Section 1

Introduction
 A Surveyors Job
There are worse jobs!
 Why Survey a well?
• To hit geologic targets
• To avoid collision with other wells, especially
during platform drilling
• To define the target of a relief well in the event of
a blowout
• To provide a better definition of geological and
reservoir data to allow for production optimization
• To fulfill the requirements of local legislation, e.g.
Texas Railroad Commission
 What do surveys do?
• Measure the inclination and direction at the
bottom of the hole to determine where the well is
heading
• Determine orientation of tool face of deflection
tools or steerable systems
• Calculate well coordinates at a series of
measured depths to accurately specify the well
path and current location
• Identify dog legs and allow calculation of dogleg
severity values
 What is actually measured?
• Inclination
• Direction (Azimuth)
• Depth
 Inclination
• A number from 0 to 1800
• 00 is straight down
• 900 is horizontal
• "The inclination of a
borehole at a point is the
angle between the
borehole axis and the
vertical"

200
 Direction
• Which way is the well
pointed?
• Direction is the angle
between a reference
direction and a
tangent to the
horizontal projection
of the well at the point
of interest"
 Direction
• Quadrant
N
– Number from 0 to 90º 30 30
measured east or west 60 60
of north or south
90W E 90
– e.g., S40ºW
60 60
– Older system
30 30
S
N
• Azimuth 330 30
– Most common 300 60

– Number from 0 to 360º 270 W E 90

degrees, measured 240 120
clockwise from North 210 150
– e.g., 220º S
180
 Map Projections
• A good approximation of the shape
Polar flattening
of the earth is that of a spheroid
(flattened sphere)
• The location of a point on a
spheroid can be described by two
angles.
– Latitude is the angle between a line
joining the point to the center of the
spheroid and the equatorial plane.
– Longitude is the angle between a
plane containing the point and the
axis of rotation and another plane
containing an arbitrary reference
point and the axis of rotation.
 Longitude
• Lines of Longitude are lines
drawn through the north and
south poles, and are called
meridians.
• They measure distance east
and west of the prime meridian
which was established near
Greenwich, England.
• The prime meridian is the 00
line. Longitude measures 00 to
1800 east and 00 to 1800 west
• Eastern and western
hemispheres meet at1800 – the
International Date Line
 Position
• Latitude lines are
typically shown for
every 10 degrees,
starting at the
equator; the longitude
lines are shown for
every 15 degrees,
starting at the prime
meridian.
• What is the position at
the green dot? Answer:
20N
45E
 Map Projections
• A map projection is used to portray all or part of
the round Earth on a flat surface. This cannot be
done without some distortion.
• Every projection has its own set of advantages
and disadvantages. There is no "best" projection.
• The mapmaker must select the one best suited
to the needs, reducing distortion of the most
important features.
 Map Projections
• Different kinds – Mercator, Conic,
Polyconic, Lambert's Conformal
• Mercator – based on a cylinder, only true
at equator, useful for navigators
• Lambert's maps used by military and basis
of US Aeronautical charts.
 Conic Projection
• Lambert Conformal Conic map is made by
projecting the globe onto a cone.
• "Conformal" means that this map represents the
shape of limited areas accurately
• Used to show parts of globe that run east west at
middle latitudes e.g. United States
 Mercator Projection
• Mercator map is very common
• For areas close to equator, map accurately
represents the shape.
• Badly distorts landmass at the poles – Alaska
looks ½ size of South America – actually South
America is 11 times bigger than Alaska
 Transverse Mercator
Projection
• Similar to Mercator but orientation of cylinder is
different
• Universal Transverse Mercator UTM is a series of
60 Mercator projections each covering 60 of
longitude.
 Section 2

Survey References
 Borehole Survey
References
• All measurements must be tied to fixed
reference systems
– Depth References
– Inclination References
– Azimuth References
 Depth References
• Measured Depth
– Distance measured along
actual course of borehole
from surface to survey
point. Pipe tally or
wireline depth counter.
• True Vertical Depth TVD
– Vertical distance from
depth reference level to a
point on the borehole
course. Usually a
calculated value.
 RKB
• While drilling it is convenient
to use the top of the rotary
table as the working depth
reference. This is called
Rotary Kelly Bushing (RKB)
• Offshore, mean sea level
(MSL) is sometimes used
• On floating rigs, a mean RKB
is used

