General Topic: Philosophical Foundations of the Curriculum

I. Major Philosophies:  II. Educational Philosophies Geconcillo- National Period Relacion - Thorndike's Influence: Tyler, Taba and
Alcuizar- Idealism Bendebel- Perennialism Luza- 19th Period Bruner
Amatong- Realism Casido - Essentialism Nillama- Rise of the Universal Education Ronato- Classical and Operant Conditioning
Arreola- Pragmatism  Cejudo- Progressivism Ocoy- Transitional Period Selgas- Montessori method 
Barbarona -Existentialism Colon - Reconstructivism Odiong- Field Curriculum Villarta- Jean Piaget's theories
 
III. Historical Foundations IV. Psychological Foundations
Echavez- Colonial Period Ragay - Connectionism

I. Major Philosophies

IDEALISM thinking thoroughly in creating those goals from

 Idealism is a view that stresses the central role of the
idea or spiritual in the interpretation of experience. It is
a philosophical doctrine which holds the view that ideas
are the only reality
 Is a philosophy whose highest aim is the search for truth
and enduring values.
 Recognizes ideas, feelings and ideals are more
important than material objects.
 Idealism emphasizes that the human development
should be according to moral, ethical and spiritual to
acquire knowledge.
Plato - "Ideas could be integrated into several concepts and a
meaningful truth"
Kant - "Possible to achieve moral clarification but impossible
to arrive at absolute or universal truths"
Hegel - "One could progress towards the truth by continually
synthesizing thesis and antithesis, thereby arriving at ever-
higher levels of understanding"
How do we distinguish an idealist educator from the rest?
 Idealist Educator Follows a curriculum that is
hierarchical where concepts and abstract subjects
are on the top.
 Prefers a curriculum that relates ideas and
concepts to another.
Idealism Overview
REALISM
In 1973, Maxine Greene, an American educational
philosopher, once said, “Do philosophy,” challenging
the educators of her time. Her aim in stating this is
that she wanted the educators to open their minds
to taking risks and focus on a whole different
perspective when it comes to the methods of
teaching and strategies for promoting education. It's
true that all foundations of education aim to propose
set goals for the curriculum. However, to think of
philosophy as your basis introduces the practice of
which those goals are created. Having a
philosophical foundation for the curriculum allows us
to identify our motivation, the driving purpose of
education, and what should be expected from those
who benefit from it.
In her article, Harrington-Atkinson (2017) mentioned
that there are at least four major philosophical
principles within
education, which can be sorted into either traditional
or contemporary views. Those traditional ideas
include idealism
and realism, while their counterparts, pragmatism
and existentialism, are more on the contemporary
side.
 In simple terms, realism is the conception that the world
exists in terms of matter, that it can make sense through
reasonable reasoning and senses as it is experienced
through nature, and that it is separate from the world of
ideas and entirely independent of it (Ornstein &
Hunkins, 2009).
 Realism emphasizes logic and activities or experiences
that will develop additional reasoning and thoughts.
 The realist’s school of thought is traced back to
Aristotle, a classical Greek philosopher and polymath
from 384–322 BC, a student of Plato. From Aristotle’s
philosophy, he believes that matter or objects, anything
that we see today, exist by themselves and can exist
with or without the existence of man, meaning that they
are not a construct of the human mind.
Like idealism, there are three branches of realism: classical,
religious, and modern.
1. Obviously, Aristotle’s take on realism falls back on
classical realism, which suggests that matter is real and
that it is separate from our perceptions. Matter still
exists even though you may not see, hear, or feel it. He
asserted that ideas can exist without matter, but matter
cannot exist without ideas. Education cultivates the
capacity to reason, which allows for proper choices. If
one understands the matter, then one will be led to
understand the idea. Additionally, he advocated the
idea of free will after he realized that there were some
who chose not to reason. Still, he encouraged humanity
to seek the Golden Mean, the desirable middle of what
is deficient and excess. In the end, this branch of
philosophy boils down to one question: “What is its
purpose?”
2. It was St. Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) who founded
Religious Realism, in which he trusted that God is pure
 reasoning, the truth of all things. He believed that the
existence of God could be proven in five ways, mainly
by:
1) observing movement in the world as proof of
God, the "Immovable Mover"
2) observing cause and effect and identifying God as
the cause of everything
3) concluding that the impermanent nature of
beings proves the existence of a necessary being,
God, who originates only from within himself
4) noticing varying levels of human perfection and
determining that a supreme, perfect being must
therefore exist; and
5) knowing that natural beings could not have
intelligence without it being granted to them by
God.
3. Modern realism was advocated by two philosophers,
Francis Bacon (1561–1626) and John Locke (1632–
1704). In his
time, Bacon attempted to revise the structure of realism from
deductive reasoning, “top down," if A=B and B=C, then
A=C approach, to an inductive, “cause-and-effect reasoning,"
approach where he would reform realists’ thinking from
a specific idea in the physical world to a more general
assumption. Inductive reasoning relies on patterns and
trends,
while deductive reasoning relies on facts and rules.
