11.

Magnetic properties of Materials

• Q: Why do some materials respond to

magnetic fields, while others do not?
• A: Magnetic materials have a
property known as Magnetization as
quantified in the relative
permeability constant (r).

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 Fundamental Definitions
Magnets have two poles (north and south)
Poles exert a force on each other

N
S
N
+m1 S
-m1 +m2
-m2
Definition: magnetic pole m (SI units:Weber, Wb=m2kg/s2A)

m1m2
Magnetic force (N): F
4 0 r 2
0=4 x 10-7 H/m

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 Fundamental Definitions
Electric current in wire exerts a force on a magnetic pole
H
I
N
S
+m
-m

Definition: magnetic field H (SI units: A/m)

Magnetic force (N): F  mH
Field from Solenoid: H  nI n = # turns/m, I = current

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 Fundamental Definitions

What happens to a magnet in a magnetic field?

+mH
N -mH +mH
l 
S N
H H
S

-mH

Magnetic torque:   mlH sin 

Translational force ONLY if there is non-uniform H (gradient):
H
Fx  ml
x
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 Fundamental Definitions +mH
N
l 
H
S

-mH
Definition: magnetic moment M = ml (SI units: Wb m)
(dipole moment)
 
Magnetic torque:   M H
Magnetic Energy:  
U  M  H

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 Fundamental Definitions

Magnetic materials have a density of magnetic moments

Definition: Magnetization M=NM

N=moments per unit volume
(SI units: Wb/m2 or Tesla T)

N
M S

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 Fundamental Definitions: Review

H
(externally applied)

  
B  M  0 H
M = magnetization (T)
H = magnetic field strength (A/m)
B = magnetic flux density (also called field) (T)

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 Orbital Mechanics Model

• Atom has electrons that orbit

around its nucleus making a
miniature current loop that
results in an orbital
magnetic moment

• Electron spins around its own

axis to produce a significant
spin magnetic moment.

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 Source of Magnetic Moment: Moving Electric Charge (Current)

Atomic Magnetism arises from electron angular momentum and spin

ML ML= orbital magnetic moment
= IA=1/2 eL/me

I r S
e-
L v

  
Atomic magnetic moment: M   B L  ge  B S
e
Bohr magneton B  Angular momentum vector Spin vector
2m
Gyromagnetic ratio ge~ 2
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 Magnetization, M
Material with a net
magnetic moment is
magnetized.
Magnetization is the
magnetic moment per unit
volume within the
material.
Number density of
magnetic dipole moments
within material.

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 Getting Quantitative
Magnetization is defined as the total magnetic dipole moment per unit
volume.
N

  i
M i 1
Volume
A magnetized object has an internal magnetic field given by the
relation:
 
Bint  0 M
The internal magnetic field can also be expressed in terms of the
external magnetic field and magnetic susceptibility  as:
 
Bint   Bext
11:08 11
Response of material to applied magnetic field strength H

• Generally, M changes
in magnitude as H is
varied.

• Magnitude of
response is called the
“magnetic
susceptibility” of the
material.

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 Magnetic susceptibility, 
• Magnetic susceptibility is sometimes
written as:
  MH
• And sometimes as the slope of M vs H.

  dM dH

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 Materials react to external magnetic
fields in three different ways

1) Diamagnetic materials are very

weakly repelled by external magnetic
fields.
2) Paramagnetic materials are very
weakly attracted by external magnetic
fields.
Most materials are paramagnetic.
3) Ferromagnetic materials are strongly
attracted or repelled by external
magnetic fields.
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 How do we understand
paramagnetism?
Paramagnetic atoms are like little magnetic
dipoles.
They experience a torque which aligns them with
the external field, then they feel a net force that
pulls them into the field.
The magnetic dipole moment results primarily
from electron spin and angular momentum.




S 
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 How do we understand diamagnetism?

Diamagnetism is something that is not adequately

explained without resorting to quantum
mechanics.

