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Electrical Theory
ChE2111: Basic Electrical & Electronics Engineering

History of Electricity
• 600 BC – Greek mathematician
named Thales documented static
electricity.
• 1600 – English scientist William
Gilbert described electricity, which is
derived from the Latin term
electricus, meaning to “produce from
amber by friction.” From the Greek
term elector, it means “beaming sun.” https://www.superpages.com/em/wp-content/uploads
/2014/08/Electricity-%E2%80%90-A-Brief-History.jpg
• 1600 – German experimenter Otto
von Guericke built the first electric • 1746 – Ewald Georg von Kleist, a
generating Machine. German inventor, and Dutch physicist
• 1729 – Englishman, Stephen Gray, Pieter van Musschenbroek, invented
distinguished materials that were independently, an electrical storage
conductors and nonconductors. device called a Leyden jar.

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History of Electricity
https://www.instituteforenergyresearch.org/wp-
content/uploads/2014/08/Ben-Franklin-experiment.jpg
• 1747 – American inventor and
statesman, Benjamin Franklin,
suggested that electric charge was
made up of positive and negative
electric forces.
History of Electricity
• Within 2 years – Andre Marie
Ampere, a French mathematician,
observed that coils of wire with
current acts like magnets.
• Shortly, D. F. Arago invented the
electromagnet and Joseph Henry, an
American, demonstrated an
electromagnetic device that can lift
over a thousand pounds.
• 1831 – Michael Faraday, and
Englishman, developed a crude
electric motor then a practical motor
in 1870.
• Faraday and Henry, independently,
invented the electric generator.
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• 1752 – Franklin conducted his famous
kite experiment which proved that
electricity and lightning are the same
thing.
• 1786 –Italian anatomy professor, Luigi
Galvani, observed that discharged
static electricity made a dead frog’s
leg twitch, produced afterwards a
simple electron cell. Alessandro
Volta, another Italian, built the voltaic
pile, and early type of electric cell or
battery.
• 1820 – H. C. Oersted, a Danish
physicist, discovered magnetic fields
around a current-carrying wire.
https://cdn.hswstatic.com/gif/electromagnets-3.jpg
• 1831 – American Samuel Morse
conceived the idea of sending coded
messages over wires using
electromagnetic telegraph and a code
of electrical pulses eventually known
as “Morse Code.”
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History of Electricity
• Charles de Coulomb – first person to
measure electricity and magnetism
generated in a circuit.
• G. S. Ohm – a German college
teacher, formulated the relationship
between V, I, and R.
• J. P. Joule, G. R. Kirchhoff, and J. C.
Maxwells also developed https://www.texaselectricityexaminer.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/history-of-

mathematical relationships and rules electricity.jpeg

in electrical circuits. • 1879 – Thomas Edison in America

and Joseph Swan in England,
• 1860 – Arc lights were invented for developed independently the
lighting streets. practical incandescent lamp. Edison
got the patent.

History of Electricity
• 1882 – The Edison Electric and Light
Co., using DC systems, powered
incandescent streetlights in London
and New York City.
• 1883 – American Nikola Tesla,
discovered rotating magnetic field,
which serves as the basic principle for
alternating current generators and
motors.
https://peguru.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/ac-vs-dc.jpg
• 1885 – George Westinghouse, head
of the Westinghouse Electric Co., • 1883 – L. Caulard and J. D. Gibbs,
bought the patent rights to Tesla’s announced the first transformer.
alternating current system.
• 1886 – In America, the first AC power • 1888 – AC motor was introduced.
station was operated.

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Phenomenon of Electricity
• The Law of Charges states that opposite
charges attract each other and like
charges repel each other.
• When an atom has an equal number of
electrons and protons, charges cancel,
and the atom is electrically neutral.
• An atom containing fewer electrons than
protons is positively charged.
• On the other hand, an atom containing
more electrons than protons is negatively
charged.
• Charged atoms are called ions.
• A positive ion is a positively charged atom
• A negatively charged atom is called a
negative ion. https://d3jlfsfsyc6yvi.cloudfront.net/image/mw:1024/q:85/https%3A%2F%2Fhaygot.s3.am
azonaws.com%3A443%2Fcheatsheet%2F24210_62a5b62c3ed34c7ba865f6cdaf4fd79c.png

Classic Theory – Flow of Electrons

• Electrons in an orbital shell near the nucleus have a strong attraction to the
protons in the nucleus and thus are difficult to free.
• Electrons in outer orbital shells experience a weaker attraction and are more
easily freed.
• Energy can be added to an electron to move it to the next higher orbital shell.
• If sufficient additional energy is added, a valence electron can be forced out of
the atom.
• Such an electron is said to be free.
• These free electrons make up electrical current flow.