Meanwhile, Locke inferred that everything we know, at this
exact
moment, comes from our experience and from our reactions
to it. That we are a blank slate without any innate or
preconceived ideas.
 It is known that Realism is the foundation of scientific
reasoning.
 Educators who follow a realistic manner of thought tend
to encourage their students to draw their observations
and conclusions from the world around them, rather
than confining themselves to an analysis of their own
ideas and are less likely to encourage their students to
seek the truth in literature and ideas.
 According to Ritz (2006), the curriculum for these
realists consists of reading, writing arithmetic, science
and the arts. They are
 objective educators who lean on a systematic approach
to order and classified knowledge, building on
previously learned information.
Under this curriculum, the following principles are upheld:
 the principle of independence of matter,
 the principle of orderliness of the world behind its
organization, this means that law and order prevail
in the universe,
 the principle of the world as real as discovered by
the scientist.
The educational implication of realism curriculum includes:
 The ultimate educational aim is achievement
of knowledge of nature and inner workings of
the universe.
 Education is essentially transmission of
inherited culture from one generation to
another.
 Disciplines of curriculum should contain
certain elements of culture.
 Students should learn disciplines to develop
intellectual skills to discover important
principles and theoretical insights.
Based on this philosophy, there should be a core curriculum
for every learner
PRAGMATISM
 John Dewey, Charles Pierce
 Greek word: to do, to make
 Experienced and useful = TRUE
 Thoughts must produce actions.
 Actions are more important than thoughts.
What are the Educational Implications of Pragmatism?
Learning from Experience
 experience is the source of knowledge, it is also a
source of education
 learn by doing
 experience must be productive, i.e., produce
growth
Educational Aim:Develop Learners’ Ability to Deal with
Future Problems
That is, to develop intelligence to solve problems.
According to Dewey,the process involves:
 identifying the problem,
 formatting a hypothesis(es),
 gathering or collecting data and tools to solve the
problem,
 testing each hypothesis, and
 storing the unity of knowledge for use in some
similar situations.
CURRICULUM
 Pragmatists propose a curriculum based on
problems that arise out of daily living.
Methods of Study
These should include:
 problem-solving,
 activity
 projects, and
 group involvement.
 Teachers should be a resource and guide; thus a
motivator.
 Teaching must be child-centered.
EXISTENTIALISM
 Existentialism is a philosophical movement that began in
the 1940s.
 It is a form of philosophical inquiry that explores the
problem of human existence and centers on the lived
experience of the thinking, feeling, and acting individual.
 Philosophy of human nature that identifies people as
having free will to determine the course of their lives
EXISTENTIALIST PHILOSOPHERS
 SØREN KIERKEGAARD 1813-1855
 The father of existentialism
 Danish philosopher born in Copenhagen
  Human existence is always individual in character,
never social
 FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE 1844-1900
 German philosopher
 Men in society are divided and ordered according
to their willingness and capacity to participate in a
life of spiritual and cultural transformation
 MARTIN HEIDEGGER 1889-1976
 Father of Existential Phenomenology
 German philosopher
 Views on human existence in a world of objects
and on Angst influenced the existential
philosophers
 JEAN-PAUL SARTRE 1905-1980
 Key figures in philosophical movement
 French philosopher
 Major concept of his philosophy was freedom and
responsibility
 SIMONE DE BEAUVOIR 1908-1986
 Existentialist Feminism Philosopher
 Argues for equal economic and political rights for
women and their right to self- realization in freely
chosen projects
EXISTENTIALIST CURRICULUM
 Learning is self- paced and self- directed.
 Students are given a wide variety of options from which
to choose.
 Students are afforded great latitude in their choice of
subject matter.
EXISTENTIALISM IN EDUCATION
 To encourage students to recognize and value
themselves as unique individuals who take full
responsibility for their actions, thoughts, and feelings.
 To aid the student in becoming his real self.
 Must educate the complete person, not just the mind,
because emotion and reason work together to make
decisions.
 Students should feel valued as an individual and
encouraged to develop his or her personal style and
creativity.
II. Educational Philosophies
PERRENIALISM
 Defined from it’s origin word ‘perennial’ meaning lasting
for many years, perennialism (also referred to as the
universal curriculum) is an educational philosophy that
focuses on things that have lasted for many years or
everlasting. It draws from both idealism and realism. It
is a philosophy that greatly supports the return of
traditional or older ways of learning and instruction in
order to strengthen a learner in order to prepare for
life. Perennialism is strict on pursuing perennial
(everlasting) universal truths and principles which tells
us that there are permanent studies and knowledge
worth teaching and sharing to all students. This
educational philosophy was created as an opposing
force towards progressivism (emotional focus of the
child-centered approach) which involves the
development of the learner’s intellect. This philosophy
was originally meant to be utilized upon higher
education and high school levels but by the 1980s, the
influence has spread to elementary education.
CONCEPSTS USED IN PERENNIALISM
 Evergreen Ideas
In a perennialistic curriculum, they highly focus on the
teaching of evergreen ideas, or universal truths and
philosophies – ideas and lessons that have stood the test of
time. They are proven worthy of study and are applicable to
many people through many generations.