RKB
 Inclination Reference
• Inclination is the angle
between vertical and
the tangent to the well
bore axis at a particular
point
• Convention is 00 is
vertical 900 is horizontal
• Inclination may be >90
for some horizontal
wells
• Sometimes called Drift
 Azimuth References
• Three systems
– Magnetic North
– True (Geographic) North
– Grid North
• All magnetic type tools initially measure
azimuth referenced to Magnetic North
• Magnetic North is constantly changing, so
final calculated coordinates are always
referenced to either True North or Grid
North to obtain a stable reference.
 True North
• True North: Is a line from any
point of the earth's surface to
the geographic north pole. All
lines of longitude are true north.
• True north is depicted in the
declination diagram by a line
with a star. The top of USGS
topographic map sheets are
oriented to true north.
 Grid North
• Grid North: The north
directional on a map True North

• Grid North is identical to

G G G N G G G

True North only at

specified meridians.

Central Meridian
• All other points must be
corrected for convergence 0

(the angle between Grid

North and True North at
any given location).
 Magnetic Declination
• Magnetic Declination is the angle between true
north and magnetic north at any point on the earth
• Magnetic north moves every day.
 Magnetic Declination
• Declination changes
with location on earth
and time
West
• To determine Declination
declination, you need East Declination

to know if magnetic
north is east or west
of true north from the
location
• Stated as an angle
and whether E or W
 Magnetic Declination
• Also referred to as variation,
magnetic variation and compass
variation
• Mathematical models exist to
calculate declination at any point
on earth at any date – International
Geomagnetic Reference Field
(IGRF) or BGGM.
 East Declination
• East declinations occur when magnetic north lies
east of true north with respect to the location.
• True for any location west of the zero declination
(Agonic) line e.g. west Texas, California
• Value is added to magnetic reading
• Example - Declination of a location in
Bakersfield, CA is 130 38' E, magnetic survey
reading is 1380 04' azimuth – azimuth with
reference to true north is 1510 42'
 West Declination
• West declinations occur when magnetic north
lies west of true north with respect to the
location.
• True for any location east of the zero declination
(Agonic) line
• Value is subtracted from magnetic reading
• Example - Declination of a location in Mobile
Bay, AL is 00 45' W, magnetic survey reading is
2450 04' azimuth – azimuth with reference to true
north is 2440 19'

http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/seg/geomag/declination.shtml
 Grid Convergence
• When maps are created,
coordinates must be
True North
transferred from a sphere to G G G N G G G

a flat surface a

Central Meridian
• Depending upon the
projection used, there will be
a distortion between true 0

north and map or Grid North

• Convergence is the angle
between grid north and true
north for the location being
considered.
 Toolface
• Used with deflection tools or steerable
motors
• Can be physically marked on a tool –
scribe line
• "Toolface Orientation" is the angular
measurement of a deflection tool with
respect to either up (“highside”) or to North
 Highside Toolface
• Also referred to as Gravity
Toolface
• Indicates whether the toolface of Up
a deflection tool is facing up 00 (High side)
or down 1800 or any angle from
left or right of highside.
• Used once a wellbore has an
angle of greater than 30 to 50 of
inclination Tool Face
 Magnetic Toolface
• Only used at very low inclination angles typically
<40
• Used when kicking off from a straight well.
• Simply tells driller which direction the well is
facing.
 Offset Toolface
• The directional measurement device in some tools
will have a offset between it and the deflection
tool's scribe line. The is called the Offset Tool
Face
• It is usually measured in the derrick while making
up the bottom hole assembly

OTF = Measured offset x 360

Circumference
 Section 3

Surveying Tools
 Magnetometer
• Measures earth's local
magnetic field
• When placed in external
magnetic field (e.g. the
earth's) an imbalance
occurs in the core and a
voltage in the sense coil
is produced that is
proportional to the
magnetic field.
 3-Axis Magnetometer
• Three single-axis
magnetometers are
combined to measure
the x, y and z
magnetic fields
 Accelerometers
• Newton's law simply states that if
a mass, m, is undergoing an
acceleration, a, then there must
be a force F acting on the mass
and given by F = ma.
• There are many types of
accelerometers, but all use
Newton's law.
• Using three accelerometers
arranged at 90 degrees, the
earth's gravity vector can be
measured.
 Directional Package
• Combined three axis
magnetometer and
accelerometer in one
package
• Calibration of sensors
with temperature and
alignment errors,
handled by k-factor
file.
 Inclination Calculation

 g2 + g2 
In = tan 
−1

x y

 gz 
 

• What's important is Inclination uses only the

accelerometers for the calculation.
 Azimuth Calculation
−1 TGF  (hx  g y − hy  g x ) 
Az = tan   + MagDecl .
 hz  (g x + g y ) + g z  (hx  g x + hy  g y ) 
2 2

