Special Topics in Pub Ad

BACHELOR OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
BPA 12
Special Topics in Public Administration
Edition 2020
RICHARD M. VELUZ, JD, MPA, Enp

OVERVIEW
The course will deepen students’ understanding of research in public
organizations in a separately chosen field. Specific course content may vary from
term to term. Potential subject matters include the international organization of
administrative activities, collective activity in organizations, the effects of
administrative reforms on the operations of public organizations, and challenges
in controlling public organizations.
Further, this course involves an investigation of in-depth, research-based

analyses of on temporary topical areas in public administration not covered in
other courses. It is designed to address the emerging issues related to the
discipline.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
 Deepen students’ understanding of research in public organizations

in a separately chosen field.
 Be able to analyze the significance of questions related to the topic
from the perspective of institutions of public authority and civic
society
 Familiarize themselves with the central content of a chosen topic in
public administration and the most important related research
approaches.
 Apply their learning to social activity and professional expert position.
COURSE REQUIREMENTS AND GRADING
There are examinations or tests required. Part of your grade will be based on
the Module Assignments which you send in to the instructor. Each Module
Assignment will be given a grade according to the given rubric.
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COURSE SYLLABUS
VISION:
Southern Luzon State University as an excellent academic hub in its

curricular programs, transdisciplinary researches, and responsive extension
services.
MISSION:
The University commits to develop a sustained culture of delivering

quality service and undertaking continuous innovations in instruction,
research and extension in its relevant curricular programs supportive of
national and global development goals.
CORE VALUES:
GO – God-loving
S – Service-oriented
L – Leadership by Example
S – Sustained Passion of Excellence
U – Undiminished Commitment to Peace and Environment Advocacy.
GOALS OF THE COLLEGE
The College shall aim to produce responsive, globally prepared, morally upright,
socially and politically aware, research and extension service-oriented and environment-
conscious graduates.
PROGRAM OBJECTIVES
1. To equip the students with the understanding and knowledge in the sphere of public
administration.
2. To equip the students with the competencies and skills in Public Administration that
will particularly meet the demands of the Philippine Civil Service but not limiting
their capabilities to the opportunities in the private sectors.
3. To expose students to the actual bureaucratic norms, culture, practices and

operations through internship in different government agencies.
4. To inculcate among the faculty and students the essence of social responsibility
through extension programs and research services.
5. To raise awareness on global issues and international relations.
6. To produce graduates that is imbibed with socio-political, economics, and

environmental consciousness.
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Goals and objectives
Program’s Educational Objectives
1 2 3 4 5 6
To produce competent professionals in the field of Public
Administration capable of making a significant
1    
contribution to the professional and in the sector where
they work may it be in government or in civil society.
To build the foundation of professional knowledge,
professional skills, values, ethics and attributes with a
2    
strong sense of dedication and commitment for good
governance, public service, nationalism and sustainability.
To prepare graduates for technical and administrative
3 positions in government, including foreign service and    
Non-governmental organization.
To inculcate strong sense of duty to actively participate,
4 involve and promote voluntary services outside the    
campus.
1. Course Code : BPA 12
2. Course Title : Special Topics in Public Administration
3. Pre-requisite : None
4. Co-requisite : None
5. Credit/ Class Schedule : 3 Units/ 54 hours (3 lecture hours per week)
6. Course Description : This course covers selected topics of current interest of

students. It also includes issues and problems in public
administration and governance.
7. Program Outcomes and Relationship to Program Educational Objectives
Program Educational Objectives

Program Outcomes 1 2 3 4
The ability to acquire adequate knowledge in Public
a. Administration and Governance as a concept and    
practice.
Capability of manifest the concepts and knowledge
acquired during the course of study through strong oral
b. 
and written communication skills that will reflect a
competitive Public Administration graduates.
Understanding on the significance of political, social,
c. economic, and environment policies that will carry-out   
the government’s advocacy towards good governance.
Design and conduct researches in the context of Public
d.  
Administration.
Practice ethical values in government and build strong
e.   
commitment to public service.
4
Understand the importance of participatory governance
f.  
in relation to Philippine public affairs.
Involvement in voluntary services outside the
g.   
University.
8. Course Objectives and Relationship to Program Educational Objectives
Program Outcomes
Course Objectives
a b c d e f g
To foster awareness relative to the special topics or issues
1.       
concerning State and Local Governance.
To be able to reflect in the problem analysis affecting
2.       
national and local development.
To compe up with innovative solutions to problems of
3.       
governance.
To participate in a healthy discourse towards the achievement
4.       
of possible solutions to Local and International concerns.
To conduct researches on Public Administration and
5.       
Governance.
9. Course Coverage
Week Topic
Week 1 A. Orientation: Vision. Mission, Core Values of SLSU and Program Objectives
B. Orientation and Course Briefing: Make the students aware of the Course
outline, objectives and expected outcomes.
Week 2 A. Governance & COVID 19

Week 3  Understanding COVID 19
Week 4  The Role of Effective Governance in Managing a Global Crisis
Week 5  State & People Governance Relationship
Week 6  Addressing the Crisis
 Key Messages
B. Climate Change
 Primary Indicators of Climate Change
 Climate Change Governance
C. Climate Change Risks: The Philippines
 Sector Impacts & Vulnerabilities
 International Commitment to Climate Change
PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION
Week 7 A. Terrorism & Counter-Terrorism
Week 8  UN Designated Terrorist Groups
Week 9  Victims of Terrorism
Week 10  Terrorist Audiences
Week 11
Week 12 B. Migration
 Drivers of Migration
 Mixed Migration Flows
 Vulnerability
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C. The Philippines Culture of Migration
 Historical Background
 Becoming a Labor Exporter
 Protection of Workers
 Looking Ahead
MIDTERM EXAMINATION
Week 13 A. Racism
Week 14  Racial Discrimination
Week 15  Prejudices & Stereotypes
Week 16  Power and Privileges
Week 17  Dealing with Racism
Week 18 B. Child Exploitation
 Categories of Child Abuse
 Situation of Children in the Philippines
 Barriers to Fulfilling Children’s Rights
FINAL EXAMINATION
10. Course Outcomes and Relationship to Course Objectives/Program Outcomes
Course Outcomes Program Outcomes

A student completing this course should at
the minimum be able to: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 a b c d e
Demonstate understanding of topics and
1.          
problems in the Government .
Develop and utilize the critical thinking
skills associated with the problems and
2. issues in Government and analyze           
social, political, socio-cultural and
individual decision making.
Apply the skills quantitative and
qualitative reasoning and be able to
identify, understand, and use correct
3            
information and data to analyze and
interpret issues in Public Administration
and Governance.
Design innovative program or system
4 that will address governmental and            
societal problems.
Understand the issues and problems of
5. the Government in order to be a more          
productive and intelligent global citizen
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RUBRIC FOR PAPER SUBMISSION
Above Meets Approaching Below

Expectations Expectations Expectations Expectations
4 3 2 1
Reflective The paper The paper The paper The paper
Thinking explains the explains the attempts to does not
student’s own student’s demonstrate address the
thinking and thinking thinking student’s
learning about his/her about thinking
processes, as own learning learning but is and/or
well as processes. vague and/or learning.
implications unclear
for future about the
learning. personal
learning
process.
Analysis The paper is The paper is The paper The paper

an in-depth an analysis of attempts to does not
analysis of the the learning analyze the move
learning experience learning beyond a
experience, and the value experience description of
the value of of the derived but the value the learning
the derived learning to of the experience.
learning to self or others. learning to
self or others, the student or
and the others is
enhancement vague and/or
of the unclear.
student’s
appreciation
for the
discipline.
Making The paper The paper The paper The paper

Connections articulates articulates attempts to does not
multiple connections articulate articulate any
connections between this connections connection
between this learning between this to other
learning experience learning learning or
experience and content experience experiences.
and content from other and content
from other courses, past from other
courses, past learning courses, past
learning, life experiences, learning
experiences and/or future experiences,
and/or future goals. or personal
goals. goals, but the
connection is
vague and/or
unclear.
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STUDY SUGGESTIONS
The modules have been designed for use by individual students without
the direct supervision of a teacher as occurs in a traditional classroom setting.
Provisions have been made for instructor feedback to students on their
performance of each of the Module Assignments.
MODULE 1: GOVERNANCE & COVID 19
Introduction
The emergence and spread of the coronavirus in late 2019 and the
impact of its disease, COVID-19, which has been categorized by the World
Health Organization as a global pandemic, is, at the time of writing, ongoing.
Efforts by governments to try to control the pandemic’s spread while

managing its wide ranging impacts demonstrate the critical role of the
relationship between state and people in shaping and determining
government responses, strategies and approaches in tackling the crisis. While
there have been some rapid and effective responses by governments, in many
respects, the pandemic has exposed some of the shortfalls in countries’
resiliency to crisis, and in particular in the way the state relates to its people in
realizing the values and principles of effective governance.
Resiliency and effective governance go hand in hand, and are key

elements of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Together with its 17
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) the Agenda provides a global
transformational strategy which aims to foster resilient societies that embrace
the values of equity, equality, inclusion, accountability, integration, peace and
security, justice, respect for diversity, collaboration and partnerships.
Resilient societies are premised on effective governance and the

principle of leaving no one behind, key elements for being equipped to deal
with unexpected crises. The United Nations Committee of Experts on Public
Administration (CEPA) outlined 11 principles of effective governance,
categorized into three groups: group one focuses on effectiveness
(competence, sound policy making, and collaboration), group two focuses on
addressing accountability (integrity, transparency and independent oversight)
and group three focuses on inclusiveness (leaving no one behind,
nondiscrimination, participation, subsidiarity and intergenerational equity). All
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principles are necessary for effective governance and sit at the core of the
relationship that should exist between the state and people.1
LESSON I – UNDERSTANDING COVID 19
Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) is an infectious disease caused by a

newly discovered coronavirus.
Most people infected with the COVID-19 virus will experience mild to
moderate respiratory illness and recover without requiring special
treatment. Older people, and those with underlying medical problems like
cardiovascular disease, diabetes, chronic respiratory disease, and cancer are
more likely to develop serious illness.
The best way to prevent and slow down transmission is to be well-informed

about the COVID-19 virus, the disease it causes and how it spreads. Protect
yourself and others from infection by washing your hands or using an alcohol
based rub frequently and not touching your face.
The COVID-19 virus spreads primarily through droplets of saliva or

discharge from the nose when an infected person coughs or sneezes, so it’s
important that you also practice respiratory etiquette (for example, by
coughing into a flexed elbow).
At this time, there are no specific vaccines or treatments for COVID-19.

However, there are many ongoing clinical trials evaluating potential
treatments. WHO will continue to provide updated information as soon as
clinical findings become available.2
The coronavirus COVID-19 pandemic is the defining global health crisis

of our time and the greatest challenge we have faced since World War Two.
Since its emergence in Asia late last year, the virus has spread to every
continent except Antarctica.
But the pandemic is much more than a health crisis, it's also an
unprecedented socio-economic crisis. Stressing every one of the countries it
touches, it has the potential to create devastating social, economic and
political effects that will leave deep and longstanding scars.3
1 https://www.un.org/development/desa/dpad/publication/un-desa-policy-brief-75-covid-19-reaffirming-state-people-
governance-relationships/
2 https://www.who.int/health-topics/coronavirus#tab=tab_1
3 https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/coronavirus.html
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PANDEMIC an outbreak of a disease that
occurs over a wide geographic area and
affects an exceptionally high proportion of the
population.
LEARNING EXERCISE
1. What is the difference between epidemic and pandemic?

2. Write an essay relating your experiences during pandemic.
LESSON II - The Role of Effective Governance in Managing a

Global Crisis
In the space of a few months, the COVID-19 pandemic has grown deadly,
killing thousands and making ill millions while placing an unprecedented strain
on health care systems and other public services worldwide. Available data
show that over 4 million people around the world have been infected with
COVID-19 and over 270, 000 people have died from it (as of 8 May 2020, WHO,
dashboard, Covid.who.int). The pandemic has also had a severe negative
impact on economies, businesses, and social interaction, the effects of which,
while still not fully known, are expected to run deep and long.
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Efforts by governments to fight the spread of the virus have placed a spotlight
on the critical role of effective and inclusive governance, and importantly on
the relationship between state and people. Many governments have taken
forceful measures, such as lockdowns (some seventy-three countries have
implemented national lockdown measures, while others still have local
measures in place), social distancing, contact tracing, work from home orders,
and the closure of school and non-essential services and businesses to stop the
spread and devastation of the virus. Indeed, the measures being undertaken
echo many of those undertaken during wartime periods and the rhetoric of
being at war with the virus is one being invoked by many leaders including the
United Nations: “We are at war with a virus and not winning it”, stressed UN
Secretary-General to an emergency virtual meeting of the G20 Leaders.
Indeed, in many countries, the state defense mechanisms have been activated
to assist the people in the fight against COVID-19. In China, Italy, USA and other
countries, national security forces have been mobilized to engage in activities
that defend the population against COVID-19. In China the army constructed
hospitals and deployed medical experts and volunteers in hospitals and
treatment centres to fight the virus. In the USA, the Navy deployed hospital ships
to provide medical support to local residents in badly affected areas while its
government military laboratories have been working to help develop a vaccine
for the virus. In Uganda and neighboring Kenya the army and police are
patrolling the streets to ensure that the curfews and lockdowns are in effect to
stop the spread of the virus. Similarly, in Italy, the military was called in to enforce
the lockdown in the most hard hit areas to ensure people’s compliance with
national executive orders.
However, the global response has not been uniform. Some governments have
decided against taking measures such as those mentioned above, while others,
namely those with federal systems of governance, have seen a disjointed
response, with various states or regions enacting differing measures. Regardless
of the response, in every country the state-people relationship has been placed
under pressure and increased scrutiny. A nation-wide crisis of this magnitude
inevitably forces reflections and reconsiderations of the roles, obligations,
responsibilities of one and the other. How societies manage this relationship can
potentially have a significant impact on the effectiveness of containment,
response measures and on the speed of recovery.4
 State and people governance relationship during nationwide crisis