 Great Conversation
The great conversation is continuous dialogue or discussion
taking place between classical authors or figures through
generations of history that teaches the principles of human
nature that remain relevant and worth learning at present
and into the far future.
 the “Classics”
The classics are a canon of books written hundreds or
thousands of years ago by notable literary figures and
philosophers such as Homer, Shakespeare, Aristotle,
Socrates, and Locke. The classics are pieces of writing that are
able to
answer questions and problems despite the test of time.
The Teacher
In perennialism, a teacher’s goal is to teach students how to
think rationally and develop minds that can think critically.
They are not concerned nor interested about a students’
personal wants, interests, experiences, or needs but rather
expose them to content and material that is good for them
and not what they like. Teachers in this philosophy do not
use modern methodologies and learning styles but rather use
tried and true teaching methods and techniques that are
believed to be most beneficial to disciplining students’ minds.
The Curriculum
In perennialism, the curriculum stresses on the significance
within rationality (reason) and intellectual development
(think deeply, analytically, flexibly, and imaginatively). It is
expected to contain “important” subjects taught in the
customary separate form and subjects that emphasize a
learner’s ability to “sharpen the mind”.
Example: Social Sciences – History, Geography
CHARACTERISTICS OF PERENNIALISM
 Perennialism is a subject-centered philosophy
 Perennialism is concerned with importance of mastery
in content and development of reasoning skills
 Perennialism helps learner’s develop skills in a
sequential manner
The Classroom
In perennialism, the classroom is to be a closely organized
and well-disciplined environment that help students on
lifelong quest for the truth. Classrooms are teacher-centered
so that teachers can accomplish their goals of supporting
intellectual growth of students and that the focus is not on
the student but rather on the subject matter (universal
principles). The classroom is also instruction-based which
helps teachers deliver information through lectures using
disciplined and organized format.
THE TWO EDGES OF PERENNIALISM
1. The Good
Perennialism promotes conservative and traditional
methods, practices, values, and principles that most learners
can take upon what their parents, grandparents, and
relatives used to
believe and learn. Some of the ideas and teachings do still
indent and apply on certain relevant and meaningful events
in the modern times.
Other than that, perennialism exposes many learners to
materials, ideas, and works that manifest principles of
humanity and it’s lessons worth acknowledging and
benefitting when it comes to learning and preparing for life:
such as ambition, corruption, love, work, etc. The classical
works, as principal instrument of this philosophy, promotes
us to sustain what is bound to be lost and be kept alive; and
to appreciate what they have offered.
2. The Bad
Perennialism highly appeals to tradition and it’s conservative
methods and teaching; it heavily relies on utilizing the
‘classics’ as a medium or material to live by for students.
However, just because something ancient and classic is
universally influential and accepted doesn’t make it the truth
or worthy of study. It indents a practice of allowing the
traditions of the post to rule the present – hindering the
progress of developing relevant and vital ideas that are
currently important and for the future.
Not to mention, perennialism is regressive in both the
individual and the society. Perennialism restricts from
learners from learning and pursuing their interest,
preferences, and their needs – a one-sided growth where the
emotional and moral aspect of a learner is not nourished but
indented more on it’s intellectual aspect (not accounting
emotion as a great determiner to success and preparation). It
ignores relevant social issues in current times and focuses on
archaic principles.
ESSENTIALISM
An educational philosophy that holds that the goal of
education is to provide students with the knowledge, skills,
and attitudes they need to function as fully formed human
beings in the modern world.
 Essentialism is a philosophy of education that focuses
on the essential, the crucial parts of learning
 The essential curriculum gives heavy enphasis on the
Three Rs ( Reading, Writing, and Arithmetic
 Essentialism focuses in preparing students for a lifetime
of learning and preparing them to adapt to a globalized
and changing world.
 Teaches students the skills they'll need to succeed and
advance in life, and Emphasizes skills and subjects that
are needed by all in a productive society.
William Chandler. Bagley
 March 15, 1874, Detroit, Michigan, United States
 One of the most influential advocates of
essentialism
 Was an American educator and editor.
 He emphasizes teacher-centered not children
centered learning.
 He believed that education was not supposed to change
society but to preserve it.
He published the Essentialism Platform which outlined three
major parts
1. Right of students to a well-educated and culturally
knowledgeable teachers
2. Discussed the importance of teaching the ideas of
community to all groups of education
3. The importance of accuracy, thoroughness and
effort on part of the student in the classroom
Why essentialism is necessary in the educational system?
 It enables students to learn fundamental concepts,
skills, and principles
 To ideally impart to students the traditional moral
values
 and academic knowledge they need to become
model citizens.
 To insures that students are taught the
accumulated knowledge of our civilization as
taught in the standard academic disciplines.
The curriculum of essentialism
 Mathematics
 History
 Literature
 Foreign Language
 Naturals Science
Roles of teachers and a students in classroom environment
 For Teachers:
 The teacher teaches discipline and hard work.
