Water supply systems have to be primarily defined by the expected

water requirements. To establish such figures, certain categories of
water supply sources have to be decided upon and some general
consumption figures established for the different categories.
In normal circumstances a water supply system should be constructed
for a lifespan of at least 20 years.
A population forecast can be based on the latest population census.
The population in urban centres should be analysed for different areas
and income categories separately.
A maximum hourly rate of consumption depends on the size of the
area served and the nature of the demand. A factor is selected which
will be multiplied by the actual water demand established to estimate
the future consumption.
Categories of Consumption
Category Specification Volume ltr/day
Domestic Public standpipe 20–50/consumer
Private houses
45–250
(drinking/cooking/ablution/washing/etc.)
Trade/institutional Schools 5–10/per student
Hospitals 100–400/bed
Commercial Small shops, offices 100–500
Agricultural Should not be included
Public Sewer flushing, fire fighting examined in Not less than 10 l/s
collaboration with authorities during 2 hrs.
Other Losses 20%
Consumer wastage 20–50 per household
S6 – 12
The public standpipe is the most frequently used component of the

entire system. No other structure will face more abuse than this and
no other structure will have to fit in so closely with the social and
cultural needs.
For planning purposes a walking distance of approximately 100m and a
number of 100-250 users per water point can be considered.
S6.2.4 Survey Pipe Routing and Elevations
A topographic survey has to be done along the proposed pipeline route

to establish the level differences and distances along the pipe route.
The type of terrain to be traversed has to be investigated in order to
know the conditions for digging the trench. Reference points have to
be permanent or semi-permanent to be able to easily identify them for
re-surveying.
S6 – 13
S6.2.5 Materials
Apart from pipes, valves and fittings all structures in water supply
projects require the use of block, bricks, cement mortar and plaster as
well as concrete for floors and slabs.
REFERENCE
For details on concrete and masonry work refer to Module B5.
Pipes
The appropriate pipes to be used within the water supply system
depend on the local standards used and the availability of pipe
material, sizes and classes.
There are three major requirements for a pipeline:
Y It must convey the required quantity of water;
Y It must resist all external and internal forces;
Y It must be durable.
REFERENCE
For details on pipe types, classes and quality refer to Module B4.1.9
Iron and steel pipes and their fittings

Pipes are manufacture in cast iron, ductile iron and galvanized iron.
Galvanized iron pipes are primarily used in the various tanks and
tap-stands of the system, especially for sections which have
excessively high pressure, are exposed or have earth cover. Most steel
pipes are supplied in lengths of 6 and 9 meters. Smaller diameters
have screwed joints. Untreated black steel pipes can be bent to curves
on a portable bending machine. Larger steel pipes are normally coated
with portland cement or bituminous enamel.
Flange joints must be carefully aligned before bolts are inserted and
flanges pulled together. There are also other types of joints available.
The most common is the O-ring joint.
S6 – 14
Iron pipe joints:

a) bell and spigot
b) push on
c) mechanical
d) flanged
e) ball
f) threaded
g) victaulic coupling
h) dresser coupling.
Iron pipe joints:

Ductile iron steel pipe
couplings and joints
a) flexible
b) mechanical
c) push on
d) ball joint
S6 – 15
Valves
There are three main reasons for including valves in a pipeline system:
Y to allow easy closing of a pipeline;
Y to control flow;
Y to control pressure.
Gate valve: Used to force a gate across a

pipeline to stop flow. The gate is wedge shaped
and is lowered into a groove cast in the body of
the valve. Valves need to be operated regularly
to avoid the valve to stick.
Plug valve (stop-cock or globe): The water must pass through an orifice which is
normally arranged in the horizontal plane. A plug is forced down on the orifice by a
screwed handle. This valve is used for controlling flow or shutting off flow. They cause
a considerable pressure drop even when fully open.
Non-return valve: A flat disc is pivoted and is

therefore forced open when the flow is from one
direction and shut against a seating if the flow
tries to reverse. This valve is used to prevent
water flow in the wrong direction.
Washouts have to be placed at low points on

mains of diameter >80mm. The washout
consists of a pipe and an isolating valve and an
open drain leading the water from the washout
to a suitable stream or nearby discharge point.
S6 – 16
Concrete and asbestos pipes
Concrete pipes and asbestos cement pipe: Manufactured with or without

prestressed wire depending on pressure class. Prestressed concrete pipes are made
by tensioning high tensile wire wound spirally around a cylindrical core. They can
offer a cost advantage over other pipes in sizes over 300 mm. They are proof against
certain corrosive conditions that would attack iron and steel, although they do need
special protection if the groundwater is saline or otherwise aggressive to concrete.
They have little flexibility at joints. The large diameter pipes are very heavy and
difficulty will occur when aligning them in soft ground. Connections are not easy to
make after the pipe has been laid and tees have to be incorporated as the line is laid.
Joints are usually of the socket and spigot O-ring push-in type or concentric circular
steel rings sealed with rubber gaskets.
Asbestos pipes are made of portland cement and asbestos fibres. Asbestos fibres can
be carcinogenic (may cause cancer) and such pipes are therefore not used in some
places. Iron fittings with rubber rings are used. Pipes can be interchanged with iron
pipes.
S6 – 17
Plastic pipes
Plastic pipes are manufactured in both solid and fibre-reinforced
materials. The most common are unplasticized polyvinyl chloride (uPVC)
and Polyethylen pipes (PE). Such pipes are widely used both in domestic
plumbing and in water distribution since they are far easier to handle,
install and are generally cheaper than traditional materials such as iron
or concrete. Small diameter plastic pipes <110 mm are joined by
solvent welding in cylindrical sleeves. Large diameter lines have bell and
spigout push-on connections and are compatible with cast iron fittings.
Polyethylene pipes are black plastic pipes, light and flexible, resistant
to abrasion and corrosion. The pipe is normally used for underground
service pipes as the smaller diameter pipe is flexible. The strength is
reduced with increasing temperature. Joints are both metal or plastic
compression couplings or butt/sleeve welding.
S6.2.6 Project Plan and Estimate
The project plan is an important document, necessary in the various

steps of planning and implementing water schemes. The project plan
includes some of the issues already discussed as well as economical
and financial issues, however here we will mainly focus on the
technical aspects.
The project plan will be a good instrument to use for planning the
project implementation and may consist of:
Y A water budget: This includes the aspects of consumption, actual
and future, the water balance between source and demand and
water quality analysis.
Y A topographic drawing: The survey and hydraulic profile showing
the outline of the system or sections thereof from the “side”.
Fig. A topographic section
S6 – 18
Y Pipe drawings: These should indicate mainlines, branchlines,

taplines and their sizes, tanks, taps, washouts, air valves, branch
points and their distance and elevations.
Other issues to be dealt with in the project plan are:
Y Project organisation.
Y Community participation and community work.
Y Supply of local skilled labour (masons, carpenters, pipe fitters, etc).
Y Supply of local materials and were to collect them.
Y Government or private institutions to take part in the project.
Y Consultants and supervisors to the project.
Y Estimates of materials divided into local materials and materials
provided from outside (government, others, etc.).
Y Estimate of total man-hours of skilled and unskilled labourers.
Y Maintenance of the supply scheme.
S6 – 19
S6.2.7 Organisation of the Work
REFERENCE
For organisation of the community work, refer to
Module B6: Work Implementation, Module S1: Work Management,
Module S2: Labour Issues and Module S9: Contracting.
S6.2.8 Implementation of the Project
Successful implementation of the project requires detailed planning

and preparations as well as supervision during the construction work.
A project construction schedule will outline the sections to be started
first or saved until later and when concrete and masonry work for
storage, break-pressure tanks and pipe stands shall be implemented.
Generally the pipeline should follow the surveyed route, although it is
not unusual to make detours because of impassable rock areas and
land erosions. Re-routing requires some re-surveying of the new
section.
S6.2.9 Organisation of Maintenance
Maintenance is one of the most important points to consider when

planning a water scheme. Sufficient attention to maintenance will
ensure a continuous supply of drinking water of good quality and
sufficient quantity for a long time. The water scheme has to fulfil all
expected hygienic and technical requirements. An improperly
maintained water scheme can be a great danger to the population
served because everybody will assume water flowing from a tap is
good drinking water.
The organisation of maintenance will depend on i) who owns the
supply scheme, and ii) the accessibility of trained maintenance teams.
As a minimum there should be caretaker(s) for the scheme looking
after storage tanks, water points, break-pressure tanks and the
distribution system.
S6 – 20
It is not necessarily your job as a Site Supervisor to carry out

the planning work for an entire water supply system.
The tasks described above have to be prepared by the
organisation, e.g. CBO responsible for the project plan or
proposal, with support from a qualified engineer.
In order to be able to supervise work on site it is, however,
important that you are aware of the general method of defining
a water supply scheme and further obtain some general
knowledge of various equipment commonly used in urban
low-income settlements as explained in the following sections.
S6 – 21
S6.3 General Information on Conveying

Water
S6.3.1 Types of Distribution Systems
The requirements for a pipeline are to convey the quantity of water

needed, to resist all external and internal forces, and to be durable.
Pipelines are divided into categories according to their service:
Y Transmission lines conveying water from source to distribution
point(s) or reservoir,
Y Main distribution pipelines conveying water from the reservoir
through the main header of the distribution system,
Y Branchlines, which are taken off the main lines and convey water
to a secondary distribution system,
Y Service pipes or taplines distributing water to the specific
consumer, and
Y Plumbing lines supplying water within a household to different
appliances.
Branch systems
In this system the distribution is done from a distribution main line to the different
points of consumption. The service pipes for individual supplies are like branches of a
tree. The disadvantage is that water can be stagnant in the “dead ends”.
S6 – 22
Gridiron systems
This system is similar to the branch system but here the dead- ends are connected
together with the result that the circulation is much better and the possibility of
stagnant water is reduced.
Ring system
In this system the distribution mains is connected as a ring. The advantages are good
circulation of water, safety in case of breakdowns and no interruptions in case of
repairs.
S6.3.2 Pressure Zones
The distribution systems must be divided into different pressure zones

if the difference in the height between the lowest and highest point is
more than 60 m. At maximum water pressure leakage rates increase
and with them possible pipe damages.
S6 – 23
Pressure zones may be divided by interruption chambers or

break-pressure tanks. If higher pressure is unavoidable at consumers
connections, special fittings, ball valves, stop valves etc. may be
required.
Pressure zones are normally defined by the design engineer, as well as

pressure produced by “water hammer”, a phenomenon which may be
caused by closing or opening a valve, or the starting or stopping of a
pump. The pipe's maximum pressure rating may be decided by
calculating the pressure rise/drop in the pipe due to a water hammer.
The minimum pressure at consumer taps should be

4 m water head and the maximum pressure should be 60 m.
The minimum pressure at service branches should be
10 m water column.
S6.3.3 Water Head and Pressure Drop in Pipes
Energy is required to move water. In a gravity-fed system the source

of energy is the action of gravity on water. As an alternative water can
be pumped.
The relative elevations of all points in the system determine the
amount of energy in each and every point.
S6 – 24
As water flows through pipes, fittings, tank, etc. some energy

is lost from friction forces acting against the movement of the
water. Due to changes in the topographic profile of the system,
at some points there may be a minimal amount of energy
(low pressure) and at others there may be an excessive
amount (high pressure).
Careful selection of pipe sizes and strategic location of
control valves, break-pressure tanks, reservoirs and
tap-stands is required.
The water head can be presented as the pressure exerted by a column

with a base of 1 cm 2 of fresh water.
Y A 10 metre column will weigh 1 kg and provide a pressure of
1 kg/cm2 (often only given as 1 kg).
Y A column of 40 m height will weigh 4 kg and exert a pressure of
4 kg/cm2.
Sometimes pressure is given in MPa (Mega Pascal) or bar. The
conversions is:
Y 10 kg/cm2 = 1MPa;
Y 1 kg/cm2 = 1 bar.
S6.3.4 Water in Motion
As an example an elevated water storage and a control valve can be

assumed.
If no water is flowing the system is in static equilibrium and the static
head along the pipeline is the level from the reservoir tank water
surface to the point of investigation along the pipeline.
If glass tubes were placed along the pipeline, the height of water in
each would be the same as the height in the reservoir.
If the valve is opened water will start flowing through the pipeline. If
glass tubes are located at different points along the pipeline, water
levels in each one will decrease according to the distance from the
reservoir tank. If the valve is open fully the drop at each and every
glass pipe will increase even more. The water heights in these tubes
form a new line for each new flow through the system. The line formed
by the water levels in the tubes is called the hydraulic grade (HGL)
line. The vertical distance from the pipeline to the HGL is the measure
of the pressure head, and the difference between the HGL and the
reservoir tank water level is the amount of head lost by the friction of
the flow.
S6 – 25
The water pressure at air/water interfaces (reservoir tanks) is zero.