In times of nationwide crisis, the people turn to the state and its institutions
for leadership and unified action. Ironically, it is during a crisis too that the
capabilities of the state and its institutions get challenged most. This is the case
during the on-going COVID-19 pandemic.
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Across the world, the state provides, to varying extents, critical services
such as health, education, infrastructure, information, justice and others. Such
services can be delivered in various ways (free, subsidized, or at full cost to the
consumer). But in severe crises, such as the current pandemic, the relationship
of provider can be stretched. From Rwanda and Uganda, where governments
are distributing foodstuffs and other essentials, such as soap, to the poor and
vulnerable, to the USA, where the federal government has provided COVID-19
stimulus checks to people and businesses based on income levels and family
size to cushion them against the difficulties caused by the pandemic, to Ghana
where the government has taken measures to ensure continuity of water and
electricity supply throughout the pandemic, governments, irrespective of their
economic development levels, are manifesting their provider relationship
towards the people. Provision of health and medical services, including testing
and hospitalization for COVID-19 are also mainly provided by the state. The
quick roll-out of free drive-thru testing for COVID-19 in the Republic of Korea has
been hailed as one of the reasons the country has managed to get the virus
under control relatively quickly. In times of crisis the old cry (in some circles of
public governance) for government to get out of people’s lives and business
dissipates and the demand for government intervention as a provider of basic
services and safety nets takes over. This is the case with the COVID-19
pandemic.
The state as protector of its people, especially of the poor and vulnerable,
must prove effective during a nation-wide crisis in particular, a crisis such as the
COVID-19 pandemic can easily open up or exacerbate divisions and
inequalities in society. This can be on geographical, ethnic, racial, religious,
economic, gender or age grounds. During the COVID-19 crisis some
populations disproportionately hit more than others, notably, older persons and
those with existing health conditions who have higher morbidity rates from the
disease, those in precarious employment who have lost jobs, contracts, benefits
and entitlements; ‘essential workers’, including health care professionals and
workers in law enforcement, transport, service and hospitality industries, who
continue to work onsite and are exposed during the crisis; children and young
people whose schooling and education has been disrupted, those with
disabilities whose daily services have been suspended, and women and
children in domestic abuse situations, who are at risk of increased isolation and
abuse, amongst many others.
However, from the perspective of a resilient society and a resilient state,

the role of protection should not only be invoked during a crisis. The modality of
social protection and social security needs to be set forth strategically to make
life predictably assured for such vulnerable sections of society both during
normal times and during crisis.5
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LEARNING EXERCISE
1. Are you satisfied with the national/local government actions in dealing

with the pandemic? Why or why not?
2. What should the citizens do to help the government in time of crisis?
 Addressing the crisis: Embracing a whole-o- society approach,

enhancing credibility and trust, and combatting misinformation
research
To address the COVID-19 crisis effectively, the state needs to be a
collaborator, creating partnerships with civil society and the private sector in a
‘whole-of-society’ approach so as to inclusively engage all communities and
stakeholders in efforts to find solutions to the various challenges posed by the
pandemic. The state has to relate to the people as a unifier, by not leaving the
population alone to face the unaddressed risks of social disintegration. It is in
such efforts to maintain the unity of the country that a whole-of-society
approach can be of great use.
Under a-whole-of-society approach, the governance relationship

between the state (provided it is democratic and credible) and the people
during a crisis of this magnitude must be based on listening to each other. The
people need to listen to the state and to air their demands through designated
channels and the state needs to listen to the people, because in most cases
the people do understand the problems and challenges of the crises and often
have solutions to propose. Among the people there are experts who have
knowledge about the crisis are: health care providers and medical workers who
clearly understand how to handle health challenges; researchers who can
deploy their research acumen to arrive at a solution; sociologists who may have
clues as to how society should handle the challenges caused by the crisis; and
so on. It is therefore of great importance that mutual listening becomes
prominent in the relationship between the people and the state in the midst of
a crisis.
As the COVID-19 pandemic has shown, law enforcement efforts will also
rely on trust and collaboration from the people, as some people may object to
and not follow the guidelines given by the national or local authorities and as a
consequence, pose a danger to the rest of the population. From Wuhan in
China, where tens of millions of people were the first to experience being
placed in lockdown early in 2020 to the seventy-three countries that followed-
suit and as the pandemic reached their shores, including Italy, Ireland, Greece,
Spain, New Zealand, Colombia, Peru, Rwanda and many other countries, to
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Republic of Korea where contact tracing was enforced, efforts to enforce
executive measures to contain the pandemic are demonstrating the
importance of mutual trust between the state as enforcer of orders to protect
the people.
Beyond the national level, collaboration and partnerships need to be

established with global actors in a ‘whole-of-the-world’ approach, for example,
government medical researchers are working with their counterparts in the
private sector and civil society to develop a vaccine against the virus.
Governments are collaborating with the WHO and other international
organizations in efforts to contain the spread of the virus. In an interconnected
world, this pandemic cannot be solved by a single country on its own.
In his video message on COVID-19 and Misinformation on 14 April, United

Nations Secretary-General António Guterres drew attention to another
epidemic, that of dangerous misinformation. As knowledge on COVID-19 is
growing so too are the many rumours that surround the virus, causing fear and
jeopardizing efforts to fight and contain the pandemic. In times of crisis the
people look to government to provide credible information based on facts. This
credibility not only hinges greatly on the trust the people have in government
but also depends on the way and through whom the government provides
constant and reliable information to the people. The state must deploy modern
technologies and structure their operations in such a way that they constantly
counter false information and manipulated data with facts and reliable data
sources. In this context, the United Nations Secretary-General announced a
new United Nations communications response with channels to disseminate
accurate facts based on science to counter the growing scourge of
misinformation.
In times of crisis, more than ever, legitimacy, credibility and trust serve as
the bedrock for positive state-people relationships. This largely depends on
whether the people perceive the state institutions and leadership as legitimate
and whether there is a high level of trust between the people and government
leadership and public service. The way the crisis gets handled may enhance or
diminish the trust the people have in government institutions and leadership. In
other words, a crisis even one as serious as the current pandemic, can provide
an opportunity for enhancing the trust people have in government. Finally,
legitimacy, credibility and trust are necessary for the people to respond through
collaborative engagement with public authorities in whole-of-society strategies
to combat national and global crises such as the COVID-19 pandemic.
However, governments must acknowledge that for this to be effective well
established political inclusion and responsive accountability mechanisms that
enhance trust and credibility should be in place well before crisis point.6
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LEARNING EXERCISE
1. In your own words explain the “whole-of-society approach. Does the

Philippine government adopt such approach in dealing with the
pandemic? Fully explain.
 Key Messages
1. The COVID-19 pandemic and crisis presents a challenge but also an

opportunity to design and operate resilient and inclusive public health
infrastructure and effective institutions for handling crisis: The COVID-19
pandemic while primarily a health and medical crisis but is turning into an
economic and humanitarian crisis. Its management has far reaching
implications for the relationship between the state and the people. As
such it provides an opportunity for the state and the people to reflect on
the kind of governance relationships that need to be in place to ensure
the resilience, sustainability and wellbeing of all in society. The COVID-19
pandemic, devastating as it is, has provided a moment for each
government, and indeed the whole world, to put in place governance
and public health infrastructure that can foresee, identify and respond to
pandemics quickly so as to minimize the suffering they can bring to
people. It has provided an opportunity to realize and address inequalities
and various forms of exclusion so as to enhance the wellbeing of the
people.
2. Providing essential services to all must be at the core of state-people

governance relationship: It should not take a pandemic or a crisis for the
state to figure out how to provide critical services to its citizens. In 2015
the 193 Member States of the United Nations agreed that Governments
have to champion the achievement of the SDGs and leave no one
behind. This translates into ensuring that people have access to inclusive
and affordable services that contribute to sustainable and inclusive
development. Long-term policies and strategies need to be designed,
agreed and implemented to effectively provide public services which
take into account the needs of all, especially the poor and vulnerable.
3. Social protection for all citizens, especially the very poor and vulnerable,
is critical to having a resilient society: The COVID-19 pandemic has
underscored the need for the state to put in place policies, strategies and
institutionalized means of ensuring social protection for all, especially the
very poor and vulnerable. Social protection needs to be designed to
cover all people, reduce poverty and inequality, promote sustainable
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development and growth and support social inclusion, social cohesion,
democracy, just and peaceful societies. The biggest lesson learnt here is
that the state should not wait for a crisis to put in place social protection
mechanisms. Rather social protection mechanisms should be designed
with responses to possible crises such as the COVID-19 pandemic built in
so as to avoid a panicky search for solutions in the midst of a crisis.
4. Credible, legitimate and trusted state leadership is critical all the time but
more so during a nation-wide crisis such as the COVID-19
Pandemic: Strong state-people relationships are highly reliant on high
levels of trust in government and its leadership. Government leaders must
create conditions that cultivate trust from the people by, among other
things, ensuring the dissemination of fact-based information and
communication, acting with transparency and integrity, serving the
public equitably with accountability and humanness, and working in
partnership and collaboration with stakeholders, including the private
sector and civil society.
5. Government in times of crisis must endeavor to keep the country unified

to avoid social disintegration: A unified people stands a greater chance
of overcoming any crisis. The policies the government makes, the
strategies it elaborates, the emergency services it delivers, and the
directives and guidelines it puts forward must be seen to be benefiting
everyone in the country equally so as to foster equity and solidarity. This is
as true at national level for national unity as it is at international level for
keeping the world united in the face of global crises such as the COVID-
19 pandemic. The outbreak and rapid spread of the virus has
demonstrated clearly that an outbreak in one country is a threat to all
countries; something that strongly calls for international solidarity in
fighting it and preventing such pandemics in future.7
LEARNING EXERCISE
1. In the mentioned key messages, where do you think the Philippine

government is lagging behind. Explain fully.
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MODULE 2: CLIMATE CHANGE
Introduction
Climate change resulting from human-induced greenhouse gas emissions

is affecting the Earth in ways that are and will be significantly impacting people
and our environment for generations to come. One aspect of climate change
refers to the increase in average global temperatures resulting from more
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. The impacts of global temperature
increase on the Earth are pervasive and significant, including sea level rise,
changes in precipitation and humidity patterns, increased extreme weather
events, and more climate variability. We refer to all of these changes as ‘climate
change’.8
Climate change governance poses difficult challenges for contemporary

political/administrative systems. These systems evolved to handle other sorts of
problems and must now be adapted to handle emerging issues of climate
change mitigation and adaptation. Conflicts of power and interest are
inevitable in relation to climate change policy. To address climate change
means altering the way things are being done today - especially in terms of
production and consumption practices in key sectors such as energy,
agriculture, and transportation. But some of the most powerful groups in society
have done well from existing arrangements, and they are cautious about
8 https://www.usaid.gov/bangladesh/crel-project/module-
1#:~:text=Introduction%20to%20Climate%20Change%20(ICC,and%20technologies%20and%20effective%20communicati
ons.
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disturbing the status quo. Climate change governance requires governments to
take an active role in bringing about shifts in interest perceptions so that stable
societal majorities in favor of deploying an active mitigation and adaptation
policy regime can be maintained. Measures to help effect such change
include: building coalitions for change, buying off opponents, establishing new
centers of economic power, creating new institutional actors, adjusting legal
rights and responsibilities, and changing ideas and accepted norms and
expectations.9
LESSON I – CLIMATE CHANGE
 Why Study Climate?
• Determines the type and location of human-managed ecosystems,

such as agricultural farmlands.
• Affects the weathering of rock, the type of soil that forms,
and the rate of soil formation.
• Affects people and society
• Helps to determine the quantity and quality of water available for
human use.
• Determines the defined based on their plant communities.
• How does climate affect the Philippines?
e.g. severity of droughts, storms, and floods.
• Largely determines the nature and locations of biomes -major terrestrial
ecosystems,
 What is Climate Change?
IPCC, 3rd Assessment Report:

Climate change: a statistically significant variation in either the mean state of
the climate or in its variability, persisting for an extended period (typically
decades or longer).
Climate change may be due to natural internal processes or external forcings,
or to persistent anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere
or in land use.
UNFCCC, Article 1:
“Climate change”: “a change of climate which is attributed directly or
indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global
atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over
comparable time periods.”
9 https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1407959
18
LEARNING EXERCISE
Think of 3 - 5 situations where weather has influenced your life, your

plans. Write these down and describe its influences to your daily life.
• What are the Primary Indicators of Climate Change?
o Widespread Melting Snow and Ice
• Most mountain glaciers are getting smaller.

• Snow cover is retreating earlier in the spring.
• Sea ice in the Arctic is shrinking in all seasons, most dramatically in
summer.
• Reductions are in the permafrost, seasonally frozen ground and river and
lake ice.
• Important coastal regions of ice sheets on Greenland and West
Antarctica, and the glaciers of the Antarctic Peninsular, are thinning and
contributing to sea level rise.
o Rising Global Sea Level
Two major causes of global sea level rise:

• Thermal expansion of the oceans (water expands as it warms)
• Loss of land-based ice due to increased melting and movement from
land to sea (glaciers and continental ice caps)
19
Impacts and Adaptation
As the previous page indicates, it is clear that the climate is changing, and
that these changes are caused mainly by human emissions of greenhouse
gases. But this does not explain why we care so much about climate change,
and, in particular, why we think climate change is bad. Why climate change is
bad depends on our ethical view of what is “bad.” Here we’ll look at both
anthropocentric and ecocentric views. In the case of climate change,
disruption of ecosystems often also involves disruption to human systems, so the
reasons for believing that climate change is bad are largely the same from both
anthropocentric and ecocentric ethical views.
Temperature shifts
The simplest impacts of climate change are shifts in temperatures around
the world. Overall, temperatures are increasing. Zones within a certain
temperature range are shifting towards the north and south poles and towards
higher elevations. Some species, in particular, plant species, are adapted to
certain temperature ranges. These species are often shifting to different
locations along with the temperature zones. But this shifting is imperfect. First,
species may also be adapted to certain elevations or to certain latitudes.
Latitude is important for plants because latitude defines how long days and
nights are at a given time of year. Second, there may be obstacles impeding
the species’ shift. For example, if a species lives on a mountain, it may not be
able to cross a valley to get to the next mountain over. Thus some species will
not successfully adapt to the temperature shifts caused by climate change. This
includes both species in natural ecosystems and species used in human
agriculture. (As we will have seen in previous modules, agriculture is always part
of an ecosystem, so natural ecosystems and human agriculture are not
completely separate from each other.)
Shifts in water
Water patterns are closely connected to temperature patterns. When
temperatures are warmer, more ice melts or water evaporates. This affects
precipitation patterns. Shifts in precipitation patterns complicate the process of
species adapting to temperature shifts since species are generally also
adapted to certain precipitation. For example, a plant might shift towards the
north pole to stay within the same temperature zone, but if the precipitation
zone does not also shift north, then the plant will have to struggle with different
precipitation.
One of the most important shifts in water from climate change is the
melting of ice at several places around the world.
In the Arctic Ocean, ice melting is leading to the opening of the Northwest
Passage, a sea route between the north Atlantic and north Pacific oceans. The
Passage is becoming increasingly navigable, making shipping (especially
freight shipping) much less expensive between the wealthy and populous
northern nations of Europe, North America, and East Asia. Other countries will
be hurt by this, in particular, Panama, whose Canal will diminish in importance.
20
In central Asia, ice melting in the Himalayas is disrupting water supplies of crucial
importance to very large human populations in India, China, and surrounding
areas. There is concern about whether these populations will have access to
enough fresh water in the future.
In Antarctica and Greenland, large amounts of ice are melting,

increasing the amount of water in the oceans. This, in turn, raises sea level. Sea
level rise is further increased by thermal expansion: as ocean temperatures
increase, the water expands, pushing sea level higher. Ice melt and thermal
expansion are causing enough sea-level rise that some low-lying coastal areas
could become uninhabitable. This is a particularly serious concern because a
large portion of the human population lives in such areas. Many major world
cities are threatened, including New York, Los Angeles, Mumbai, Tokyo, Hong
Kong, and even London, which is near sea level despite being inland along the
River Thames. Already, London has moveable barriers to protect against high
tide storm surges. Sea level rise threatens to make the surges more severe.
LESSON II – CLIMATE CHANGE RISK: THE PHILIPPINES
The Philippines is highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change,