 The teacher is an expert of content knowledge.
 The teacher is accountable for student learning
 Establishes a strict, well-disciplined classroom.
Main roles are:
 As an expert
 Impart essential knowledge
 Direct focused tasks
 Essentialism as a teacher- centered
philosophy
 For Students:
 The role of the student should be passive and open
to learning whatever the teacher provides.
 Listen and learn what teachers taught
 Recognize the expertise of their teachers
Pros and Cons of Essentialism in Education
 Pros
 It encourages students to focus on what matters
and eliminate distractions from their lives, which
can be advantageous for learners who have
trouble focusing on homework or other tasks.
 Other pros include its ability to help pupils learn
more effectively and to concentrate on what is
most crucial in education.
 Cons
 One drawback of essentialism is that it could be
challenging for educators to decide which knowledge
area or skill should indeed be stressed. There's a chance
that some students won't get the chance to explore
other ideas outside their chosen field
 Other drawbacks include the notion that essentialism
may not foster curiosity about new things because it
limits the exploration of ideas other than those that
have been designated as essential.

The essentialism classroom environment
 All students should be taught basic fundamental
academic abilities and knowledge.
 Elementary school students should learn subjects like
reading, writing, computers, and measurement.
 Apart from the arts and music, subjects typically
emphasize creativity.
 Students are given a wide range of resources and
strategies in the classroom to help them progress from
less complex to more sophisticated knowledge and
skills.
 The teacher serves as the student's intellectual and
moral role model in the classroom and is typically the
main focus of the environment.
The evaluations performed under essentialism have several
uses. These give teachers the ability to assess whether
educational objectives are being reached or not. Additionally,
they assist teachers in determining whether or not students
are paying attention in class and comprehending the course
material. Finally, assessments are completed since they have
an impact on many facets of a student's education
PROGRESSIVISM
Introduction
It is an American philosophy, which is revolt against the
formal/conventional/traditional system of education. It
become popular, in 1929 the economic depression of USA
adversely affected the educational system of the country.
The principles underlying progressive education have
influenced the modern educational theories and practices to
a very great extend all over the world.
Meaning
Education is centered around for the present life itself. The
development of an individual and the society is only possible,
when education facilitates the growth of every phase of the
child.
John Dewey (1859 - 1952)
 an American philosopher, psychologist, and
educational reformer.
 his philosophy based on pragmatism.
 he established "laboratory school" in 1896.
 he was the father of educational philosophy.
 he introduce progressive method of teaching.
 he believed that book learning was no sabstitute
for actually doing things.
Definition
 Progressivism is a theory of education that is concerned
with "learning by doing" that children learn best when
pursuing their own interests and satisfying their own
needs.
 Progressivists believe that people learn best from what
they consider most relevant to their lives. Progressivists
center curriculum on their needs, experience, interest
and abilities of student. Provoke curiosity in students.
What is Progressivism?
 Progressivism is the educational philosophy which is
grounded in the "pure" philosophy of pragmatism.
 Pragmatic ontology holds that reality is in the area of
everyday life, personal experience. Its view is that ideas
should be tested for their utility.
 Progressivism focuses on real-world problem solving
and individual development.
Concept of Progressivism
 contemporary reform movement in educational, social
and political affairs.
 Dewey viewed the school as a miniature democratic
society in which students could learn and practice the
skill and tolls necessary for democratic living.
Educational Progressivism
 is the belief that education must be based on the
principle that humans are social animals who learn
best in real life activities with other people.
 the skills and tools of learning include problem
solving methods And scientific inquiry.
 Learning experience include cooperative behavior
and self-discipline.
 schools can transmit the culture of society while it
prepares students in the changing world
Aims of education
 to develop the personality of an individual through
providing a democratic environment in the educational
institutions.
 an all-round development of child.
 co-operative behavior and social participation.
 education of the whole man, or whole personality,
which includes the physical, emotional, social and
intellectual aspects of the individual.
RECONSTRUCTIVISM
Also known as SOCIAL RECONSTRUCTIONISM , this theory
claims to be the true successor of progressivism and declares
that the chief purpose of Education is to Reconstruct society
in order to meet the cultural crisis brought about social,
political and economic problem.
THINKERS!
 THEODORE BRAMELD (1904-1987)
 GEORGE SYLVESTER COUNTS (1889-1974)
 PAULO REGLUS NEVES FREIRE (1921-1997)
ASSUMPTIONS!
 Man to a significant degree plan and control his society.
 society is in need of constant reconstruction.
 social change involves a reconstruction of education and
the use of education in reconstruction society.
 mankind has intellectual, technological and moral
potential to create a world civilization of abundance,
health and human capacity
ROLE OF TEACHERS!
 Lead the learners in designing programs for social,
educational, practical, and economic change.
 Primary agent of social change.
 Initiates lively discussion on controversial issues,
political and educational
 Enables the learners to critically examine their cultural
heritage.
MODELS AND STRATEGIES!
● COMMUNITY- BASED PROJECTS
● PROBLEM- ORIENTED METHOD
EDUCATIONAL AIM!