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Modern Theory – Flow of Charged Particles

• Electricity is tied to even smaller subatomic particles that possess either a
positive or negative electromagnetic charge.
• Not all subatomic particles have a charge. It is only the subatomic charged
particles, those with an electromagnetic charge, that are associated with
electricity.
• The electromagnetic force between two charged particles is greater than the
gravitational force between the two, so flow of electricity is the flow of charged
subatomic particles caused by these repelling and attracting forces.

https://s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/courses-images/wp-
content/uploads/sites/1989/2017/06/13230005/figure-21-01-01a.jpeg

Electrical Current
A flow of electric charge through a conductor is an electrical current or,
simply current.

When opposite charges are placed across a conductor, negatively charged

subatomic particles move from the negative charge to the positive charge.

Actual movement of a single subatomic particle is slow, averaging about

one-half inch per second.

However, the chain reaction effect of current flow occurs very rapidly, at
about the speed of light (about 186,000 miles/s or 300,000 m/s).

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Producing Current
1. Static electricity from friction: Simply rubbing two materials together produces a
charge of static electricity. Heat energy caused by friction frees electrons near the
surface of one material and they move to the other material

https://physics.aps.org/assets/c7e571f8-721b-4093-bde9-50eb8f788706/es95_1.png

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Producing Current
2. Thermoelectricity is electricity from heat. When two dissimilar metals are joined,
a thermoelectric charge is created when the joined metals are heated. This device
is called a thermocouple. Heat frees electrons in one metal, and they transfer to
the other metal creating the charge. When the materials cool, the charge
dissipates.

https://www.intechopen.com/media/chapter/67825/media/F2.png

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Producing Current
3. Piezoelectricity is electricity from pressure.
Certain crystalline materials produce a
piezoelectric charge when a force deforms or
strains the material. The pressure forces the
electrons to one side of the material, causing it
to be negatively charged while the side losing
the electrons becomes positively charged.

https://onscale.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/piezo-gif-animation_v1.gif

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Producing Current
4. Electrochemistry is electricity from a chemical reaction. A galvanic reaction
produces opposite electrical charges in two dissimilar metals when they are placed
in certain chemical solutions.

https://www.upsbatterycenter.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/Galvanic-Cell.png

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Producing Current
5. Photoelectricity is electricity from light.
When small particles of light called photons
strike a material, they release energy that
can cause atoms to release electrons. When
light strikes the surface of one of two plates
that are joined together, energy from the
light forces electrons to be released to the
second plate. The plates build up opposite
electrical charges.

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Photoelectric_effect_in_a_solid_-_diagram.svg/1200px-Photoelectric_effect_in_a_solid_-_diagram.svg.png

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Producing Current
6. Magnetoelectricity is electricity from
magnetism. The force of a magnetic field
can drive electron flow. When any good
conductor such as a copper or aluminum
wire moves through a magnetic field, the
force of the field causes free electrons to
move in one direction across the conductor.
Reversing the direction of conductor
movement reverses direction of electron
flow

https://thumbs.gfycat.com/AlarmingSneakyBongo-max-1mb.gif

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• Conductors – are materials that can

carry electric current without
providing too much resistance for its
flow.

• Examples of Good Conductors: Silver,

Gold, Copper, Aluminum, Mercury,
Steel, Iron, Seawater, Concrete.

• Insulators – are materials that resist

the electric current by providing a
very high resistance for its flow.
https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/4Frj2MnNTnLBJ11k0hJVOEInwyo=/1333x10
00/smart/filters:no_upscale()/examples-of-electrical-conductors-and-
insulators-608315_v3-5b609152c9e77c004f6e8892.png
• Examples of Good Insulators: Rubber,
Glass, Pure water, Oil, Air, Diamond, • Semiconductors – can act as insulators or
Dry wood, Dry cotton, Plastic, conductors depending on the condition.
Asphalt, Ceramics. Examples are: Germanium, and Silicon.