including sea level rise, increased frequency of extreme weather events, rising
temperatures and extreme rainfall. This is due to its high exposure to natural
hazards (cyclones, landslides, floods, droughts), dependence on climate-
sensitive natural resources, and vast coastlines where all major cities and the
majority of the population reside. The urban poor, many of whom live in
temporary shelters, are most at risk, lacking the resources to prevent or mitigate
the threat of coastal inundation and storm surge. Consisting of 7,107 islands
divided into three island groups (Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao), the Philippines
lies in the world’s most cyclone-prone region, averaging 19–20 cyclones each
year, of which 7–9 make landfall. Sea levels in the Philippines are rising faster
than the global average, increasing the hazard posed by storm surges and
threatening permanent inundation of low-lying areas. Services, agriculture and
industry are the main economic sectors, employing 55, 29, and 16 percent of
the workforce, respectively. A rich yet increasingly depleted natural and marine
resources base supports livelihoods through fisheries, agriculture, forestry,
energy, mining and tourism and provides critical ecosystem services such as
shoreline protection, flood control, soil stability and habitats for biodiversity.
The Philippines’ climate is tropical and monsoonal, and highly influenced

by the El Niño Southern Oscillation, which is the most important source of rainfall
variability from year to year. Temperatures average 24°–27°C throughout the
year and are warmest in May and coolest in January. Rainfall patterns exhibit
high annual and regional variability, with mean annual rainfall varying from 960
mm in southeast Mindanao to over 4,000 mm in central Luzon. Most of the
country experiences a dry season from December–May and a cyclonic rainy
season from June–November that starts with the arrival of the southwest
monsoon. A second rainy season occurs from December–February on the
21
eastern and northern coasts with the arrival of the northeast monsoon. El Niño
events, which occur irregularly every 2–7 years, reduce rainfall and weaken
cyclone activity. La Niña events, which occur less frequently, increase heavy
rainfall and cyclone activity.10
 SECTOR IMPACTS AND VULNERABILITIES11
 AGRICULTURE
Agriculture is the dominant livelihood for the rural poor and contributes 12
percent to GDP. Production of staple crops, such as rice and corn, and cash
crops (e.g., coconut) will be negatively impacted by a changing climate,
especially increased temperatures, which accelerate evapotranspiration rates
and can reduce yields through heat and water stress. Rice, wheat and corn
yields will likely decline by 10 percent for every 1°C increase over 30°C. Droughts
are linked to increased pest infestations, especially during El Niño years.
Cyclones and heavy rains bring severe flooding and increase runoff and soil
erosion, reducing soil fertility, damaging crops and altering productivity,
especially during La Niña years. From 2006–2013, the Philippines was struck by
75 disasters– mostly cyclones, tropical storms and floods– that caused $3.8 billion
in accumulated damage and losses to the agriculture sector. An estimated
annual GDP loss of up to 2.2 percent.
WATER RESOURCES
Climate variability is already leading to water stress by reducing the quality
and quantity of available water supplies. Droughts reduce water inflows to
watersheds and create shortages for agricultural, industrial and municipal users
who account for 82, 10 and 8 percent of water withdrawals, respectively. Floods
and landslides, a result of extreme rainfall, increase runoff, reduce water quality
and damage water supply infrastructure. Saltwater intrusion of coastal aquifers
affects water quality in about 25 percent of coastal municipalities in Luzon,
Visayas and Mindanao; this is expected to increase with sea level rise.
 ENERGY
Climate change could impact the Philippines' energy supply, as well as
increase demand. Hydropower production, which contributes 20 percent to the
country’s energy supply, is vulnerable to reduced water availability from
climate change. For example, in 2010 production dropped by 20 percent
compared to the previous year due to a drought. Other critical energy
infrastructure, like the offshore natural gas field of Malampaya, is vulnerable to
more intense and frequent storms.
10
https://www.climatelinks.org/sites/default/files/asset/document/2017_Climate%20Change%20Risk%20Profile_Philippines.p
df
11 Ibid
22
 COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS
Coupled with extensive environmental degradation and deforestation,
climate change threatens the country’s valuable coastal ecosystems and
fisheries. Increased salinity and sea levels can damage mangroves while ocean
acidification and rising seas and sea surface temperatures can destroy fish and
marine habitats, particularly through coral bleaching (around 95 percent of
corals suffered bleaching during the 2009–10 El Niño). More than 60 percent of
the coastal population’s livelihoods depend on marine resources, and coral
reefs and mangroves are valued at $2 billion and $83 million per year,
respectively, for their contributions to fishing, tourism and storm protection.
 URBAN INFRASTRUCTURE
High temperatures, heavy rainfall and strong winds are likely to impact the
Philippine’s infrastructure and services in urban and peri-urban areas, where
over 60 percent of the population resides. Tropical Storm Ketsana caused $33
million in repairs to roads and bridges in 2009. Extreme weather also poses risks
to water and sanitation facilities. Rising sea levels threaten infrastructure and
settlements in 25 cities located along the coastline.
 HUMAN HEALTH
Health risks from endemic vector- and waterborne diseases (i.e., diarrhea,
dengue, malaria) are expected to worsen with a changing and more variable
climate that includes increased heavy rains and rising temperatures, both of
which positively impact mosquito breeding and survival. Although malaria rates
dropped dramatically over the last few decades (with 73 percent of the
population living in low transmission areas in 2010), dengue epidemics continue
to occur every 3–4 years and diarrhea was the fifth most common cause of
morbidity in 2010. Observed trends from 1992–2005 show that increases in
malaria and dengue are positively correlated with changes in temperature. For
example, 2015 (a strong El Niño year) saw a 60 percent increase in dengue
compared to 2014. Severe cyclones and rain events increase the frequency of
floods and rain-induced landslides, which bring loss of life and livelihoods, crop
failure
 POLICY CONTEXT
The Philippines began to mainstream climate change considerations into

government policy and planning with the 2009 Climate Change Act, which
requires local government units (LGUs) to draft local climate change action
plans (LCCAPs). As of July 2016, only 160 of the total 1,700 LGUs had LCCAPs in
place.
23
 INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK
The Climate Change Commission (CCC), established by the Republic Act
9729 and the Philippine Climate Change Act of 2009, is the lead policy-making
body on climate change concerns. The CCC is tasked to coordinate, monitor
and evaluate programs and actions on climate change. The CCC developed
the National Framework Strategy on Climate Change (NFSCC) in 2010 to
consolidate climate policy across all levels of government and to guide
national programs.
LEARNING EXERCISE
1. Comment on the vulnerabilities of faced by the Philippines relative to

climate change.
2. Are you aware of your local government’s Local Climate Change
Action Plan? If not, state your reasons.
3. Listen to the song “Masdan Mo Ang Kapaligiran” by Lolita Carbon (Asin)
and write a reflection paper relative thereto.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YLIKk9Jqs0c
LESSON III – INTERNATIONAL COMMITMENT TO CLIMATE

CHANGE
 The UN Role in Climate Change Action
The United Nations is the only forum in which an agreement aimed at

reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions beyond 2012 can realistically be
brokered among the 190 plus countries with different outlooks and economies but
of a common atmosphere. The climate change challenge involves every nation
and will, if unchecked, touch every community and citizen on a time-scale of
decades rather than centuries.
In 2007, climate change truly became an issue of highest concern to the

United Nations, because there is now the full understanding that the
phenomenon will fundamentally affect the way the world operates in the twenty-
first century -- from health care, aid and water to economic activity, humanitarian
assistance, peacebuilding and security concerns. The United Nations has played
a pivotal role in building the scientific consensus, raising the issue to the front
pages of the world's media and putting it in the in-tray of Heads of State and
24
Government, as well as the chief executive officers of businesses and industries.
Since February 2007, the IPCC has published three important reports, and the
more than 2,000 scientists and experts of the IPCC have put an end to any doubts
in the science debate.
Climate change is happening and the links between rising temperatures

and human activities are considered "unequivocal". The IPCC has outlined the
likely impacts of climate change in the coming decades if the international
community fails to act. These include sea-level rise, which could deprive millions of
people from Bangladesh to the small islands of their land and livelihoods, in
addition to the melting of mountain glaciers, which are the source of water for
millions of people, businesses and farmers around the world. However, the IPCC
has also noted other factors that are cause for hope and must be the catalysts for
action. The experts in their report issued in May 2007, argued that decarbonizing
the global economy to a point where climate change should be manageable
could cost 0.1 per cent of global gross domestic product (GDP). Indeed, in some
sectors, the actual costs of significantly boosting energy efficiency would actually
make rather than cost money for managers and homeowners.
The United Nations, through the UN Framework Convention on Climate

Change (UNFCCC), has also been at the cutting edge of assisting in the
development of creative new carbon markets. The Kyoto Protocol's Clean
Development Mechanism (CDM) allows developed countries to offset some of
their emissions through clean and renewable energy projects and certain forestry
schemes in developing countries. Over the coming years, the CDM funds flowing
from North to South will reach up to $100 billion. New high-technology industries
and job opportunities are emerging in both developed and developing countries.
China and India are now home to two of the biggest wind turbine and power
companies. Investment in renewable energy, driven in part by the UN-brokered
climate treaties, is expected to top $80 billion in 2007. It is bringing down costs and
increasing opportunities for deployment in rural areas.
The UN system is helping to accelerate this further. The United Nations

Environment Programme (UNEP), in partnership with the UN Foundation and Asian
banks, has piloted a project that has brought solar power to 100,000 people in
India. The idea was to buy down part of the interest rates for loans in order to
make them affordable to low-income households. The benefits for the global
community may be reduced emissions. But in a world where 1.6 billion are
currently without access to electricity, this access to clean power and light is a
new and immediate benefit for the local community. Such developments also
echo the Millennium Development Goals, as they relate to areas such as poverty
eradication, education and health, not the least as a result of lower indoor air
emissions that are linked with maternal and childhood diseases and the
premature deaths of between 800,000 and up to 2.4 million people.
Climate change also represents opportunities to better manage the world's
25
natural and nature-based resources. The Food and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations (FAO) estimates that 13 million hectares of the world's forests
are lost annually and that deforestation accounts for approximately 20 per cent
of the global GHG emissions. We undervalue the huge economic importance of
forests and ecosystem services -- and biodiversity in general -- but addressing
climate change may also recognize some of these issues. Standing forests
currently fall outside the carbon markets. A decisive emissions reduction regime
beyond 2012 opens up the opportunity to give them greater economic value
and thus provide reasons for conservation and sustainable management.
The climate change issue, along with such initiatives as the Global
Compact, is assisting the restoration of the relationships between the United
Nations and other sectors of society, including business and industry. A fascinating
feature of recent months and the past year is a call by the private sector for
global international regulation. Globalization had looked to the free market,
unfettered by "red tape", as a way of liberating economies. But the reality of
climate change has led to a rethinking by the leaders of industry and the financial
services sector. Indeed, businesses in many parts of the world are publicly
demanding climate-related regulations, guidelines, emission caps, etc., partly
because many perceive climate change as an economic risk and also a
significant market opportunity, but only if the ground rules are in place and a level
playing field is operating.
The missing piece in the jigsaw puzzle is a universal agreement by

Governments over the steps needed to reach the 60 to 80 per cent emission cuts
that scientists say are required to stabilize the atmosphere. The UN role as an
honest broker will be key over the next two years to realizing trust between nations
-- trust based on mutual self-interest and a sense that all are acting for a common
cause, albeit at different speeds. The elements are already there. The European
Union has committed itself to a 20-per cent reduction in GHG emissions by 2020,
and up to 30 per cent if others follow. In the United States, there is growing action
by cities and states; for example, the Mayor of New York City has announced a
pledge to cut the city's GHG emissions by 30 per cent. Also, over 460 mayors in the
United States have pledged to cut emissions by 7 per cent below the 1990 levels.
California, has announced it will reduce emissions by 25 per cent by 2020.
Rapidly developing economies, such as Brazil, China and India, are carrying
out voluntary actions to decrease the levels of emissions in comparison to what
they would have been without action. The Chinese authorities estimate that
around 7 per cent of China's energy comes from renewable sources, equivalent
to an emission savings of 328 million tones of carbon dioxide. Targets have been
set for an even higher renewable energy use. China estimates that, by 2010,
energy consumption intensity -- a measure of the amount of energy used per unit
of GDP -- will have fallen by 20 per cent since 2005. Brazil, where a significant level
of emissions comes from land-use change, has reduced deforestation in the
Amazon by over 50 per cent over the past three years. Some 80 per cent of all
26
new cars sold in the country are flex-fuel and able to run on petrol or ethanol.
The IPCC estimates that rapidly developing economies have reduced

emissions by 500 million tonnes over the past three decades, equating to more
than that of the Annex I countries under the Kyoto Protocol. Another way of
building trust is through adaptation to climate change, so-called climate proofing
of economies from coastal management and health care to agriculture and
infrastructure development. This is about good planning as much as financial
assistance. Multilateral and bilateral donors, regional development banks and
international investment flows into developing countries need to reflect
adaptation in their investment decisions.
UNEP and the United Nations Development Programme are piloting

adaptation in eight developing countries under the One UN strategy. We should
look broadly at what can be done, with the United Nations at the central
platform, and welcome all initiatives and paths that contribute to reducing
climate change, including voluntary sector initiatives and partnerships. We should
also look at how other multilateral environmental agreements contribute to the
overall goals.
The Montreal Protocol, which aims to phase out ozone layer depleting
gases, has significantly reduced chlorofluorocarbons -- the chemicals once
common in products like hairsprays that are linked with climate change. New
studies indicate that the offset level of global warming has been four times higher
than that envisaged through the Kyoto Protocol. More ozone-friendly chemicals
have a climate footprint as well. Scientists estimate that accelerating the phasing
out of these chemicals, along with technical measures, could save emissions
equivalent to half a gain of the Protocol. The focus on climate change and the
work of the three Special Envoys are now geared towards the next climate
change conference in Bali, Indonesia in December 2007, where the world will be
looking for concrete action.
The United Nations is also looking at its own backyard. The Capital Master
Plan for the refurbishment of the UN headquarters in New York is assessing how to
factor green measures into the project in order to create a shining example of an
eco-friendly building. It is part of a wider assessment of how UN operations, from
building to procurement of goods and services, can echo to the sustainability
challenge.12
12 https://www.un.org/en/chronicle/article/un-role-climate-change-action-taking-lead-towards-global-response
27
LEARNING EXERCISE
1. Outline the role of the United Nations in the mitigation of effects of

climate change.
2. List things that you can do or contribute in lessening or arresting the