Where the total gravity field, TGF, is defined as:

TGF = g x2 + g y2 + g z2

• Important thing to remember is that azimuth uses

all sensors, and must have magnetic declination
added.
 Gravity Toolface
Calculation
 gx 
−1
GTF = tan   + OTF
 gy 

• Note that only x and y accelerometers are used

for the calculation
• OTF (offset tool face) (if applicable) must be
correct for GTF to be right.
 Magnetic Toolface
Calculation
 TGF  hx + g x  hz 
−1
MTF = tan   + OTF + MagDecl
 TGF  hy + g y  hz 

• Note that all sensors are used for the calculation

• OTF (offset tool face) (if applicable) must be
correct for MTF to be right
• Magnetic declination must also be correct for
MTF to be right
 Total Magnetic Field
• The Total Magnetic Field (TMF) is calculated as:

TMF = hx2 + hy2 + hz2

• Note that all magnetometers are used for the
calculation
• Can be estimated ahead of time
• In US Gulf Coast about 45000 to 52000 nT
 Total Gravity Field
• TGF = Total Gravity Field

TGF = g + g + g
2
x
2
y
2
z

• Note that all accelerometers are used for the

calculation
• Varies very little anywhere in the world.
 Magnetic Dip Calculation
• Because the earth's magnetic
lines of force do not run parallel
to the surface of the earth
(except at the magnetic equator)
a compass tends to point into
the earth in the Northern
Hemisphere.
• The magnetic dip angle varies
with position on the earth. In Texas it's about 600
• Also called magnetic inclination – just to confuse
the novice
 Section 4

More Surveying Terms

 Vertical Hole
• No hole is drilled exactly vertically from spud to
TD
• It is generally accepted that a straight or vertical
well is one that:
– Stays within the boundary of a “cone”, as specified by
the client (usually about 3 degrees)
– Does not change direction rapidly (no more than 3
degrees per 100 feet of hole) and form a “dogleg”
 Directional Drilling
• Definition
• Process of directing the wellbore along a
trajectory to a predetermined target
 Sidetrack
• If the target location changes,
for whatever reason, but the
surface location stays the
same the new well is called a
GEOLOGICAL SIDETRACK
• If a sidetrack is made to
bypass an obstruction while
the surface and target
locations remain the same
this is called a MECHANICAL
SIDETRACK
 Dog Leg
D.L. = cos-1[sinI1sinI2 cos(A2-A1) + CosI1cosI2]

I1 and I2 are two successive inclination measurements

A1 and A2 are two successive azimuth measurements

• Dog Leg is the total curvature of the wellbore

(changes in inclination and direction) between
two survey stations
• Is measured in degrees
 Dog Leg Severity
D.L.S = D.L. x 100
C.L.

D.L. is dog leg calculated between two survey stations

C.L. is measured depth between the two survey stations

• Dog Leg Severity is the amount of dog leg

normalized to a standard interval usually 100 ft
• Reported as degrees per 100 ft.
• Often shortened to just Dog Leg
• Needs to be as low as possible to avoid
sticking problems with drilling or casing
 Vertical Section
• A vertical profile on a well plan usually
corresponds to a plan in a plane defined by the
direction straight from the surface to the target
• The direction of this plane is known as vertical
section azimuth, or proposed bottom hole
location, plane of
Surface
proposal or target direction
• Total horizontal deviation of
the well projected onto this plane
is called vertical section
Target
 Closure
• Defined as the straight line from the rig
reference to any rectangular coordinate in the
horizontal plane – usually to define the bottom of
the well bore
• Example, if the surveyed position is 643' North,
962 East, closure can be calculated using the
Pythagorian Theorem 962'
East

643'
North
 Tie-in
• Usually there are several companies
involved in surveying a well. A method of
handing over well bore coordinates is
needed.
TIE -IN
•Measured Depth
•Azimuth
•Inclination
•TVD
•N/S Coordinate
•E/W Coordinate
•Proposed drift Direction
 Section 5