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Electricity
• It is the energy associated with the
position and movement of charged
particles.
• Electric Current (I) – or simply
current, is a flow of electric charge
through a medium’s cross-section per
unit time.
https://howtomechatronics.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/What-is-Electric-
Charge-and-How-Electricity-Works.jpg

• Current – has a unit of Ampere, which

is equivalent to 1 Coulomb (6.280 x
1018electrons) passing through one
point in an electric circuit per second.
https://s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/courses-images/wp-
content/uploads/sites/1989/2017/06/13230005/figure-21-01-01a.jpeg

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https://cdn11.bigcommerce.com/s-
lymzt1glsn/images/stencil/1280x1280/products/853/2624/danger-
• Voltage – has a unit of Volt, which is
keepouthighvoltage__81504.1570041769.jpg?c=2 equivalent to Joule/Coulomb.
• Voltage (V) – or potential difference, • Electromotive Force (Emf) – is
is the one that drives current. The assigned as the voltage of a source of
difference in charge creates pressure,
which moves current in one direction. energy.
It is the work per unit charge • Boost in voltage increases current
between two points. and drop in voltage reduces current.

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• Resistance (R) – is the property of a material that measures how it will prevent or
reduce the electric current that may flow through it. The length, diameter, type,
and temperature of the material affect the resistance to current.
• Resistance – has a unit of Ohm (Ω). One ohm is that resistance that allows one
ampere to flow when pushed by a pressure of one volt.

• Resistor – is a physical element

designed to have a resistance. It
also can represent electrical
elements that dissipates
electrical energy.

https://www.theengineeringprojects.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/Introduction-to-Resistors-0.png

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• Ohm’s Law – states that the voltage across a conducting material is directly
proportional to the current flowing through it with the resistance as the constant
of proportionality.

𝑉α 𝐼
𝑉 = 𝑘𝐼
𝑉 = 𝑅𝐼
• Where:
𝑉 = Voltage (volt)
𝐼 = Current (ampere)
𝑅 = Resistance (Ω)
https://dam-assets.fluke.com/s3fs-public/6004178-dmm-whatis-ohm-top-1500x1000.jpg
𝑘 = Proportionality Constant

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• Power – is the rate of expending or absorbing energy. It is the work or energy

released divided by the power. It has a unit of watt (W).

𝑑𝑤 𝑑𝑤 𝑑𝑄
𝑃= = × =𝑉 𝐼
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝑡
• Using Ohm’s Law in the Power Formula:

𝑉
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 = 𝐼 𝑅 =
𝑅

https://www.hardware-pro.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/Ohms-Law-Circle-1-Hardware-Pro.jpg

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• Energy – is the rate at which power is consumed over a specified period of time in
hours of expending or absorbing energy. It is the work or energy released divided
by the power.

𝑞 = 𝑃𝑡

• Where:
𝑞= energy (watt-hour, Wh)
𝑃 = power (watt)
𝑡 = time (hour)

https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/proxy/LZtMCBR6FE1PHReUPQhfcvqre3k8RfW2Y5mAE1nVQ
0rHyVMZJ6fpv0Pwsv4k30Vom5wNLPGhkjCplo8ReL5Hgvjvf1zeDjrVP3V09mNMa1yFZ2n7vti3

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Sample problem
Small and medium-gauge electrical
conductors used as wiring in buildings
are typically categorized by the
American Wire Gauge (AWG). The AWG
number of a conductor is inversely
proportional to the cross-section
diameter of the wire - that is, a smaller
gauge number identifies a thicker wire.
Approximate the resistance in 100 and
500ft lengths for the following
conductors.

https://cdn.protoolreviews.com/wp-content/uploads/ptr/2954.jpg

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Examples:
a. A #12AWG copper wire with a resistance of 1.62Ω/1000ft.
For the 100 ft conductor:
R = 1.62Ω/1000ft x 100ft = 0.162Ω
For the 500 ft conductor:
R = 1.62Ω/1000ft x 500ft = 0.810Ω

b. A #10AWG copper wire with a resistance of 1.02Ω/1000ft.