effects of climate change
MODULE 3: TERRORISM AND COUNTER-TERRORISM
Introduction
Although the term is not subject to a universally agreed definition,
terrorism can be broadly understood as a method of coercion that utilizes or
threatens to utilize violence in order to spread fear and thereby attain political
or ideological goals. Contemporary terrorist violence is thus distinguished in law
from "ordinary" violence by the classic terrorist "triangle": A attacks B, to
convince or coerce C to change its position regarding some action or policy
desired by A. The attack spreads fear as the violence is directed, unexpectedly,
against innocent victims, which in turn puts pressure on third parties such as
governments to change their policy or position. Contemporary terrorists utilize
many forms of violence, and indiscriminately target civilians, military facilities
and State officials among others.
The challenges of countering terrorism are not new, and indeed have a
long history. The term "terrorism" was initially coined to describe the Reign of
Terror, the period of the French Revolution from 5 September 1793 to 27 July
1794, during which the Revolutionary Government directed violence and harsh
measures against citizens suspected of being enemies of the Revolution. In turn,
popular resistance to Napoleon's invasion of the Spanish Peninsula led to a new
form of fighter-the "guerrilla", which derives from the Spanish word guerra,
meaning "little war" (Friedlander, 1976, p. 52). As a weapon of politics and
warfare, however, the use of terrorism by groups can be traced back to ancient
times, and as noted by Falk, "in various forms, terrorism is as old as government
and armed struggle, and as pervasive" (Falk, 1990, pp. 39, 41). The focus of this
lesson, is on terrorist violence and the threats carried out by non-State groups
and the response of the international community, especially States, regional
organizations and the United Nations system.13
13 https://www.unodc.org/e4j/en/terrorism/module-1/introduction-learning-outcomes.html
28
LESSON I - THE UNITED NATIONS AND TERRORISM
A recurring feature of discussions, debates and political sensitivities

regarding terrorism during the post-1945 United Nations era have related to
issues of terror-violence by so-called "liberation fighters" claiming to be utilizing
"direct action" to pursue their right to the self-determination of peoples, as they
argued is provided for in the United Nations Charter (Treaty Series, vol. 1, no.
XVI), articles 1(2) and 55 (see also 1941 Atlantic Charter). The Charter
contextualizes the Organization's obligation to "develop friendly relations"
among nations (not "States") based on the principles of equal rights and the self-
determination of "peoples". Difficulties with and controversies regarding the
practical operation of equal rights and self-determination soon arose, including
where national liberation agendas stretched far beyond the narrow confines of
the League of Nations mandate system and the protection of minorities. As a
consequence, conflicting interpretations of relevant Charter principles and
provisions surrounding self-determination quickly arose and have remained
ever since.
This lesson does not attempt to comment on the accuracy or otherwise of

particular legal or political positions. Rather it seeks to provide an impartial
commentary on legal and interdisciplinary approaches to terrorism and
counter-terrorism, by identifying the existence of ongoing debates, where
appropriate, in order to assist students in better comprehending current
approaches to the phenomenon of terrorism and current responses to it by
States and intergovernmental organizations, including the United Nations
system. On issues such as self-determination, including the ongoing "freedom
fighter versus terrorist" conundrum, what is important to understand is that these
issues have been, continue and are likely to remain contentious and have
implications for issues such as the continuing inability of the international
community to agree on a universal definition of terrorism with law-making
consequences.
In any event, many terrorist activities that have occurred during the post-
1945 era have not been associated with self-determination debates at all.
Identified causes of terrorism have instead ranged through the entire spectrum
of human discontent, including the economic, political, social, psychological,
ideological, etc., with short or long-term goals, both objective and subjective,
becoming the object of violence (Whittaker, 2001, p. 33). In response, some in
the international community, especially academics, have sought to label
terrorist groups according to their motivational goals or ideologies rather than
in terms of criminal acts, as is the approach within the United Nations system.
Consequently, students may come across the categorization of such groups
within scholarship as "revolutionary", "separatist", "ethnocentric", "nationalist" or
"religious".
29
In terms of the use of violence and force by terrorists, this also ranges across
a wide spectrum, from individuals with military training and experience, to what
Whittaker has termed "throw away" operatives, who are effectively sent
untrained on suicide missions. Their use of violence also illustrates the slow
evolution of terrorist tactics and strategies, including traditional assassination,
bombings, arson, hostage-taking, hijacking, kidnapping, sabotage, the
perpetration of hoaxes and suicide bombings, to name but a few (see, for
example, Global Terrorism Index 2017 ). More recent tactics can include
unconventional forms of terrorism, including nuclear terrorism (for example,
fabricating a dirty bomb, attacking a nuclear reactor, etc.), high-tech terrorism
involving cyber-attacks, ecological terrorism (for instance, the threat of
destruction to the environment) and terrorist attacks aiming at destroying
cultural heritage, as perpetrated by ISIL (see, for example, the Executive
Committee of the Commonwealth of Independent States, 1999, article 1).
Of particular interest is the fact that such issues and debates have
shaped the approach of the international community to its universal anti-
terrorism conventions so that they are framed around terrorist acts as serious
international crimes regardless of any underlying motivation. Broadly speaking,
anti-terrorism instruments were adopted roughly in three phases (see
further Module 4). Beginning with legislation covering the safety of aviation and
shipping, the early instruments were developed from the 1960s through to the
early 1990s, and addressed specific types of terrorist offences. Notably, acts
perpetrated during "liberation conflicts" were expressly made exceptions to
terrorist crimes, for example, the 1979 Hostages Convention ( Treaty Series, vol.
1316, p. 205, adopted 17 December 1979, entered into force 3 June 1983), as
such acts were to be dealt with under other areas of international law, such as
international humanitarian law. The most recent phase reflects the broadening,
post-categorization of terrorist groups and "causes", to include groups such as
the Taliban, Al-Qaida and ISIL, and thus reflect the contemporary terrorist threat
to the international community.14
 UNITED NATIONS DESIGNATED TERRORIST GROUPS AND

TARGETED SANCTIONS
This section introduces students to the United Nations designation and

targeted sanctions regimes against the Taliban, Al-Qaida, ISIL and affiliated
individuals and groups under Security Council resolution 1267 (1999) and is
aimed at promoting discussion on the strengths, weaknesses and challenges
associated with the counter-terrorism approach of the United Nations under
that resolution and its successive resolutions.
14 Ibid
30
There are two primary non-State groups, namely the Taliban and Al-
Qaida, which have been designated "terrorist" organizations by the Security
Council. In 1999, following the refusal of the Taliban to surrender Osama Bin
Laden and his associates for their roles in the August 1998 attacks on United
States Embassies in Kenya and the United Republic of Tanzania, under its
resolution 1267 (1999) the Security Council designated as terrorist groups the
Taliban and associated individuals and entities, through targeted travel and
arms embargos, and financial/assets sanctions. In 2011, under Security Council
resolution 1989 (2011), the Council divided the so-called "Consolidated List" of
individuals and entities associated with the Taliban and Al-Qaida into two
separate lists: the "Al-Qaida, or 1988 List", and the Taliban List, which contains
those individuals and entities associated with the Taliban who are deemed to
present an ongoing threat to the peace and security of Afghanistan. Finally,
under Security Council resolution 2253 (2015), the Al-Qaida List was further
extended to include ISIL and Al Nusrah Front (ANF).
In Iraq and the Syrian Arab Republic, Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant
(ISIL) lost control over all remaining urban areas. The group continues to
transform into a terror organization with a flat hierarchy, with cells and affiliates
increasingly acting autonomously. The global fight against ISIL will have to focus
on the threat posed by less visible international networks. The combination of
"frustrated travellers", ISIL sympathizers, returnees and relocators poses an
increased security risk for Member States. Attempts by ISIL to infuse money into
the licit economy in combination with a greater inflow of funds for
reconstruction of recaptured areas will necessitate adjusted counter measures.
The global Al-Qaida network has remained resilient and in several regions poses
a greater threat than ISIL. Despite being under military pressure, Al-Qaida in the
Arabian Peninsula (AQAP) increasingly serves as the communications hub for
Al-Qaida as a whole. In North and West Africa, Al-Qaida affiliates and groups
loyal to ISIL increased their activities; while in East Africa, Al-Shabaab has
sustained its dominance over ISIL groups. In South Asia, Al-Qaida affiliates and
ISIL are taking advantage of the volatile security situation in Afghanistan.
Although the recapture of Marawi City by the Philippine authorities was a
military success, the ability of ISIL affiliates to maintain a temporary stronghold
within the city was a propaganda victory with potential long-term
consequences for the region.
The global flow of foreign terrorist fighters has continued to slow, with only
individual cases being reported. However, the marked reduction of territorial
control by ISIL in Iraq and the Syrian Arab Republic will force many foreign
terrorist fighters to make a choice between joining other groups or leaving the
region. With the adoption of its resolution 2396 (2017), the Security Council has
taken a significant step towards meeting the challenges posed by returnees
and relocators.
31
In implementing their obligations under the sanctions regimes established
against Al-Qaida, ISIL and other affiliated groups designated by the Security
Council under resolution 1267 (1999), many States have established a range of
domestic mechanisms for giving effect to the United Nations lists of designated
individuals, groups or entities. Often, this will involve the adoption of the lists, at
a national level, or the use of nationally-based designations of individuals or
entities appearing on them.
In addition, in countering the financing of terrorism, States are obliged

under Security Council resolution 1373 (2001), operative para. 1 (c), to freeze,
without delay, funds, other financial assets or economic resources of persons
who commit, or attempt to commit, terrorist acts or participate in or facilitate
the commission of terrorist acts; or of entities they own, control or direct, as well
as of persons and entities acting on their behalf or direction, and to prohibit their
nationals or any persons and entities within their territories from making any
funds, financial assets or economic resources or financial or other related
services available, directly or indirectly, for the benefit of persons who commit
or attempt to commit or facilitate or participate in the commission of terrorist
acts (operative para. 1 (d)). As a result, many States have in place, at a national
level, legal and institutional frameworks for the designation of individuals or
groups their governments consider to be terrorists, that are on the United
Nations list, or are designated for national or multilateral (e.g., European Union)
purposes. The use of such designation mechanisms potentially raises a number
of implementation challenges for States, and rights-based concerns.15
LESSON II - TERRORIST VICTIMIZATION:

VICTIMS OF TERRORISM
Victimization can be understood as the action of singling someone out for

cruel or unjust treatment. This section explores terrorist victimization, for example,
the factors that come into play when targeting the future victims of a planned
terrorist attack.
Terrorist attacks can be broadly categorized into two categories: focused

and indiscriminate. Historically, terrorism has largely fallen under the former
category. As noted earlier, terrorist attacks were used as an instrument for
politically motivated action, which targeted specific members of governments
or political actors for the purposes of attaining a particular political aim (Schmid,
2006, p. 3; Turković, 2006, p. 55). Such attacks involved some element of
participation in the conflict, albeit indirectly, between the terrorist group and
the adversary. However, contemporary terrorism is characterized by an
15 Ibid
32
increasing frequency and magnitude of indiscriminate violence. Victims of
terrorist attacks are not usually specifically selected on the basis of their
individual characteristics, but are "chance" victims who happen to be in the
wrong place at the wrong time. These victims serve as an instrument designed
to influence third party actors (Šeparović, 2006, p. 20). It is partly this element of
unpredictability and randomness of victim selection that gives terrorism its
modern power-"a power enhanced manifold by the media's display and replay
of acts of victimization" (Schmid, 2006, p. 9). This evolution of the focus of
terrorism reflects a shift from individual terror to a dimension of mass murder and
psychological warfare (Schmid, 2006, p. 9). In this sense, terrorism attempts to
coerce a population and/or its leadership by inciting fear of being hurt
(Šeparović, 2006, p. 21).
Although terrorist attacks are indeed serious crimes, it is important to

remember that terrorist victimization differs from criminal victimization in that the
former has an inherent political dimension. This political dimension may also
encapsulate ideological or religious aims. For instance, the direct victim of a
terrorist attack is rarely the ultimate target of the violence. Rather, the act of
singling out a target serves as an amplifier to convey a broader message and
to influence a wider audience, such as an adversary State of the terrorist
organization (Schmid, 2006, p. 4). An important goal of terrorism is for mass
audiences to pay attention to the messages being conveyed, and to undergo
a sense of terror and panic as a result of the terrorist attack. The terror invoked
in individuals is further amplified by a process of identification with the victim, a
fear that "it could have been me" (Schmid, 2006, p. 7).The victims of terrorist
attacks therefore serve as symbols of shared group or class characteristics,
which in turn form one basis for their selection as victims (Šeparović, 2006, p. 21).
In this sense, victims of terrorism serve as instrumental targets.
Primary (direct) victims of terrorist acts or campaigns
1. Those who are killed by terrorist kidnappers, hostage-takers, gunmen or

bombers.
2. Those who are injured, mutilated or mentally tortured by terrorists but
ultimately released or liberated.
3. Those who are wounded or die in a counter-terrorist rescue operation at the
hands of terrorists or armed first responders.
4. Those who become mentally or physically handicapped or die (commit suicide)
in a causal sequel to one or several terrorist events in which they were
involved or of which they were direct witnesses.
Alex Schmid (2006). "Magnitudes and Focus of Terrorist Victimization." In Uwe Ewald
and Ksenija Turkovi ć eds. Large-Scale Victimization as a Potential Source of
Terrorist Activities, IOS Press, p. 4.
33
Ten terrorist audiences
1. The adversary/-ies of the terrorist organization (usually one or several

governments)
2. The constituency/society of the adversary/ies
3. The targeted direct victims and their families and friends
4. Others who have reason to fear that they might be the next targets
5. "Neutral" distant audiences
6. The supporting constituency of the terrorist organization
7. Potential sympathetic sectors of domestic and foreign audiences
8. Other terrorist groups rivalling for prominence
9. The terrorist and his or her organization
10. The media.
Alex Schmid (2006). "Magnitudes and Focus of Terrorist Victimization." In Uwe Ewald
and Ksenija Turkovi ć, eds. Large-Scale Victimisation as a Potential Source of
Terrorist Activities, IOS Press, p. 4
LEARNING EXERCISE
1. Discuss the role of UN in counter-terrorism.
2. What are the purposes of groups involved in terrorism?
3. Discuss the Philippine experience (Marawi Siege) on terrorism.
MODULE 4: MIGRATION
Introduction
Migration is a complex human and social phenomenon, which has been

a source of prosperity and innovation throughout the history of humankind.
Migration, whether regular or irregular, is not per se a crisis or a problem and
should not be confused with the smuggling of migrants, which is criminal
conduct that can occur in the context of migration. This section will address the
issue of migration to better understand the broader context in which such
criminal conduct develops.
34
Migration has always occurred; though certain events have precipitated
large increases in the movement of people. For example, during the twentieth
century, the Great Depression, the World Wars and decolonization all caused
major cross-border displacement. According to the UN Refugee Agency, the
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), the world is currently
witnessing some of the largest migratory movements on record. At the end of
2016, approximately 65.6 million people had fled their homes due to conflict
and persecution (often referred to as 'involuntary migration'). Many people are
also compelled to leave their countries of origin due to, inter alia, natural
disasters, economic crises or the desire to reunite with family members in other
countries.
LESSON I – DRIVERS OF MIGRATION
Migration is driven by so-called push and pull factors, which push people
to migrate from their countries of origin and attract them to certain destinations.
Migrants are often motivated to move by a combination of several of these
factors. Indeed, push and pull factors are commonly interconnected, giving rise
to complex causes for migration.
Push Factors Pull Factors
 Economic difficulties  Security and safety

 Environmental disaster  Employment opportunities
 Fear of persecution or violence  Higher standards of health care
 Insufficient employment  Education
opportunities  Family reunification
 Political unrest and war  Improved living conditions/welfare
 Poor medical care  Personal realization, enjoyment
 Precarious living conditions and leisure
 Religious repression/lack of
religious freedom
To comprehensively understand the phenomenon of migration, it is

important to also consider factors that prevent individuals, who otherwise wish
to migrate, from doing so. These factors often centre on restrictive migration
policies (especially in destination countries), the lack of regular avenues for
migration and the inability (or ability) of individuals to circumvent the barriers
erected by countries to control and regulate international movement. Professor
Jorgen Carling refers to ' involuntary immobility' to express this reality, which
influences migratory movements around the world.
35
 Mixed Migration Flows
Mixed migration' is a term that has developed in the policy landscape. It

encompasses the following vectors:
 Migrants have different motivations (including economic, educational,

discrimination issues and fear of persecution or violence). Often, the factors
driving migrants to leave their respective home countries are multifaceted (for
example, where civil war or political upheaval exists, finding safe employment
is likely to become an arduous endeavour, pushing individuals to seek
opportunities abroad).