● education is based on the quest for better society.
● education enlivens the students awareness of
different societal problem.
CURRICULUM EMPHASIS!
 stresses learning that enable the individual to live
in a global milieu.
 controversial national and international issue
 emphasis on social science and social research
methods, examination of social, economic and
political problems.
 focus on present and future trends.
III. Historical Foundations
COLONIAL PERIOD
 (1642 - 1776)
 When the USA - was taken over by the English
 FOCUS: Colonial Massachusetts - settled by Purita
PURITANS
 English Protestants that migrated from England to
New England : North Eastern Region of the US
- Connecticut, Maine, Rhode Island, Vermont,
New Hampshire, and Massachusetts
 16th century - 17th century
 lived very strict moral and theological principles.
 valued education - especially literacy
Why Talk about the Puritans?
Curriculum’s historical foundations are largely rooted in the
educational experiences of colonial Massachusetts
The first New England schools were closely tied to the Puritan
church. According to educational historians, a school’s
primary purpose was to teach children to read the scriptures
and notices of civil affairs.
 Most important subject - READING then WRITING
and SPELLING
 WHY? - needed for understanding the CATECHISM
and COMMONLAW
In turn, even today, Reading and related language skills have
been basic to American education and the elementary school
curriculum
3 COLONIAL REGIONS
 NEW ENGLAND
The Puritans VALUED LITERACY.
 partly as a way of preventing the formation of a
large underclass, such as existed in England and
other parts of Europe.
 wanted to ensure that their children would grow
up committed to the religious doctrines.
Except for Rhode Island, the other New England colonies
followed Massachusetts’s example.
Early laws reveal how important education was to the
Puritan settlers. They made education of the youth a
PUBLIC RESPONSIBILITY. Some historians consider
these laws to be the roots of U.S. school law and the
public school movement.
Schools in colonial Massachusetts derived from two
sources:
1. 1642 LEGISLATION
 The general court passed this law that
required parents and guardians to ensure that
children could read and understand the
principles of religion and the laws of the
Commonwealth
 also requires householders to teach even the
apprentices and servants + their children to
even at least read English (either they do it or
hire someone to teach)
2. THE “OLD DELUDERSATAN” ACT OF 1647
 this was passed because the General curt was
disturbed by persistent parent negligence
 required every town of 50 or more families to
appoint a reading and writing teacher
 Towns of 100 or more families to employ a
teacher of Latin (graduate of Harvard/Yale) so
that students could be prepared to enter
College.
 NOTE: only open to FREE, MALE, WHITE
children
 Girls (and very young children) were taught at
Dame Schools
 MIDDLE COLONIES
On the other hand, Middle colonies had no language
or religion in common, although rich in diversity.
Due to the competition among political and religious
groups, it retarded willingness to expend the public
funds for educational purposes.
More focused on Merchantile System and
Distribution due to location .
No single system of schools could be established.
Instead, parochial and independent schools related
to different ethnic and religious groups evolved.
Schools were locally rather than centrally controlled.
The current notion of cultural pluralism thus took
shape some 250
years ago.
 Cultural Pluralism - minority groups in
society maintained cultural identity, values,
and practices
 SOUTHERN COLONIES
Until the end of the 18th century, educational
decisions in the Southern colonies were generally left
to the family.
Legislation was enacted to ensure that guardians of
POOR, ORPHANED, and ILLEGITIMATE children
provided private instruction (vocational skills.)
However, the plantation system of landholding,
 slavery, and gentry created great educational
inequity.
 The White children of plantation owners were
privately tutored,
 Poor Whites received no formal education -
unable to read and write
 became subsistence farmers like their
parents. The law prohibited slave children
from learning to read or write.
 The South’s economic and political system
slowed the development of a large-scale
system of schools and it was like that or a
very long time
Despite the regional variations, schools of all colonies were
influenced by English political ideas. Also, despite differences
in language, religion, and economic systems, religious
commitment was a high priority in most schools.
 The curriculum of the colonial schools consisted of:
 reading
 writing
 [some] arithmetic
 along with the rudiments of religious faith
 lessons designed to develop manners and
morals.
 It was a traditional curriculum
 stressing basic skills, timeless and absolute values,
social and religious conformity, faith in authority,
knowledge for the sake of knowledge, rote
learning, and memorization.
 The curriculum reflected the belief that children
were born in sin, play was idleness, and children’s
talk was gibberish. The teacher applied strict
discipline -This approach lasted until the rise of
progressivism.
COLONIAL SCHOOLS
-Schools were important institutions for colonial society.
 TOWN SCHOOLS
In the New England colonies, the town school was a
locally controlled public elementary school.
 "classroom" was a simple, one-room structure
with teacher’s pulpit at the front of the room
 attended by boys and girls of the community
(ranged
 from 5 or 6 to 13 or 14 )
 Students sat on benches and studied their
assignments until the teacher called on them to
recite.
 Attendance was not always regular; it
depended on weather conditions and on the
extent to which individual
 families needed their children to work on their
farms.
 PAROCHIAL AND PRIVATE SCHOOLS
 predominated in the middle colonies.