The HGL always come to zero wherever the water comes in contact
with the atmosphere.
10
15
20
25 20 M
30
35 Control valve partially open

to allow for small discharge
10
15
20
25
30 10 M
35 Control valve fully open

to allow for large discharge
S6 – 26
This Module only deals with the construction of

smaller water supply systems. It does not include house
connections, treatment works and pumping stations.
Before you can start the site operations for water supply schemes
there are some other activities which must be carried out in order to
allow you to operate on site. These are the support activities and
usually consist of:
Y Technical report and estimate and project schedule and Bill
of Quantities: As discussed in section S6.2.5 sufficient planning
and scheduling has to be done before construction.
Y Work at camp: You may not have an actual site camp but on urban
sites you may be given some other facilities where stores can be
kept and where the site administration can be carried out. Whatever
facility you may be given you have to organise the storage, issue
and maintenance of material and tools. You have to engage one or
two separate labourers to look after tools and material.
Y Water supply: Labourers will get very thirsty and need to be
supplied with clean drinking water. This is also a support activity.
Y Electrical power: Depending on the pipe material selected,
electrical power might be required for fitting the pipe sections.
The pipeline construction work can be subdivided into the following
activities:
O Setting out pipeline trenches

O Locating and marking existing service lines
O Trench excavation
O Trench bed preparation
O Pipe laying on trench beds
O Pressure testing of sections
O Trench backfilling
O Pipeline marking
O Disinfecting pipelines
S6 – 27
JOB SHEET
WATER SUPPLY SETTING OUT (pipe lines)
WORK METHOD:
O Determine the pipe route as agreed with the community. The pipe should be laid along the
straightest route possible. Road crossings should be done at a right angle to the road
whenever possible.
O Place pegs to mark along the pipe route.
O Place sighting boards or level sticks along the pipe trench and set out the depth to be
excavated at short intervals (5-10 m). Mark clearly on the boards or sticks the correct depth
measurement.
O Establish a reference level at every section such that checks on each level stick can be made.
O Check all measurements. Call the Community Representative or the technician in charge to
confirm the measurements before you start with the excavation work.

O 1 Site Supervisor O Ranging rods O 1 sledge O Pegs or steel rods for
2 Labourers hammer centre p.
O O Tape measures,
long + short O 1 carpenter O Poles and boards for
hammer profile
O Tools for digging
holes (Æ posts) O Brush for O Steel wire
marking O Paint or markers for
marking reference points
Day work Day work
S6 – 28
JOB SHEET
WATER SUPPLY REMOVING WASTE AND VEGETATION
WORK METHOD:
O Set out with pegs the width of the area to be cleaned from waste and vegetation.

3
Waste removal: m /day/labourer = Waste removal: m3/day/labourer =
2
Vegetation removal: m /day/labourer = Vegetation removal: m2/day/labourer =
S6 – 29
JOB SHEET
WATER SUPPLY MARKING COINCIDING SERVICE LINES
WORK METHOD:
O Identify all service lines which are crossing or following the pipe route.
linings, etc.
EL = Electric Line
S = Sewerage Line
W = Water Line

O Brush for marking
Day work Day work
S6 – 30
JOB SHEET
WATER SUPPLY TRENCH DIGGING
WORK METHOD:
O Identify the soil conditions or any impassable sections such that eventual re-routing can be
made.
O Make use of a measuring board or stick to check the actual depth to be excavated at each
location.
O Excavate step by step. Normally the excavated material can be used for backfilling and must
be deposited next to the trench but at a sufficient distance to prevent it from falling back and
resulting in unnecessary cleaning of trenches.
O The recommended width of a trench is at least 60 cm.
O The trench depth will protect the pipe against damage from traffic and weather conditions. A
minimum 60 cm should be provided to protect the pipe against great variations in
temperature, root growth into flexible joints, etc. Trenches of more than 1,5 m depth will
require some investigations on pipe strength to withstand earth pressure. In weaker soils
strutting might be necessary.
O Road crossings may be done at a depth of 1,2 m, or laid into a sand bed and covered with at
least 20 cm sand at a depth of 1 m. At less depth the pipe should be covered with 20 cm sand
and a concrete slab on top as a protection before backfilling.

O 1 Gang Leader O Tape measure O Pegs and strings
O Labourers O Plumb-bob
O Shovels and hoes
O Pick-axes or forked hoes
3
S6 – 31
JOB SHEET
WATER SUPPLY LAYING OF PIPES
WORK METHOD:
O The pipes should be laid on firm ground or foundations in order to prevent uneven settlement,
which may damage the pipe. In rocky soils rocks and stones should be cleared away from the
bottom of the trenches for 15 cm beyond the pipes and should be replaced by plain earth,
sand or concrete.
O Pipelines to be laid in straight lines between changes in gradient. The slopes of mains shall
preferably be 0.5% for diameters <200 mm and 0.2% for bigger pipes. When the topography
makes this impossible air valves at appropriate points have to be included.
O Pipes have to be laid with a cover of 0.6 to 3 m with no local high points where air pockets
cannot be released.
O Where motor traffic may occur, pipes must be protected by a minimum 0.9m cover. Whenever
possible the pipelines should be located 1.5 m from the edge of the road reserve.
O When a pipeline is first constructed, or later drained for maintenance purposes, it is filled with
air at atmospheric pressure. When water enters, air may be trapped in certain sections. As
water is filled the pressure builds up and the air pockets will be compressed. Compressing
these air pockets and therefore reducing the amount of energy available to move water
absorbs hydrostatic pressure. If too much energy is absorbed by compressing no flow will
reach the desired discharge point.
O Possible air blocks near to the static level are the more critical ones and should be minimised
first by use of tee connections to water points or automatic air valves.
O Before lowering the pipe into the

trench the pipes should be inspected
for cracks, punctures or other
damages. The pipe inside should be
inspected for foreign bodies (snakes,
mice, sand, etc.) The pipes and their
joining ends should be wiped and
cleaned.
O A small depression should be dug out
under the coupling or socket so as to
allow an adequate support for the
pipe over its entire length.

O 1 Gang Leader O Pipe tools O Pegs and strings
O 1 Pipe Fitter O Thread tape O Pipes
O 6 Labourers O Wire brush O Fittings and valves
O Cloths for cleaning pipe
Excavation: m3/day/labourer = Excavation: m3/day/labourer =
S6 – 32
JOB SHEET
WATER SUPPLY THRUST BLOCKS, ANCHORING
WORK METHOD:
O Thrust blocks are necessary at bends, tees, valves and tapers and also branch take-off if
flanged joints are not used. These blocks are often large and must be well keyed into firm
ground.
O A pipe laid on sloping ground should have anchor blocks cast around it and the weight of the
block is to withstand the occurring forces.
O The size of the thrust block has to be decided in accordance with the external forces and has
to be calculated by the design engineer.
O In soft soils it is important not to firmly attach the thrust block to the pipeline as this may
endanger the line safety if the line bends unevenly.
Construction:
O Investigate the soil for its compactness
at the point where the thrust block will
be built.
O Excavate and construct formwork for
the thrust block.
O Cast concrete.
O Fix anchors into the block in order to
connect the pipe for cases where the
block does not cover the pipe (see
diagram).

O 1 Gang Leader O Tape measure O Watering can O Aggregate and sand
O 1 Mason O Plumb-bob O Pipe tools O Cement
O 1 Pipe Fitter O Masonry tools O Wire mesh
O Labourers O Shovels O Timber for formwork
O Nails and wire
S6 – 33
JOB SHEET
WATER SUPPLY PRESSURE TESTING
WORK METHOD:
O Testing of the pipeline has to be done before backfilling to discover leaks and damage.
O Some initial backfilling can be made before testing to assure minimum pipe movements and
damage from objects falling into the trench. The straight pipe sections can first be filled with
20 cm of sand or similar soft material but joints and fittings should be left open before
pressure testing.
O A section of 500 m should be isolated and tested by a pumping device or use of the natural
slope and a transparent hose. At high points the air must be removed during filling.
O An end cap, or section valve, has to be used to isolate the section. A pump or plastic pipe has
to be connected the other end. A pressure gauge can be used for pumping or an elevation
measure given for the connected plastic pipe.
O Plastic and steel pipes should have no loss of water; cement pipes absorb some water during
the first 24 hours and thereafter the loss should not exceed 0,05 l/m 2 of the inner surface per
hour.
O The pressure test has to last for a minimum of 15 min/100 m.
Testing with hand pumps
Testing with transparent

plastic hose

O 1 Gang Leader O Hand pump, engine pump or O Water for filling pipe
O 1 Pipe Fitter transparent hose
O Labourers O Flexible connections
O Pressure gauge
O End caps
S6 – 34
JOB SHEET
WATER SUPPLY BACKFILLING
WORK METHOD:
O The material for backfilling must not contain lumps, rocks or large stones. The pipe must first
be covered with 20 cm of sand or similar soft material before bulk filling of the remaining
trench can be permitted.
O The initial backfilling (20 cm above pipe) should be done as soon as possible to protect the
pipe.
O Soil or sand shall be placed up to a height of 1/2 of

the external diameter.
O The soil under the pipe and between the pipeline and
trench wall shall be tamped.
O Backfill by hand to a height of 20 cm over the pipe

and tamp every 10 cm layer.
O Bulk-backfill of the rest of the trench in layers not

exceeding 20 cm. If large stones have been excavated
it is not advisable to use them for bulk backfilling the
trench. Each layer has to be compacted.

O 1 Gang Leader O Shovels O Sand (if no fine soil
2 Labourers available)
O
O Hoes
O Sieve
O Trench compactor or earth
rammers
3
Backfilling + compaction: m /day/labourer = Backfilling + compaction: m3/day/labourer =
S6 – 35
JOB SHEET
WATER SUPPLY MARKING OF PIPELINE
WORK METHOD:
O If the line of the pipe has not been marked during construction it will later be difficult and
sometimes very costly to find the pipe. It is important that immediately after backfilling the
pipe should be marked by permanent signs to be able to follow the pipe if need arises (e.g.
repairs, building of new houses or roads).
A concrete sign which contains the following information may be the best way to mark the pipe
trace permanently:
O Pipe material and diameter laid into the ground
O The direction of the pipe
O Continuous numeration in sequence of all concrete signs

O 1 Gangleader O Shovels O Sand, ballast and cement
O 2 Labourers O Watering can O Timber (for shuttering)
O Concrete mixer (if available)
S6 – 36
JOB SHEET
WATER SUPPLY DISINFECTING PIPELINES
WORK METHOD:
O The disinfection of new or repaired pipelines can be expedited and greatly simplified if special
care is exercised in the handling and laying of pipes. Trenches should be kept dry and a tight,.
Fitting plugs should be provided at the end of the line clean. Lengths of pipe that have soiled
interiors should be cleansed and disinfected before connecting them. Each continuous length
of main pipe should be separately disinfected with a heavy chlorine dose or other effective
disinfecting agent. This can be done by using a hand pump to inject the chlorine at the
beginning of the section through to a wash point, temporary valve connection or tank.
O First the section is flushed thoroughly by ensuring sufficient pressure and draining through a
hydrant, flush or drain point until the water flow is clear.
O Chlorine is then injected into the line at a rate according to the water flow giving a residual of
minimum 50 mg/l.
O After this the line should again be flushed thoroughly.

