7 Sedimentary Minerals and

Sedimentary Rocks

7.1 Salt deposits on the shore of the Dead Sea, Jordan

7 Sedimentary Minerals and

Sedimentary Rocks
KEY CONCEPTS

Weathering involves the decomposition and breaking apart

of rocks at Earth’s surface.
Weathering produces solid clastic material and dissolved
chemical material.
Products of weathering may be transported and deposited
 to produce clastic or chemical sediments.
Sediments of all sorts may be lithified to become rocks.
Clastic material typically comprises quartz and clays;
less commonly other minerals.
Minerals produced by chemical precipitation include
clays, carbonates, sulfates, halides, zeolites, and
chert.
We name clastic sedimentary rocks based primarily on
clast size.
We name chemical sedimentary rocks based primarily on
composition.

7.1 Weathering
Sediments are created by weathering. Weathering is the
breaking apart and decomposition of rocks at the Earth’s
surface. It is caused by reactions with air, water, salt, and
acid, by freezing and thawing, and by plants and animals.
Weathering involves the decomposition of rock, and the
breaking down of primary minerals in rock. The products
include smaller pieces of rock, individual mineral grains,
dissolved material that is carried away, and sometimes new
secondary minerals.

7.2 Two kinds of weathering

Figure 7.2 shows the two parallel processes that may occur
during weathering. An original source rock (igneous,
metamorphic, or sedimentary) is exposed to forces that cause
weathering. The weathering forces may be mechanical (water,
wind, gravity, glaciers, waves, and frost) or chemical
(dissolution by water, perhaps containing acids). Often the
two kinds of weathering work together. And, these processes
are selective. Some minerals dissolve or react and disappear
faster than other minerals. Some rocks are harder and do not
break apart as easily as other rocks. Over long times –
geological times – chemical weathering has a much greater
effect than mechanical weathering. Even apparently dry
climates have enough water to promote chemical weathering on
exposed surfaces, although the weathering rate may be slow.

Mechanical weathering breaks large or solid material into

smaller pieces. The products produced vary greatly; we call
them collectively clasts (from klastos, the Greek word meaning
“broken”). Clastic material, also called detritus or detrital
material, may be fine grains of individual minerals or it may
be lithic fragments (rock fragments) composed of multiple
minerals.

7.3 Talus on Electric Peak,

Yellowstone National Park

The photo seen here (Figure 7.3) shows boulders on a talus

slope that were produced by mechanical weathering (mostly
freezing and thawing) in Yellowstone National Park. Freezing,
thawing, and the action of ice created large blocky pieces of
what was originally solid bedrock. Even apparently solid
granites or other rocks can be broken apart this way. Talus
slopes are examples of very coarse sediment. More commonly,
mechanical weathering produces smaller rock fragments, or
sand, or silt composed of individual mineral grains.

7.4 Weathered sandstone in

Ohio

After chemical weathering, leftover rock may have a dissolved

or eroded appearance, such as the sandstone seen in Figure
7.4. This sandstone has weathered to obtain a honeycomb
texture, typical of sandstone in which the cementation of
grains is not uniform. Weathering textures are not unique to
sandstone. After chemical weathering, outcrops of many sorts
often become rounded or pitted. The limestone outcrop shown in
Figure 7.5, for example, shows signs of dissolution and
chemical weathering. The surfaces are a dull chalky white and
the corners are all rounded. Figure 4.24 (Chapter 4) shows
another example of chemical weathering, a weathering rind on
sandstone.

7.5 Weathered limestone

outcrop in County
Fermanagh, Northern Ireland
Minor chemical weathering can cause minerals to alter, perhaps
to oxidize (rust). More intense weathering may cause some
minerals to disappear. They may dissolve completely in water
and be carried away in a hydrolysate (water containing
dissolved ions). More often, minerals react to produce
secondary minerals – minerals that were not present before
weathering. Reactions that produce secondary minerals most
commonly involve the reaction of water with previously
existing minerals such as feldspars (common in many igneous
rocks), to produce clays and dissolved elements. We call such
reactions hydrolysis reactions. Secondary minerals may also
form by oxidations reactions when primary minerals react with
oxygen in air or water. For example, oxidation of iron-rich
olivine or pyroxene commonly produces hematite (Fe2O3).

Mineral matter remaining after chemical weathering often

includes original mineral grains that did not decompose. We
sometimes call these minerals the residual minerals, or the
resistate, because the minerals resisted weathering. Typical
resistate minerals include quartz, clay, K-feldspar, garnet,
zircon, rutile, or magnetite. After the more easily decomposed
minerals break down and disappear, the resistate minerals
remain to become sediment.

If we examine fresh (unweathered) outcrop in a road cut, rock

often appears hard and shiny. Examination with a hand lens
reveals that minerals have well-defined boundaries and
generally sharp outlines. They may show good cleavage or
crystal faces. Minerals may have their normal diagnostic
colors: quartz is clear, feldspars are white or pink,
muscovite is silvery and sparkly, magnetite appears metallic,
and biotite and other mafic minerals appear black.
 7.6 Weathered granite in a
British quarry

The picture is not the same if we examine outcrops exposed to

weathering for a long time. After weathering, rock and most
minerals have a dull or drab appearance. Grain boundaries and
cleavages are obscured. Oxidation (rusting) and hydration may
produce reddish, yellow, brown, or gray hues. Sometimes a
layer of clay or other material coats all surfaces, obscuring
diagnostic minerals. The photo shown here (Figure 7.6) shows
granite that is being replaced by kaolinite (a clay) during
weathering. The once solid crystalline granite is now a dull
earthy mass.