 Persons with different migratory motivations and to whom different legal
frameworks apply might converge on the same routes (and even use the same
mode of transportation), aiming to reach the same destination country.
Moreover, different legal frameworks might apply to the same individuals at
different stages of their journey. For example, a smuggled migrant might
become a victim of trafficking, or an irregular migrant might become a refugee
due to a change of circumstances in his or her country of origin.
Migration flows are often composed of people moving for a variety of

reasons. There are several important concepts that are used, and often
confused, in the context of mixed flows.
Irregular A person who enters, transits or stays in a country - of which

migrant he or she is neither a national nor a permanent resident -
without fulfilling relevant legal requirements.
Smuggled An individual who resorts to the services of another person (a

migrant smuggler), whereby the latter procures or enables the illegal
entry, transit or stay of the former in a country of which he or
she is not a national or permanent resident. Smugglers act
for the purpose of obtaining a financial or other material
benefit.
Right of The right of a person being persecuted in his or her own

asylum country to be protected by another State.
Refugee A person who, owing to a well-founded fear of being

persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality,
membership of a particular social group or political opinion, is
outside the country of his or her nationality and is unable or,
owing to such fear, unwilling to avail him or herself of the
36
protection of that country; or who, not having a nationality and
being outside the country of his or her former habitual
residence as a result of such events, is unable or, owing to
such fear, unwilling to return to it.
Asylum- An individual who left the respective country of origin and

seeker formally applied for asylum in another State but whose
application has not yet been ultimately decided.
Economic A person who leaves the respective country of origin purely

migrant / for economic reasons - that are not related to the refugee
Labour definition (see above) - to seek improvement in his or her
migrant livelihood.
Environmental An individual who is forced to leave the respective home

migrant country due to sudden or long-term changes to the local
environment which compromise his or her well-being or
livelihood. For example, droughts, desertification, sea level
rise and disruption of seasonal weather patterns such as
monsoons.
Family An entry channel enabling those in a foreign State to be joined

reunification by their family members. States often enjoy enhanced
discretion in determining the conditions of family reunification.
 Consequences of Migratory Flows
Demographic alterations - Population rates will be altered, and it is likely that

migration will contribute to the development of separate cultures and/or
diffusion of foreign cultures in the destination country. Positive outcomes of
migration include cultural exchange and dissemination of new skills and
knowledge. Migrants are often young and productive individuals. This can
cause a demographic crisis in the country of origin (see further below).
 Economic consequences - Migrants make positive contributions to both their

host and home countries. Financially, migrants may contribute to the economy
of the host country by paying taxes. They inject large proportions of their
earnings into the economies of host societies. In addition, migrants are likely to
send part of their income to their home country to help relatives and friends,
which will benefit the overall economy (Ratha, 2013). However, given that
migratory flows are mostly composed of young individuals, the country of origin
will face a reduction of its labour force. A shrinking economically active
37
population will have to finance the growing inactive (aging) population in
countries that predominantly act as sending countries, increasing the risks of
economic crisis. This, in and of itself, may turn into a further push factor for
migration. In destination countries the working population will increase, leading
locals to potentially perceive, or misconceive, migrants as a threat to the
availability of employment in the labour market.

 Political and social impact - The mixture of increasingly diverse cultures in
destination countries may cause social tensions, sometimes followed by
instances of violence and discrimination. This may result, inter alia,from negative
perceptions (real or otherwise) of migrants and their effect on the economy
(see above). There may also be perceptions (misconceptions) that migrants are
more likely to engage in criminality. Social tensions stemming from migration
may be exacerbated if there are no or deficient measures to promote
integration in the country of destination
Nonetheless, it is important to underline that migration has been an

integral, and generally positive, part of the history of humanity. It generates
important benefits for both countries of origin and destination, as well as
migrants and their families. Concerns may arise, however, when circumstances
are not suited to the consequences of migration flows; for example, when the
policies or material capabilities of destination countries do not suitably
accommodate the number of individuals intending to enter and/or stay in the
country.
Migrant smuggling develops in the context of migratory aspirations and

conditions, together with States' rules on the entry, transit and stay of migrants.
States' migration policies are often restrictive, reflecting the limited ability of
countries to absorb very large numbers of migrants in short periods of time and
the preference of States for certain types of migrants (usually high-skilled
migrants). Many individuals wishing to migrate do not satisfy these legal
requirements or are otherwise unaware of them. Nonetheless, strict migration
policies - including restrictive asylum policies, severe penalties for irregular entry
and the enforcement of border controls - have been largely ineffective in
decreasing migratory movements. By limiting avenues for regular migration,
restrictive policies have instead led to an increase in demand for the services of
individuals (smugglers) who assist migrants in evading migration controls and
enable them to irregularly enter and stay in destination countries. Such
measures have also led to the growing professionalization of smugglers. Illegal
services are set up to respond to the demand of individuals who wish to migrate
to improve their lives or for other compelling reasons, but who cannot migrate
legally. Smuggling of migrants is often the last resort for many individuals trying
to escape war, violence, and poverty.
38
By way of example, Europe has been a significant destination for
migration for many years, but from 2015 onwards the EU registered record levels
of irregular migration. The reasons for this increase relate to a complex set of
factors stemming from political upheaval in the Middle East, Africa and South
Asia. Broadly speaking, the number of irregular migrants detected in the EU
began to increase in 2011 following the Arab Spring and the collapse of the
Qaddafi regime in Libya. Sub-Saharan Africans who had previously migrated to
Libya began to enter Europe to flee unrest in the post-Qaddafi era. The
International Organization for Migration (IOM) estimates that more than 464,000
migrants crossed into Europe by sea in the first nine months of 2015 ( IOM, 2018).
Syrians, Afghans and Eritreans represented the largest groups of migrants.
Deteriorating security and growing poverty in Iraq, Nigeria, Pakistan, Somalia
and South Sudan have also contributed to the migration flows towards Europe.
Due to its geographic location, the EU has become a predominant destination
for migrants leaving these countries. Even migrants wishing to migrate to North
America regularly transit through European countries. The pressure to leave
countries of origin, combined with economic difficulties and the inability to
meet requirements for regular entry into the European Union, led to a substantial
increase in the use of smuggling services.
It is also interesting to note that migration routes evolved - and do evolve

- dynamically, influenced by the situation in countries of origin and restrictive
border management policies in countries of transit and destination. Smugglers
adapt to actions and new policies by law enforcement, thus finding alternatives
that offer more probability of success and profitability.16
LESSON II – VULNERABILITY
Smuggled migrants are often exposed to heightened risks and may be in

vulnerable situations. The fact of being far from home, often in a country where
they have never been and do not know anyone, is a substantial cause of
vulnerability for irregular migrants. Many will not know the language, cultural
habits and logistics in transit and destination countries. Their dependence on
smugglers, coupled with the fear of contacting authorities, significantly
increases their risk of abuse. Further, flows of smuggled migrants often include
particularly vulnerable groups, such as women, unaccompanied minors and
people with disabilities. Acknowledging this is critical to effectively and
holistically understanding and addressing migrant smuggling and its
consequences, including by providing tailored assistance, support and
protection to smuggled migrants.
16 https://www.unodc.org/e4j/en/tip-and-som/module-5/key-issues/Migration-and-migrant-smuggling.html
39
 Situational Vulnerability
Women Migrant women are vulnerable to human rights violations

during smuggling ventures and after arrival. They are at risk of
being forced into trafficking rings (labour or sexual
exploitation, mostly). There are reports of migrants selling their
children for adoption in lieu of payment of smuggling fees
(UNODC, 2010, p. 43)
Children Children, particularly unaccompanied minors, are especially

vulnerable to the dangers of smuggling and are at risk of being
recruited by criminal networks and trafficking rings. Children
are often unable to report abuse, which is likely to fuel myths
of life improvements following the smuggling venture.
Refugees Smugglers are often asylum seekers' only way to escape war
and asylum and persecution. The smuggling process may exacerbate pre-
seekers existing vulnerabilities of refugees and asylum seekers.
Smuggled migrants are commonly recruited at refugee camps
and reception centres.
Persons with Persons with physical or psychological disabilities require

disability special care. They are easy targets for trafficking in persons
for the purpose of illegal activities. With the numbers of
smuggled migrants increasing significantly and being
composed even more so by populations escaping war and
violence, the rate of persons with disability among migratory
flows is likely to also increase.
Elderly The poor, childless, frail or isolated elderly comprise a high-

risk group in terms of vulnerability.
The above table does not intend to imply that women, children,
refugees, persons with disabilities and the elderly are per se vulnerable. Nor
does it suggest that only said groups may be vulnerable. Rather, as pointed out
in the second column, it aims to highlight that these groups often face
conditions that make them particularly vulnerable. In other words, what causes
vulnerability are specific conditions (such as gender or racial discrimination,
isolation, language limitations, lack of support structures, financial difficulties
etc). These categorizations - cognizant that categorizations should always be
considered with a degree of caution - operate as an 'alert' to draw the
40
attention of authorities and relevant stakeholders to the potential special
attention and care these individuals may require. Rather than addressing the
table above as it is presented, the lecturer may decide to ask the students what
conditions they believe are likely to enhance the vulnerability of migrants and,
specifically, smuggled migrants.
When smuggled migrants and smugglers belong to the same family,

social group or community, smuggled migrants might be more vulnerable to
stigmatization or fear of retaliation. Cultural practices (such as Voodoo) may
also influence migrants' behaviour, including as far as potential cooperation
with authorities is concerned. This is not to say that smuggled migrants'
vulnerabilities are only caused by smugglers. Rather, these might pre-exist and
might also be related to the need to leave one's country in the first place. Efforts
to counter migrant smuggling should therefore be context-sensitive as the risk
exists that they might enhance existing vulnerabilities and lack efficacy.
In understanding the dynamics of migrant smuggling, it is important to

bear in mind that smuggled migrants give their consent to the smuggling
venture. Migrants are not deceived or coerced in that respect. This reality does
not affect the responsibility of smugglers, the unlawful nature of migrant
smuggling nor the status of smuggled migrants as vulnerable persons in need
of, and entitled to, assistance and protection. Likewise, while migrants consent
to being transported to a certain country without fulfilling the legal requirements
to do so, they would not consent to the specific form or circumstances of travel.
For example, they would not consent to substandard or exploitative treatment,
violence or otherwise dangerous conditions.17
LEARNING EXERCISE
1. What is migration?
2. Why do people migrate?
3. What are the type of migrants and their vulnerabilities?
4. In your own words, discuss the consequences of migration.
5. Differentiate the situational vulnerabilities of the following: women,

children, refugees, PWD’s, and elderlies.
17 https://www.unodc.org/e4j/en/tip-and-som/module-5/key-issues/vulnerability.html
41
LESSON III – THE PHILIPPINES’ CULTURE OF MIGRATION
Introduction
Since the 1970s, the Philippines — a country of about 7,000 islands

peopled by diverse ethno-linguistic groups — has supplied all kinds of skilled and
low-skilled workers to the world's more developed regions. As of December
2004, an estimated 8.1 million Filipinos — nearly 10 percent of the country's 85
million people — were working and/or residing in close to 200 countries and
territories.
Although the Philippines is largely a country of emigration, it also attracts

some foreigners to its shores. Traditionally, the foreign population in the
Philippines consists of people of Chinese origin (some 80 percent of overseas
Chinese are in Southeast Asia) and some people of Indian origin who came to
settle in the country years ago.
Presently, there are 36,150 foreign nationals working and residing in the
Philippines. The inflows of foreigners to the country, as well as concerns for
unauthorized migration and the use of the Philippines as a transit point for other
destinations, point to a reality in this age of migration: that countries can no
longer be neatly and exclusively classified as countries of origin, transit, or
destination.
Much of the country's attention and policies, though, are focused on

emigration. A film released in June 2005, La Visa Loca, captures an ordinary
Filipino's feverish quest for a U.S. visa, the perceived ticket to a better life. In
reality, the quest for a visa is not limited to the United States. Other promised
lands in different regions — the Middle East, Asia, Europe, Africa, and Oceania
— have become the objects of Filipino dreams.
In the last 30 years, a "culture of migration" has emerged, with millions of

Filipinos eager to work abroad, despite the risks and vulnerabilities they are likely
to face. A nationwide survey of 1,200 adult respondents in 2002 found one in
five Filipinos expressing a desire to migrate.
More recent surveys carried out by Pulse Asia in 2005 found an increasing
percentage of adult respondents — 26 percent in July and 33 percent in
October — agreeing with the statement, "If it were only possible, I would migrate
to another country and live there." Interest in leaving the country is not limited
to adults. In a nationwide survey in 2003 of children ages 10 to 12, 47 percent
reported that they wished to work abroad someday. Sixty percent of children
of overseas foreign workers said they had plans to work abroad.
The development of a culture of migration in the Philippines has been

greatly aided by migration's institutionalization. The government facilitates
42
migration, regulates the operations of the recruitment agencies, and looks out
for the rights of its migrant workers. More importantly, the remittances workers
send home have become a pillar of the country's economy.
 Historical Background
After more than three centuries of Spanish colonial rule, the revolution
waged by Filipinos in 1896 almost led to the end of Spanish rule. After a year of
fighting, the revolutionaries and the Spanish authorities signed a truce in
December 1897, and General Emilio Aguinaldo went into exile in Hong Kong.
The Spanish-American War broke out in February 1898, sparked by the