O 1 Gang Leader O Chemical tank with chlorine O Water supply
O 2 Labourers O Hand pump O Chlorine solution

S6 – 37
JOB SHEET
WATER SUPPLY PUBLIC STANDPIPE
WORK METHOD:
O Use the profile boards with wires and plumb bob to establish the 4 corners of the slab for the
tap stand.
O Establish the bottom level of the slab; use reference points from the profile board.
O Excavate the slab and a drainage channel if the terrain does not allow for natural drainage.
Excavate the soak away pit if no other drainage is naturally available.
O Compact the ground at the tap stand, place some aggregate and compact well if soil is weak.
O Install the pipe work.
O Install some stone pitching around the tap stand slab to allow for support and stability of the
surrounding ground and allow for drainage.
O Cast bottom slab (add crack reinforcement, e.g. weld mesh), trowel slab top smooth. Allow for
a valve box with a water meter to be located behind the tap stand.
O Construct the concrete wall of the tap stand.

O 1 Gang Leader O Tape measure O Aggregate, sand, cement
O 1 Mason O Plumb-bob O Cement blocks
O Labourers O Masonry tools O Weld mesh, rods
O Shovels O GI pipes ¾”, sockets and
elbows
O Watering can
O Tap ¾” or ½”
O Pipefitting tools
O PVC pipe 50mm
O Timber for formwork
O Nails and wire
S6 – 38
JOB SHEET
WATER SUPPLY VALVE CHAMBERS
WORK METHOD:
O It is necessary to have valves at intervals along the pipeline to control the flow of water.
These valves are preferably situated in a chamber built of concrete or cement blocks for
protection and access.
O The chamber must allow opening and closing of the valve using a suitable spanner.
O The valve is backfilled around the body to just below the top body flange and the brick
chamber is set around the upper part and covered with a hinged cover so that an operating
tee key or spanner can be lowered on to the valve cap when it is necessary to operate the
valve.
Construction:
O Valve chambers should be at least 60 x 60 cm internally.
O UPVC pipes shall not be used within the chamber.

O 1 Gang Leader O Tape measure O Sand
O 1 Mason O Plumb-bob O Cement
O Labourers O Masonry tools O Bricks or cement blocks
O Shovels
O Watering can
S6 – 39
JOB SHEET
WATER SUPPLY STORAGE TANK CONSTRUCTION
WORK METHOD:
O Reservoir tanks are provided to store water during lower consumption periods to be available
during consumption peaks. The maximum hourly consumption can amount to 3 times the
average consumption.
O Storage tanks may also serve as pressure holding tanks and should preferably be located close
to the area of peak consumption in the system. However, normally the tanks are located
according to the local topography. The tank can be supplied directly from the water source or
through the distribution system.
O Use the profile boards with wires and plumb bob to set out the storage tank.
O Establish the bottom level of the slab; use reference points from the profile board.
O Place a hardcore layer of approximately 15 to 20 cm depth, compact well.
O Add lean concrete layer of approximately 5 cm thickness.
O Cast bottom slab (add crack reinforcement, e.g. weld-mesh), trowel slab top smooth.
O Construct outside walls, preferably using cement blocks. Plaster walls inside if not made of
concrete.
O Construct formwork for slab. Add reinforcement. Provide openings (manholes) for access,
min. Ø 60 cm.
O Cast concrete, trowel top smooth and cure for 28 days. Remove the formwork from the slab.

O 1 Gang Leader O Tape measure O Hardcore, ballast, sand,
1 Mason cement and cement blocks
O O Plumb-bob
Labourers O Weld mesh, RE bars
O O Masonry tools
O In-/outlet “T” pipes
O Shovels
O Watering can
O Nails and wire
S6 – 40
JOB SHEET
PIPE CONNECTIONS AND CONNECTIONS
WATER SUPPLY
TO BUILDING AND TANKS
WORK METHOD:
O If an existing main or branch-line is the main source of water supply and the new systems are
an extension of this supply, a connection has to be made.
O Tank connections must be water tight if taken through a wall.
(1) To connect a steel or plastic pipe into

a tank a seal must be installed, e.g. a
rubber seal or a flange and gasket
which is fitted at the wall centre.
Flexible connection for pipelines which are laid into

ground and must be connected into a tank.
existing pipe (2) Plastic pipe connection: If a tee has
to be inserted into an existing pipe
the length cut out of the latter must
be slightly greater than the overall
length of the tee. The socket end of
the tee is pushed up to fit one end of
the cut pipe and the resulting gap at
the other end is joined by using a
tee collar
collar inserted into the other cut pipe
end, leaving sufficient length for
installation of the tee. Upon the collar
is inserted the tee still covering the
existing pipe.
collar
tee
(3) Steel pipe connection: A connection

to existing pipes can be made by
clamping a split collar onto the steel
pipe. The collar has a flanged branch
with a valve. A cutter opens a hole in
the pipe and is withdrawn as the
valve is closed.
To make sure there will be no leaks where the pipes

enter into the tank a single flange fitting with one flange
in the middle of the wall is very useful.
(4) For concrete pipes a service pipe can
be installed by using a ferrule and a
saddle strap.
Service pipe connection to a main pipe of cement or steel.
S6 – 41
S6.5 Maintenance
REFERENCE
For general maintenance organisation and activities refer to
Module B5.3.3.
This Section provides you with specific information on maintenance for

water supply systems.
S6.5.1 Organisation of Maintenance
The organisation of maintenance depends on who has the ownership of

the supply scheme and the accessibility of professional maintenance
teams. As a minimum there should be an employed caretaker(s) for
the scheme looking after storage tanks, water points, break-pressure
tank and the distribution system.
S6.5.2 Maintenance of Distribution Systems
Y Standpipes and wash places should be cleaned daily by the

consumers, drains should be observed for blockage.
Y Standpipes and wash places should be checked weekly and cleaned.
Y Valves and hydrants should be serviced.
Y Leaks should be surveyed, repaired and affected sections
disinfected.
Y Leaking taps should be repaired immediately to avoid loss of water.
As pipelines age, accumulations of sediments, rust and bacterial
growth may substantially reduce the flow capacity. Cleaning with the
correct tools will restore a large part of the lost capacity.
Valves are often found to be defective. Ensure that the valves are not
covered with earth or dirt. Valve chambers should be inspected and
cleaned twice a year. Any broken slab has to be replaced. All valves
have to be opened and closed during inspections.
S6 – 42
S6.5.3 Storage Tanks and Break-Pressure Tanks
Y Monthly clearing of surroundings. Vents and drains to be cleaned.

Water quality can be checked for contamination. Open and close
valves and check for leaks.
Y The tanks have to be cleaned twice a year and damages like cracks
and leakages have to be attended to.
S6.5.4 Sampling of Drinking Water
To establish whether a water source or a water supply system provides

water of the required quality, samples have to be drawn from the
system for analysis. The samples taken must be a true representative
sample of the system and not contaminated from other sources. It is
important to follow the correct sampling procedure.
S6 – 43
JOB SHEET
WATER SUPPLY WATER SAMPLING
WORK METHOD:
Sampling for bacteriological, chemical or physical analyses or microscopic examinations may be
made depending on the source of water, problems likely to be encountered, etc.
A glass or sterile plastic bottle, supplied and prepare by a laboratory, should be used when
collecting water samples. The samples shall cover all flow regimes of the source and be in a
nminimum umber of 4 samples. Samples from a borehole should be taken after at least 24 hours
of pumping.
Sampling of water is distinguished by some general types of analyses:
O Checks for residual chlorine – a regular test at water treatment plant
O Simple bacteriological testing – daily testing at water treatment plant is recommended
O Simple chemical testing – minimum a monthly to twice a year test by population served.
O SAMPLING FROM TAPS: The hands or

the faucet must not touch the edge of
the lip of the bottle. The sample should
be taken from a clean faucet that does
not have a screen. The screen can be
removed prior to sampling. Let the
water run for about 1min to get a
representative sample.
O SAMPLING FROM TANKS: A bottle with
a weight tied at the end can carefully
be lowered into the tank to a depth of
about 1m. When no more air bubbles
rise to the surface the bottle can be
withdrawn carefully.
O SAMPLING FROM A LAKE OR STREAM:
If the sample is from a lake or stream
the bottles should be dipped below the
surface with a forwarding sweeping
motion so that water coming into
contact with the hands does not enter
the bottle.
Water sampling from a well or tank
S6 – 44
Module 7: Urban Sanitation

Planning of Urban Sanitation S7.2
Types and Options S7.3
Maintenance S7.5

the construction and maintenance of urban sanitation work.
S7 – 1
S7.1.1 Introduction
Poor environmental conditions arising from unhygienic disposal of

excreta, sullage and accumulation of solid wastes contribute to the
spread of diseases.
Sanitation attempts to prevent the occurrence of these diseases
by keeping hygienic standards, thereby improving the health of the
community.
The main transmission route of diseases is faecal-oral as shown in the
following graph:
Source: WEDC, Loughborough University of Technology
Sanitation is the barrier to faecal-oral transmission of diseases. The

main objective of improved sanitation is the replacement of
casual or unsafe practices which allow faecal matter to be exposed
to contact with flies and vermin, which may contaminate food, cooking
and eating utensils, and drinking water sources.
S7 – 2

planning principles of urban sanitation systems.
S7.1.2 Terminology

terminology involved in sanitation systems and works. The following
list explains in alphabetic order the most important terms:
O Excreta
Human waste eliminated from the human body.
O Flow velocity
Speed and runoff water in meters per second.
O Gradient
Amount of slope, inclination to the horizontal Î see also Module B2:
Mensuration.

O Pit latrine
A hole in the ground where excreta and cleansing materials are
deposited, usually with a superstructure on top to provide privacy to
the user.
O Septic tank
An underground tank that acts as a settlement unit in which solids
settle out by gravity.
O Sewage
All waste water from washing, food preparation, wasted tap water
and from water toilets.
S7 – 3
O Sewer
The pipe that carries away the waste water.
O Sewerage
The system which carries away the waste water.
O Sullage
Waste water from washing, food preparation and wasted tap water.
It does not contain excreta.
O Superstructure
A small cubicle (house) on top of the latrine to ensure privacy of the
user.
S7 – 4
S7.2 Planning of Urban Sanitation

For the planning process of sanitation systems it is important to
note that this has to be done in combination with planning the
water systems.
Knowledge of the diseases endemic in a particular area is an
important factor in the selection of water sources and sanitation
provision. Planners have to be aware of the locally common diseases
and ensure that the facilities they are involved in providing do not
increase rather than decrease the incidence of disease. For example,
surplus water around wells and standposts should be drained and
disposal methods for sullage and waste water should be included in
plans.
Planning of adequate sanitation for a certain area and community is a
delicate issue. Appropriate awareness creation for the respective
population is essential and is the first step in the planning process. The
causes and effects of disease have to be explained and the appropriate
sanitation measures demonstrated.
When planning a community-managed sanitation project the degree
of participation achieved will depend on three main factors:
Motivation:
O Sell the idea that sanitation is a priority for good health.
O Consider future users of the facility e.g. prevailing opinions, attitudes,
motivations, and provide education and training as required.
O Group pressure.
O The wish to modernise.
O Comfort, safety and privacy.
O Affordability and profit: fear of the cost and effort required to install and
maintain a latrine may deter a potential user from participating.
Education:
O Health education may at times cause fear among members of the community.
Instead emphasis should be placed on “project support communication”. This is
the “whys, whens and hows” of the sanitation programme, e.g. how the latrines
are built, how they are used and maintained, etc. Forums which can be used
include local radio programmes, house calls, etc.
O Hygiene education is extremely important to reduce water-borne/washed
diseases and to ensure use of sanitation services to get the best benefit.
Training:
O Craft training may focus on training of masons to do the construction work. This
skill will then be available for other purposes in the future.
O Selected members of the community attached to the project from the beginning
through to the end may need to be trained in such management areas as time
planning, procurement, transport of material, accounting and maintenance.
S7 – 5
As a first step for planning sanitation systems it is essential to

investigate the existing situation of the area in question. The
following questions may be useful for this investigation:
O Are there existing sanitation systems in place? What kind? What

condition are they in? Where are they? Who has access to these
systems? Who does not? Can they be extended or adapted for wider
use?
O Are present defecating practices in danger of directly polluting water
sources or the food chain?
O What is the cultural behaviour of the future users?
O What is the population density of the area in question?
O Is there space available on each plot?
O What is the level of the ground water table?
O What is the depth and permeability of the soil? Can it be dug easily
by hand?
O Are there any people familiar with the construction of latrines?
O Is there a potential use of stabilised waste material as fertiliser?
O Is there municipal capacity available for emptying pits and septic
tanks?
O What trade skills and materials are available locally?
O What is the location and capacity of local trunk sewers and sewage
treatment plants?
It is not necessarily your job as a Site Supervisor to carry out the

planning work for entire sanitation systems. In order to be able to
supervise work on site it is, however, important that you are aware
of the various types and options commonly in use in urban
low-income settlements as explained in the following section.
S7 – 6
S7.3 Types and Options
S7.3.1 Types
There are two principle types of sanitation systems:
O Off-site sanitation system (or water-borne sewerage system).