Mafic silicates weather to create secondary clay minerals and

iron oxides. Feldspars of all sorts weather to become clay
minerals and dissolved material. Quartz is usually unchanged
by weathering. Calcite weathers by dissolution producing
dissolve ions. And aluminous minerals weather to gibbsite or
other aluminum hydroxides. The table below lists weathering
products for the most common minerals. Clays and limonite (a
general term describing for a mix of hydrated Fe-oxides and
hydroxides) dominate the list. Quartz and aluminous minerals
may also be produced. While creating these secondary minerals,
weathering also produces dissolved cations (especially alkalis
and alkali earths) and anions, which may have a significant
impact on water chemistry and quality.
 Typical Chemical Weathering Products of Common
Minerals
mineral residual
dissolved ions
(composition) minerals
halite (Na chloride) Na+, Cl–

gypsum (hydrated Ca
Ca2+, (SO4)2-
sulfate)

calcite (Ca carbonate) Ca2+, (HCO3)–

quartz (SiO2) (SiO4)4-

plagioclase (Ca-Na-Al
clay minerals Ca2+, Na+, (SiO4)4-
silicate)

alkali feldspar (K-Na-

clay minerals K+, Na+, (SiO4)4-
Al silicate)

olivine (Fe-Mg limonite, hematite,

Mg2+, (SiO4)4-
silicate) clay

pyroxene (Ca-Fe-Mg limonite, hematite,

Ca2+, Mg2+, (SiO4)4-
silicate) clay

amphibole (Ca-Fe-Mg limonite, hematite,

K+, Mg2+, (SiO4)4-
silicate) clay

biotite (K-Fe-Mg-Al limonite, hematite,

K+, Mg2+, (SiO4)4-
mica) clay

muscovite (K-Al mica) clay K+

Some minerals break down more easily than others. Geologists

can compare weathering rates by looking at minerals in rock
outcrops, and by studying the minerals present in sediments of
different ages. Goldich (1938) made such observations,
publishing what we call Goldich’s Weathering Series. The
series ranked the ease with which common igneous minerals
break down. Goldich found that minerals that crystallize from
a magma at high temperature – minerals relatively poor in
silicon and oxygen – are generally less resistant to
weathering than those that crystallize at low temperature.
Thus, the minerals at the top of Bowen’s reaction series
weather most easily and those at the bottom are more resistant
to weathering. Iron-magnesium silicates, such as olivine,
pyroxene, or amphibole break down relatively easily. Calcic
feldspars, and many minerals with high solubilities in water,
are also quick to decompose. Quartz, some feldspars, and some
nonsilicate minerals are relatively resistant to weathering
because they contain more bonds, especially Si – O bonds, that
do not break easily. It should not be surprising that minerals
that characterize high-temperature igneous rocks, or those
most often precipitated from water, are the first to decompose
under Earth surface conditions where temperature is low and
water is abundant.

Sedimentologists have made

comprehensive lists of the
relative ease with which minerals
weather. Although there is some
variation, the list shown here is
typical (from Birkeland 1999).
Like primary minerals, secondary
minerals can break down and
disappear, so this table compares
weathering rates for both primary
minerals and secondary minerals.
Weathering resistance, however,
does not necessarily mean that a
particular mineral is abundant in
weathered materials. Some of the
minerals at the top of the list
in the table are uncommon
compared with others. Zircon,
rutile, and tourmaline, for example, are very resistant to
weathering but rarely are major components of sediments
because they are only minor minerals in most parent rocks.
Minerals at the bottom of the list are very unstable when
exposed to the elements and, consequently, are absent from all
but the youngest sediments.

After chemical weathering, dissolved material is carried away.

Residual minerals and secondary minerals such as clay may
remain where they form. For example, prolonged weathering of
bedrock can lead to thick layers of reddish soil called
laterite in tropical areas (see Box 7-1, below). Laterites
vary but are always rich in oxide minerals and clays.
Laterites are easily eroded. Over time, erosion by water,
gravity, or wind can transport laterite debris, just like any
other detrital material, away from its place of origin.

● Box 7-1 Laterites and Bauxites

7.7 Bauxite (red) above sandstone (white) at Pera Head, Weipa, Australia
Consider a tropical area with warm weather and abundant rainfall.
Weathering and leaching will be extreme, and even clay minerals may
decompose. Normally soluble elements, and even relatively insoluble
silica, will be dissolved and removed. The remaining material, called a
residual deposit, is often composed primarily of aluminum oxides and
hydroxides, the least soluble of all common minerals. We term such
deposits laterites (if unconsolidated) or bauxites (if lithified into
rock). Figure 7.7 shows bauxite in Australia.
Bauxites and laterites are our most important source of aluminum. But,
the mineralogy of a laterite depends on the composition of rocks
weathered to produce it. Laterites can also be important sources of
iron, manganese, cobalt, and nickel, all of which have low solubilities
in water.
Most laterites are aluminous. The most important aluminum ore (bauxite),
is a mixture of several minerals, including the polymorphs boehmite and
diaspore, both AlO(OH), and gibbsite, Al(OH)3. Bauxite is mined in large
amounts in Australia and Indonesia, and in smaller quantities in the
Americas and in Europe. In some places, relatively young laterites
produce ore, but in Australia economical laterite deposits are more than
65 million years old.
this is a blank line

7.2 Siliciclastic Sediments

The Wentworth Scale
for Grain Size
particle
size
(diameter in

classification mm)

boulder >256

cobble 64 to 256

pebble 4 to 64

gravel or granule 2 to 4

sand 1/16 to 2

silt 1/256 to 1/16

clay <1/256

The term siliciclastic refers to sediments composed mostly of

silicate minerals. The most common sedimentary rocks –
including shale, sandstone, and conglomerate – form from
siliciclastic sediments. Other, less common, kinds of
sedimentary rocks consist of carbonates (in limestones), iron
oxides and hydroxides (such as hematite or goethite), or other
minerals. Geologists classify siliciclastic sediments based on
grain size. The standard classification system is the
Wentworth Scale (see table). Depending on size, grains may be
boulders, cobbles, pebbles, gravel, sand, silt, or clay. The
word clay sometimes causes confusion. Sedimentary petrologists
use the term to refer to clastic grains smaller than 0.004 mm
in longest dimension. In this text, however, we also use it to
refer to minerals of the clay mineral group, no matter the
grain size.

