1

LAB VII
Modern Physics
Submitted By: Sajlat E Aiman Naseem
Registration # 1704-FBAS/BSPHY/F19
Submitted TO: Mam Sidra
Section B
Faculty of Basic And Applied Sciences
 2

Experiment # 2
Recording the Initial Magnetization curve and Hysteresis curve of a
ferromagnetic material.

Aim:
The aim of this experiment is to learn about magnetic hysteresis, it’s basic principles
and to learn about the properties of ferromagnetic materials and determine their
dissipation energy of remagnetization.

Introduction:
The term "hysteresis" is derived from an Ancient Greek word meaning "deficiency" or
"lagging behind". It was coined in 1881 by Sir James Alfred Ewing to describe the
behavior of magnetic materials. Some early work on describing hysteresis in
mechanical systems was performed by James Clerk Maxwell. Subsequently, hysteretic
models have received significant attention in the works of Ferenc Preisach, Louis
Neel and Douglas Hugh Everett in connection with magnetism and absorption. A more
formal mathematical theory of systems with hysteresis was developed in the 1970s by a
group of Russian mathematicians led by Mark Krasnosel'skii.
Hysteresis is the dependence of the state of a system on its history. For example,
a magnet may have more than one possible magnetic moment in a given magnetic field,
depending on how the field changed in the past.

Types of Hysteresis
There are two types of hysteresis;
 Rate-dependent hysteresis: In this types of hysteresis there is a lag between
input and output. We can take the example of a sinusoidal input X(t) resulting in a
sinusoidal output Y(t), there is a phase lag φ:

X(t) = Xₒsinωt
Y(t) = Yₒsin(ωt−φ).

 Rate-independent hysteresis: This hysteresis found in systems tend to have

a persistent memory of the past that still remains even after the transients have
disappeared.
Classes of Magnetic Materials
 Diamagnetism.
Diamagnetism is a very weak form of magnetism that is induced by a change in
the orbital motion of electrons due to an applied magnetic field. This magnetism is
nonpermanent and persists only in the presence of an external field. Diamagnetic
 3

materials are repelled by a magnetic field; an applied magnetic field creates

an induced magnetic field in them in the opposite direction, causing a
repulsive force.

 Paramagnetism.
Paramagnetism is a form of magnetism whereby some materials are
weakly attracted by an externally applied magnetic field, and form
internal, induced magnetic fields in the direction of the applied magnetic
field.

 Ferromagnetism.
Ferromagnetism is for any material that could exhibit spontaneous magnetization:
a net magnetic moment in the absence of an external magnetic field; that is any
material that could become a magnet.

 Ferrimagnetism:
 4

Ferrimagnetism is another type of magnetic ordering. In ferrimagnets the moments

are in an antiparallel alignment, but they do not cancel. The best example of a
ferrimagnetic mineral is magnetite (Fe3O4).
 Antiferromagnetism.
Equal magnitude of magnetic moment associated with unpaired electrons are
aligned in opposite directions, the net magnetic moment is zero. Example: MnO

Magnetic Hysteresis

Magnetic hysteresis occurs when an external magnetic field is applied to

a ferromagnet such as iron and the atomic dipoles align themselves with it. Even
when the field is removed, part of the alignment will be retained: the material has
become magnetized. Once magnetized, the magnet will stay magnetized
indefinitely. To demagnetize it requires heat or a magnetic field in the opposite
direction. This is the effect that provides the element of memory in a hard disk
drive.
Ferromagnetism:
Ferromagnetism is the physical phenomenon in which certain electrically uncharged
materials strongly attract others. Two materials found in nature, lodestone (or
magnetite, an oxide of iron, Fe3O4) and iron, have the ability to acquire such attractive
powers, and they are often called natural ferromagnets. Iron, nickel, cobalt and some of
the rare earths exhibit a unique magnetic behavior called ferromagnetism.
Domains:
Ferromagnetic materials exhibit a long-range ordering phenomenon at the atomic level
which causes the unpaired electron spins to line up parallel with each other in a region
called a domain. Within the domain, the magnetic field is intense, but in a bulk sample
the material will usually be unmagnetized because the many domains will themselves
be randomly oriented with respect to one another. Ferromagnetism manifests itself in
 5

the fact that a small externally imposed magnetic field, say from a solenoid, can cause
the magnetic domains to line up with each other and the material is said to be
magnetized.
The driving magnetic field will then be increased by a large factor which is usually
expressed as a relative permeability for the material. There are many
practical applications of ferromagnetic materials, such as the electromagnet.

Remanence:
The fraction of the saturation magnetization which is retained when the driving field is
removed is called the Remanence of the material, and is an important factor in
permanent magnets.
Curie Temperature:
All ferromagnets have a maximum temperature where the ferromagnetic property
disappears as a result of thermal agitation. This temperature is called the Curie
temperature.

Hysteresis Loop
The hysteresis loop shows the relationship between the magnetic flux density and the
magnetizing field strength. The loop is generated by measuring the magnetic flux
coming out from the ferromagnetic substance while changing the external magnetizing
field.
 6

Retentivity and Coercivity

When a ferromagnetic material is magnetized by applying the external magnetizing
field, after magnetization if we remove the external magnetizing field the material will not
relax back to its zero magnetization position.

1. Retentivity
The amount of magnetization present when the external magnetizing field is removed is
known as retentivity.

 It is a material’s ability to retain a certain amount of magnetic property while an

external magnetizing field is removed.
 The value of B at point b in the hysteresis loop.