Excreta and sullage (= sewage) is transported through pipes ,using
water, to a suitable site for treatment and safe disposal. This is a
practice for urban planned settlements.
O On-site (or on-plot) sanitation system. This is a system common
in rural areas and can be used in urban unplanned settlements where
there is not sufficient supply of water to support water borne system.
Its suitability depends on density and ground condition in the area. In
some areas condominial sewage may be more appropriate and less
expensive. The users have to personally look after the maintenance of
the system.
The selection of the most appropriate sanitation system is influenced

by technical, cultural, institutional and financial factors. The following
two points are of basic technical importance:
Y The quantity of water available for use in the sanitation system:
Water requirements of different systems vary from zero to 80 litres
per person per day. Hence the level of service for water supply is
important.
Y The material used for anal cleansing after defecation. This
depends upon the cultural and religious practices of the society, and
materials used include water, paper, leaves, sand and stones.
For unplanned low-income settlements the on-site system is
the most suitable alternative used as it is usually affordable. The
maintenance of the individual system remains generally with the
respective plot owner and user.
The off-site system is usually much more expensive to construct and
to maintain. Maintenance has to be organised centrally for the entire
system and is therefore more complicated and demanding to manage.
S7 – 7
S7.3.2 Types of On-Site Sanitation Systems
The two most common types of on-site sanitation are firstly pit latrines
and secondly septic tanks. Both require land to be set aside on or
nearby the plots. The housing density, site layout, and the layout of
individual house plots in respect of building lines and plot boundaries
must be carefully considered when planning an on-site excreta disposal
system.
Pit Latrines
The principle of all types of pit latrine is
that excreta and anal cleansing materials
are deposited in a hole in the ground. In
its simplest form the pit latrine consists of
a superstructure, which affords privacy to
the user, a hole (or seat) set into a slab,
which covers the pit beneath the slab into
which excreta are deposited.
Simple pit latrines should have a lid to
cover the hole to reduce smells and flies.
Ventilated Improved Pit Latrines

(VIPs)
In the case of VIPs, the pit is ventilated
by means of a vertical pipe. The action of
wind blowing over the top of the vent pipe
creates an up-draught of air, which flows
up the pipe. Air is drawn down through
the hole in the cover slab and circulates in
the pipe. Any unpleasant odour passes up
the pipe rather than out of the hole in the
cover slab into the superstructure. Flies
are attracted to the top of the vent pipe,
but the presence of a fly screen made out
of fine gauge mesh prevents many flies
from entering. Flies which do breed in the
pit tend to head towards light, but the
screen blocks their exit. The interior of the
latrine superstructure needs to be
darkened to prevent flies from entering,
which requires the latrine to have a
permanent superstructure with a roof.
S7 – 8
Pour Flush Pit Latrines

In regions where water is used for
anal cleansing as opposed to solid
material such as paper, leaves,
stones or sand, it is possible to
adapt the simple pit latrine by
inserting a pour flush bowl into the
hole in the pit cover slab. When
filled with water, this bowl forms an
effective seal, which isolates the pit
from the user; this is a most
effective way of eliminating smells
and fly nuisance.
The bowl is designed so that it
requires only a small volume of
water to flush excreta into the pit.
Depending upon the detailed
design, 1-6 litres of water are
required for each flush, which is
much less than the 10-20 litres for
conventional cistern flush toilets.
Pour flush latrines are only suitable
in areas where a reliable and
appropriate water source is
available.
Septic Tanks
A septic tank comprises a sealed
tank that has both an inlet and an
outlet into which excreta are
flushed from a conventional cistern
flush toilet using typically between
10-20 litres of water for each flush.
The tank is connected to the toilet
by a sewer pipe. Partially treated
effluent flows out of the tank. This
marks an important difference from
the pit latrine, in which any water
entering the pit leaves by
percolation into the surrounding
ground. Septic tanks may receive
either toilet waste alone, or both
toilet wastes and sullage from sinks,
showers and baths.
The septic tank acts as a settlement unit in which solids settle out by gravity; the
solids undergo a process of anaerobic decomposition. The effluent which flows out of
the septic tank constitutes a potential health hazard. A common disposal method is
by absorption into the ground using a soakage pit or trench. The settled sludge has to
be periodically removed by a suction tanker.
Septic tanks may be built to combine several households or plots. Regular
maintenance (removal of sludge) is essential and relatively expensive.
S7 – 9
Double Pit Latrines

Pit latrines should always be downhill from a well and as far away as possible. Areas
of high housing density have potentially high densities of pit latrines and there is real
danger of wells and pits being too close together. Problems encountered with ground
conditions, high water table and groundwater pollution usually lead to the pit being
very shallow. Unfortunately this means that the pit fills rapidly and rapid emptying is
required.
These difficulties can be overcome by using the double pit latrine system in which
both pits are shallow, but not less than 1.2 metres deep. Additional capacity can be
obtained by increasing the plan areas or raising the pit (higher costs).
This first pit is used until it is full, and the second pit is then put in use. When the
second pit is full, the first can be emptied safely because the contents will have been
digesting for at least one year.
Double Pit Ventilated Improved Latrine:
Pour Flush Double Pit Latrine:
Source: WEDC, Loughborough University of Technology
S7 – 10
The facilities shown above are tailored for individual needs. However,
toilets (or latrines) can be grouped together to form a public toilet
block. This can also be combined with washing facilities.
Decomposed human excrements can be used as fertiliser. Care must
be taken when introducing human excrement as fertiliser as this might
not be easily accepted in all communities. Another problem could be
the safe transport of the fertiliser from the urban area to the farmland.
Selling fertiliser could be a potential source of income to finance the
maintenance of the sanitation system.
In many countries around the world human excrement is also
successfully used for small-scale bio-gas plants. The gas is mainly used
for domestic (cooking) purposes. The sludge can then still be used as
fertiliser.
S7 – 11
This Module deals only with the construction of on-site sanitation

systems, mainly pit latrines and septic tanks.
Before you can start the site operations for sanitation facilities there
are some other activities which must be carried out in order to allow
you to operate on site. These are the Support activities and usually
consist of:
Y Setting out the facilities: This is done before construction starts
as part of the planning work. The exact siting of the facilities to be
built has to be agreed upon by all parties concerned.
Y Work at camp: You may not have an actual site camp but on urban
sites you may be given some other facilities where stores can be
kept and where the site administration can be carried out. Whatever
facility you may be given you have to organise the storage, issue
and maintenance of material and tools. You have to engage one or
two separate labourers to look after tools and material.
Y Water supply: labourers will get very thirsty and need to be
supplied with drinking water. This is also a support activity.
The actual construction of sanitation facilities can be subdivided into
the following activities:
O Setting out
O Locating and marking of existing service lines
O Excavation (for pit latrines and septic tanks)
O Pit lining
O Pit slab construction
O Superstructure
O Septic tank construction
S7 – 12
JOB SHEET
SANITATION SETTING OUT (pit latrines, septic tanks)
WORK METHOD:
O Determine the exact location of the pit latrine or septic tank in accordance with the plan or the
agreed location as agreed with the community. Place pegs to mark all corners.
O Place profile boards outside the working area and transfer the corner points to the profile
boards. Mark clearly on the profile boards the various measurements.
O Establish reference levels (for septic tanks only) and secure them on profile boards or
permanent structures, like house walls.
O Check again all measurements. Call the Community Representative or the technician in charge
to confirm the measurements before you start with the excavation work.

O 1 Site Supervisor O Ranging rods O Pegs or steel rods for centre
2 Labourers p.
O O Tape measures, long + short
O Poles and boards for profile
O Tools for digging holes
(Æ posts) O Steel wire
O 1 sledge hammer O Paint or markers for marking
reference points
O 1 carpenter hammer
O Brush for marking
Day work Day work
S7 – 13
JOB SHEET
SANITATION REMOVING OF WASTE AND VEGETATION
WORK METHOD:
O Set out with pegs the width of the area to be cleaned from waste and vegetation. Use the
profile boards with the wire as your reference line.

3 3
S7 – 14
JOB SHEET
SANITATION MARKING SERVICE LINES
WORK METHOD:
O Identify all service lines which are within the perimeters of the area where the sanitation
facility will be built.
linings, etc.
EL = Electric Line
S = Sewerage Line
W = Water Line

O Brush for marking
Day work Day work
S7 – 15
JOB SHEET
SANITATION EXCAVATION FOR PIT LATRINES
WORK METHOD for Pit Latrines:

O Identify the soil conditions
(if conditions are poor like
sandy or stony soils the pit
has to be lined).
O Set out the edge lines for
excavation using the
profile boards. If lining is
required add the thickness
of the pit walls to the
excavation width. Typical
diameters are:
– unlined pit in stable
ground = 100 cm
– lined pit in soft ground
= 140 cm
O Excavate step by step. The
excavated material has to
be hauled to the top with
buckets. A tripod or a
simple winch is useful to
haul the material safely
from deep pits.
O Ensure that the internal
dimensions and form of
the pit is uniform from top
to bottom. Shape pit walls.
O Deposit the excavated
material safely away from
the pit (at least 5 metre
distance).
O Haul the excavated
material to an approved
dump place or use for
other construction work if
required.

O 1 Gang Leader O Tape measure O Rope and buckets O Pegs and strings
O Labourers O Plumb-bob O Shovels and hoes
O Tripod (if available) O Pick-axes or forked
hoes
3
S7 – 16
JOB SHEET
SANITATION EXCAVATION FOR SEPTIC TANKS
WORK METHOD for Septic Tanks:

O Set out the edge lines for excavation using the profile boards as reference points. Use a plumb
bob to transfer the edge line from the wire to the ground. Mark the edges with pegs and string
lines or sawdust.
O Use the level reference points from the profile boards to find the correct excavation levels. Use
boning rods to transfer the levels within the excavation pit.
O Excavate and deposit the excavation material well away from the pit.

O 1 Gang Leader O Tape measure O Shovels and hoes O Pegs and strings
O Labourers O Plumb-bob O Pick-axes or forked
O Boning rods hoes
O Wheelbarrows +
buckets
3 3
Excavation: m /day/labourer = Excavation: m /day/labourer =
S7 – 17
JOB SHEET
SANITATION PIT LINING (for pit latrines)
WORK METHOD:
Note: In soft ground conditions or where the soil is not stable the pit has to be lined.
The thickness of the walls have to be considered for the excavation.
1. Foundation:
O At the bottom of the pit set out the
trenches for the foundation and
excavate.
O Cast the foundation with concrete or
build with bricks/blocks.
O Add a layer of hardcore to the pit
bottom.
2a. Lining with bricks or cement blocks:

All jo in ts filled
O Construct walls using bricks or cement
with mo rtar to a blocks.
depth of 5 0 cm
O Do not fill the vertical joints with mortar
so that liquid from the pit can seep into
the surrounding soil. Ensure good
San d or Gravel Fill Open jo in ted
bonding. Ensure vertical alignment of
Brick/block work the walls!!
below 5 0 cm
O For circular pits use a template (half
the circle) to check the shape.
Concrete or Brick /Block

Hard co re O After every course backfill the walls
Fou ndation with sand or gravel.
O Fill all joints for the top 50 cm.
2b. Lining with porous concrete rings

(culverts):
Sand or Gravel Fill O Lower porous concrete rings (min. Ø
Pourou s
Concrete Rin gs
90cm) carefully into the pit using ropes
or a tripod.
O Mortar the joints.
Hardco re O Ensure vertical alignment of the rings!!
Con crete Fo und atio n O Backfill with sand or gravel after every
ring is placed.