N

 
B

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How do we understand ferromagnetism?

Domain alignment: If atoms have large magnetic

dipole moments, they tend to align with each other
much as a collection of magnets tends to align.

N N N N
S S S S
N N N N
S S S S
N N N N
S S S S
N N N N
S S S S

Thermal disalignment: Heat causes atoms to vibrate,

knocking them around and disaligning the dipoles.
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 Magnetic Materials - Traditionally 3 groups

• Diamagnetic (r < 1)

• Paramagnetic (r > 1)
• Ferromagnetic (r >> 1)

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 Summary of magnetic responses: Susceptibilites
diamagnetic <0, negative
H
(opposes H) M
-10-6 << -10-4

paramagnetic 0<  <1, positive

(aligns with H) M H
10-5 < <10-3

ferromagnetic >>1, positive

(even without H!) M BB
103< <105

 =r-1
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 Linear Isotropic Magnetic Media
(e.g., paramagnetic, diamagnetic)
 
• Magnetization: M   m H Where m is the magnetic
susceptibility [unitless constant].
• Magnetic Flux Density:
     
B  o H  M )  o H   m H )  o 1   m )H

  r o H

Where r=1+m relative permeability and

= ro is the permeability [H/m].
11:08 20
 Example of Magnetization Calculation

(a) Find M, given that:=1.8X10-5 H/m and H=120 A/m.

Here we have :
M   m H   r  1)H
 1.8 10 5 H / m
where  r    14.3
o 4  10 H / m
7

M  14.3  1)120 A / m )  1600 A / m.

(b) Find M, given that:r=22 and n=8.3X1028

atom/m3 and mi= 4.5X10-27 Am2/atom.
M=nmi=8.3X1028X 4.5X10-27=373.5 A/m 374 A/m.

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Example of Magnetization Calculation

Find M, given that:=1.8X10-5 H/m B=300

T and m=15.

B B B
H  
  r o 1   m )o
m B 15)300 10 T ) 6
 M  m H  
1   m )o 16)4 10 H / m)
7

M  223.81 A / m  224 A/ m

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 Alignment of Magnetic Domains

Alignment: may be achieved by an applied

magnetic field.
Upon removal of the external magnetic
field, domains do not all return to their
original state and thus exhibit a magnetic
history known as hysteresis (an interesting
& practical effect unique to ferromagnetic
materials)
Examples: Ferromagnetic elements &
compounds, Fe, Ni, Co, BiMn, CuMnSn,
etc.
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 Susceptibilities for Ferromagnetic Materials

Ferromagnetic materials have a

“memory.” If we know the external field,
we can’t predict the internal field, unless
we know the previous history of the
sample.
We describe the relationship between
internal and external fields by means
of a “hysteresis curve.”
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 Hysteresis Curve
We start with no 
internal field Bint (T )
(unaligned) and no
external field. 
Bext (mT )

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 Hysteresis Curve
We increase the external 
Bint (T )
field, causing some of
the domains to align.


Bext (mT )

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 Hysteresis Curve
As the external field 
Bint (T )
increases, the internal
field eventually stops
growing. Why?

Bext (mT )

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 Hysteresis Curve

All the domains Bint (T )

eventually align.


Bext (mT )

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 Hysteresis Curve
We then decrease the 
Bint (T )
external field. The domains
want to stay aligned, so
the internal field remains

large. Bext (mT )

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 Hysteresis Curve
When the external field 
Bint (T )
goes to zero, some
domains remain aligned.


Bext (mT )

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 Hysteresis Curve
The internal field that 
Bint (T )
remains is called the
residual magnetization.


Bext (mT )

residual
magnetization

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 Hysteresis Curve
To reduce the internal 
Bint (T )
field, we must apply an
external field in the
opposite direction.

Bext (mT )

11:08 32
 Hysteresis Curve
To reduce the internal 
Bint (T )
field, we must apply an
external field in the
opposite direction.