United States' support for Cuba's fight against Spain. This spilled over into the
Philippines. An American fleet led by Admiral George Dewey arrived in Manila,
defeating Spanish forces in the Battle of Manila Bay on May 1, 1898.
Upon the urging of Admiral Dewey to resume the fight against Spain,
General Aguinaldo returned to Manila on May 18, 1898. General Aguinaldo's
forces liberated several towns south of Manila and declared independence
from Spain on June 12, 1898. More American forces arrived, and the Spaniards
surrendered Manila to the Americans that August.
On December 10, 1898, the Treaty of Paris was signed between the United
States and Spain, formally ending the Spanish-American War. Under the treaty,
the United States paid Spain to take control of the Philippines. Cuba, Puerto
Rico, Guam, and the Mariana Islands were ceded to the United States as well.
Filipinos resisted American rule, and the ensuing Philippine-American War,

which began in 1899, dragged on even after it "officially" ended with the
capture of General Aguinaldo in 1901, followed by the establishment of a civil
government throughout the Philippines in 1902. The Philippines became
independent in July 1946, after the Japanese invasion and occupation of World
War II.
For much of the 20th century, "international migration" for Filipinos meant
going to the United States and its Pacific territories. The first batch of Filipino
workers arrived in the U.S. territory of Hawaii on December 20, 1906 to work on
sugarcane and pineapple plantations.
More workers, mostly single men, followed; others left Hawaii to work in
agriculture in California, Washington, and Oregon, or the salmon canneries of
Alaska. On the mainland, low-wage service work in the cities — waiters,
busboys, or domestic work — provided alternative jobs between agricultural
seasons or when other jobs are not available. Some 4,000 Filipinos were
employed in the merchant marine, but this employment possibility ceased with
43
the 1937 passage of a law requiring the crew of U.S. flag vessels to be at least
90 percent American citizens.
According to one estimate, approximately 120,000 Filipino workers came

to Hawaii between 1906 and 1934. Another estimate puts the number of Filipinos
arriving in the United States between 1907 and the 1930 at 150,000, the majority
of whom were in Hawaii. A small number of scholars, known as pensionados,
also immigrated to the United States before the 1920s. They were either
sponsored by the U.S. government or by missionary-related programs. Some
were sent by rich families to study and a few were self-supporting students.
Those who returned assumed important positions in Filipino society while others
remained in the United States.
Because the Philippines was a U.S. colony, the movement of Filipinos to

the United States was considered internal migration and Filipino migrants were
"nationals" (but not citizens). It was not until the passage of the 1934 Tydings-
McDuffie Law (also known as the Philippines Independence Act of 1934), which
provided for the granting of Philippine independence in 10 years' time, that the
Philippines became subject to immigration quotas. The 1934 law limited the
Philippines to 50 visas per year, and migration dropped off dramatically.
But even so, there was an exception clause: in case of a labor shortage,
the governor of Hawaii was authorized to hire Filipino workers. As nationals,
Filipinos were entitled to American passports and could enter and leave the
country freely. World War II intervened and further migration to the United States
stalled. Between 1946 and the mid-1960s, about 10,000 to 12,000 Filipinos came
to Hawaii as workers, military personnel, and war brides.
It was not until the 1965 Immigration and Nationality Act, when nationality-
based restrictions were struck down, that Filipino immigration grew and
diversified.
Other countries of settlement also dismantled their pro-European

immigration policies in the 1960s and 1970s, paving the way for Filipinos to enter
Canada, Australia, and New Zealand under family or skills-based provisions. The
Philippines eventually became one of the top 10 sending countries in these
traditional immigration countries.
Filipinos also settled in countries that are not traditional countries of

immigration, such as Germany and Japan, through marriage or work-related
migration. This permanent migration, however, was overshadowed by the
larger and thornier temporary labor migration that started in the 1970s.18
18 https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/philippines-culture-migration?
44
 Becoming a Labor Exporter
The Philippines' ascent as a major labor exporter in Asia and worldwide is

based on various factors. When large-scale labor migration from the Philippines
started in the 1970s, the "push" factors were very strong but made worse by the
oil crisis in 1973. Among others, economic growth could not keep up with
population growth. The country was hard pressed to provide jobs and decent
wages and had severe balance of payment problems.
At the same time, the oil-rich Gulf countries needed workers to realize their
ambitious infrastructure projects. With supply and demand factors converging,
the Philippines was ripe for large-scale labor migration, an opportunity the
Marcos government recognized. The framework for what became the
government's overseas employment program was established with the passage
of the Labor Code of the Philippines in 1974.
The Philippines' foray into organized international labor migration was

supposed to be temporary, lasting only until the country recovered from its
economic problems. However, the continuing demand for workers in the Gulf
countries and the opening of new labor markets in other regions, especially in
East and Southeast Asia, fueled further migration.
On the supply side, the push factors have not abated. The absence of
sustained economic development, political instability, a growing population,
double-digit unemployment levels, and low wages continue to compel people
to look abroad.
The flow of overseas foreign workers (OFWs), numbering a few thousand

per year in the early 1970s, has grown to hundreds of thousands (see Table 1).
In 2004 alone, 933,588 OFWs left the country. Based on trends, it is expected that
the number of deployed OFWs will hit the one million mark in 2005.
 Protecting Workers Abroad
The irregular operations of recruitment agencies in the Philippines and their

counterparts in the countries of destination are one of the sources of
vulnerabilities for migrant workers. Excessive placement fees, contract
substitution, nonpayment or delayed wages, and difficult working and living
conditions are common problems encountered by migrant workers, including
legal ones.
Migrant women face particular vulnerabilities. Aside from the usual

problems that plague migrants, their jobs in domestic work and entertainment
usually mean long working hours, surveillance and control by employers, and
abusive conditions, including violence and sexual harassment. Given the
45
"private" context in which they work, the problems encountered by migrant
women in these sectors go unnoticed.
In general, compared to other national groups, Filipino workers are

relatively better protected because they are more educated, more likely to
speak English, and they are better organized. NGOs for migrants in the
Philippines and their networks abroad not only provide services and support to
migrants, but, more importantly, they advocate for migrants' rights
The development of a legal and institutional framework to promote

migrant workers' protection is also an important factor. The Philippines was the
first among the countries of origin in Asia to craft a law that aims "to establish a
higher standard of protection and promotion of the welfare of migrant workers,
their families and overseas Filipinos in distress." Although there had been
discussions about a Magna Charta for migrant workers for some time, it was not
until 1995 that the Migrant Workers and Overseas Filipinos Act (also known as
Republic Act or RA8042) was finally passed.
The tipping point was the national furor in 1995 over the execution of Flor
Contemplación, a domestic worker in Singapore, who many Filipinos believed
was innocent despite her conviction for the deaths of her Singaporean ward
and another Filipino domestic worker. This was a factor in fast-tracking the
passage of RA8042.
Briefly, the law's provisions include:
 the deployment of workers in countries that ensure protection, including

the banning of deployment if necessary;
 providing support and assistance to overseas Filipinos, whether legal or in
an unauthorized situation;
 imposing stiff penalties for illegal recruiters;
 free legal assistance and witness protection program for victims of illegal
recruitment;
 the institution of advisory/information, repatriation, and reintegration
services;
 the stipulation that the "protection of Filipino migrant workers and the
promotion of their welfare, in particular, and the protection of the dignity
and fundamental rights and freedoms of the Filipino abroad, in general,
shall be the his/her priority concerns of the Secretary of Foreign Affairs
and the Philippine Foreign Service Posts;"
 the establishment of the Migrant Workers and Other Overseas Filipinos
Resource Centers in countries where there are large numbers of Filipinos;
 and the creation of the Legal Assistant for Migrant Workers Affairs (now
the Office of the Undersecretary of Migrant Workers Affairs) and the Legal
Assistance Fund.
46
 Remittances
Aside from easing unemployment, Filipinos who choose to work abroad

send home remittances that have become an important pillar of the Philippine
economy.
For the families of migrant workers, remittances are generally spent on

fulfilling the basic needs of the family, better housing, educational opportunities
for children, and starting or investing in small businesses. According to a 2005
World Bank report, the Philippines is the fifth-largest recipient of remittance flows
after India, China, Mexico, and France.
The government encourages migrant workers to send remittances

through banks. A study by the Asian Development Bank found that 80 percent
of Filipino respondents regularly remit through banks or other regulated sectors.
Among other reasons, lower remittance costs help explain the greater use of
regulated channels than was the case in the past.
The Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas is also working on enforcing minimum

standards for banks and other players in the remittance business to protect
OFWs and their families from fly-by-night operators, excessive fees, unfair foreign
currency conversion, and delivery problems.
 Looking Ahead
Within the Philippines, there has been much speculation about the costs
of migration: the problems borne by migrants, anxieties about the destabilizing
impacts of migration on families, apprehensions about materialism, and so forth.
Although it is acknowledged that migrants and their families have benefited
from labor migration, mostly because of remittances, the economic impacts
beyond the family level are less tangible.
And while it is acknowledged that remittances have buoyed the

country's economy, the development impacts have not been clearly felt. Some
question what the country has to show for more than three decades of overseas
employment.
In a strange twist, the Philippines has become so successful as a labor

exporter that it has failed to develop and strengthen development processes.
The target to send a million workers every year is a telling indicator that
migration will be an important part of the country's future development plans
and prospects.
Even without government involvement, labor migration from the

Philippines likely will persist thanks to social networks, social capital, and social
remittances that have flourished. Filipino society has become migration-savvy,
47
having developed the ability to respond and to adjust to the changing
demands of the global labor market.
Anticipation of future demand for nurses, for example, has resulted in the
proliferation of nursing schools and a remarkable increase in student enrollment
in nursing programs in recent years. Even doctors are studying to be nurses to
have better chances of working abroad. This is a concrete example of how
perceptions of the international labor market have also woven their way into
the educational and work aspirations of Filipinos.
Individuals make decisions based on perceptions of what would be

beneficial for them. But those decisions can have a cumulative effect on
communities and the country. In the nursing example, the proliferation of
nursing programs (which puts into question the quality of training), the specter
of an oversupply of nurses, and the potential mismatch between skills needed
and available human resources are some societal-wide concerns that must be
considered and must be weighed vis-à-vis individual aspirations.
While the Philippines cannot stop people from leaving, the country will
need to explore how migration can be an instrument for development. In this
regard, the Philippines can learn much from international discussions and
reflections on migration and development taking place in other countries. 19
LEARNING EXERCISE
1. What are the different milestones in the migration of Filipinos?
2. What are the different reasons on why Filipinos migrate to another

country? Expound on such reasons.
3. Is the Philippine government protection to Overseas Filipino Workers

satisfactory if not outstanding? Why or Why not?
4. What do you think is the possible solution to Philippine diaspora?
19 Ibid
48
MODULE 5: RACISM
Black Lives Matter (BLM), international social movement, formed in the

United States in 2013, dedicated to fighting racism and anti-
Black violence, especially in the form of police brutality. The
name Black Lives Matter signals condemnation of the unjust killings of
Black people by police (Black people are far more likely to be killed by
police in the United States than white people) and the demand that
society value the lives and humanity of Black people as much as it
values the lives and humanity of white people.
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Black-Lives-Matter
 WHAT IS RACIAL DISCRIMINATION?
Racial discrimination is when a person is treated less favourably than

another person in a similar situation because of their race, colour, descent,
national or ethnic origin or immigrant status.
For example, it would be ‘direct discrimination’ if a real estate agent

refuses to rent a house to a person because they are of a particular racial
background or skin colour.
It is also racial discrimination when there is a rule or policy that is the same
for everyone but has an unfair effect on people of a particular race, colour,
descent, national or ethnic origin or immigrant status.
This is called ‘indirect discrimination’.
49
For example, it may be indirect racial discrimination if a company says
that employees must not wear hats or other headwear at work, as this is likely
to have an unfair effect on people from some racial/ethnic backgrounds.20
 What does being a racist mean? What is racism?
 discriminating against a person because of their color or race

 not interacting with black people
 fighting with someone because he or she is from another country
 only valuing people from your own group
 associating prejudices with a group that we call a race
 classifying human beings
 classifying human beings using prejudices
 classifying human beings on a hierarchical scale from best to worst
 attributing a series of “good” and “bad” characteristics to a person
according to their physical aspect
 hate identified with a series of prejudices
 inferiorizing
 insinuating that we are not the same people as they are21
LESSON I – PREJUDICES & STEREOTYPES
On the other hand, we feel the need to make it clear that the association
between differences, real or imaginary, and behavior, equally real or
imaginary, is established in such a close and automatic way that it is transmitted
from one individual to another unconsciously in the form of prejudice that is, as
ideas accepted without the intervention of one’s own judgment or experience.
Not only are prejudices accepted this way, but everyone else is assumed to
share them and people act accordingly. Because they are so easy to transmit,
prejudices are very hard to dismantle, because we receive them as certainties,
without realizing it, and when a personal experience goes against this idea,
instead of modifying the prejudice, what we do is treat our experience as if it
were an exception to the rule that the prejudice establishes, and we keep the
same without modifying it at all. At any rate, we have not been able to agree
on the subject of prejudice and how to define it, either, and we continue to
discuss what each of us believes.
Prejudices associated with the behavior of groups of people and

combined with other prejudices are stereotypes. Even though it is very hard for
20 https://humanrights.gov.au/our-work/race-discrimination/publications/know-your-rights-racial-discrimination-and-
vilification
21 https://www2.uned.es/grupointer/vol8_racism_guide.pdf
50
us to agree on this point, some of us think that stereotyping is attributing a
specific behavior, A Guide to Talking about Racism | 26 expressed in very
simple ideas, to a group; thus, just like with prejudices, stereotypes are very easy
to transmit and to accept, but they are also very difficult to change. We tend
to use them unconsciously and we believe that they tell us about people’s
identity, but all they offer us are caricatures of the differences with respect to
any group that we identify as us and them, the differences that we think we see
and that we want to attribute to the group. Many times, we create stereotypes,
based on our own experience, when we compare the behavior of two or more
people from the same group and generalize from these people to the rest,
because we associate this behavior with “their culture,” their place of origin,
their religion, etc., attributing it to everyone.
One of the most dangerous consequences of stereotypes, which we will

see later when we talk about social and individual identity, is that we judge
people by them, and sometimes, from these ideas, we can even decide their
future and their possibilities. They work, basically, like a self-fulfilling prophecy:
we have expectations about a group and, in the end, these are confirmed,
because if I have the idea X about a group of people and I only notice the
times this idea is confirmed, rejecting all the other experiences that do not fit as
exceptions, it is hard not to use this idea as a self-fulfilling prophecy. We all tend
to reduce and simplify; it is a lot easier and simpler to manage all the information
that surrounds us this way. It is easier to believe that all women have
characteristics in common, that all homosexuals are similar in some way, that
all gypsies are the same in some way, that all Moroccans are the same,
because this way we know what we can expect from them. So we act as if the
behavior we have seen from one person were what we should expect from
another person from the same group.22
LEARNING EXERCISE
Look for the meaning of prejudice and stereotypes in the dictionary and write
your own interpretation of the said meaning.
Pictures in our heads
We tend to think that groups of people behave according to a series of

characteristics or traits that we use to define the behavior of the people who
are in the group. With this activity, we are going to try to make some of these
images explicit. What can you say about the following groups? Please be
sincere when doing this activity and write the first thing that comes to mind:
22 Ibid
51
e.g. Beauty Queens are beautiful, smart, and intelligent.
Filipinos are __________________________