O 1 Gang Leader O Tape measure O Buckets and ropes O Sand and cement
O 1 Mason O Plumb-bob O Tripod O Ballast
O Labourers O Masonry tools O Hardcore
O Template, semi O Bricks or cement
circular blocks, or porous
concrete rings
O Shovels, hoes,
pick-axe
S7 – 18
JOB SHEET
SANITATION PIT SLAB CONSTRUCTION
WORK METHOD for Septic Tanks:

Note: Although the latrine slab can be made of local material such as treated timber, reinforced
(or unreinforced) concrete is better suited as it lasts longer, is safer and is easier to
clean. Where funds are available concrete slabs should be used.
Reinforced concrete slabs:

thick nes s: 8 - 10 cm
O Alternative 1: Cast the
slab close to the pit on a
horizontal platform Æ cure
• Prepare a flat and horizontal platform
• Spread a PC sheet onto the ground slab Æ shift slab to the top
• Construct a timber shuttering, square or round
• Plac e reinforc ement (weldmesh or steel bars = Ø12mm
of the pit. Be careful, the
with a dis tance of 15 c m slab is very heavy, for
• Plac e wooden forms for squat and v entilation pipe holes
• Cas t concrete and trowel top. Ens ure slope towards the example a 65 mm thick
squat hole circular slab with Ø 1500
mm weighs approximately
ledge to form groov e, 4cm/4cm 275 kg.
~ 35c m
8cm
O Alternative 2: Cast
reinforced concrete
• Prepare a flat and horizontal platform elements of 30 cm width
• Spread a PC sheet onto the ground
• Construct timber s huttering, s quare, as s hown above (beams) Æ cure Æ place
•
•
Place reinforcement bars ( = 3 pieces Ø12mm per beam)
Place wooden forms for squat and ventilation pipe holes over pit. This system is
• Cas t concrete and trowel top. Ensure s lope towards the also practical for bigger
squat hole
slabs, e.g. for double VIPs.
Concrete Crown
as Foundation
O Alternative 3: Construct
• Construct a timber shuttering, as shown “lost shuttering” and cast
• Plac e reinforcement (weldmesh or s teel bars = Ø12mm
with a dis tance of 15 c m slab in situ (circular or
timber boards
• Plac e wooden forms for squat and v entilation pipe holes
• Cas t concrete and trowel top. Ens ure slope towards the
rectangular). Æ Cure
timber trus ses .
squat hole e.g. 7.5 x 12 c m before use for 7 days.
• The shuttering remains underneath the slab
Unreinforced domed concrete slabs:

O Because of the slab shape no
reinforcement is needed, so domed
slabs are cheaper to construct. The
arrangements for forming the slab
have to be made accurately.
O Î see detailed production
arrangements on the next page.

O 1 Gang Leader O Masonry tools O Sand, ballast and cement
O 1 Mason O Carpentry tools O PVC plastic sheets
O Labourers (for shuttering) O Timber (for shuttering)
O Shovels, watering can O Nails and wire
(f. mixing)
O Concrete mixer (if available)
O Concrete vibrator
(if available)
S7 – 19
CONSTRUCTION OF UNREINFORCED DOMED SLABS
CASTING: ARRANGEMENTS:
Source: Engineering in Emergencies, IT Publications
S7 – 20
JOB SHEET
SANITATION SUPERSTRUCTURE
WORK METHOD:
Note: Superstructures are required for pit latrines to ensure the privacy of the users.
The construction standard depends on the funds available. In an urban setting, where
latrines are extensively visited, it is advisable to construct permanent structures of
good quality which can be easily cleaned and maintained. This job sheet describes a
permanent structures built with bricks or cement blocks.
Construction:
O Build walls with bricks or cement
blocks along the edge of the slab
Fly screen
(can be used as foundation).
Corrugated iron sheet
roof on timber trusses O Leave openings near the top in
Ventilation pipe
all 4 walls for ventilation and
light.
O Add timber frame and door.
O Plaster inside of cubicle walls
Cross ventilation
on all 4 walls
with cement mortar and trowel
smooth (for easy cleaning). In
case you need to economise,
plaster only 100 cm from the
bottom.
O Point the joints outside and
Brick or cement blocks,
inside plastered, min above the plastered section of
100cm high 100 cm.
O Fix ventilation pipe with fly
screen on top. Seal with Bondex
Concrete platformin
front of door
around the pipe on the roof and
with cement on the floor slab.
O Provide a cover for the squat
hole (can be made from timber).
O Paint walls and door if funds are
available.
LABOUR: TOOLS AND MATERIAL:

O 1 Gang Leader EQUIPMENT: O Sand O Timber trusses
O 1 Mason O Tape measure O Cement O Corrugated iron
O Labourers O Plumb-bob O Bricks or cement sheets
O Masonry tools blocks O Nails and wire
O Shovels O PVC pipe, Ø 12 cm O Timber door and
Wire mesh frame
O Watering can O

S7 – 21
JOB SHEET
SANITATION SEPTIC TANK CONSTRUCTION
WORK METHOD:
Note: There are various types of septic tanks that can be constructed. This job sheet describes
the details of a common type. The size depends on the number of toilets which are
connected to the septic tank, and the number of people using these toilets.
Construction:
O Use the profile boards with wires and plumb bob to establish the 4 corners of the septic tank.
O Establish the bottom level of the slab; use reference point from profile board.
O Place hardcore layer of approximately 15 to 20 cm, compact well.
O Add lean concrete layer of approximately 5 cm thickness.
O Cast bottom slab (add crack reinforcement, e.g. weldmesh), trowel slab top smooth.
O Construct lower concrete dividing wall; ensure that the wall can be tight into outside walls.
O Construct outside walls, preferably using cement blocks. Leave grooves for the 2 baffles and
dividing wall. Plaster walls inside if not made of concrete.
O Construct the formwork for the 2 reinforced concrete baffles and the dividing wall and cast
concrete.
O Construct formwork for slab. Add reinforcement. Provide openings (manholes) for access, min.
Ø 60 cm.
O Cast concrete, trowel top smooth and cure for 28 days. Remove the formwork from the slab
and baffles.

O 1 Gang Leader O Tape measure O Hardcore, ballast, sand,
1 Mason cement and cement blocks
O
O Plumb-bob
Labourers O Weld mesh, RE bars
O O Masonry tools
O In-/outlet “T” pipes
O Shovels
O Watering can
O Nails and wire
S7 – 22
S7.5 Maintenance
REFERENCE
For general maintenance organisation and activities refer to
Module B5.3.3.
S7.5.1 Maintenance Requirements
The basic requirement of successful low-cost sanitation projects is the

correct use and maintenance of the latrines.
Community participation in the planning stage must include

discussions of use and maintenance routines.
Frequent inspections are essential to identify the detailed

maintenance needs. A Sanitation Committee appointed by the CBO
should be made responsible to carry out such inspections and to
organise the maintenance operations.
Inspection is required to assess:
Y blockages, especially where pour flush toilets and septic tanks are
used;
Y cleanliness of latrines;
Y condition of latrine slabs and superstructure;
Y levels of sludge in latrines and septic tanks
S7.5.2 Maintenance Activities
Routine maintenance of sanitation systems means mainly ensuring

that the latrines are:
Y frequently inspected;
Y kept clean; and
Y blockages are removed.
S7 – 23
Periodic maintenance is required to pump out sludge (from septic

tanks) and to remove solid waste (from pit latrines).
Occasionally superstructures have to be repaired/maintained too, e.g.
repainting, smoking out of insects, roof repairs, etc.
Hygiene education can encourage users to use latrines correctly and
keep them well maintained. It is particularly important to establish a
well-defined maintenance system in communal facilities.
S7 – 24
Module 8: Quantities and Costing
Subjects: Estimating Procedures S8.1

Bill of Quantities and Listing Quantities S8.2
Productivity Rates S8.3
Principles for Cost Estimating S8.4

develop a simple Bill of Quantities and to carry out
simple cost estimates.
S8 – 1
S8.1 Estimating Procedures

Calculating the quantities of work to be carried out and estimating the
costs are essential planning activities.
As a Site Supervisor for urban infrastructure works in low-income
areas you will certainly be faced with the situation where the
community-based organisation will ask you, as the expert, to assess
the quantity of work and to provide them with a cost estimate.
If you are employed by the municipality or by a contractor then these
estimates are supposed to be made by your superiors. However, even
if this is the case it is essential that you also understand the principles
of quantity assessment and costing. You will then be able to organise
and supervise the work more efficiently and cost effectively.
This Module therefore provides you with the necessary basic
information to enable you to assess work quantities and to carry out
simple cost estimates.
The general process to be followed is shown in the following diagram:
ASSESSING THE JOB

the contract
the drawings
the site
ESTIMATING
QUANTITIES list quantities
AND COSTS
estimate direct estimate

costs indirect costs
total project
costs
profit added
Final Costs
S8 – 2
The above diagram suggests that you need to assess the job before
you can actually start estimating quantities and costs. Two of the job
assessment activities were already discussed during the Basic Course.
You have to be able to read and interpret the drawings and to be
familiar with the site (site inspection with site plan).
REFERENCE
Module B5.1.2 (Sketches and Drawings) explains how to prepare a site
sketch for a site inspection.
Module B7.1 explains how to go about a site inspection.
The other assessment activity is to study the contract. This of course

only applies if you have to work on a contractual basis. If this is the
case then you have to be familiar with the details of the contract
document.
REFERENCE
Some principal guidelines on contract management are provided in
Module S9: Contracting.
When you have done all the assessment work, and when you are
familiar with the job you are supposed to carry out, then you can start
estimating quantities and costs.
If you have a contract document for the job then you do not need to
carry out a quantity assessment as this is already covered in the Bill of
Quantities (BQ). All you have to do is estimate the costs.
In the absence of a contract document, you have to start by identifying
the work items so that you can list the quantities.
S8 – 3
S8.2 Bill of Quantities and Listing Quantities

Before you can list the actual quantities for material, labour, tools and
equipment inputs you have to have a Bill of Quantities (BQ).
Y A BQ is a list where all the work items are specified (see column
ITEM).
Y The list also indicates the item unit to be used (e.g. kilograms,
metres, square metres, hours, number, etc.) (see column UNIT).
Y In a further column, the estimated quantity for each item is shown
(see column QUANTITY).
Y The next column shows the price rate for the particular item unit
(e.g. price for 1 kg reinforcement bars, or 1 m iron pipe, 3/4 inch,
etc.) (see column RATE).
Y And finally the amount for the particular work item. This is the sum
of the quantity multiplied by the rate (see column AMOUNT).
Rate Amount
Item Unit Quantity
(NU)* (NU)*
1.5 Line stormwater drain with m2 124 8.75 1085.00

stones (minimum 15 cm
thickness) on lean concrete bed.
Fill joints with cement mortar of
mixture 1 : 7.
* NU stands for “No Unit” which is a fictitious currency. We use it for exercise purposes only.
If you are working under a contract arrangement, then you are likely
to work with a contract document where the BQ is already prepared.
The first three columns (Item, Unit and Quantity) are filled in by the
consultant, the engineer or technician who represents the client (in our
case usually the community).
The next two columns (Rate and Amount) have to be filled in by the
contractor or the community group who bids for the job.
S8 – 4
However, it could be that you work directly for the community or the
municipality and there is no BQ (particularly for small-scale jobs.) You
as the expert will then be asked to provide a cost estimate. This means
that you have to prepare your own BQ. To make it as simple as
possible the following procedure is suggested after you are fully aware
of what the job is all about:
PREPARING A BILL OF QUANTITIES:

O Split the work into single activities and list them as BQ items in
chronological order (the way you would carry them out on a
step-by-step basis).
O Make sure you specify each item in terms of dimensions and/or
quality (e.g. structural concrete, mixture 1:2:4, or concrete culvert,
inner diameter 600 mm, unreinforced, concrete mixture 1:2:4).
O Decide on the unit of measurement for each item. Make sure
the unit actually represents the item and can be measured (e.g.
water pipes are measured in metres and centimetres, drain lining is
measured in square metres, etc.)
O Calculate on the basis of your measurements or drawings the
quantity for each item and fill in the BQ.
O At the end check your BQ again: Are all items listed? Are the items
properly specified? Are the units of measurement practical and
correct? Are the quantities realistic?
Let us try a simple example. You are asked by your

community group to repair the storm water drain along the access road
to the market place. The community group would like to know the costs
and asks you to make an estimate.
O First, you have to get acquainted with the work. You decide to visit the
site and carry out an inspection. For this visit, you carry a note book, a
tape measure, a line level, a spirit level and a hoe. You anticipate
using these measuring aids to carry out some measurements and the
hoe to remove some rubbish from the existing drain so that you can
assess the dimension and condition.
O On site, you first prepare a site sketch where you indicate all the
relevant details along the drain (see Module B5.1).
S8 – 5
O Then you take detailed measurements of the drain: the exact length
and the cross-section. This sketch looks like this:
O The length of the drain is 76 metres. Out of this about 52 metres

require new lining while the remaining 24 metres are still of good
quality although some little repair is required on some spots (total
5 m 2). Broken and loose parts of the drain are still lying in the drain.
You estimate this to be about 10 m3. The concrete bottom of the drain
needs to be replaced in two spots with a total length of 28 metres.
O After measuring the drain, you also assess the preliminary (or
preparation) work which has to be done before the actual repair work
can be carried out. The drain is partly filled up with waste and silt. The
total length of the drain that needs to be cleaned is approximately 60
metres. The rest is just slightly silted and has little rubbish in it. But
there is also quite a bit of rubbish next to the drain that has to be
cleared before work can commence. In total, your estimate is 250 m 3
of waste and silt to be cleared.
O By now, you have collected all the necessary details to prepare your
BQ. First, you list all the items. The easiest way is if you imagine how
you would actually carry out the work on a step-by-step basis. Then
you decide on the unit of measurement for each item and in the last
step, you enter the quantity for each item. Your BQ then looks like
this:
S8 – 6
Rate Amount
Item Unit Quantity
(NU) (NU)
1. Clear all waste and silt from the m3 250

From
drain and its vicinity and deposit
safely your list
2. Remove broken and weak parts m3 10

From
of the old drain and deposit
safely your list
3. Reshape soil slopes and m2 74 52m x 0.71m x 2

re-excavate where necessary,
ready to be re-lined
4. Prepare lean concrete bedding for m3 3.7

74m2 x 0.05m
lining of mixture 1:4:8, thickness
5 cm, hand compacted
5. Replace concrete culvert m 28

segments for drain bottom
From
your list
6. Line drain slopes with stones, m2 74 52m x 0.71m x 2

thickness 15 cm and fill joints
with mortar of mixture 1:7
7. Repair damaged lining m2 5

From
your list
8. Backfill drain and reshape m2 152 Length of drain is

approaches to drain
76m, both sides
1m (76 x 2)
This is now your own BQ. Of course, your BQ is probably not exactly a
BQ as an engineer or consultant would develop it, but it is built up in a
way that suits you best. This BQ will assist you to a) estimate the
costs, and b) organise your work.
Maybe you have realised that item 4 (lean concrete) is expressed in
m3 . A conventional BQ would probably specify this item in m2.
However, for you m3 is easier to handle, as you have to list the
quantities to make an order for the material you require. For the lean
concrete, you need to order sand, aggregate and cement. This you will
do in volumes (m 3 for sand and aggregates, and bags of cement) and
therefore it is easier for you to already have the total volume for this
item in the BQ.
S8 – 7
S8.3 Productivity Rates

Before you can estimate costs, you need to know something about
productivity rates. What is productivity?
Work is either carried out by man or by machine. The question you
need to answer is, how much work can a person or a machine produce
in a given period of time, e.g. in one day or one hour.
On a road site a mason lays pavement bricks and is able to

produce 30 m2 in a day (or 8 hours). Therefore his productivity is
30 m2/day, or 3.75 m 2/hour (30m 2/8 hours = 3.75m 2/hours).
In order to be able to estimate the costs you have to convert the
productivity to the unit of measurement. In other words, you want to
know what the labour input per m2 of brick paving is. You therefore have
to divide the hours of work by the production (8 hrs/30 m2 or 1hour/
3.75 m2) which results in our case in a labour input of 0.27 hours per m2
of brick paving.
Estimating the productivity rates for all the possible construction and
maintenance activities is a complex issue. You need to be very
experienced and practically minded to be able to come up with realistic
estimates.
Always imagine that you have to carry out a certain activity, for
example:
O “How long would it take me to dig this trench?”
O “How long would it take me to prepare these iron pipes, cut the
threads and join them?”
O Etc.
Many productivity tables exist which suggest rates for construction and
maintenance activities. These tables have to be used very carefully, as
the situation is never the same. There are a number of factors
affecting productivity rates which have to be considered, e.g. climate,
site conditions, condition of handtools, cultural issues, general health
condition of labourers, etc.
S8 – 8
We recommend that you develop your own productivity table which

you are advised to develop on the basis of your observations and tests
on site.
The following layout for your table is suggested:
Rate per day Rate per day

Activity Remarks
(initial estimate) (actual)
1. Excavate soft/ No pick-axe required

3.5 m 3 3.2m 3
loose soil but forked jembe
2. Excavate hard soil 3.0m3 3.0m 3 Requires pick-axe
Etc.
Etc.
Etc.
S8 – 9
S8.4 Principles for Cost Estimating

Estimating costs is a very complex task which requires a lot of
experience. It is important that you understand at least the principles
of costing.
Why estimate?
You may ask, why do we need estimates? Estimating can help to:
O Prepare a tender/cost estimate: for contractors to get the job; for

community groups to know how much the work will cost.
O Planning: enables timely ordering of the project resources, enables
project control and allows you to prepare a cash flow analysis.
O Financing: allows the contractor to establish a source of financing,
e.g. bank loan; allows community groups to forward a cash flow
forecast to financiers.
O Construction: enables you to control project progress and
expenditures (cost overruns).
Cost components
list quantities
For normal tenders
prepared by contractors the
tender sum for any work
estimate direct estimate
item is made up using the costs indirect costs
procedure shown in the
diagram.
total project
If you prepare a cost costs
estimate for a community
group project you will use
the same system but you profit added
may not add a profit to
arrive at the Final Cost.
Final Costs
The items for the direct costs are:

O Labour
O Equipment and tools
O Material
O Transportation of material and equipment
S8 – 10
The items for the indirect costs are:
Preliminaries
O site camp facilities
O insurance
O bonds
O road signs
O safety measures
O general transport, support or standby equipment
O tendering costs
O accommodation
O salaries, allowances and expenses for supervisory staff
O hire of support equipment
Risks
(Here are some of the major risks to consider)
O bad weather
O work to be redone
O delayed payment
O carelessness by employees
O rising prices
Company costs
O company facilities, i.e. offices, stores, workshop (a proportion of the
costs to be covered by each contract)
O interest on loans, etc. (ex. bank loan to procure equipment or
facilities)
O depreciation or replacement of equipment and/or facilities (several
possibilities, for example it can be part of the preliminaries or included
in the equipment cost when calculating the direct costs. Most
important, make sure it is not forgotten).
O general expenses (e.g. stationery for administration, electricity bills for
office)
O cost for training of staff
O book-keeping, accountants and auditors fees
O protective clothing (if it can be used on many sites)
Note: Some of these items apply to contractors only. When you

develop estimates for a community group project, you can
omit the items written in italics.
S8 – 11
Profit
Based on your assessment of the current situation in the construction
market.
Sometimes in community contracts a profit margin (e.g. 10%) is added
to provide the community with initial funds for routine maintenance.
Contingencies
An amount (or a percentage) is often set aside to cover contingencies.
This is an allowance for unforeseen costs resulting from activities not
included in the contract. A contingency post helps all parties by offering
an opportunity to i) cope with unforeseen problems, and ii) enhance the
value of the job by improving specifications or adding minor items.
It will be outside the scope of this course, and probably your job, to
deal more seriously with estimating.
Nevertheless, for you to appreciate the principles we have dealt with in
this section so far, we will add an estimating example for one of the
items from our BQ of the drain rehabilitation project.
Rate Amount
Item Unit Quantity
(NU)* (NU)*
O Prepare lean concrete bedding for m3 3.7

* NU stands for “No Unit” which is a fictitious currency. We use it for exercise purpose only.
This is item No. 3 from our example of the drainage rehabilitation

project. In the following tables, you will find our assumptions and
calculations.
Note: for practical reasons we have simplified some of the calculations
and assumptions in this example.
S8 – 12
DIRECT COSTS
Inputs Calculations
Labour:
O mix concrete = 1 m 3/wd (workday) for 3.7 m3 / 1 m 3 x NU 1 NU 3.7
mixing, daily rate for labourers NU 1 (assume 4 lab.) NU 4.0
O haul concrete with wheelbarrow = 3.7 m3 / 8 m 3 x NU1 NU 0.46
distance average 30 m, 8 m3/wd, daily (assume 1 lab. for the day can NU 1.0
rate for labourers NU 1 also assist in laying concrete)
O lay concrete and compact by hand = 1 labourer:
labourer and 1 mason 3.7 m 3 per day, 3.7 m3 / 3.7 m 3 x NU 1 NU 1.0
daily rate for labourer 3 NU 1, for mason:
mason NU 1.7 3.7 m3 / 3.7 m 3 x NU 1.7 NU 1.7
Total Labour Costs: for Item (3.7 m 3 lean concrete) NU 7.7

3
Labour Costs per Rate: NU 7.7 / 3.7 m = NU 2.08
Equipment and Tools:

O no equipment is required
O tools: we assume a daily rate per total 7 labourers x NU 0.20 NU 1.40
labourer which covers all investment,
replacement and maintenance costs
for a typical set of handtools =
NU 0.20/day
Total Tool Costs: for Item NU 1.40

Tool Costs per Rate: NU 1.4 / 3.7 m 3 = NU 0.38
Material:
O lean concrete 1 : 4 : 8 = total 13
parts 8 bags x 7.25 NU 58.00
– Cement 1 part = 3.7 m 3 / 13 =
0.285 m3 = 285 lt. of cement = 7.9
say 8 bags of cement (285 ltr / 36
lt.); 1 bag = NU 7.25 1.138 m 3 x 16.50 NU 18.78
– Sand 4 parts = 3.7 m 3 / 13 x 4 =
1.138 m3; 1 m3 = NU 16.50 2.277 m 3 x 18.20 NU 41.44
– Aggregate 8 parts = 3.7 m 3 / 13 x 8
= 2.277 m3; 1 m3 = NU 18.20
Total Material Costs: for Item NU 118.22

3
Tool Costs per Rate: NU 118.22 / 3.7 m = NU 31.95
Transport:
Transport for the material is included
in the prices for cement, sand and
aggregate
TOTAL DIRECT COSTS FOR 3.7 m3 (7.7 + 1.4 + 118.22) NU 127.32

3 3
TOTAL DIRECT COST PER m (127.32 / 3.7 m ) NU 34.41
S8 – 13
INDIRECT COSTS
The community group will directly carry out our project with you as the Site
Supervisor. Our indirect costs are therefore less than for a contractor. The main
items to be considered are administrative cost, supervision costs (your salary as the
Site Supervisor), storage costs, and a few other small items.
To make it simple from our experience we know that we can calculate the indirect
costs at about 10% of the direct costs.
TOTAL INDIRECT COSTS FOR 3.7 m3 (10% of NU 127.32) NU 12.73

3 3
TOTAL INDIRECT COST PER m (12.73 / 3.7 m ) NU 3.44
PROFIT
The community group will carry out this project, so no profit margin will be added.
CONTINGENCY
As there are always uncertainties with repair work, it will be necessary to add a
percentage to cover unforeseen costs. We have decided to add another 10% to the
direct and indirect costs.
CONTINGENCY FOR 3.7 m3 (10% of NU 140.05) NU 14.01