Clast sizes vary from fine clay and silt to huge boulders.
Small clasts are usually composed of a single mineral,
generally quartz or clay. Larger clasts are commonly lithic
fragments composed of multiple minerals. The photos below show
some examples. Figure 7.8 is a view of mud along a river in
Tasmania. The mud comprises fine grains of silt and clay.
Figure 7.9 shows sand from Pfeiffer Beach, California. Quartz
dominates most common sand, but the sand seen here contains
mostly rosy garnet, and also epidote, zircon, magnetite,
spinel, staurolite, and only minor quartz. Figure 7.10 shows
centimeter scale pebbles on a beach in Greece. Most of the
pebbles are lithic fragments (rock fragments) composed of more
than one mineral. Figure 7.11 shows cobbles in a dry river
bottom. These cobbles are all lithic fragments. The mineral
grains in the Pfeiffer Beach sand are angular, but the clasts
in the last two photos have been well rounded by abrasion
caused by them being tumbled by flowing water.

7.9 Sand at Pfeiffer Beach,

7.8 Silt along the North Esk
California. Grains are about 1 mm
River, Tasmania
across.
 7.10 Pebbles on the beach, 7.11 Cobbles, Hope River Valley,
Lychnos, Greece. Grains are 1-3 British Columbia. The piece of
cm across. wood is about 15 cm long.

7.3 Transportation, Deposition, and

Lithification
7.3.1 Clastic Sedimentation

7.12 Alluvium deposited by

the Mendoza River,
Argentina

Flowing water transports clastic material until it reaches a

place where it collects, perhaps a river or lake bottom, or
maybe a delta. Wind, gravity, and other agents can move
clastic material as well. Eventually, sediments are deposited
when the forces of gravity overcome those trying to move them.
Large grains may not move far and are deposited first. As the
energy of transportation decreases, smaller material is
deposited. So, during transportation, sediments commonly
become sorted, which means that sediment deposits often have
relatively uniform grain size. Thus, for example, coarse
material may be deposited near the headwaters of a stream,
while only fine material makes it to a delta. Sorting is not
ubiquitous; streambed gravel, for example, may contain a mix
of silt, sand, and larger clasts, and glacial deposits often
contain a jumble of material of many different sizes. The
photo above (Figure 7.12) shows very poorly sorted alluvium
(loose, unconsolidated nonmarine sediment deposited by rivers
or streams) in Argentina.

After deposition, unconsolidated sediment may, over time,

change into a clastic sedimentary rock by the process called
lithification (from lithos, the Greek word meaning stone).
Lithification involves compaction and cementation of clastic
material. Common cementing agents include the minerals quartz,
calcite, and hematite.
 7.13 The processes of diagenesis

Before, during, and after lithification, sedimentary rocks

undergo textural or chemical changes due to heating,
compaction, or reaction with groundwaters. Biological agents,
including small animals or bacteria, also can be important, as
can chemical agents brought in by flowing water. We call these
changes collectively diagenesis. Figure 7.13 depicts the major
steps of diagenesis: compaction, cementation, and
recrystallization.

Dissolution and removal of minerals (leaching) and the

formation of clay or other minerals are both common during
diagenesis. We call any new minerals that form, authigenic
minerals. Zeolites, clays, feldspar, pyrite, and quartz can
all be authigenic minerals. Although diagenesis creates many
authigenic minerals, most are so fine grained that we cannot
identify them without X-ray analysis.

Textural changes, including compaction and loss of pore space,

are common and are part of diagenesis. Recrystallization, the
changing of fine-grained rocks into coarser ones, is another
form of diagenetic textural change. During recrystallization,
as individual mineral grains grow together, secondary minerals
may precipitate in open spaces, and more mineral cements may
develop. Consequently, rocks become harder.

Diagenesis is equivalent to a low-temperature, low-pressure

form of metamorphism, and the processes of sedimentation,
lithification, diagenesis, and low-grade metamorphism form a
continuum. Lithification changes unconsolidated sediment into
a rock. Cementation by quartz, calcite, or hematite may be
part of the lithification process. It also may be considered a
diagenetic process. Similarly, the formation of many low-
temperature minerals such as zeolites, a normal part of
diagenesis, overlaps with the beginnings of metamorphism.
Metamorphic petrologists often define the onset of
metamorphism by the first occurrence of metamorphic minerals.
This definition can be hard to apply because many diagenetic
minerals are also metamorphic minerals. Furthermore,
laumontite, often considered to be formed at the lowest
temperature of all metamorphic minerals, is a zeolite that is
hard to distinguish from minerals that form diagenetically.

7.3.2 Chemical Sedimentation

 7.14 Travertine terraces at Hot
Springs State Park, Thermopolis,
Wyoming

Chemical weathering yields dissolved material that water

transports until precipitation of chemical sediment occurs.
Several things may cause precipitation; the most common causes
are evaporation, changes in temperature or acidity (pH), and
biological activity. Hot springs deposit a form of calcite
called travertine, for example, when cooling water becomes
oversaturated with CaCO3. This photo (Figure 7.14) shows thick
travertine terraces deposited by hot springs in Wyoming.

In freshwater streams or lakes, a pH change due to biological

activity may cause precipitation of another form of calcite
called marl. In marine settings, many reef-building organisms
have shells or skeletons made of organic calcite. Calcite and
other chemical sedimentary minerals, then, precipitate in many
ways. In contrast with clastic sediments, chemical sediments
usually lithify at the same time they precipitate.
 7.15 Salt deposits at Devil’s
Golf Course, Death Valley
National Park, California

Natural waters contain dissolved minerals, and all minerals

are soluble in water to some extent. Halides, many sulfates,
and other salts have very high solubilities. Carbonate
minerals, including calcite and dolomite, have moderate
solubilities. Silicate minerals have relatively low
solubilities. If water evaporates, it may become oversaturated
in particular minerals and deposit chemical sediments, such as
the salt deposits in the photo seen here (Figure 7.15).
Precipitation will continue, decreasing concentrations of
dissolved material, until the solution and sediments achieve
equilibrium. Because of their high solubility, large amounts
of evaporation may be necessary before salts such as halite,
precipitate. In contrast, carbonate minerals (calcite and
dolomite) and silica often precipitate early during
evaporation. Silica (SiO2), in the form of chert, is the only
silicate mineral that commonly forms a chemical sedimentary
rock.