 Missionary societies and various religious and
ethnic groups established elementary schools
for their own children.
 Like the New England town schools, these
schools focused on reading, writing, and
religious sermons.
 In the South, upper-class children attended
private schools oriented toward reading,
writing, arithmetic, and studying the primer
and Bible;
 less fortunate children might attend charity
schools, where they learned the “three R’s,”
recited religious hymns (which was less
demanding than reading the Bible), and
learned vocational skills.
 LATIN GRAMMAR SCHOOLS
 attended by upper-class boys
 Latin grammar schools, first established in Boston
in 1635, as preparation for college.
 These schools catered to those who planned to
enter the professions (medicine, law, teaching, and
the ministry) or become business owners or
merchants.
 A boy would enterat age 8 or 9 and remain for
eight years.
 Curriculum focused on the classics, some courses
in Greek, rhetoric, and logic; other arts and
sciences weren't minded and religion was a priority
 The school served the church.
 Study was said to be exhausting and unexciting
They are considered to be one of colonial America’s closest
links to European schools. Its curriculum resembled the
classical humanist curriculum of the Renaissance - schools
were intended primarily for upper-class children and their
role was to support the era’s religious and social institutions
 ACADEMIES
 Established in 1751
 The second American institution to provide
education.
 Based on Benjamin Franklin’s ideas and intended
to offer a practical curriculum for those not going
to college
 it had a diversified curriculum (English grammar,
classics, composition, rhetoric, and public
speaking)
 Latin was no longer considered a crucial subject.
 Students could choose a foreign language based on
their vocational needs.
 Mathematics was taught for its professional uses
rather than as an abstract intellectual exercise.
 History, not religion, was the chief ethical study.
The academy also introduced many practical and
manual skills into the formal curriculum: carpentry,
engraving, printing, painting, cabinet making,
farming, bookkeeping, and so on.
 These skills formed the basis of vocational
curriculum in the 20th century.
 COLLEGES
 Most students who went to Harvard or Yale
University graduated from Latin grammar schools
meaning the students had to know Latin and Greek
and the classics well
  College was based on the Puritan view that
ministers needed to be soundly educated in the
classics and scriptures.
 As is the case today, secondary education prepared
students for college.
 The student would be admitted into college ‘upon
Examination’ - he could show competency ‘to
Read, Construe, Parce Tully, Vergil and the Greek
Testament; and to write Latin in Prose and to
understand the Rules of Prosodia and Common
Arithmetic’ as well as to bring ‘testimony of his
blameless and inoffensive life.’
 The Harvard/Yale curriculum consisted of courses
in Latin, grammar, logic, rhetoric, arithmetic,
astronomy, ethics, metaphysics, and natural
sciences. The curriculum for the ministry or other
professions also included Greek, Hebrew, and
ancient history.
OLD TEXT BOOKS READERS
Until the American Revolution, most elementary textbooks
were of English origin or directly imitated English textbooks.
Children learned the alphabet, the Lord’s Prayer, and some
syllables, words, and sentences by memorizing the HORN
BOOK - a paddle-shaped board to which was attached a sheet
of parchment covered with a transparent sheath made from
flattened cattle horns..
CONSIDERED TEXT BOOKS WERE:
 HORNBOOK
 PRIMER
 WESTMINSTER CATECHISM
 OLD TESTAMENT
 BIBLE
NEW ENGLISH PRIMER
 Was published in the 190s, it replaced the English
primer.
 The first American Basal reader, it remained as the most
widely used textbook in the colonies for more than 100
years; more that 3 million copies were sold.
 students memorized sermons and learned their ABCs
through rote and drill:
1740 NEW GUIDE TO ENGLISH TONGUE
- Thomas Dilworth published a New Guide to the English
Tongue, which combined grammar, spelling, and religious
instruction. It was followed a few years later by The School
Master’s Assistant. A widely used mathematics text.
HAS 5 PARTS:
I. Words both common and proper, from one to six
syllables ...
II. A large and useful table of words that are the
same in sound but different in signification ...
III. A short but comprehensive grammar ...
IV. An useful collection of sentences in prose and
verse, divine, moral and historical ...
V. Forms of prayer for children on several occasions
NOAH WEBSTER
 American lexicograper particularly known for his
American Spelling Book (1783) and his American
Dictionary of the English Language.
 Besides a schoolbook publisher, Webster had took up a
number of occupations - a soldier, lawyer, teacher,
philosopher, essayist, political leader, orator, public
official and crusading newspaper editor.
 He was committed to the success of the new American
Nation. He was very passionate about defining common
language of the nation and promoted progression
through the education of its citizens.
 wrote a letter to Henry Barnard, then Connecticut’s
commissioner of education, in which he described the of
the elementary curriculum and the limited use of
 textbooks:
19TH PERIOD
Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, Swiss social reformer and
educator, is known as the Father of Modern Education.
Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi contributions are
(1) his educational philosophy and instructional
method that encouraged harmonious intellectual,
moral, and physical development;
(2) his methodology of empirical sensory learning,
especially through object lessons; and
(3) his use of activities, excursions, and nature
studies that anticipated Progressive education.
