Scientific reasoning and content learning are said to be linked to each other.

As students, acquire
knowledge, their scientific reasoning improves as well. l (Demetriou, Shayer, Efklides, 2006; Ding, 2013).

https://www.dlsu.edu.ph/wp-content/uploads/pdf/conferences/research-congress-proceedings/2018/
lli-14.pdf

, Chen & She (2015) found that grade 5 students with explicit scientific reasoning support demonstrated
significantly more testable and correct hypotheses, evidence-based explanations, and levels of scientific
reasoning than comparable students without such scientific reasoning support. Their experimental
group students also retained significantly more of their conceptual achievement and inquiry abilities
over the control group students.

https://staff.najah.edu/media/published_research/2019/01/30/Alshamali-
Daher2016_Article_ScientificReasoningAndItsRelat.pdf

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
324136893_Scientific_Reasoning_Ability_of_Students_in_the_Science_Curriculum

. According to (Zhou et al., 2021), a correct answer with incorrect reasoning indicates an
intermediate level of reasoning development, whereas an incorrect answer with correct reasoning is
likely a result of guessing.

Lawson suggested classifying students into three formal reasoning categories( Jean Piaget) : According
to the scores divided into 3 equal intervals, Lawson suggested classifying students into three formal
reasoning categories: concrete operational (scoring up to 8 points, i.e., 33%), transitional (scoring
between 9 and 16 points, i.e., 34% and 67%), and formal operational (scoring above 16 points, i.e., 67%).

https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED620309.pdf

scientific reasoning ability is a part of higher order thinking skill which is in the top level of thinking
ability in Bloom's revised cognitive taxonomy that includes analytical, evaluation and creative skills in a
cognitive process
Lawson’s (2000) Classroom Test of Scientific Reasoning

LCTSR allows for the observation of three levels of reasoning: concrete, transitional and formal
operational reasoning.

Admissions offices tend to focus on identifying students who are high in general intelligence and good at
taking multiple-choice tests, but not necessarily adept in the STEM reasoning processes that the
students will need to be fully successful in STEM educational programs.

To assess students’ performance, a scientific reasoning ability test was developed. The content of the
test is related to light and image formation. The test was a two-tier written test in 3 sections of 3
question items.

). In this study, the researcher utilized 24 items of two-tier multiple-choice questions

The evaluated scientific reasoning components consisted of (1) Control of Variables (CV), i.e. identifying
independent variables and dependent variables; (2) Proportional Thinking (PPT), i.e. determining the
relationship between variables using numbers, mathematical equations, tables, and graphs; (3)
Probabilistic Thinking (PBT), i.e. predicting the resulting opportunity obtained when conducting
replication; (4) Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning (HDR), i.e compiling a hypothesis based on a general
concept to a specific concept; and (5) Correlational Thinking (CT), i.e. creating mutual relationships
(interrelated or unrelated) between variables (Piraksa, Srisawasdi, & Koul, 2014). Mastering concept in
the pre-tests as a basic ability in scientific reasoning, referring to revised Bloom’s taxonomy, consisted of
remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating (Lee & She, 2010; Williams,
2017).

Low scientific reasoning results form several downsides. First, the development of scientific reasoning in
learning is still poor. This poor development is characterized by a narrowed discussion of abstract ideas
with minimum communication. Moreover, the demand of Science examination is still limited to low-
level cognitive form of memorization and understanding, rather than testing analytical skills and high-
level reasoning (Kind & Osborne, 2017; Piekny & Maehler, 2013). Another issue is related to scientific
reasoning process and has not been involved in the laboratory experiment. Students spend more time
collecting data or implementing procedures rather than discussing data analysis, interpreting data, and
drawing conclusions (Dolan & Grady, 2010). The other shortcoming is concerned with the application of
inquiry diverting from the philosophical foundation and theoretical study, which is still common among
teachers when constructing students’ knowledge. The advantages of constructing knowledge by inquiry
include increasing students’ reasoning in the ability of free thinking (Coiro, Castek, & Quinn, 2016). The
resultant free thinking, in fact, diverts inquiry from achieving its actual goal. The implementation of
inquiry is generally done directly, leading to the hypothesis testing stage rather than to the preparation
of hypotheses (Dolan & Grady, 2010; Thoron & Myers, 2012).

https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1315241.pdf

ISTAR Example

For assessment of scientific reasoning the following dimensions can be used (Han, 2013):

• Control of Variable - is used to design and conducting experiments [10], to analyze the relationship
between the dependent variables.

• Proportions and Ratios - Proportional reasoning is used to the identification of two variables
used in a problem and the application to find the relationship of adding variables or comparing
variables.

• Probability - is a situation in which we take a few numbers, then repeated to produce an accurate

number by doing multiple repetitions

• Correlational Reasoning - . Correlation is used to describe how relationship between two

variables, proportional or inversely between variables. Furthermore, Correlation reasoning is

fundamental to the establishment basic prediction and scientific exploration

• Deductive Reasoning - Deductive reasoning is a way to describe conclusions from statements or facts
that are considered correct by using logic. Deductive reasoning can help students recognize cognitive
conflict and resolve it

• Inductive reasoning - Inductive reasoning is used when generate hypotheses, formulate theory and
find relationships, and important in scientific discovery

• Causal Reasoning - Causal reasoning is relate with establishing a causal relationship between
phenomenons

• Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning - The hypothetical-deductive is a very important method for testing

theory or hypotheses

Rudimentary – remembering

It includes the necessary skills that support scientific inquiry such as control of variables,
hypothetical-deductive reasoning, causal and correlational reasoning, proportions and ratios
deductive and inductive reasoning, and probabilistic reasoning (Han, 2013).

31 SCIEN REASO SKILLS

Han and his research team created the Inventory for Scientific Thinking and Reasoning (iSTAR)
Assessment. The research team identified eight dimensions for reasoning, which was an expansion of
the six dimensions assessed by Lawson.

The test began as a pool of 36 multiple-choice questions aligned to 31 scientific reasoning skills found in
the six different levels of increasing intellectual sophistication (rudimentary, basic, intermediate,
integrated, culminating, and advanced) in Wenning and Vierya’s framework.