Teachers are _________________________
Americans are ________________________
Women are __________________________
Children are _________________________
Beggars are __________________________
Engineers are _________________________
Farmers are ___________________________
Doctors are ___________________________
Popstars are __________________________
 The tendency to simplify23
We all function cognitively with stereotypes and we establish categories;

this is a psychological mechanism that helps us to simplify reality and to be able
to function in a more agile way in our daily lives.
Although this is the way that social cognition works, we must realize that
it is also the starting point for the racist mechanism. The emphasis on difference
and not sameness distances us from those people or groups that we categorize
as “others.” By establishing categories, we are inevitably making value
judgments that lead to a different way of considering each social group, that
is, to creating a hierarchy. This differentiation and classification can “blind” us
to trying to get to know the other. We take knowledge (either based on previous
experiences or using stereotypes about social groups) that annuls our capacity
to see who is there. We simply apply the “cliché” and go on to consider the
person an individual of class A or class B, without really getting to know them.
And this lack of knowledge makes us afraid of the other, it provokes a lack of
trust and rejection on our part; or, on the contrary, it provokes admiration and
liking. In the case of immigrants, one of the groups that is a victim of racism, we
find that there are different aspects that are valued one way or another
(hierarchy), resulting – in some cases- in discrimination: according to the IOÉ
Collective16,24 the main criteria of differentiation are the following:
 Nationality: papers that accredit being a citizen or not of the state in the
territory of which one resides. The greatest discrimination is produced in
relation to immigrants without papers.
24Colectivo IOÉ. “Actitudes ante los inmigrantes: ¿discriminación o trato igualitario?”, in Revista Sal Terrae Nº 1045, 2001,
pp. 379-395. Available also at www.nodo50.org/ioe
52
 Culture: System of values, symbols, and practices (including language,
traditions, beliefs, etc.) that contributes to giving a certain social identity
to its adherents. Discrimination happens in relation to minority cultures
when the majority feels superior to them or thinks that their presence
could contaminate or weaken the social cohesion that the dominant
culture provides. In the case of Spain, for example, gypsy culture has
traditionally been discriminated against, and Islamic culture is also often
discriminated against.
 Phenotype: Differences in body image, such as skin color, eye shape, or

other physical characteristics. The most frequent case of this type of
discrimination occurs in relation to people with black skin but it also
appears in the case of individuals with brown skin (people from the
Maghreb, Native Americans…), with slanted eyes (Asians), etc.
 Economic position: Differences in access to work and work conditions

and participation in income are at the origin of different forms of
economic and job discrimination, which also affect foreigners. From this
point of view, “qualified” immigrants who have good jobs in sound
companies are not discriminated against, but only those who make a
living alternating between precarious jobs and periods of unemployment.
 Gender: Just like the previous difference, this one affects all groups; in this
case, women are the habitual objects of different forms of discrimination.
 Fear of anything different?
Racism and fear are two ideas that many people associate, because a
racist attitude seems to be produced as a response to a threat, provoked by
fear. Where does this fear come from? Fear is usually automatically ascribed to
differences. It is as if differences, merely because they are unknown, cannot
provoke curiosity, admiration, or some other kind of “positive” sentiment, but
only put us in an uncomfortable position where we do not know how to react
and we substitute our lack of a response with a racist attitude. As the next
section explains, racism is learned and we are exposed to it constantly. In the
same way, we believe that there are fears that are learned socially and are
based on stereotypes. One stereotype that is socially accepted (which does
not mean that there are not people who fight against it) is that gypsies cheat
and steal, so we are taught to be afraid of them, or at the very least, to be
cautious in their presence, not exactly because of the physical and cultural
differences we may find, but simply because of a belief.
Racism is a pernicious mechanism that attacks us imperceptibly from

childhood onwards and that makes us assume that we are “superior” to other
people. It is so normalized and naturalized that we need to be reeducated in
order to realize our advantages and the “racist” use we make of them: they
53
serve to benefit us to the detriment of others. We consider ourselves equal to,
superior to, and inferior to others, all of them different. It may be that it is not the
difference that makes us afraid, but the threat of losing our privileges due to an
inversion of the social order that is established and assumed to be “natural.”
Perhaps because of this we do not feel threatened by the immigrants who arrive
in Spain from rich countries, because we consider them to be equal to or
superior to us and, therefore, they do not bother us or do anything “incorrect”
that their social category does not permit them to do; but we do feel
threatened by the immigrants we consider to be inferior, who we believe we
can abuse, and whose right to vindication we do not acknowledge. So then,
do the differences themselves provoke fear, or do we respond with racist
attitudes each time people who we consider different and inferior threaten the
established order of things?25
 Racism is learned
“Racism is a cultural discourse that surrounds us from

infancy, it is in the air that we breathe, in our parents’
advice and their ways of thinking, in cultural rites. We
are exposed to it at school, in the street, and in the
newspapers, and even in the works of people we are
supposed to admire and who can, in fact, be
admirable.”
Memmi
Racism is learned, it is normalized, institutionalized, transmitted and

possibly prosecuted less forcefully than other forms of violence. As Teun van Dijk
(2003, p. 23) says, “the authorities and the police are much less effective
combating these kinds of acts than when they face other acts of terrorism.”
Society and institutions, which we consider entities different from us, protect us
and exempt us, apparently, from the racist and/or unfair paths they may take.
These are the circumstances in which we say things like “society is racist, but I’m
not.” Module 4 of this Guide will give more information on how racism is learned
through the discourse of the communications media, through textbooks, and in
everyday life.26
26 Ibid
54
 Powers and privileges
The idea of power and privilege always comes into play, in one way or
another, in the mechanism by which racism works. The people who practice
racism are in a situation of superiority or domination over their victims (whether
the control is real or perceived, conscious or unconscious), which is exactly
what helps to justify the way they act. The establishment of social categories
which, in the cases presented in this Guide, degenerates to inequality due to
the different valuation of groups (hierarchization) places people in different
positions, privileged or unprivileged, with respect to resources, power, or social
consideration. The rights of some clash with the rights of others, and inequality
based on differences becomes naturalized. We can represent the steps from
stating difference to the justification of racism as follows:
Difference/ Social Hierarchization Racist Justification

Diversity Category of groups Behavior of Racism
But what privileges are we talking about? Enjoying the so-called welfare
state, feeling safe in society, feeling that you are treated and acknowledged
as a person, as a citizen, are normal life experiences for part of the population,
but not for another part. This is one of the keys to understanding the complexity
of racism: the normalization or naturalization of privileges for one series of
people and groups, that is, the fact that they are not perceived as privileges;
while, at the same time, other social groups are denied access to or have a
hard time acceding to these privileges/rights. If we consider this logic of
privileges/superiority, we can analyze what situations racist behavior happens
in. Going back to the previous diagram, we will try to see what happens to
make us, at a specific moment, reach boxes four and five.27
LEARNING EXERCISE
1. In what situations have you felt that you were in a privileged

position in relation to other people/groups?
2. When have you felt yourself in a disadvantaged position?
27 Ibid
55
LESSON II - Racism: How can we deal with it?
Introduction
In order to combat racist behavior, we must first ask ourselves where it

originates and question our own behavior as individuals and as a group. As we
have been able to see, contemporary racism is a much more “camouflaged”
racism than that of other historical periods and, therefore, fighting it becomes
much more difficult and complex. Nevertheless, it is as present as in other
periods. Even if it may previously have been associated with extreme attitudes,
today it is like a film that invades everything, that undermines our capacity to
relativize what makes us different from one another. On the other hand, in a
society in which the act of thinking, of reflecting, has fewer and fewer followers,
the fight against racism has become something more than a difficult business.
The only antidote to racism is to make ourselves think, to use our capacity to
reflect, to critique, to become aware, and, of course, our capacity to act. It is
not only, or not basically, a matter of fighting against racism, but of intentionally
generating spaces with the awareness that if we do not generate these spaces,
their place will be taken by a breeding ground for racism. Despite the
difficulties, we believe it is possible to recognize racism, including the racism that
we ourselves practice, and fight against it. This fight means not only reacting
when we recognize it, but generating “racism-free” spaces.28
 Becoming aware
Etymologically, consciousness comes from the Latin word “conscientia,”

which means self-knowledge. From the area of philosophy, we would define
consciousness as the immediate knowledge that the subject has of himself or
herself, of his or her representations and of his or her actions (Sánchez Meca, D.
2001). In a way, becoming conscious is knowing oneself, getting to know our
mechanisms of thought and action, a necessary first step for change. At the
same time, this becoming conscious (self-consciousness) can enable us to
become conscious of other people’s situations, of other people’s attitudes, and
to promote, as educators, a change in thoughts and attitudes.
How can we manage to become conscious of things? By observing,

reading, travelling, talking, coexisting. And what should we become aware of?
We become conscious of the distance between the ideas and the images we
have of people and things and what we discover about them by travelling,
observing, talking...29
29 Ibid
56
“From the moment we conceive of our identity as integrated by multiple
belongings, some linked to ethnic history and others not, some linked to a
religious tradition and others not, from the moment we see in ourselves, in
our origins, and in our trajectory, different decisive elements, different
contributions, different hybridizations, different subtle and contradictory
influences, a different relation is established with the rest and also with our
own tribe.”
Amin Maalouf. Identidades asesinas. Alianza Editorial“
In our everyday coexistence, we continually use and hear phrases and

expressions that manifest rejection toward behavior, people, and attitudes that
we feel do not fit our canons of behavior, dress, attitude, etc. Expressions such
as “What a gypsy you are,” “Stop talking like that, you sound like a woman,”
are used naturally and without full awareness of what they involve. If someone
recriminates our use of these terms, we quickly reason that they are not racist
terms at all, but socially and culturally set phrases, that are no more than a
“simple joke or comment.” However, this is not true. These expressions, that we
have interiorized so much, really do reflect an opinion and an attitude about
the whole of the group we are talking about. We use them to disaccredit the
behavior of others, behavior that we “do not accept” or “do not understand”
and with this judgment we are placing ourselves above the other, we situate
ourselves in a situation of superiority. The problem is that they feed the
disqualification of the other from an attitude of innocence (Maalouf, A., 1999).
These phrases are not innocent and, as Amin Maalouf expresses, these kinds of
expressions contribute to perpetuate prejudices that have shown their great
capability to provoke clashes throughout history.30
On the other hand, the construction of prejudices and stereotypes is also

another way to create a reality for ourselves out of a larger reality that
sometimes presents itself as hard to cover as a whole. It is impossible to have
empirical knowledge about all the realities that exist. Prejudices and
stereotypes39 help us to shape an idea of these realities. Hanna Arendt points
out that prejudices and stereotypes serve to protect us from reality, to carry out
an exercise of comprehension on the broad complexity of our surroundings (
Arendt, H., 1999).
30 Ibid
57
LEARNING EXERCISE
(a) Collect articles, headlines, web pages on Internet, for a week and
pay attention to the news and radio programs, also pay attention
to bits of conversations with relatives or friends. From the
information you obtain, compare the body of the news article to
the headlines offered.
(b) Identify and discriminate among messages in favor of and against

racism.
QUOTES
 Ample tolerance is essential for both scientific and social
progress and for the moral and spiritual development of the
individual. (J.S. Mill, 1859)
 The nation is based on the community of blood and on the

fatherland. (Herder, 1744-1803)
 What gives unity to the life and culture of a people are the
pure and original men of that people. (Herder, 1744-1803)
 The countries of the European Council commit themselves to

guarantee treatment equal to national citizens to the
workers who are in their territory legally. (European social
charter, 1961)
 No distinction shall be made based on the political, legal or

international situation of the country or territory under whose
jurisdiction a person comes. (Universal Declaration of Human
Rights, 1984)
 No one should cause injury to another in his life, liberty, or

property. (Locke, 1639)
 The human world is like the animal world: the strongest

survives. (Vacher de Lapouge, 1899)
58
MODULE 6: CHILD EXPLOITATION
Introduction
In recent decades some extreme forms of violence against children,

including sexual exploitation and trafficking, female genital mutilation (FGM),
the worst forms of child labour and the impact of armed conflict, have
provoked international outcry and achieved a consensus of condemnation,
although no rapid remedy. But in addition to these extreme forms of violence,
many children are routinely exposed to physical, sexual and psychological
violence in their homes and schools, in care and justice systems, in places of
work and in their communities. All of this has devastating consequences for their
health and well-being now and in the future.31
Child abuse is not simply any harm that befalls children. Children
throughout the world suffer from a multitude of harms- malnutrition, starvation,
infectious disease, congenital defects, abandonment, economic exploitation,
the violence of warfare, to name a few. Not all harm that befalls children is child
abuse.” Child abuse is harm resulting from intentional human action. The most
fundamental attribute of child abuse is that it is harmful to the child and
detrimental to his/her well-being. There is also an important difference between
unintentional and intentional harm. “It has been observed that what is so
destructive about child abuse and neglect (as opposed to other forms of injury)
is that the betrayal of the child’s trust leads to defective socialization.” Child
abuse is correlated with unemployment and poverty. “Rates of abuse and
neglect can be thought of as indicators of the quality of life for families, and
maltreatment can be viewed as a symptom, rather than a cause, of difficulties
in family and individual functioning.” Thus, overall rates of child abuse are higher
in regions characterized by a higher proportion of low-income families and in
regions with unusually high rates of unemployment.32
LESSON I – FOUR MAIN CATEGORIES OF CHILD ABUSE
 Physical Abuse
Studies from countries around the world suggest that a large number of
children suffer physical punishment in their homes, and it is estimated that up to
1 billion children aged 2–17 years have experienced physical, sexual, or
emotional violence or neglect during the past year. Physical abuse can range
31 Krug, E. G., Mercy, J. A., Dahlberg, L. L., & Zwi, A. B. (2002). The world report on violence and health. The Lancet, 360(9339), 1083-1088
32 http://www.uniteforsight.org/gender-power/module4
59
from minor bruises to severe fractures or death as a result of punching, beating,
hitting, shaking, or otherwise harming a child.
 Emotional Abuse and Neglect