For the 100 ft conductor:
R = 1.02Ω/1000ft x 100ft = 0.102Ω
For the 500 ft conductor:
R = 1.02Ω/1000ft x 500ft = 0.510Ω

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Example

A lamp is designed for use P = EI = 120V x 0.5A = 60W

at 120V and draws current
of 0.5A. Determine the
consumed power.

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• Electric Circuit – A set of electrical elements that forms a complete path from the
source of electrical energy (Source) to the receiver of electrical energy (Load).

https://cdn.britannica.com/42/100742-050-F50E6B5F/circuit-switch-battery-lamp.jpg

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• Electric Circuit – is a continuous path along which an electric current can flow. A simple
circuit is composed of a power source (e.g., battery or generator); the load, an electrical
component or group of components that consume electricity (e.g., a lamp or appliance);
and a set of conductors that carry current from the source to the load (e.g., wires).

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Electric circuit
An interconnection of electrical
elements linked together in a closed
path so that an electric current may
flow continuously.
Also called electric network.
• Branch - may be composed of one
or more elements in series
• Node - point wherein 2 or more
branches meet
• Loop - interconnection of branches
forming a closed path

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Electric circuit
Open circuit
An intentional or unintentional
cut or break in a circuit that
prevents current through an
intentional path. The operation of
a switch intentionally closes or
opens a circuit. https://hi-static.z-dn.net/files/d72/ba77b953a6fe926cee894a0edbc2b53b.jpg

Closed circuit
An uninterrupted path that allows a
continuous flow of current through an
electrical circuit.
Short circuit
If an inadvertent shortcut develops in a
circuit that permits current flow through an
unintentional path, a short-circuit is
created.

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Electrocution
When a person comes in contact with
electricity, that person can feel the current
flow through his or her body, ranging from
faint tingling sensations to death.
• 0.001 A (1 mA) – lowest level that can be
perceived by people.
• > 0.05 A (50 mA) – heat produced by this
current is enough to burn human skin and
tissue.
• > 0.1 A (100 mA) – the heart stops.
Care should be exercise when working with https://us.123rf.com/450wm/lcosmo/lcosmo1508/lcosmo15080

electricity! 0027/43830047-stock-vector-illustration-representing-a-person-
being-electrocuted-in-an-electrical-power-box-due-to-an-
accident-.jpg?ver=6/

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Circuit configurations
Series Parallel

PT = P1 + P2 + P3 + …… + Pn (for Both Series and Parallel)

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Kirchhoff’s Laws
4𝛺 a
Kirchoff’s current law
The summation of currents entering 𝐼2
and leaving a node is equal to zero. 18V
𝐼3
3𝛺
24V
8𝛺
Σ𝐼 = Σ𝐼 b d 𝐼1

𝐼4 2𝛺
5𝛺 12V
Kirchoff’s voltage law 𝐼5
𝐼6
The summation of voltage drops, and
voltage rises in a loop is equal to zero. 7𝛺 c

Σ𝑉 = Σ𝑉

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Electrical Theory (Part 2)

ChE2111: Basic Electrical & Electronics Engineering

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Magnetism Magnets and Electromagnets

• displays the properties of magnetism.

Magnetism - is a force of attraction Electromagnet – made up of

between ferromagnetic metals (iron, insulated wire coiled around a core
nickel, and cobalt) and a force of where current through the wire can
repulsion between diamagnetic produce magnetism.
materials (antimony and bismuth)
https://learning-center.homesciencetools.com/wp-content/uploads/introduction-to-
magnetism-science-teaching-tip-thumbnail-1280x720.jpg https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/Simple_electromagnet2.gif

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Magnetism and Electric Current Relationship

Electric Current – can produce a Magnetic Field – can produce voltage

magnetic field. which can drive current.