Quality Controls
 Magnetic Spacing
• Survey tools that use magnetometers respond to
the earth's magnetic field and any other
magnetic fields
• Steel drill collars or drill bits may become
magnetized creating local magnetic fields that
will distort azimuth and MTF readings
• To reduce this effect to within acceptable limits,
non-magnetic drill collars are spaced either side
of the survey tool in the BHA
• The amount of non-magnetic drill collars
(monels) required varies with hole inclination,
azimuth, and geographic location on earth
 Monel Spacing
• Charts are available to determine the
number of monels above and/or below the
survey instrument
• Typically one or two 30' monels are used.
 Other Magnetic Errors
• Apart from steel in the drillstring, other sources of
magnetic interference exist:
– Casing – all casing is magnetically hot, and therefore
magnetometer based tools will not work inside casing
– When sidetracking around a fish
– Some drilling muds, e.g. hematite, are magnetic and
will cause erratic readings
– Some formations, e.g. pyrite, will induce errors.
 Temperature Effects
• Apart from the obvious of exceeding the tool's
temperatue rating, there is a source of error if the
directional package's temperature sensor fails
• All survey tools need to be calibrated to correct
for temperature drift errors. This is typically
corrected for by a look-up table or a set of K
factors with temperature as a variable.
• In the event that a temperature sensor fails, an
incorrect adjustment will be computed
 Depth
• There are many ways to incorrectly record depth
• A good rapport with the driller is essential,
especially when relying on his pipe tally
• Some tools store in memory the survey results
for later transmission. It is important to know
your tools – when was the measurement actually
made, and what was the depth at that time?
 Considerations for Survey
Validity
• Are the azimuth and inclination close to expected?
• Is TGF approximately correct and consistent with previous
surveys?
• Is TMF approximately correct, (check with magnetic
models) and consistent with previous surveys?
• Is Magnetic DIP approximately correct, (check with
magnetic models) and consistent with previous surveys?
• Are the Magnetic Declination, Offset toolface, and Grid
corrections correct?
• Was the pipe moving when the survey was being taken?
 Survey Quality Check Parameters

We call our survey good if:

• Gtotal +/- 0.003 from reference value (mostly

1.0000)
• Btotal +/- 500nT from reference value.
• Dip +/- 0.5 deg. from reference value
 Checkshot
• If in any doubt as to the accuracy of a
survey tool, remember it is always possible
to pull back to the last known good survey
and re-survey
• Often, the drillstring can be rotated so that
say 4 surveys are taken at the same depth.
The readings should be consistent in the
absence of magnetic interference.
 Section 6

Surveying Calculations
 Introduction
• A directional survey gives inclination, azimuth at
a certain measured depth. This information must
be analyzed to calculate the actual position of
the well relative to the surface location
• The incremental distances between survey
stations must be calculated
• The horizontal coordinates of a point are referred
to as the "Northing" (or latitude) and the
"Easting" (or departure)
 Need for Model
• Inclination and azimuth at each station define a
vector that is tangential to the wellbore trajectory.
Inclination gives its orientation in the vertical
plane, and azimuth in the horizontal plane
• Course length is the difference between the
survey depths
• It is necessary to assume some sort of ideal
wellpath between the two survey stations.
• Various models exist.
 Minimum Curvature
• This method assumes that the wellbore
follows the smoothest possible circular
arc from station 1 to station 2
• This done by applying a ratio factor
based on the amount of bending in the
wellpath between the two stations – the
dog-leg angle
• This method is the most accurate and is
sometimes known as circular arc method
• Most commonly used these days since
its complex calculations are easily
handled by laptop computers
 Minimum Curvature
Calculations
• Inputs • Outputs
– Inclination at Stations – Dog-Leg angle
1&2 – TVD
– Azimuth at Stations – Northing coordinates
1&2 – Easting coordinates
– Measured depths at
Stations 1 & 2
 Other Calculations
• Vertical Section
– Gives a vertical view of the well profile
– One plane has to be selected so all points can be
plotted on a common axis
– Use the target and reference origin
– Calculate to project all points onto this plane
– Along with TVD, these vertical sections can now be
plotted to give the well profile
• DLS
– Since dog leg angle had to be calculated, dog-leg
severity is trivial
• Closure
Questions?