Pestalozzi's method rested on two major premises:
(1) children need an emotionally secure
environment as the setting for successful learning;
and
(2) instruction should follow the generalized process
of human conceptualization that begins with
sensation.
Emphasizing sensory learning, the special method used the
Anschauung principle, a process that involved forming clear
concepts from sense impressions. Pestalozzi designed object
lessons in which children, guided by teachers, examined the
form (shape), number (quantity and weight) of objects, and
named them after direct experience with them. Object
teaching was the most popular and widely adopted element
of Pestalozzianism.
 General method - called for educators who provided
children with emotional security and affection.
 Special Method - considered children’s auditory and
visual senses. Pestalozzi devised the “object” lesson, in
which children studied common objects such as plants,
rocks, and household objects.
Children would determine an object’s form, draw the object,
and then name it.from these lessons in
form, number, and sound came more formal instruction in
the three R’s.
Pestalozzi believed that education should develop the powers
of ‘Head’, ‘Heart’ and ‘Hands’. He
believed that this would help create individuals who are
capable of knowing what is right and what is
wrong and of acting according to this knowledge.
What is the contribution of Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi to
education?
Pestalozzi’s approach has had massive influence on
education, for example, his influence, as well as his relevance
to education today, is clear in the importance now put on:
 The interests and needs of the child
 A child-centered rather than teacher-centered
approach to teaching
 Active rather than passive participation in the
learning experience
 The freedom of the child based on his or her
natural development balanced with the self-
discipline to function well as an individual and in
society
 The child having direct experience of the world and
the use of natural objects in teaching
 The use of the senses in training pupils in
observation and judgment
 Cooperation between the school and the home
and between parents and teachers
 The importance of an all-round education – an
education of the head, the heart and the hands,
but which is led by the heart
 The use of systemised subjects of instruction,
which are also carefully graduated and illustrated
 Learning which is cross-curricular and includes a
varied school life
 Education which puts emphasis on how things are
taught as well as what is taught
 Authority based on love, not fear
 Teacher training
The foundation of his doctrine was that education should be
organic, meaning that intellectual, moral, and physical
education (or, in his words, development of “head, heart, and
body”) should be integrated and that education should draw
upon the faculties or “self-power” inherent in the human
being.
The Kindergarten Movement
Friedrich Froebel (1782–1852), a German educator,
developed what he called “kindergarten” (children’s garden).
A good way to begin to understand Froebel’s philosophy is to
define the word, Kindergarten. Kindergarten literally means
Children’s Garden, which covers Froebel’s concept of “a place
for children” as well as his beliefs about child growth,
development, and learning (Elkind, 2015).
 He focused on the 3- and 4-year-old children and
believed that their schooling should be organized
around play and individual and group interests and
activities.
 Froebel encouraged a child-centered curriculum
based (like Pestalozzi’s) on love, trust, and
freedom.
 Songs, stories, colorful materials, and games were
part of the formal curriculum.
 The children could manipulate objects (spheres,
cubes, and circles), shape and construct materials
(clay, sand,cardboard), and engage in playful
activities (build castles and mountains, run, and
otherwise exercise).
The founder of the kindergarten movement believed that
constructive play and self-activity is important in early
childhood.
He believed that “play is the highest expression of human
development in childhood for it alone is the free expression
of what is in the child’s soul.” According to Froebel, in play
children construct their understanding of the world through
direct experience with it.
 Froebel put great emphasis on play in child education.
Just like work and lessons, games or play should serve to
realize the child’s inner destiny. Games are not idle time
wasting; they are “the most important step in the
development of a child,” and they are to be watched by
the teachers as clues to how the child is developing.
 Froebel was especially interested in the development of
toys for children—what he called “gifts,” devised to
stimulate learning through well-directed play.
 These gifts, or playthings, included balls, globes, dice,
cylinders, collapsible dice, shapes of wood to be put
together, paper to be folded, strips of paper, rods,
beads, and buttons.
 The aim was to develop elemental judgment
distinguishing form, color, separation and association,
grouping, matching, and so on. When, through the
teacher’s guidance, the gifts are properly experienced,
they connect the natural inner unity of the child to the
unity of all things (e.g., the sphere gives the child a
sense of unlimited continuity, the cylinder a sense both
of continuity and of limitation).
 Even the practice of sitting in a circle symbolizes the way
in which each individual, while a unity in himself, is a
living part of a larger unity. The child is to feel that his
nature is actually joined with the larger nature of things.
Froebel stood for the socializing or educational idea of
providing, as he put it in founding his kindergarten, “a school
for the psychological training of little children by means of
play and occupations.” The school, that is, was to have a
purpose for the children, not the adults. The
curriculum consisted chiefly of three types of activities:
1. playing with the “gifts,” or toys, and engaging in
other occupations designed to familiarize children
with inanimate things,
2. playing games and singing songs for the purpose not only
of exercising the limbs and voice but also of instilling a spirit
of humanity and nature, and
3. gardening and caring for animals in order to induce
sympathy for plants and animals. All this was to be
systematic activity
Herbart: Moral and Intellectual Development
Johann Herbart (1776–1841) was a German philosopher
known for his contributions to moral development in
education and for his creation of a methodology of
instruction designed to establish a highly structured mode of
teaching.