Gypsum (CaSO 4 •2H 2 O), anhydrite (CaSO 4 ), halite (NaCl), and

sylvite (KCl) consist of common elements and have high (gypsum
and anhydite) to very high solubilities (halite and sylvite).
So, their chemical components are common as dissolved species.
As water evaporates, perhaps in a closed inland basin or an
isolated sea, these minerals may precipitate to form thick
beds of evaporite minerals. Besides these four minerals, many
other (less common) minerals occur in evaporites, too.
Evaporites are found in many parts of the world. Geologists
estimate that thick evaporite beds, at some depth, underlie
35% of the United States.

7.16 The Trona Pinnacles in Searles Lake in the

Mojave Desert, California

Figure 7.16 shows the Trona Pinnacles in Searles Lake, a

southern California playa lake. Some of these pinnacles rise
more than 40 m above the lakebed. These pinnacles consist of
trona (a hydrated sodium carbonate) that precipitated from
briny water. Like all playas, this lake is dry most of the
time. But, past flooding and subsequent evaporation produced
thick layers of evaporite minerals. More than 25 different
minerals are found in the Searles Lake bottom. The list
includes sodium and potassium carbonates, sulfates, borates,
and halides. Borax (hydrated sodium borate), trona, and
several other minerals are profitably mined from Searles Lake
sediments today.

Most evaporite minerals are rare at Earth’s surface because

they are so soluble that they dissolve away in all but the
most arid climates. Gypsum is the most common evaporite in
outcrops because it is less soluble than others, and because
it forms from any anhydrite exposed at or near Earth’s
surface. In the subsurface, massive gypsum and halite beds are
common, as are the salt domes found in Texas and other Gulf
Coast areas of the United States. Although generally dominated
by just a few minerals, many other minerals may be present. In
all, petrologists have reported nearly 100 minerals from
evaporites. Less than a dozen are common.

7.17 Salt deposits on the

shore of Utah’s Great Salt
Lake

Evaporites may be marine deposits associated with evaporation

of ocean water. They may also be non-marine, associated with
freshwater lakes or other continental waters. For water to
become oversaturated, a water body must be somewhat isolated
and the evaporation rate must be faster than any water flowing
in. This is most common in an arid environment. For example,
at various times in the past, the Mediterranean Sea has been
cut off from an ocean. Evaporation led to thick salt deposits
that lie beneath the Mediterranean today. And, today,
evaporite minerals are collecting along the shores of the Dead
Sea between Jordan and Israel (see Figure 7.1, the opening
figure in this chapter), on the shores Utah’s Great Salt Lake
(Figure 7.17), and around many other isolated water bodies.

Some of the Most Common

Evaporite Minerals
mineral mineral
chemical
group name
 halite NaCl

sylvite KCl

chlorides bischofite MgCl2•6H2O

kainite KMg(SO4)Cl•3H2O

carnallite KMgCl3•6H2O

CaSO4
anhydrite
CaSO4•2H2O
gypsum
BaSO4
barite

thenardite Na2SO4

mirabilite Na2SO4• 10H2O

sulfates
kieserite MgSO4•H2O

langbeinite K2Mg2(SO4)3
polyhalite K2Ca2Mg(SO4)4•2H2O
kainite
KMg(SO4)Cl•3H2O
epsomite
MgSO4•7H2O

CaMg(CO3)2
dolomite
CaCO3
calcite
carbonates MgCO3
magnesite
Na3(HCO3)(CO3)•2H2
trona
O

borate borax Na2B4O7•10H2O

As ocean water evaporates, minerals precipitate in predictable

order from those that are least soluble to those that are most
soluble. Calcite is first, followed by gypsum, anhydrite, and
then halite. Many other minerals may precipitate in lesser
amounts. Continental water contains different dissolved solids
than marine water, so continental evaporites contain different
minerals than marine evaporites. Water chemistry is also quite
variable, so many different minerals are possible.

Continental evaporite deposits may contain halite, gypsum, and

anhydrite but also typically have borax, trona, and many other
non-marine salts. The table lists some minerals reported from
evaporite deposits in North America. It is a long list.
this is a blank line

7.4 Sedimentary Minerals

7.4.1 Common Minerals
The previous chapter discussed silicate minerals common in
igneous rocks. In principle, they could all be detrital grains
in sediments and sedimentary rocks. In practice, most break
down so quickly that they cannot be weathered or transported
very much before completely decomposing. Quartz is the most
resistant to weathering. It is also a common component of many
igneous and metamorphic rocks found at the Earth’s surface.
Many minerals weather to produce clays. It is no surprise,
therefore, that quartz and clays are the main silicate
minerals in most clastic rocks. Feldspars and sometimes
muscovite may also be present but are usually subordinate to
quartz. They are absent from rocks formed from sediments
transported long distances or weathered for long times. Mafic
silicate minerals are exceptionally rare in sediments or
sedimentary rocks. Besides quartz and clays, other silicates,
including zeolites, may occasionally be present. Important
nonsilicate minerals in clastic rocks include carbonates,
sulfates, oxides, halide minerals and occasionally pyrite.