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/Simple_electromagnet2.gif Mechanical and Electrical Systems in Architecture, Engineering and Construction, 5th Edition,
https://cdn.mos.cms.futurecdn.net/b2b6PUbgtDcSYwSvf9nfuh-320-80.jpg Joseph B. Wujek and Frank Dagostino: Pearson Education/Prentice Hall. 2010

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Electromagnetic Induction
When a conductor is moved through a
magnetic field or a magnetic field is
moved across a fixed conductor, a
voltage is produced in the conductor.
The voltage causes current to flow
through the conductor. When this
happens, current flow is induced in the
conductor and the phenomenon is
called induction.

https://thumbs.gfycat.com/AlarmingSneakyBongo-max-1mb.gif

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Direct and Alternating Current

𝐼(𝐴) Direct Current 𝐼(𝐴) Alternating Current Waveform
𝐼

𝐼 0 𝑡(𝑠)

0 𝑡(𝑠)
1
𝑇=
𝑓
𝐿 ± 𝐿
+ 𝑂 𝑂
𝑉 𝑉
- 𝐴 𝐴
𝐼 𝐷
𝐼 𝐷

Direct Current (DC) – is current in one Alternating Current (AC) – is continuous

direction in an electrical circuit. reversal of the direction of current flow.

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Sinusoidal Voltage
𝑉(𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡) Sinusoidal Voltage (𝑉 ) Waveform

0 𝑡(𝑠)

1
𝑇=
𝑓
Cycle – the repeating portion of the Max. or Peak Voltage – the highest
wave. value of the voltage in a cycle.
Frequency – the term that describes Effective Voltage – the single value that
cycles per second. 1 cycle per second = represent the sinusoidal voltage.
1 Hertz. 60 Hz for Philippines, US, and 𝑉
Canada; 50 Hz for Europe and Middle 𝑉 =
East. 2

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Single-Phase and Three-Phase Voltages

N3 2
𝑉(𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡) Sinusoidal Voltage (𝑉 ) Waveform Arrangement
to Deliver :
1
4 0
𝑉 • 2 hot
𝑡(𝑠)
wires, & 1
0 ground
5 7 wire
6
S 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0
1 𝑟𝑒𝑣

NC B’
𝑉(𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡)
𝑽𝑨 𝑽𝑩 𝑽𝑪
Arrangement
𝟏𝟐𝟎° to Deliver :
A’ A
• 3 hot wires,
𝟏𝟐𝟎° 0 𝑡(𝑠) 1 neutral
𝟏𝟐𝟎°
B C’ wire, & 1
ground wire
S 120° 120° 120°

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Transformers

http://educypedia.karadimov.info/library/0071467890_ch15.pdf

http://engineering.electrical-equipment.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/power-transformer-
substation-installation.jpg https://www.galco.com/images/moreinfo/hammond_iso_trans.jpg

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Ideal Transformer
A transformer is an electrical device that
transfers an alternating current and voltage
from one circuit to another using the
induction phenomenon.
If the transformer is ideal,
+ Input power = Output power
𝐸
𝐸
L
O
Assuming the power factor to be same on both
A
D
sides,
𝑉 𝐼 =𝑉𝐼
Hence,
𝑁 𝑉 𝐼
= = = 𝑎 (𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
𝑁 𝑉 𝐼
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Transformer3d_col3.svg/1280px-Transformer3d_col3.svg.png

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Step-up of Step-down Transformer

A step-up transformer steps up the voltage
and steps down the current from the
primary to the secondary circuit.

A step-down transformer steps down the

voltage and steps up the current from the
primary to the secondary circuit..

https://meijielectric-seohacker.netdna-ssl.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/transformer-diagram.jpg

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Sample Problem
A 225kVA transformer located outside a building is used to step down the voltage
for the building. It is connected to a 7,200Vac power source. The ratio of the
number of primary windings to secondary windings is 30 to 1. Calculate: a) the
voltage supplied to the building; b) How much current is drawn by the building.

Solution:

a). 𝑉 = 𝑉 × = 7,200 = 240𝑉

,
b). 𝐼 = = = 937.5 𝐴

https://meijielectric-seohacker.netdna-ssl.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/transformer-diagram.jpg

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Impedance
Inductors
• An inductor is a coil of wire that creates an electromagnetic field.
• On AC circuits, inductive loads are created as current flows through coils or
windings found in motors, transformers and light fixture ballasts (fluorescent
and high-intensity discharge fixtures).
• The inductive effect on a series AC circuit causes the phase of the current to lag
behind the phase of the voltage, that is, peak amperage lags peak voltage.