Bext (mT )

coercive force

11:08 33
 Hysteresis Curve
The external field needed 
Bint (T )
to bring the internal field
back to zero is called the
coercive force.

Bext (mT )

coercive force

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 Hysteresis Curve

As we continue to Bint (T )
increase the external
field in the negative
direction, domains
align with the field. 
Bext (mT )

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 Hysteresis Curve
The process continues 
Bint (T )
just as when the external
field was in the positive
direction.

Bext (mT )

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 Soft Iron
A nail made of soft iron 
Bint (T )
has domains that align
easily, but it can’t hold
the magnetization.

Bext (mT )

The coercive force

and the residual
magnetization of soft
iron are both small.
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 Good Permanent Magnet
A good permanent magnet 
Bint (T )
has a large coercive force
and a large residual
magnetization.

Bext (mT )

11:08 38
11:08 39
 How do we understand ferromagnetism?

Domains: Small regions that have aligned dipole

moments .
In unmagnetized bulk iron, the domains are randomly
oriented and usually cancel out leaving the material
unmagnetized.

11:08 40
 Curie-Weiss law for ferromagnetism

A modest external magnetic field can

cause most of the domains to align
giving a large total magnetic field.
11:08 41
 Curie-Weiss law for ferromagnetism

In the magnetic domain region, there is a strong

parallel orientation tendency such that there exist a
LOCAL FIELD, HE, which give rise to spontaneous
magnetization.
The HE is called the molecular or Weiss Field defined as:
 
H E  M , so that
 
H E  M (1)
where  is the Weiss field constant, that is a function
of specific atoms and crystal structure and not on
temperature T.
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 Curie-Weiss law for ferromagnetism
The dipole see a total field given by the relation
  
Ht  H a  M (2)
M
and since m  
Ht
M
m  (3)
H a  M

But from paramagnetics we know that

C
m  (4)
T
Equate relations 3 and 4 to obtain:
11:08 43
 Curie-Weiss law for ferromagnetism
C M
  C H a  M )  M T
T H a  M
or CH a  M T  C ) so that
M C
 (5)
Ha T  C )
M C
If we define  new   (6)
Ha T  C )
and let C=TC be the Critical TC
C (7)
or Curies Temperature, then 
TC
Insert relation 7 in 6 to obtain:  new   T  TC )
(8)

Where equation 8 is the Curies-

Weiss’s law for ferromagnetism.
11:08 44
Deductions of the Curies-Weiss’s law for ferromagnetism

m1/T

m=C/T

TC
Curie Point/Temperature: When a ferromagnetic material
gets hot enough, the domains break down and the material
becomes paramagnetic.
11:08 45
 Deductions of the Curies-Weiss’s law for ferromagnetism

• m has singularity at T=TC i.e. as TTC , m .

• At T>TC the material is paramagnetic with m
depending strongly on temperature.
• At T<TC the material has ferromagnetic behaviour
with m being independent of temperature.
• Curies temperature Tc is the temperature above
which the spontaneous magnetism vanishes. The
temperature separates the disordered
paramagnetism from the ordered ferromagnetism
phases.
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 Ferromagnetism
• Materials that retain a
magnetization in zero
field.
• Quantum mechanical
exchange interactions
favour parallel alignment
of moments.
• Examples: iron, cobalt.

11:08 47
 Antiferromagnetism
In some materials,
exchange interactions
favour antiparallel
alignment of atomic
magnetic moments.
Materials are
magnetically ordered
but have zero remnant
magnetization and
very low .
Many metal oxides are
antiferromagnetic.
11:08 48
 Ferrimagnetism
• Antiferromagnetic
exchange interactions.
• Different sized
moments on each
sublattice.
• Results in net
magnetization.
• Example: magnetite,
maghemite.
11:08 49
 Summary
Diamagnetism

Paramagnetism

Non-perfect
Ferromagnetism Antiferromagnetism Antiferromagnetism Ferrimagnetism

important for rock and

11:08 paleomagnetism 50