7.4.2 Clay Minerals

Clay Minerals
illite group K(Al,Mg,Fe)2(Si,Al)4O10(OH)2•nH2O

smectite group

(Na,Ca)0.33(Al,Mg)2Si4O10(OH)2•nH2O
montmorillonite
Na0.3Fe2(Si,Al)4O10(OH)2•nH2O
nontronite
beidellite Na0.5Al2(Si3.5Al0.5)O10(OH)2•n(H2O)

saponite Ca0.25(Mg,Fe)3(Si,Al)4O10(OH)2•n(H2O
 kaolinite group
Al2Si2O5(OH)4
dickite
Al2Si2O5(OH)4
halloysite
nacrite Al2Si2O5(OH)4

related minerals

(Mg,Fe)3(Si,Al)4O10(OH)2•4H2O
vermiculite
Mg3Si4O10(OH)2
talc
pyrophyllite Al2Si4O10(OH)2

The clay minerals include many different species; all are

sheet silicates. The sheets comprise tetrahedral layers
containing mainly Si and Al, and octahedral layers containig
mainly Al, Mg, and Fe. They generally contain less potassium
than micas. Some clays are hydrous, some having as much as 15
to 20 weight percent (wt %) H2O. Their layered structure and
the weak bonding between layers give them a characteristic
slippery feel when wet.

The major differences between the different clay species are

the compositions and stacking order of atomic layers. The
formulas in the box here are only approximate because clays
often contain many elemental substitutions.

Clay minerals account for nearly half the volume of

sedimentary rocks. They are usually very fine grained, often

less than 1 μm (10-6 m) in size, have complex chemistries, and

are structurally variable. This makes identification of
individual clay species difficult. X-ray analysis is often
necessary to tell them apart. In contrast with quartz and
feldspar, clays do not form in igneous and metamorphic
environments.

Clays are common in shales and other sedimentary rocks. The

clay species present depends on the sediment sources. Although
usually fine grained, clays can form thick beds or layers.
They also develop as coatings on other minerals undergoing
weathering. These generalizations are true of all clay
minerals, but there is a great deal of variety. In part, the
variation is due to the low temperatures at which these
minerals form. At high temperatures, minerals and mineral
structures tend to be simple and ordered. At low temperatures,
structures are often more complex or disordered, and many
different mineral varieties may form.

The three most important kinds of clays are illite,

montmorillonite, and the clays of the kaolinite group. Figures
7.18, 7.19, and 7.20 show examples of each, but these minerals
have many different appearances. Kaolinites, also called
kandites, vary less in composition and structure than other
clays, although several kaolinite polymorphs (dickite,
halloysite, nacrite) are known. Kaolinite is the principal
clay used to make ceramic ware because it remains white when
fired in a kiln. Illite is quite similar to muscovite in some
ways, but contains more Si and less K.

7.20
7.18 Kaolinite 7.19 Illite
Montmorillonite
Montmorillonite, which belongs to the smectite group, can take
up extra water or other fluids between layers of atoms. In the
process the clay expands. So, we sometimes call
montmorillonite and other clays of the smectite group
expandable or swelling clays. Because they absorb liquids so
well, gas station operators use them to clean up spilled oil,
and homeowners use them as kitty litter. They are the major
components of earthy material called bentonite, sometimes
prized for its water-absorbing and cation-exchange properties.
Vermiculite, another clay of the smectite group, is often used
to lighten up potting soil. Montmorillonite dominates modern
clay-rich sediments and sedimentary rocks; illite dominates
most sedimentary rocks that are older than about 100 million
years. Geologists ascribe this development to ongoing
diagenesis, to variations in tectonic activity resulting in
changes in sediment sources, and to changes in biological
activity.
is a blank line

● Box 7-2 Clays Used in Industry, Arts, and Ceramics

Many different clays have industrial uses. Clays are widely used to make
bricks, tile, paper, rubber, water pipes, and china. They are even used
today by some restaurants to thicken milkshakes. Early peoples made bowls
and other artifacts by shaping clay and allowing it to dry in the sun.
Porcelain and china makers commonly use kaolinite. If baked to temperatures
above 500 °C, kaolinite will dehydrate to metakaolinite (Al2Si2O7), a non-
mineral that is relatively hard. Such temperatures can be obtained over
open fires, and much early pottery consists of metakaolinite. Although
metakaolinite is porous, it will not soften when wetted, in contrast to
sun-baked clays.

7.21 Porcelain Ming vase

Porcelain refers to a special type of high-grade white ceramic. The Ming
vase, seen in this photo (Figure 7.21), is an example. The white color is
only possible if the ceramic is made from extremely pure kaolinite.
Porcelain is baked, or fired, at very high temperatures. At temperatures of
925 °C and above, metakaolinite converts to a mixture of cristobalite,
mullite, and other phases, but it does not melt unless the temperature
exceeds 1,600 °C. Prior to firing, small amounts of feldspar or talc are
mixed with the kaolinite. When fired at 1,200 to 1,450 °C, the feldspar or
talc melt to form a glass, which gives porcelain its glassy luster without
melting the kaolinite and destroying the object being made. Porcelain was
first developed in China more than 1,000 years ago and slowly moved east
through the rest of Asia and to Europe and then the Americas.
this is a blank line.