Emotional abuse is behavior that impairs a child’s emotional development
or sense of self-esteem. It may include threats, constant criticism, as well as
withholding love, support, or guidance. Neglect is a pattern of failing to provide
for a child’s basic physical and emotional needs. Neglect is a very common
type of child abuse, and according to Child Welfare Information Gateway,
more children suffer from neglect than from physical and sexual abuse
combined.
 Sexual Abuse and Child Prostitution
Sexual abuse of a child is any sexual act between an adult and a child
which may include sexual intercourse, incest, rape, oral sex, sodomy,
inappropriate touching, or kissing. “An overview of studies in 21 countries (mostly
developed) found that 7-36% of women and 3-29% of men reported sexual
victimization during childhood, and the majority of studies found girls to be
abused at 1.5-3 times the rate for males. Most of the abuse occurred within the
family circle.”
Child prostitution “involves offering the sexual services of a child or

inducing a child to perform sexual acts for a form of compensation, financial or
otherwise.” Worldwide, approximately 1 million children are forced into
prostitution every year, and it is estimated that the total number of child
prostitutes is as high as 10 million. “Generally children do not commit child
prostitution but the adults who engage in prostitution or offer a child’s sexual
services to others force them. It is estimated that at least 1 million girls worldwide
are lured or forced into this scandalous form of child exploitation. Child
prostitution is more frequent in developing countries such as Brazil and Thailand
where more than 200,000 children are exploited.” Child prostitution is not only a
cause of death and high morbidity for millions of children, but also a gross
violation of their rights. Prostitution negatively affects children’s sexual health,
causes psychological harm, and puts them at risk for enduring increased
violence.
Sexual Health: Child prostitutes are at a high risk of contracting HIV. HIV
infection rates in prostituted children range from 5% in Vietnam to 17% in
Thailand. One study reports that 50-90% of children rescued from brothels in
Southeast Asia are infected with HIV. Prostituted children are also at a high risk
of acquiring other STDs. For example, one study found that child prostitutes have
STD rates in Cambodia of 36% and in China of 78%, compared to the 5% yearly
incidence of STDs in adolescents worldwide.
Psychological Harm: Child prostitution also causes serious long-term

psychological harm, including anxiety, depression, and behavioral disorders.
60
Prostituted children are at a high risk of suicide and post-traumatic stress
disorder. A study conducted in the U.S. found that 41% of pregnant prostituted
adolescents reported having seriously considered or attempted suicide within
the past year.
Violence: Prostituted children are at a high risk of enduring injuries and

violence. The children may be physically and emotionally abused into
submission, while girls may be beaten to induce miscarriages. A study of 475
child prostitutes in five countries found that 73% of participants had been
physically assaulted while working as a sex worker, and 62% reported having
been raped.
 Child Labor
Child labor is a problem worldwide, but it particularly affects children in

developing countries. Child labor is characterized by full-time work at too early
of an age, and too many hours spent working. The work often exerts undue
physical, social, or psychological stress, hampers access to education, and may
be detrimental to social and psychological development. The ILO’s Statistical
Information and Monitoring Program on Child Labor recently estimated that 211
million children, or 18 % of children aged 5-14, are economically active
worldwide. 60% of these working children live in Asia, and 23% live in sub-
Saharan Africa. Most economically active children are employed in agriculture.
For example, in Nepal, 85% of economically active children are in agriculture.
In Cambodia, the rate is 73% while in Morocco it is 84%.
The type of child labor is the most important determinant of the incidence
of work-related injuries. An estimated 6 million work-related injuries occur
among children annually, which results in 2.5 million disabilities and 32,000
fatalities every year. In developing countries, children often work under
hazardous conditions in the manufacturing and agricultural sectors. For these
children, crushing accidents, amputations, and fractures account for 10% of all
work-related injuries. Working children are not only at risk of physical injury, but
are vulnerable to workplace toxins and chemical hazards as well. Specific
hazards vary according to the industry type. Child workers may be exposed to
high temperatures, and a high risk of accidents caused by cuts and burns if they
work in the brassware and glass-bangle industry. Children who work in matches
and firebox shops may be exposed to chemical hazards and a risk of fire and
explosion. Children who work in the carpet industry are exposed to repetitive
movements, chemical hazards, inhalation of wool dust contaminated with
biological agents, and inadequate working postures. Lastly, children who work
in the shoe industry are often exposed to glue. “Using data derived from the
Global Burden of Diseases Study (GBDS), estimates of child occupational
mortality rates by region were found to be comparable with adult mortality
rates, indicating that the conditions in which children work are as dangerous as,
or more dangerous then, those in which adults work.”
61
Child labor not only negatively affects a child’s health, but it also
negatively impacts his/her ability to receive schooling and perform
academically. When children are forced by their families to work, they no
longer have the time to attend school. Though there are a significant number
of children who go to school and work, the work may negatively impact their
studies. Data from 12 Latin American countries find that third and fourth graders
who attend school and never conduct market or domestic work perform 28%
better on mathematics tests and 19% better on language tests than children
who both attend school and work. Child labor is also problematic because it
creates a vicious cycle. A study conducted in Egypt found that many fathers
couldn’t find work or were unemployed for health reasons that were a result of
them having worked too long hours, in conditions that negatively impacted
their health as children. For example, one man had worked in pottery factories
since childhood and was blinded as a result. Thus, one of his sons was then
forced at the age of 8 to provide for the family and engage in full-time work.
Low income, poverty, and poor educational institutions are the driving
forces behind the prevalence of child labor worldwide. “Child labor exists
because education systems and labor markets do not function properly,
because poor households cannot insure themselves against income
fluctuations, and because perverse incentives exist that create a demand for
child labor.” Thus, many families, especially those in developing countries, need
extra income or can’t afford to send their children to school, so they send them
to work. “Historical growth rates suggest that reducing child labor through
improvements in living standards alone will take time. If a more rapid reduction
in the general incidence of child labor is a policy goal, improving educational
systems and providing financial incentives to poor families to send children to
school may be more useful solutions to the child labor problem than punitive
measures designed to prevent children from earning income.”
LEARNING EXERCISE
1. Write an essay about child exploitation on your locality.
2. Relate your knowledge on prevalent category/ies of child abuse that you

have observed.
62
LESSON II – SITUATION OF CHILDREN IN THE PHILIPPINES33
The Philippines is an ethnically diverse, middle-income country with a

young and rapidly urbanizing population. More than half of the population of
101 million is under the age of 25 years. The 2017 National Situation Analysis of
Children in the Philippines identifies a range of gaps in the fulfilment of children’s
rights. Despite progress in many areas, the most disadvantaged and
marginalized children struggle to survive, develop and thrive.
 Child Protection
A 2015 national study found that children and youth aged 13-24 years are
affected by high levels of violence in the Philippines. 2 in 3 experience physical
violence, 2 in 5 experience psychological violence and 1 in 4 experience sexual
violence. About 40% children aged 6-10 years and 70% of older children suffer
from bullying or peer violence. Child marriage, exploitative child labour and the
absence of universal birth registration are among other child protection risks.
Cyber violence has also emerged as a serious threat: online sexual abuse of
children is the leading cybercrime in the Philippines.
 Health
Deaths of young children have significantly declined in recent years.
Between 1990 to 2015, deaths per 1000 live births of infants dropped from 41 to
21 and from 59 to 27 among children under five years. While this represents huge
progress, more work will be needed to reach child mortality targets of 15 and
22 respectively. There are very high levels of stunting (33%) and underweight
(21.5%) among children under five, which have actually increased in recent
years. However, the Philippines has successfully halved the rate of maternal
anaemia from over 50% in 1998 to 25% in 2013 and lowered childhood anaemia
among infants. Worryingly, childhood immunization rates dropped sharply from
80% in 2013 to 62% in 2015. The Philippines also has one of the fastest-growing
HIV epidemics in the world: HIV infections rose by 230% among at risk groups of
young people between 2011 and 2015. A high proportion of people (90.5% in
2015) have access to basic drinking water and sanitation has improved in
recent decades. However, as of 2017, 6.66% of the population continues to
drink from unimproved water sources and only 75% of people use basic
sanitation services. 5.74% of people also practice open defecation and a large
number of schools, 3,819, lack adequate water and sanitation facilities.
 Education
There has been some encouraging progress in children’s education.
Between 2005 to 2013, enrolment in kindergarten doubled, with the largest
increases within the poorest and most vulnerable sections of society. Literacy
rates also continue to improve, with 90.3% of people aged 10-64 years
33 https://www.unicef.org/philippines/reports/situation-analysis-children-philippines
63
functionally literate (2013). However, the Philippines has some way to go to
achieve universal access to quality primary and secondary education. In 2013,
less than half (42%) of children aged 3-4 years were enrolled in day care centres,
and in 2015, the net enrolment rate at primary school level was 91.05% and
68.15% at secondary school. As of 2015, 83.4% (primary) and 73.9 % (secondary)
of enrolled children actually completed their schooling, reflecting a fluctuating
rise in completion rates from 2010. Around 2.85 million children aged 5-15 years
were also estimated to be out of school.
 Social Inclusion
Despite rapid economic growth and declining poverty, the poverty situation
remains extremely challenging for children in the Philippines. Children with
disabilities, children from rural and indigenous communities are more vulnerable
to social discrimination. They are also likely to be more deprived of social
services.
Barriers to fulfilling children’s rights in the Philippines
A number of barriers prevent the full realization of children’s rights in the

Philippines:
 National laws and policies are not effectively disseminated, interpreted
or enforced • Coordination at all levels of government hampers the
delivery of essential services to children
 Inadequate financing of essential sectors affects the quality of health,

education and other services for children
 Management and integration of national and local information systems

contribute to gaps in data on children
 Sociocultural norms, practices and beliefs violate children’s rights
 A shortage of well-trained, qualified professionals at the local level

hinders the delivery of services to children
 The absence of quality social services in remote and isolated areas puts
children and families at risk • Natural disasters and armed conflicts can
have severe and long lasting consequences for children
64
LEARNING EXERCISE
(a) In your opinion, is the Philippine government doing its job in ensuring
the rights of the children are being observed?
(b) Think and present programs that will alleviate the condition of
children under vulnerable conditions.
References
Asis, Maruja MB, The Philippines’ Culture of Migration.

https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/philippines-culture-migration?
Blyth, M. (1990) “Child Abuse and Neglect in Developing

Countries.” https://www.scribd.com/doc/28590489/Child-Abuse-and-Neglect-in-
Developing-Countries.
“Child Abuse and Dangers for Children Worldwide.” Child Welfare Information
Gateway. https://www.childwelfare.gov/.
Child labor and Child Abuse in developing Countries. http://www.uniteforsight.org/gender-

power/module4
Climate Change Risk Profile: Philippines.

https://www.climatelinks.org/sites/default/files/asset/document/2017_Climate%20Cha
nge%20Risk%20Profile_Philippines.pdf
Corana Virus. https://www.who.int/health-topics/coronavirus#tab=tab_1
Edmonds, E., & Pavcnik, N. “Child Labor in the Global Economy.” Journal of Economic
Perspectives. 19.1 (2005).
Finkelhor, D., and Korbin, J. “Child abuse as an international issue.” Child Abuse & Neglect. 12
(1988).
Family Development Session: Module on Child Labor.

https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---asia/---ro-bangkok/---ilo-
manila/documents/publication/wcms_721174.pdf
Graitcer, P., Lerer, L. “Child Labor and Health: Quantifying the Global Health Impacts of Child
Labor.” World Bank 1998.
Introduction to Climate Change. https://www.usaid.gov/bangladesh/crel-project/module-

1#:~:text=Introduction%20to%20Climate%20Change%20(ICC,and%20technologies%20
and%20effective%20communications.
Introduction to International Terrorism. https://www.unodc.org/e4j/en/terrorism/module-

1/introduction-learning-outcomes.html
65
Krug, E. G., Mercy, J. A., Dahlberg, L. L., & Zwi, A. B. (2002). The world report on violence and
health. The Lancet, 360(9339), 1083-1088.
Mayo Clinic Child and Family Advocacy Center. (5 Oct. 2018) "Child
Abuse." https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/child-abuse/symptoms-
causes/syc-20370864.
Migration and migrant smuggling. https://www.unodc.org/e4j/en/tip-and-som/module-5/key-

issues/Migration-and-migrant-smuggling.html
Racism: What it is and How to Deal with it.

https://www2.uned.es/grupointer/vol8_racism_guide.pdf
Rifaey, T., Murtada, M., and Abd el-Azeem, M. “Urban Children and Poverty: Child Labor and
Family Dynamics Case Studies in Old Cairo.” (paper presented at the Children and the
City Conference, Amman, Jordan, December 11-13, 2002).
Steinberg, L., Catalano, R., and Dooley, D. “Economic Antecedents of Child Abuse and
Neglect.” Child Development. 52.3 (1981).
Situation Analysis of Children in the Philippines 2017.

https://www.unicef.org/philippines/media/561/file/Situation%20Analysis%20of%20Childr
en%20in%20the%20Philippines%20brief.pdf
UN/DESA Policy Brief #75: COVID-19: Reaffirming State-People Governance Relationships.

https://www.un.org/development/desa/dpad/publication/un-desa-policy-brief-75-
covid-19-reaffirming-state-people-governance-relationships/
UN General Assembly. (2019) “Rights of the child.”

A/RES/74/133 https://undocs.org/en/A/RES/74/133.
World Health Organization. (17 June 2019) "Violence against

children." https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/violence-against-
children.
Willis, B., and Levy, B. “Child prostitution: global health burden, research needs, and
interventions.” The Lancet. 359.9315 (2002).
Yadav, S., and Sengupta, G. “Environmental and Occupational Health Problems of Child
Labour: Some Issues and Challenges for Future.” J. Hum Ecol. 28.2 (2009).
66

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BACHELOR OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

RICHARD M. VELUZ, JD, MPA, Enp

Further, this course involves an investigation of in-depth, research-based

 Deepen students’ understanding of research in public organizations

COURSE REQUIREMENTS AND GRADING

Southern Luzon State University as an excellent academic hub in its

The University commits to develop a sustained culture of delivering

GOALS OF THE COLLEGE

3. To expose students to the actual bureaucratic norms, culture, practices and

5. To raise awareness on global issues and international relations.

6. To produce graduates that is imbibed with socio-political, economics, and

1. Course Code : BPA 12

2. Course Title : Special Topics in Public Administration

5. Credit/ Class Schedule : 3 Units/ 54 hours (3 lecture hours per week)

6. Course Description : This course covers selected topics of current interest of

7. Program Outcomes and Relationship to Program Educational Objectives

Program Educational Objectives

8. Course Objectives and Relationship to Program Educational Objectives

Week 2 A. Governance & COVID 19

10. Course Outcomes and Relationship to Course Objectives/Program Outcomes

Course Outcomes Program Outcomes

Above Meets Approaching Below

Analysis The paper is The paper is The paper The paper

Making The paper The paper The paper The paper

MODULE 1: GOVERNANCE & COVID 19

Efforts by governments to try to control the pandemic’s spread while

Resiliency and effective governance go hand in hand, and are key

Resilient societies are premised on effective governance and the

LESSON I – UNDERSTANDING COVID 19

Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) is an infectious disease caused by a

The best way to prevent and slow down transmission is to be well-informed

The COVID-19 virus spreads primarily through droplets of saliva or

At this time, there are no specific vaccines or treatments for COVID-19.

The coronavirus COVID-19 pandemic is the defining global health crisis

1. What is the difference between epidemic and pandemic?

LESSON II - The Role of Effective Governance in Managing a

 State and people governance relationship during nationwide crisis

However, from the perspective of a resilient society and a resilient state,

1. Are you satisfied with the national/local government actions in dealing

2. What should the citizens do to help the government in time of crisis?

 Addressing the crisis: Embracing a whole-o- society approach,

Under a-whole-of-society approach, the governance relationship

Beyond the national level, collaboration and partnerships need to be

In his video message on COVID-19 and Misinformation on 14 April, United

1. In your own words explain the “whole-of-society approach. Does the

1. The COVID-19 pandemic and crisis presents a challenge but also an

2. Providing essential services to all must be at the core of state-people

5. Government in times of crisis must endeavor to keep the country unified

1. In the mentioned key messages, where do you think the Philippine

Climate change resulting from human-induced greenhouse gas emissions

Climate change governance poses difficult challenges for contemporary

LESSON I – CLIMATE CHANGE

 Why Study Climate?

• Determines the type and location of human-managed ecosystems,

 What is Climate Change?

IPCC, 3rd Assessment Report:

Think of 3 - 5 situations where weather has influenced your life, your

• What are the Primary Indicators of Climate Change?