https://www.cettechnology.com/wp-content/uploads/post/what-is-an-inductor/how-do-inductors-work.jpg

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Impedance
Capacitors
• A capacitor is composed of metal plates
separated by air or a dielectric material
such as paper, ceramic, or mica.
• Capacitors store electrical energy in an
electrostatic field and release it later, much
like your body stores and releases static
electricity as you rub your feet across the
carpet and touch a grounded object.
• The capacitive effect on a series AC circuit
causes the phase of the current to lead the
phase of the voltage, that is, peak voltage
lags peak current.
https://5.imimg.com/data5/HU/PV/YQ/SELLER-16425/power-capacitors-500x500.jpg

https://www.electrontools.com/Home/WP/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/Capacitors_7189597135-1.jpg

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Impedance
Impedance (Z) is a measure of opposition to current flow on an AC circuit due to the
combined effect of resistance, inductance and capacitance.
Ohm’s Law for DC Circuits: Ohm’s Law for AC Circuits:

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑍

±
𝐿
𝑍 𝑂
𝑉
( 𝑅, 𝐿, 𝐶) 𝐴
𝐷
𝐼

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Power Factor
• Real power, watt (W) – is the “working power” that performs useful effort in a
circuit, e.g., creating heat, light, and motion.
• Reactive power, (VAR) - is the power that generates the magnetic field required for
inductive devices to operate.
• Apparent power, (VA) - is the “total” power required by an inductive (or capacitive)
device that is a composite (vector sum) of the real power and reactive power.
• Power factor, pf - for a circuit is the ratio between real power and apparent power.
𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃
𝑝𝑓 = = = cos 𝜙
𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃 The power factor is a number between
0 and 1 (frequently expressed as a
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 percentage, e.g., 0.7pf or 70% pf).

𝑃 =𝑃 𝑝𝑓 = 𝑉𝐼 𝑝𝑓

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Sample Problem
A circuit consumes 3,000W of real power when the apparent power is 3,600VA.
Determine: a) the power factor; b) the phase angle 𝜙.

Solution:
a. 𝑝𝑓 = = cos 𝜙

,
= 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟,
,
𝜙 𝑉𝐴𝑅
𝑝𝑓 = 0.833 𝑜𝑟 83.3%
𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟, 𝑊

b. 𝜙 = cos 0.833 = 33.6°

49

Sample Problem
An AC circuit is powering an electric An AC circuit is powering a motor
heater (i.e., pure resistance, pf = 1.0). (i.e., inductive load, pf < 1.0). Assume
Assume the voltage is 240 V and a the voltage is 240 V and a current
current draw of 10 A. Compute the draw of 10 A. Compute the apparent
apparent power and real power. power and real power, assuming a
power factor of 0.833.
Solution: Solution:
𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟, 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟, 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼
= 240 10 = 240 10
= 2,400 𝑉𝐴 = 2,400 𝑉𝐴
𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟, 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 𝑝𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟, 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 𝑝𝑓
= 240 10 1 = 240 10 0.833
= 2,400 𝑊 = 1,999 𝑊

50

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Power factor (pf) correction

A high pf reduces the load currents, resulting in a
considerable saving in hardware costs (i.e.,
conductors, switchgear, substation transformers,
and so on).

Power companies typically impose low power

factor penalties, so by correcting the pf, this
penalty can be avoided.

The electrical load on the power company is

reduced, which allows the power company to
supply the surplus power to other consumers
without increasing its generation capacity.

51

Cost of Electrical Energy and Power

• Energy Charge – is the simply
the cost of electrical energy
consumed (𝑃ℎ𝑝 ) during a
billing period (1 month).
𝑃ℎ𝑝
𝑃ℎ𝑝 =𝑞
𝑘𝑊ℎ
• Demand Charge – additional
charge based on the highest
rate that energy is consumed
(Maximum demand (𝑘𝑊)).
𝑃ℎ𝑝
𝑃ℎ𝑝 =𝐷
𝑘𝑊
https://d3f7dpm96o8eu9.cloudfront.net/media/catalog/product/cache/437561f05397c0b090c
0cd114b225eb6/w/i/wind-sun_2270_2885497_1.jpg
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/Hydro_quebec_meter.JPG

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Cost of Electrical Energy and Power