7.23 Pyrophyllite 11 cm
across

7.22 Talc in a schist

9.7 cm across

Talc, a secondary mineral that forms when Mg-silicates such as

olivine or pyroxene are altered, and pyrophyllite, an uncommon
metamorphic mineral, are often grouped with the clays. Figures
7.22 and 7.23 show examples of each. Both are less variable in
their atomic arrangements and composition and contain less H2O
than true clays. They are transitional between clays and micas
in structure and, when seen in hand specimen or thin section,
are typically easier to identify than clays. Talc is very soft
and has a diagnostic greasy feel that generally makes
identification straightforward. In contrast, pyrophyllite
often looks like many other white minerals, unless it has the
characteristic splay of crystals seen in the photo above
(Figure 7.23).
7.4.3 Carbonate Minerals
Carbonate Minerals
Ca-Mg-Fe
carbonates CaCO3
calcite CaCO3
aragonite
MgCO3
magnesite
FeCO3
siderite
CaMg(CO3)2
dolomite
ankerite CaFe(CO3)2

Other MnCO3
rhodochrosite ZnCO3
smithsonite PbCO3
cerussite SrCO3
strontianite
BaCO3
witherite
Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2
azurite
malachite Cu2CO3(OH)2
hydromagnesite Mg5(CO3)4(OH)2•4H2O
natron Na2CO3∙10(H2O)

Mineralogists have identified more than 50 different carbonate

species; all contain (CO 3 ) 2- groups but some contain other
anions or anionic groups. The box lists some examples. The
most important carbonates are Ca-Mg-Fe carbonates, especially
calcite and dolomite, CaCO3 and CaMg(CO3)2, respectively. Less
common rhodochrosite, smithsonite, cerussite, strontianite,
azurite, and malachite sometimes form spectacular mineral
specimens. These minerals are also important ore minerals of
manganese, zinc, lead, strontium, and copper. The common
carbonates have relatively simple compositions and include no
hydroxyl groups or H2O. Some relatively rare species are more
complex, however, and examples are at the bottom of the list.

Calcite is the most abundant carbonate mineral. It typically

forms by precipitation from oversaturated water. It also
occurs in caves, where calcite forms stalactites and
stalagmites. Calcite and other carbonate minerals also
precipitate from hydrothermal waters (warm waters), especially
in ore deposits and typically in veins. This is how most
azurite and malachite, and some related minerals, are created.

7.24 Maze coral

Many carbonate minerals can have either an inorganic or an

organic origin. Inorganic marine carbonate rocks form when
either calcite or aragonite precipitate from ocean water. Marl
may form when carbonates precipitate on lake or stream
bottoms. In contrast, organic carbonate rocks form when
algae, corals, clams and other organisms create structures and
shells from CaCO 3 dissolved in seawater. This may produce
carbonate rocks directly, or residual shells, bones, and other
material can accumulate to produce carbonate clastic rocks.
The maze coral seen in this photo (Figure 7.24) builds its
structure out of calcite.

7.25 Marble from Tate,

 Georgia. 6.7 cm across

Both calcite and dolomite are essential minerals in limestones

and dolostones (limestones containing dolomite instead of
calcite), and may be clasts in other kinds of sedimentary
rocks. Some clastic rocks are held together by fine grained
carbonate cement. Both minerals are found in metamorphic rocks
such as marbles and in rare igneous rocks called carbonatites.
The photo seen here (Figure 7.25) shows a marble made of
coarsely crystalline calcite.

7.26 White hydromagnesite on top of

basalt

Many carbonate minerals are secondary minerals formed during

weathering or diagenesis. For example, most dolomite is
secondary and forms by reaction of calcite with Mg-rich water
during diagenesis. Magnesite, (MgCO 3), a related carbonate,
forms as an alteration product of mafic and ultramafic rocks.
Hydromagnesite (a hydrated equivalent of magnesite) forms by
weathering of Mg-rich minerals, including olivine, serpentine,
and others. Figure 7.26 shows hydromagnesite that has
crystallized on the surface of basalt.

The photos below are examples of coarsely crystalline

carbonate minerals. Figure 7.27 shows calcite crystals (Ca-
carbonate) on top of siderite (Fe-carbonate). TFigure 7.28
shows aragonite, which is a polymorph of calcite. The blue and
green specimen in Figure 7.29 contains azurite and malachite.
Both are Cu-carbonates and both are copper ore minerals. The
pinkish crystals in Figure 7.30 are rhodochrosite (Mn-
carbonate). Rhodochrosite is not always this color, but when
it is, the color helps identify it. The azurite, malachite,
and rhodochrosite come from a well-known mining district in
western Colorado. The green crystals in Figure 7.31 are
smithsonite (Zn-carbonate). Like rhodochrosite, smithsonite
comes in various colors, but this green color is typical. The
last photo (Figure 7.32) shows crystals of dolomite (Ca-Mg
carbonate) on top of talc.

7.27 Calcite
(white) with
siderite (green)
from the Pyrenees
Mtns., France.
7.28 Aragonite
from Sicily,
Italy. 7 cm
across.

7.29 Azurite (blue) and

malachite (Green) from San Juan
County., Colorado

7.30 Rhodochrosite with

quartz, from San Juan
County., Colorado

7.31 Smithsonite from

France

7.32 Dolomite (white)

with talc (silvery)
from the Pyrenees
Mtns., France. 10 cm
across.

Unfortunately, most mineral specimens are not as well formed

or beautiful as suggested by the photos above. So, below are
three more typical examples of calcite. The calcite specimen
on the left (Figure 7.33, below) is massive; it is difficult
to pick out distinct crystal shapes. The blue calcite in
Figure 7.34 and the translucent calcite in Figure 7.35 are
cleavage fragments. Calcite cleaves easily into rhombohedral
shapes like the ones seen here, and the flat surfaces are
cleavage planes, not crystal faces. Blue calcite is rare but
translucent calcite is not. Rhombohedral cleavage fragments
are exceptionally common.

7.33 Calcite from

Tapuli, Sweden. 8 cm
across.
7.34 Blue calcite
cleavage
fragments

7.35 Rhombs of translucent

calcite from England.
Crystals are about 3 cm
across

7.36 The atomic arrangement

in dolomite

The atomic arrangements in calcite and dolomite, the most

common carbonates by far, contain (CO 3)2- groups alternating

with Ca2+ or Mg2+. In the model of dolomite seen here (Figure

7.36), the blue atoms are calcium, the red ones magnesium, and
2-
the small aqua atoms are oxygen. Carbonate (CO3) groups are
shown as yellow triangles. Other carbonates have similar
structures. They all contain divalent anion carbonate groups
2+ 2+ 2+ 2+ 2+
and divalent cations such as Ca , Mg , Fe , Mn , or Zn .
(Figure 7.36 is not to scale; the size of the carbonate groups

is actually larger tham Ca2+ and Mg2+.)