The chief aim of education was moral development, which he
considered to be basic and necessary to all other educational
goals or purposes.
The chief objective of Herbartian education was to produce a
good person who had many interests. Herbart argued that
virtue is founded on knowledge and misconduct is the
product of inadequate knowledge or of inferior education.
Thus, he gave education a vital role in shaping moral
character.
Herbart specified five major kinds of ideas as the foundation
of moral character:
 (1) the idea of inner freedom, which referred to
action based on one’s personal convictions;
(2) the idea of perfection, which referred to the
harmony and integration of behavior;
(3) the idea of benevolence, by which a person was
to be concerned with the social welfare of others;
(4) the idea of justice, by which a person reconciled
his or her individual behavior with that of the
social group; and
(5) the idea of retribution, which indicates that
reward or punishment accrues to certain kinds of
behavior.
Knowledge interests involved empirical data, factual
information, and speculative ideas, and
Ethical interests included sympathy for others,
social relationships, and religious sentiments.
He believed that if a person’s cognitive powers are
properly exercised and his or her mind is stocked
with proper ideas, then the person will use that
knowledge to guide his or her behavior. The person
who lives and acts according to knowledge will be
a moral person.
Herbart also developed four pedagogical principles;
these became known as the Herbartian Method:
(1) preparation, by which the teacher stimulates the
readiness of the learner for the new lesson by
referring to materials that were learned earlier;
(2) presentation, in which the teacher presents the
new lesson to the students;
(3) association, in which the new lesson is
deliberately related to the ideas or materials that
students studied earlier;
(4) systemization, which involves the use of
examples to illustrate the principles or
generalizations to be mastered by the students; and
(5) application, which involves the testing of new
ideas or the materials of the new lesson to
determine if students have understood and
mastered them.
The teacher would prepare carefully by thinking of the five
steps and asking:
 What do my students know?
 What questions should I ask?
 What events should I relate?
 What conclusions should be reached?
 How can students apply what they have learned?
Herbert Spencer (1820–1903) was an English social scientist
who based his ideas of education on Charles Darwin’s theory
of biological evolution and subsequently introduced the
notion of “survival of the fittest.”
 Spencer maintained that simple societies evolve to
more complex social systems, characterized by an
increased variety of specialized professions and
occupations.
 Spencer’s notions of excellence, social- economic
progress, and intellectual development based on
heredity had immense implications for education
and economic outcomes.
 Spencer criticized religious doctrines and classical
subject matter as unscientific and unrelated to
contemporary society.
Spencer constructed a curriculum aimed at advancing human
survival and progress.
"What Knowledge is of Most Worth?" is the knowledge that
the study of science provides.
 Five activities necessary in curriculum.
 self preservation
 performance of occupations
 child-rearing
 social and political participation
 recreation and leisure.
TRANSITIONAL PERIOD 1893-1918
 Charles Eliot
 William Harris
From the colonial period until the turn of the 20th century,
the traditional curriculum, which emphasized classical studies
for college-bound students, dominated at the elementary
and secondary levels.
While helpful to students, the sheer variety of course
offerings were inconsistent across districts. There was a
growing need to bring some order and unity to curriculum,
especially at the secondary level. According to two educators,
the subjects taught, the time allotted to them, and their
“grade placements” differed from school to school.
With these unsettled questions as background, the
National Education Association (NEA) orga-nized three
major committees between 1893 and 1895:
the Committee of Fifteen on Elementary Education,
the Committee of Ten on Secondary School Studies,
the Committee on College Entrance Requirements.
 Committee of Fifteen
 Harvard University President Charles Elliot
Influence the Commitee
 The Commitee adopted Eliot's plan to move from
10 grades to 8 in elementary school
 Emphasizes of the three R's, English Grammar,
literature geography and history.
 Hygiene, culture, vocal music and drawing were
part of curriculum.
 7th and 8th grade
 Sewing, manual training , cooking algebra and latin
 Committee of Ten
 Also chaired by Charles Elliot
 9 subject matters in the high school curriculum
 Committee recommended four different tracks
 Classical , Latin scientific, modern language and
English
 Ignored Physical Education and Arts
 The commitee started college preparatory courses
(Latin, Greek, English, other modern languages,
 mathematics, physical sciences, social sciences,
geography, geology, and meteorology
 Committee of College Entrance Requirements
 Met in 1895
 reaffirmed the dominance of college- preparatory
 Credits required for different subjects during
college,
 Discussed credits for admission imposed during
high-school
 Build college-admission requirements
Harris and Elliot
Dominated the reform movement during transitional period
 Common high schools should teach morality and
citizenship.
 Instill social order
 Elliot played a role in shaping higher education.
 View school as one of the many factors in
educating and socializing children.
 He allowed independent learning