3 3
CONTINGENCY PER m (14.01 / 3.7 m ) NU 3.79
TOTAL
Total costs for 3.7 m3

O Direct Costs NU 127.32
O Indirect Costs NU 12.73
O Profit NU 0.00
O Contingency NU 14.01
3
TOTAL COSTS FOR 3.7 m NU 154.05
TOTAL COSTS FOR 1 m3 (154.05 / 3.7 m3) NU 41.63
We can now enter our estimate into the BQ:
Rate Amount
Item Unit Quantity
(NU) (NU)
O Prepare lean concrete bedding for m3 3.7 41.63 154.05

S8 – 14
O Before you prepare estimates make sure you are fully familiar
with the contract, the drawings and the site conditions à carry
out a site inspection.
O To prepare a list of quantities (or BQ):
– split the work into single activities (items);
– specify each activity;
– decide on the unit of measurement for each activity;
– calculate quantities on the basis of your measurements;
and
– check all your calculations again.
O Establish you own list of productivity rates on the basis of your
personal experience. Use existing productivity tables as a
guideline only.
O Cost estimates are required to:
– prepare a tender or to forecast costs;
– plan for project resources and control them during work;
– prepare for project funds and control cash flow;
– control the project progress.
O Cost components are:
– direct costs (labour, equipment, tools, material, transport);
– indirect costs (administration, overheads, supervisory staff,
etc.);
– profit;
– contingencies.
S8 – 15
S8 – 16
Module 9: Contracting
Subjects: Contract Types and Contracting Parties S9.1

Contract Documents S9.2
Contract Procedures S9.3
Annexes: Contract Samples A

Community Contracting Procedures B
At the end of this Module you should be conversant with

contract management for minor works.
S9 – 1
S9.1 Contract Types and Contracting Parties
S9.1.1 Introduction
As a Site Supervisor, you will most likely work with contracts. This
means that you will either be employed by a contractor or by a
Community Group, but in both cases you will have to execute work
under contract arrangements.
Contracts for urban infrastructure works in low-income areas using
labour-based methods with community management are different from
conventional construction contracts.
It is important for you as a site manager to understand the different
contractual arrangements that may apply to you.
Contractors can have very strong personalities and their knowledge
and experience in contracting can be overwhelming. There is a danger
that the community representatives do not have this background and
that contractors will take advantage of this situation.
You are here to assist the community to deal with the
contractor on an equal level.
S9 – 2
S9.1.2 Conventional Contracts
The Client, either an authority or private,

Client organisation/individual, makes an
agreement with an Engineer (consultant)
or Contract Manager to design a project
and to manage the contract. The client
Engineer / funds the project and retains the overall
control.
Contract Manager
The Engineer/Contract Manager is
usually a consultant and is in charge of
designing and supervising the project on
Established behalf of the client. For large projects,
Contractor design and supervision is carried out by
different consultants.
An established Contractor, who is
usually selected through a normal
tendering process, carries out the work.
The contractor is responsible for the
execution of the work.
The contractor hires labourers for the
labour activities. Very often labourers are
Labourer employed on casual terms, which means
they can be hired and fired as required.
Conventional contract arrangements are also possible for urban

infrastructure works, especially for large-scale projects. However, for
smaller jobs and where the community is the driving force behind the
project, a contract arrangement which is more suitable to the
community’s needs is chosen.
S9 – 3
S9.1.3 Community Contracts
In a community contracting situation the contractor is from within the

community and is therefore at the same time a beneficiary of the
project. This can create conflicts as roles are overlapping. It is
therefore necessary to identify clearly the roles and responsibilities of
the main actors.
It is important that you understand the set-up of community
contracting in comparison to the conventional model:
The Funder is an agency that provides

funds for the work to be undertaken.
This can be a donor agency (bilateral,
multilateral or NGO), a government
Funder (Client) department, a private company
(eg. water company) or a combination of
these. The communities themselves can
also contribute, either in terms of labour
and tools, or also with funds.
The Contracting Authority is an agency
Contracting Au thority that issues contracts to the committee or
e.g. government department,
group representing the community. This
NGO or project team
can be a government department, an
NGO or a project team. Communities can
also be represented in the contracting
authority.
The Contractor is responsible for the
Contractor
execution of the works. In community
Construction by Community
contracting, preference is given to
e.g. Community Construction, or
Local Project Comm ittee contractors from within the community
such as construction committees, youth
groups, women's groups, etc.
The Contractor engages labourers to
carry out the works. Labourers in
Labourer
community contracting are usually
members of the community in the project
area to ensure that they benefit from the
employment opportunity.
S9 – 4
S9.1.4 Types of Community Contracts
Depending on the skills and organisational capabilities of the

community, the availability of outside assistance, and the type of
construction work envisaged, the following contracts can be used:
1. Labour-only contracts: The community is only responsible for
the provision and organisation of the labour input. The client or
external assistance group is responsible for the timely provision of
materials and equipment in sufficient quantity and quality.
2. Labour and material contracts: The community is responsible
for both the labour and material input for a certain construction
activity. To keep the contracts simple, the work is divided into
well-defined tasks and community contracts are issued for each
task.
3. Full contract: Under a full contract the community provides the
labour, material and the necessary equipment, and is also
responsible for overall management, sub-contracts, etc.
In a conventional contracting arrangement, a contract document is
prepared indicating the expected outputs and the necessary inputs.
Usually the optimal contract (best quality and lowest price) is
determined in a bidding procedure. The client is interested in achieving
the outputs at the lowest possible price.
In the case of community contracting the procedure is simplified, and
normally there is no bidding procedure because:
1. the contract will be awarded to the community or a community
group (who are also the beneficiaries of the project); and
2. most community groups do not have the capacity to prepare
contract offers and enter into a bidding procedure.
In such a case, a full conventional contract document is not required.
What is needed as a contract document is mainly a Bill of Quantities
with the prices included. This is also referred to as a Schedule of
Rates.
REFERENCE
Module S8: Quantities and Costing. This Module explains how such a
simple BQ (or Schedule of Rates) can be developed.
S9 – 5
S9.2 Contract Documents
S9.2.1 Contract Documents for Conventional Labour-Based Works
The structure of the documents for labour-based works is the same as

for any other construction contract and usually consists of the following
documents:
Documents Parts of Contract
1. Instructions to tenderers
2. Forms of tender, qualification

information, letter of acceptance,
agreement
Legal part of contract
3. Conditions of contract
4. Contract data and schedules
5. Security forms
6. Specifications
Technical part of contract
7. Drawings
8. Bill of Quantities Financial part of contract
For you as a Site Supervisor, it is not necessary to know the details of

all the documents. You will mostly be confronted with documents No.
6, 7, and 8. They form part of your daily paperwork and you need to
be fully aware of their relevance and use.
Specifications: Specifications are supplementary descriptions

to the drawings and BQ items. They give a
particular description of the extent of the work as
well as the quality of materials and workmanship
that has to be achieved.
Drawings: Detailed drawings are essential for any
construction project. Normally they consist of
plans and sections with descriptions of materials
to be used and all the necessary measurements
included.
Bill of Quantities: The BQ is a list of all items of work which the
contractor is required to do. For each item there is
a very short description (item) and the estimated
work quantity is given (unit and quantity). The
contractor enters his unit rates and total
estimated price for each individual item.
S9 – 6
Conventional contract documents are not very suitable for

labour-based methods of work execution. For labour-based works,
specific contract documents have been developed in many projects,
although the structure and principal content is the same as for
conventional methods. Specifications and BQs in particular have to be
adjusted to the very specific methods of labour-based work execution.
For example, in a conventional contract earth excavation work for an
entire road project would be one item only. In a labour based contract
the specifications and items of the BQ are structured in accordance
with the work methodology, i.e. each activity becomes an item with
the relevant specification. For earth works there could therefore be
many items. Structuring the contract in this way allows for better
planning and controlling of the contract work.
S9.2.2 Contract Documents for Community Contracting
Contract documents for community contracting are kept as simple as

possible. Because there is usually no tendering process involved, a
contract may consist only of the essential parts which describe the
work, namely:
1. Specifications;
2. Drawings;
3. Bill of Quantities; and
4. Conditions of Contract.
Some contract regulatory conditions are usually added which specify
the responsibilities of the contracting parties, payment methods,
duration of the contract, etc.
There are no standard contracts available for community contracting
and most projects develop their own set of documents.
REFERENCE
Typical sample contracts are shown in Annex A to this Module.
In whatever situation you are, you have to fully understand

and comprehend the contract documents before you
commence work. You have to consult the contract manager to
clarify issues which you do not understand, which are not clear
or which are missing.
S9 – 7
S9.3 Contract Procedures
S9.3.1 Procedures for Conventional Contracts
You do not need to know all the detailed procedures to be able to carry
out your job as a Site Supervisor, but it is advantageous if you are
aware of the general procedural steps.
There are standard procedures, which are usually followed all over the
world for tendering and implementing conventional contracts. The
following table outlines the most important process steps:
Step Explanation
1. Prequalification This is an invitation, usually in the press, for contractors

to bid for a contract. Contractors may be shortlisted for
an invitation depending on their past record or any
other specific conditions/criteria which the client may
prefer, e.g. contractor must be from a certain location,
or have a certain size, etc.
Interested contractors have to submit records of past
experience, previous clients, present staff, present plant
and equipment fleet, current and future commitments,
financial strength, etc.
2. Notice of Tender The contractors who meet the pre-qualification criteria
are identified and listed.
The successful contractors receive the notice to collect
tender documents against payment or a tender deposit.
The deposit will not be returned to contractors who fail
to submit their tender.
3. Instructions to Instructions are given together with the tender
Tenderers documents and may consist of: instructions on how to
complete the tender; address and time for submission;
procedures on how to submit alternative tender (if
any); amount of security (as a bank guarantee);
declaration of tenderer’s obligation of a site visit;
information on supplementary documents available; etc.
4. Tender Period The tender period is usually three months, although for
smaller jobs the period may be shorter. Clarification of
tender can be sought during the tender meeting when
the bidding documents are issued, or in writing at any
time during the tender period.
5. Tender Opening Tenders have to be submitted in sealed envelopes and
on the date and time specified in the instructions to
tenderers.
The submitted tenders are usually opened immediately
in the presence of the tenderers who wish to
participate. The total sum of each tender is read,
including the statement that the tender bond is in order
(or not).
S9 – 8
Step Explanation
6. Tender Evaluation The appointed Engineer (Consultant) or the client

scrutinises the tenders and prepares an evaluation
report. The following evaluations are made: arithmetical
checking of BQ; checking for any unacceptable
reservations or conditions; evaluating alternative
tenders (if any); evaluating foreign currency
requirements; evaluating the work programme and
construction methods; evaluating the proposed
equipment to be used; checking the degree of
subcontracting and qualifications of subcontractors;
checking for unbalanced tender (e.g. exceptionally high
unit prices for early activities); comparison of tender
sum with Engineer’s estimates.
7. Winning Tender Î Usually the lowest tenderer is selected. A letter of
Award of Contract acceptance is issued to the winning tenderer after the
client has accepted the evaluation report.
The contractor must produce a bank guarantee (usually
5% of tender sum) when signing the contract.
After the contract is signed, the Engineer issues an
order to start work.
8. Contract The contractor carries out the work under the
Implementation supervision of the Engineer. The supervisory procedures
are specified in the contract and include, among others:
quality control, progress control, cost control, taking of
measurements, preparation of payment certificates,
reporting to client, etc.
9. Completion of After a specified guarantee period there is a final
Contract inspection, and the maintenance certificate is issued if
there are no shortcomings that can be blamed on the
contractor. The last half of the retention money and the
performance bond can now be released.
S9.3.2 Procedures for Community Operated Contracts
This section explains the various steps for community operated

contracts. Maybe not all the steps as described here will apply to your
particular case but the principles will be the same. It is important that
you understand these procedures for community contracting. Use the
following table as a checklist.
REFERENCE
The general procedures to follow in community contracting are also
shown in Annex B to this Module.
S9 – 9
Step Outputs/Results
Step 1 Legally registered representative committee from the community

with an operating bank account.
Step 1a Community has agreed priorities for improvements to their living

environment.
Step 1b General agreement signed for assistance with survey and design
work.
Step 2 Community priorities confirmed or re-defined.