7.37 The stable Ca-Mg-

Fe carbonates at low
temperature

We can plot the compositions of Ca-Mg-Fe carbonates on a

triangular diagram (similar to that used for pyroxenes in the
previous chapter). Figure 7.37 shows, in blue, the ranges of
stable carbonate compositions at low temperature; the stable
compositions are limited. A large miscibility gap exists
between the Ca-bearing carbonates and the Ca-free ones. It is
similar to the gaps between wollastonite, clinopyroxene, and
orthopyroxene we have already seen. And, the dolomite-ankerite
series does not extend all the way across the diagram. As with
the pyroxenes, the size of the miscibility gaps varies with
temperature.

7.38 Solvi between calcite

and magnesite

Figure 7.38 shows the simplfied schematic solvus relationships

between calcite (CaCO3) and magnesite (MgCO3), equivalent to
the left side of the triangle above. (It is simplified because
melting and decarbonation reactions occur at high temperatures
but are not shown.) We can see that the solvi narrow as
temperature increases. At the highest temperatures on the
diagram, calcite and high-magnesium calcite are stable. They
are both Ca-Mg solid solutions of variable composition.
Magnesite, an Mg-Ca solid solution, is stable too. At somewhat
lower temperatures, high-Mg calcite changes into dolomite by
an order-disorder transformation. The miscibility gaps (in
yellow) at low temperature, mean that most carbonate
compositions will unmix into calcite and dolomite, or dolomite
and magnesite, solid solutions. Calcite may contain some extra
magnesium, but the other two minerals will be close to end
member composition. Calcite sometimes develops exsolution
textures that we can see with a thin section and a
petrographic microscope.
 7.40 Calcite with
butterfly twinning 6cm
across

7.39 Two common ways that

calcite twins

Calcite crystals twin by several different twin laws. The

drawings seen here (Figure 7.39) show two common twin
appearances. The drawing on the right is called a butterfly
twin, and the photo in Figure 7.40 shows a good example of
this kind of twinning. Calcite also commonly contains
microscopic deformation twins that we can only see with a
petrographic microscope.

7.4.4 Sulfate Minerals

Sulfate Minerals
 CaSO4•2H2O
gypsum
anhydrite CaSO4
barite BaSO4
celestite SrSO4
anglesite PbSO4

Mineralogists have described more than 100 sulfate minerals.

They fall into two main groups: those that contain water
(hydrous sulfates) and those that do not (anhydrous sulfates).
Gypsum (CaSO4•2H2O) is the only common hydrous sulfate. Less
common species include chalcanthite (CuSO 4 •5H 2 O), epsomite
(MgSO4•7H2O), and antlerite Cu3SO4(OH)4. Examples of anhydrous
sulfates include anhydrite (CaSO4), barite (BaSO4), celestite
(SrSO4), and anglesite (PbSO4). Many others are known, but most
are rare.

7.41 The arrangement of

atoms in barite

The drawing in Figure 7.41 shows how atoms are arranged in

barite (BaSO 4 ). Sulfur atoms bond to four oxygen, creating

sulfate tetrahedra with composition (SO4)2-. The tetrahedra are

tightly bonded and similar, in some ways, to the (SiO4)4- groups

that characterize silicates. Sulfate tetrahedra, however, do

not polymerize. Ba2+ cations alternate with anion sulfate and

bond to oxygen at tetrahedral corners. The atomic arrangements

are the same in the other anhydrous sulfates, with Ca2+, Sr2+,

and Pb 2+ substituting for Ba 2+ in anhydrite, celestite, and

anglesite, respectively. Besides the minerals listed in the
blue box, at least a dozen other, but rare sulfates exist.
Some are listed in the table of evaporite minerals earlier in
this chapter.

7.42 Gypsum crystals in Mexico’s Cueva de los Cristales

The spectacular photo in Figure 7.42 shows a geologist in

Mexico’s Cueva de los Cristales (Cave of Crystals). The cave
contains some of the largest mineral crystals in the world –
up to 12 meters long. These crystals are selenite, a
translucent form of gypsum. Gypsum is moderately water-
soluble, so it is one of a relatively small number of common
minerals that precipitate from natural water, often
redissolve, and later reprecipitate somewhere else. Most
natural gypsum crystals are centimeters in size or smaller.
However, extremely large crystals, such as those shown here,
exist in several places around the world.

● Box 7-3 Gypsum: Ingredient of Plaster and

Drywall

7.43 Plaster of Paris

Plaster can be made from different mineral materials. Early
Romans used a lime-based plaster (Figure 7.43), but plaster
of Paris, which is gypsum-based plaster, was introduced
around 1254. At the time, the best and most productive gypsum
quarries were in Montmartre, a section of Paris. Modern
plasters and sheetrock both contain plaster of Paris.
Manufacturers produce it by calcining (grinding and heating)
gypsum (CaSO4 ∙2H2O) to reduce its water content. Most
plasters contain about 25% of the gypsum’s original water.
Complete dehydration of gypsum would produce anhydrite
(CaSO4), which is not useful as a plaster because it does not
recombine easily with water. However, when plaster of Paris
is mixed with water, reaction occurs quickly, giving off heat
and promoting drying and hardening.
Drywall (also known as sheet rock) is composed of gypsum with
paper front and backing. A number of different additives may
be mixed with the gypsum to promote desired properties,
including strength, resistance to mildew, and reduced water
absorption. Drywall construction replaced the more classic
lath and plaster walls in the mid 1900s.
 7.45 Gypsum
crystals with
swallowtail twins.
From Winnipeg,
Manitoba 9 cm
across

7.44 Translucent blades

of selenite on top of
hematite from
Chihauhua, Mexico

Gypsum, hydrated calcium sulfate, is the most common sulfate

mineral. It is found in thick evaporite deposits, in
hydrothermal veins, and as precipitates from surface or
subsurface waters, hot springs, or volcanic gases. Anhydrite,
with a composition equivalent to gypsum lacking H2O, is found
in sedimentary rocks but alters to gypsum over time. Anhydrite
is also commonly found in evaporite deposits with gypsum.