2. Coercivity
The amount of reverse (negative H) external magnetizing field required to completely
demagnetize the substance is known as coercivity of substance.
 The value of H at point c in the hysteresis loop
Basic relations of magnetic hysteresis theory
In vacuum the generated magnetic flux density or magnetic induction is
proportional to applied field B:
B = µₒH,
µₒ = 4π×10−7 V s/Am
If material is present, this equation becomes
 7

B = µ µₒH
µ is relative permeability of the materia. It is useful and conventional to split B
into the flux density in vacuum plus the “part of the material” according to
B = µₒ (H + M)
where M is magnetization vector that is only material dependent.
M = (µ − 1)H
The relative permeability µ is the prime material parameter we are after. It
describes the response of a material to a magnetic field.
The values of magnetic field strength and magnetic induction can be measured
indirectly by monitoring the applied current I in the transformer coil and the
induced magnetic flux Φ through the core and taking into account the relations
N
H= I,
L
B=ΦN/A
where N , N are the number of turns in primary and secondary coils respectively,
L is the inductance of a coil, A is the cross-section of a ferromagnet. The
magnetic flux Φ is calculated as the integral of the voltage Us induced in the
secondary coil.
The area of a hysteresis loop B(H)
❑

∫ BdH = E / V
❑

Experimental
In this laboratory work the phenomenon of magnetic hysteresis is explored by the
means of scanning the magnetic field through the transformer core and recording
the magnetization dependence on the applied magnetic field.
Apparatus:
1. 1 Sensor-CASSY
2. 1 U-core with yoke
3. 2 Coils (N = 500 turnes, L = 2,2 mH)
4. 1 Clamping device
5. 1 Function generator S12
6. 2 12 V DC power supplies
7. 1 STE resistor 1Ω, 2W
8. 1 Socket board section
9. 1 Connecting lead, 50 cm
10. 7 Connecting leads, 100 cm
11. 1 PC with Windows 98 and CASSY Lab software
 8

Set-up
Using the equipment build the experimental set-up by coupling the equipment parts
with each other
Procedure
a) Both the function generator and the sensor CASSY have to be supplied with 12 V
external DC power source.
b) check the connection once again before switching ON power supplies and
turning the knobs.
The settings on the function generator S12 have to be as following: output signal to
saw tooth shape, frequency around 0.1 Hz and amplitude about 1 - 2 V. Recording
of the magnetization curve is triggered at I = 0 A (when current I changes its sign
from “-” to “+”). To hit this point exactly, the current is shunted past the transformer
by the relay and flows through the 1 Ω resistor prior to recording of the curve.

Hysteresis Applications
Hysteresis can be mostly found in Chemistry, Physics, Engineering, Economics and
Biology. Common examples further include magnetic hysteresis, ferroelectric
hysteresis, superconducting hysteresis, mechanical hysteresis, optical hysteresis,
electron beam hysteresis, adsorption hysteresis, economic hysteresis, etc.
 9

Several applications of hysteresis are found in ferromagnets. It is mostly used to retain

a memory, for example, hard disks, magnetic tape, and credit cards.

 Hysteresis is applied in many artificial systems such as in thermostats and

Schmitt triggers which are designed to prevent unwanted frequent or unwanted
rapid switching.
 A hysteresis is sometimes intentionally made part to computer algorithms.
 Hysteresis can be observed when decreasing the angle of attack of a wing after
stall, regarding the lift and drag coefficients.
 The existence of the bubble shape hysteresis has important consequences
in interfacial rheology experiments involving bubbles.
 In Biology, it is found in Cell biology and genetics, Immunology, Neuroscience,
Respiratory physiology, Voice and speech physiology, Ecology and
Epidemiology.

Energy Loss due to Hysteresis

 A transformer is the best example of studying energy loss due to hysteresis, as

we know that during the process of magnetization and demagnetization energy is
required.
 During the cycle of magnetization and demagnetization of magnetic substances,
energy is spent and this is spent energy appears in the form of heat. This heat
loss is known as hysteresis loss.
 The loss of energy per unit volume of the substance is equal to the area of the
hysteresis curve
 In transformers due to the continuous process of magnetization and
demagnetization energy is lost in the form of heat continuously, due to this
energy loss efficiency of the transformer gets reduced.
 To stop this energy loss soft iron core is used in transformers because the
energy loss or hysteresis loss in the case of soft iron is much smaller than other
materials.

Difference between the soft magnet and hard magnet

Soft Magnet Hard Magnet

Magnetization and demagnetization is easy Magnetization and demagnetization is difficult

A soft magnet can be produced by heating A hard magnet can be produced by heating
and gradual cooling and sudden cooling

The hysteresis loop area is small, retentivity The hysteresis loop area is large, retentivity
 10

and coercivity is also small and coercivity is also high

Soft magnets are temporary magnets Hard magnets are permanent magnets

Examples: Ferrous-nickel alloy, Ferrites Examples: Steel, carbon steel, chromium

Garnets steel, tungsten

Magnetization and Demagnetization

The method of developing magnetic properties inside a magnetic substance is known
as magnetization. Any magnetic substance can be magnetized with the help of an
electric current or by touching with a strong magnet.

 In simple language, if we put any magnetic substance in the external magnetizing

field then the material gets magnetized and if we reverse the direction of the
external magnetizing field then the material gets demagnetized.
 When ferromagnetic materials are placed inside a current-carrying coil the
magnetizing field H caused by the current forces some or all the atomic magnetic
dipoles in the material to align with the external magnetizing field, in this way
material gets magnetized.
11