Community action plan developed.
Step 3 Initial inspection carried out and the types of assistance required
agreed upon.
Step 4 Outline of appropriate levels and position of services agreed.
Step 5 Plans, designs, quantities, costing and work plan all prepared in an
accessible format, including proposals for cost sharing between the
funder and the community.
The wider community informed of proposals.
Step 5a Maintenance plan prepared, discussed and agreed.

Step 5b Plans thoroughly discussed and understood by the community.
Step 6 Funding agreed upon.
Step 7 Training needs assessment carried out.

Step 8 Work plan prepared with areas for assistance clearly marked.
Step 9 Community contracts understood.
Step 9a Approval for scheme given by relevant authority.

Step 10 Construction Committee (CC) formed.
Step 11 Community Contract Agreement signed.
Step 12 First sub-contracts prepared.
Step 13 Workers fairly recruited.
Step 14 Storekeeper recruited and trained.

Appropriate tools and materials purchased.
Equipment hired or purchased as appropriate.
Step 15 Construction work started.

On-the-job training carried out
Step 16 First subcontract or measured section of work completed and paid
for.
Step 17 Payment of subcontract sum, including profit.
Step 18 Infrastructure completed.

Step 19 Funds used for agreed community purpose.
Step 20 Operation and maintenance implemented.

Step 21 Community well informed about the infrastructure improvements.
Step 21a Monitoring and evaluation of the process and achievements carried
out.
S9 – 10
O For community-operated projects contract arrangements are

different from conventional construction contracts.
O Specifications, drawings, Bill of Quantities and, to some extent,
conditions of contract are usually the documents that form a
community-operated contract.
O Before you start a contract you have to fully understand and
comprehend the contract documents. Seek clarification where
necessary.
O The procedures for community-operated contracts have to
make sure that the community group who is going to benefit is
fully involved in all decision-making steps.
S9 – 11
S9 – 12
Annex A Module S9: Contracting
Contract Samples
Sample Community Contract: HANNA NASSIF, COMMUNITY

DEVELOPMENT ASSOCIATION
AGREEMENT FORM FOR CONTRACT WORKS
Original for: Hanna Nassif, Community Development Association (CDA, client)

One copy for: Hanna Nassif CDA – Construction Committee (Contractor)
Dar es Salaam City Commission (Client)
Project Manager UCLAS (Technical Adviser)
Contract Number: ................................... Contract Date: ...................................
Name of the Road (No) / Drain / Structure: ............................................................
Location, Start from km: .................................... to km:....................................
Starting Date: ..................................... Ending Date: .....................................
Contract Sum: .................... TZS, in words: .........................................................

The contract sum includes the cost estimate given in Annex 1 plus 10% overhead/
profit.
The Hanna Nassif CDA Construction Committee has entered into a contract with the
clients Hanna Nassif Community Development Association (CDA) and Dar es Salaam
City Commission to undertake the above mentioned activities under the supervision of
a Site engineer, appointed by the Project Manager of UCLAS.
The conditions of the contract are as follows:
General
O The contractor shall execute, complete and maintain the works in accordance with the
contract to the satisfaction of the Site Engineer. The contractor shall comply with and
adhere strictly to the instructions of the Site Engineer on any matter.
O The contractor fully accepts to implement the works according to the requirements
mentioned in the contract.
O In case of failure by the contractor to fulfil the contracts agreement, the Hanna Nassif
CDA will have the right to terminate the contract after a written warning. In case of
misconduct, the contract can be terminated by the CDA immediately. In case of
conflict between the clients and the contractor, the technical adviser will be the
arbitrator.
S9 – 13
Module S9: Contracting Annex A
Payments
O The contractor will receive an advance payment form the client equal to the full cost
estimate of the contract (see annex I). If the contractor requires more funds to
execute the contract, due to unexpected circumstances, a written request should be
made to the client.
O The contractor will administer the advance payment. The client and technical adviser
are free to audit the administration upon request.
O At the end of the contract, the contractor will provide a report on the contract,
according to the format given in annex II. The technical adviser will assist the CC in
writing the report.
O The Project Manager of UCLAS will check and verify and draw a certificate covering
the completed works evaluated on the basis of the agreed contract rates. The CDA, on
behalf of the client, should agree with the certificate.
O The contractor will receive a final payment of 10 percent of the contract sum within
14 days after the certificate date. Differences between the advance payment(s) and
the actual costs will be balanced in the final payment.
O Uncompleted work will be evaluated on the basis of the contract rates and deducted
from the contract sum.
Obligations of the Contractor

O Hand tools and/or equipment needed are included in the contract sum and are the
responsibility of the contractor. The contractor will take care of tools and/or
equipment.
O The contractor is responsible for the selection, appointment and management of
workers as directed by the Site Engineer. The contractor will advertise the
applications within Hanna Nassif, and select residents from Hanna Nassif as workers
through a balloting system. The balloting system will allow representation of men and
women. Salary levels and task rates will be set by the CDA in consultation with the
City Commission, contractor and technical adviser.
O The contractor will provide a medical kit at the work site and ensure save working
conditions. No insurance is provided to the workers. Compensation of work accidents
shall be taken of by the contractor in co-operation with the CDA.
O The contractor is responsible to purchase and save-keeping of construction material
as directed by the Engineer.
O All legal and financial regulations and obligations pertaining to this contract and any
labour laws of the United Republic of Tanzania regarding labourers working along the
roads are valid. Special reference is made to labour standards dealing with minimum
age, non-discrimination, prohibition of forced labour and occupation health and safety
regulations.
Obligations of the Client

O The CDA should ensure that the contractor is paid timely and that the work is
correctly checked and verified by the Site Engineer as written in the certificate.
S9 – 14
Annex A Module S9: Contracting
Obligations of the Technical Adviser

O In consultation with the CDA and the contractor, the project manager of UCLAS will
appoint a Site Engineer. The Site Engineer will provide day-to-day supervision of the
construction works and will report to the CDA and contractor.
O The Project Manager of UCLA will check and verify and draw a certificate covering the
completed works evaluated on the basis of the agreed contract rates, and inform the
client likewise.
O The Project Manager will appoint an animation team to assist the CDA to keep the
Hanna Nassif inhabitants informed of the construction and to assist in any conflict
resolution.
Attachments:
1. Cost Estimate/Bills of Quantity
2. Detailed Designs
3. Work Plan/Time Table
4. Format for a Report on the Community Contract
Chairman CDA City Commission Contractor Technical Adviser
Name: ........................ ........................ ........................ ........................
Signature: ........................ ........................ ........................ ........................
Date: ........................ ........................ ........................ ........................
S9 – 15
Module S9: Contracting Annex B
S9 – 16
Skills Course: Reference Material and Suggested Reading
Reference Material
and Suggested Reading
Key:
This “open book” icon indicates that the following book or report is recommended
for reading as it includes important or interesting additional information.
This title has also been used as reference material for writing this manual.
This “file boxes” icon indicates that the following book or report has been used as
reference material for writing this manual.
List of Books and Reports
Andersson C.A., Beusch A., Miles D.: Road Maintenance and Regravelling (ROMAR)
Using Labour-based Methods, Handbook.
Antoniou J., Gutherie P. and de Veen J.: Building Roads by Hand, An introduction to
labour-based road construction.
Bentall P., Beusch A. and de Veen J.: Guide, Employment-intensive Infrastructure

Programmes; Capacity Building for Contracting in the Construction Sector.
Cotton A. and Taylor K.: Urban Upgrading: Training Modules, Training Modules 1-6.
Fransen J., IHS (July 2000): Proceedings of the international training course for
engineers and planners, Sustainable community-managed upgrading of urban
low-income settlements.
Fransen J., Goldie-Scot H. (August 2000): Upgrading low-income settlements by

hand, Handbook.
Goldie-Scot H., Kevin Taylor and Jan Fransen (October 1999): Trainers’ Notes,
International training course for engineers and planners: Sustainable
community-managed upgrading of urban low-income settlements.
Habitat Kenya: General module for a training course on community participation in

the execution of low-cost drainage.
ILO: Guide to Tools and Equipment for Labour-based Road Construction.
ILO: Special Public Works Programmes, Community Water Supply.
Reference – 1
Skills Course: Reference Material and Suggested Reading
List of Books and Reports
ILO: Special Public Works Programmes, Stone Masonry.
ILO: Special Public Works Programmes, Stone Paving Blocks.
Jordan T.S.: Handbook of Gravity Flow Water Systems.
Ministry of Water Development, Kenya: Design Manual for Water Supply in Kenya.
Saetrum P., Kaseru, Folayan, Hanna Nassif: Community Development Project:

Manual on maintenance of drainage and roads.
Salvato J.: Environmental Engineering and Santitation
Stern P. and others (1998): Field Engineering, Intermediate Technology

Publications.
Tajgman D. and de Veen J.: Guide, Employment-intensive Infrastructure

Programmes: Labour Policies and Practices.
Tournee J. and van Esch W.: Community Contracts in Urban Infrastructure Works.
UNCHS (Habitat): Community participation in low-cost sanitation.
UNCHS (Habitat) (Nairobi 1989): Water supply in low-income housing projects: The
scope for community participation, Training Module.
SKAT: Manual for Rural Water Supply.
Twort A.C., Law F.M.: Water Supply.
Zam\90\005 (1992): Guidelines for implementation of works.
Reference – 2

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KEWI

Republic of Kenya, Ministry of Republic of Kenya, International Labour Organization

Site Supervisor Course for Labour-Based

Andreas Beush and Marie Winsvold

Skills Course Manual

Andreas Beusch (Intech Beusch & Co.)

Republic of Kenya, Ministry of Roads and Public Works

International Labour Organization

ILO ASIST Africa Regional Progamme

Illustrations: Dan Amayo

Course Duration Course Objective

BASIC Course 3 weeks At the end of this course the trainee

SKILL Course 3 weeks At the end of this course the

Module S1: Work Management

Module S2: Labour Issues

Module S3: Solid Waste Management

Module S4: Urban Roads

Module S5: Urban Drainage

Module S6: Urban Water Supply

Module S7: Urban Sanitation

Module S8: Quantities and Costing

Module S9: Contracting

Reference Material and Suggested Reading

Subjects: Site Work Planning S1.1

Annexes: List of Typical Task Rates Annex A

At the end of this Module you should be able to

S1.1 Site Work Planning

O What are the activities to be done?

S1.1.1 Activities and Sequence

In labour-based infrastructure improvement works, the following

1 Road, Drainage, Supporting O Setting out

2 Road, Drainage, Clearing, stumping O Removal of vegetation

3 Road, Drainage, Earthworks O Excavation

4 Road Work Drainage O Ditching and sloping

5 Road Work Road structures O Culverts

7 Road Work Road gravelling O Excavation and loading

Road paving O Bitumen sealing

8 Pipe Laying Pressure testing O Pressure gauge

9 Pipe Laying Pipe laying O Pipe laying

10 Storm Drain Finishing O Finishing drain bottom

11 Storm Drain Structures O Constructing debris trap

12 Sanitation Structures O Substructure works

13 Solid Waste O Collection

S1.1.2 Estimating Quantity of Work

To measure production or set tasks on labour-based works, you must

A water supply line is to be installed to provide clean water to

0+0 0 0 Pipelin e Ro ute

Tre nch Cro s s -s ec tio n

S1.1.3 Productivity Guidelines

Typical productivity guidelines need to reflect what each worker can

Activity Task Rate

Vegetation clearing 150 – 300 m 2/md

S1.1.4 Deciding Task Rates

To decide a task rate for an activity follow this procedure:

Task rate = Total work completed in 8 hours

Suppose the supervisor wanted to establish task rates for

Task rates are important – keep them fair!!

S1.2 Site Organisation

S1.2.1 Site Office and Storage Facilities