Mechanical and Electrical Systems in Architecture, Engineering and Construction, 5th Edition, Joseph B. Wujek and Frank Dagostino: Pearson Education/Prentice Hall. 2010

53

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Electricity Bill
• Generation Charge – paid to the generating
companies (National Power Corp. and Independent
Power Producers) or suppliers.
• Transmission Charge – paid to the transmission
company (National Grid Corp. of the Phil.).
• System Loss Charge – recovery of the cost of power
loss due to technical and non-technical system
losses. Set at a maximum of 9.5% in accordance
with RA7832.
• Distribution Charge – paid to the distribution
utilities and electric cooperatives.
• Subsidies – provide for socialized pricing
mechanisms for marginalized customers and the
different customer classifications.
https://meralcomain.s3.ap-southeast-1.amazonaws.com/images/ckeditor-images/8fe77598f10f8a7.jpg

57

Electricity Bill
• Lifeline Subsidy – paid by all customers consuming
101 kWh and up and used to fund the Lifeline
Discount.
• Lifeline Discount – provides that residential
customers consuming less than 100 kWh in a given
month will enjoy a Lifeline Discount on generation,
transmission, distribution, supply, metering and
system loss charges.
• Interclass Subsidy – subsidy enjoyed by residential
customers that will be funded by the commercial
and industrial establishments.
• Government Tax/Franchise Tax – national
government and local government units require
this tax.

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Electricity Bill
• Universal Charge – remitted to the Power Sector
Assets and Liabilities Management Corporation
(PSALM), a company owned and controlled by
government, created by RA9136. Part of this is
missionary electrification and environmental
charges.
• Other Charges – these refer to items not included
above like backbillings, application of refund, pre-
payments, etc.

https://meralcomain.s3.ap-southeast-1.amazonaws.com/images/ckeditor-images/8fe77598f10f8a7.jpg

59

Cost of Electrical Energy and Power

• Energy Charge – is the simply the cost of electrical energy consumed (𝑃ℎ𝑝 )
during a billing period (1 month).
𝑃ℎ𝑝
𝑃ℎ𝑝 =𝑞
𝑘𝑊ℎ
Example: A 60 W lamp remains lighted for 24 hrs a day for 30 days. Determine the
electrical energy consumed over this period. Calculate the energy charge for the
billing period at a rate of Php12/kWh.
𝑃ℎ𝑝
𝑞 = 𝑃𝑡 𝑃ℎ𝑝 =𝑞
𝑘𝑊ℎ
= 0.060𝑊 = 43.2
.
= 43.2 =

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Demand Limiting and Load Shedding

• Extra generating and system capacity is
needed to produce electricity during
periods of peak demand.
• Demand charge is needed for the utility
to recover its investment in extra
generating, transmission, and
distribution capacity that is required to
meet infrequent peak electrical
demands.
• It is more profitable for the utility
company and thus more economical for
the consumers to keep demand uniform.

https://energystar-mesa.force.com/PortfolioManager/servlet/rtaImage?eid=ka0t0000000Plv9&feoid=00Nt0000000oTAf&refid=0EMt00000041w9v

61

Ways of Leveling Demand

• Demand limiting, the disconnecting
of loads that are not needed during
periods of high demand;
• Load shedding, the deliberately
switching off, of nonessential
equipment and appliances;
• Load shifting, the movement of the
operation of nonessential loads to
periods of low demand;
• Peak shaving, the use of energy
storage and alternate sources of
energy during peak periods

https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/proxy/duLP66mETgHmqiR4ynPxT2NGC2ihppdAGQ2T4_u0w9MOIuPN7Udsylvqw3E51xZdgyOsmEeCW24ZwvPL_poUgEWQobmJDJlcbXvik_4AP
MBwdS7Jj8M9N42c8cl1UPZZ_IbAoKIk0ChA0QPc5knvG3_dMHj1cdF6ZxA1OD52PwEEUQ1RzwARIchiVom057igXVZZhGHGDOIQg8PE

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Time-of-Use Rates
• Rewards the user for reducing
power consumption during
periods when electrical
demand is highest and a lower
rate for the remainder of the
year.

https://costcontrolassociates.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Energy-Rates-Higher-During-Peak-Hours1.png

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