Common gypsum is white to grey, and translucent, but just

about all colors are known. Normal coarse crystals of gypsum
form blades or tabs. We call them selenite (Figures 7.42 and
7.44). Selenite commonly twins, sometimes forming
characteristic swallow tail or fishtail twins. These two types
of twinning are very similar and often not distinguished from
each other. Figure 7.45 shows two examples of swallowtail
twins. Another example is in Figure 4.39 (Chapter 4).

7.47 Gypsum desert

rose from Tunisia 47cm
across

7.46 Satinspar
variety of gypsum

Satin spar is an especially fibrous variety of selenite

(Figure 7.46). Satin spar is often opalescent and is sometimes
used in jewelry, although it is soft and not very durable.
Sometimes gypsum crystals form a flowery cluster called a
desert rose (Figure 7.47). The specimen in Figure 7.47 is 47
cm across! In caves gypsum may form gypsum flowers, similar in
many ways to desert roses. Alabaster is very fine grained
gypsum that people sometimes carve or polish for building
stone or for art.
7.48 Barite from
Texas Co, Missouri

7.49 Barite roses

from near Norman,
Oklahoma 12cm
across

Barite, barium sulfate, commonly occurs in hydrothermal

deposits with copper, lead, and zinc minerals; it is often
associated with anglesite and celestite. Barite is also found
in hot spring deposits, and in some evaporite deposits. The
cluster of clear to light blue bladed crystals in Figure 7.48
is typical for barite. And, barite sometimes occurs as
concretions in sediments and sedimentary rocks, and sometimes
as desert roses (Figure 7.49), similar to desert roses made of
gypsum.
 7.51 Silvery
galena with
yellow-brown
anglesite. 7.5 cm
tall specimen
from Morocco.

7.50 Celestite
crystals

Celestite (also called celestine), strontium sulfate, most

often occurs in sedimentary rocks associated with gypsum,
anhydrite, sulfur, or halite. Commonly it has a diagnostic
light blue color as seen in the photo here (Figure 7.50).
Celestite is the most common strontium minerals. Strontianite
(strontium carbonate) is the only other one of significance.

Some sulfates are common as minor, and rarely major, minerals

in ore deposits – typically as replacements for primary
sulfides. Anglesite (PbSO 4 ), for example, forms during
weathering or alteration as a replacement for galena (PbS).
The specimen seen in Figure 7.51 contains light brownish
anglesite that appears to have grown from the silver-gray
galena.

7.4.5 Halides
Halide Minerals

halite NaCl
sylvite KCl
fluorite CaF2

The halide group consists of minerals containing a halogen

element, generally chlorine or fluorine, as an essential
anion. Although many halides exist, only halite and sylvite
are common in sedimentary rocks; they are quite rare in rocks
of other sorts. Halite is typically found as rock salt in
massive salt beds, often occurring with other evaporite
minerals such as gypsum or anhydrite, and sometimes with
sulfur. Sylvite is much less common than halite. When found,
however, it is usually associated with halite. Fluorite, most
commonly, is a hydrothermal mineral associated with lead,
zinc, and other metal ores. Less commonly, it is found in the
vugs or fractures in limestone or dolomite. Other halides are
rare and have more complex chemistries.

7.53 Blue fluorite crystals

from southern France
 7.52 Halite crystals from
the Great Salt Lake, Utah

The photos seen here show crystals of halite (Figure 7.52) and
fluorite (Figure 7.53). Sylvite crystals commonly look the
same as the halite crystals here. When euhedral, both minerals
form cubic crystals, a reflection of the internal order of
their atoms. The most common fluorite is purple, but just
about any color is possible for this mineral.

7.55 The atomic

7.54 The atomic
arrangement in
arrangement in halite
fluorite

​Figures 7.54 and 7.55 show atomic arrangements in halite and

fluorite. In halide minerals, anions and cations alternate and

bonds are nearly entirely ionic. In halite (or sylvite), Na+

(or K + ) and Cl – alternate in a cubic three-dimensional

arrangement. In fluorite, the arrangement of atoms is also

cubic, but two F– are present for every Ca2+.

7.4.6 Zeolites

7.56 Chabazite crystals on

top of heulandite. Specimen
is 4.4 cm across

This photograph (Figure 7.56) shows orange chabazite crystals

on top of heulandite. Both of these are zeolite minerals that
occur most commonly in openings within basalt, and less
commonly in metamorphic rocks or hydrothermal veins. This
sample comes from a classic locality near Wasson Bluff, on the
shore of the Bay of Fundy, Nova Scotia, where many outcrops of
200-million year old basalt contain cavities filled with
spectacular mineral specimens.

Although zeolites are best known for their occurrences in vugs

and other open cavities in volcanic rocks, large volumes are
found in volcanic ashes and saline lake deposits. Zeolites
also may be present as products of diagenesis or low-grade
metamorphism in sediments and rocks.

Zeolite Minerals
 Na2Al2Si3O10∙2H2O
natrolite
NaAlSi2O6·H2O
analcime
laumontite CaAl2Si4O12∙4H2O
chabazite CaAl2Si4O12∙6H2O
clinoptilolite (Na,K)Al2Si7O18∙6H2O
heulandite CaAl2Si7O18∙6H2O
stilbite CaAl2Si7O18∙7H2O
sodalite
Na3Al3Si3O12∙NaCl

The zeolite group includes more than 40 minerals. They are,

essentially, hydrated feldspars and are framework silicates
containing open cavities that can hold loosely bonded large
cations and water. Different zeolites have different-sized
openings, and in some zeolites the openings connect to form
channels. Because of the cavities and channels, zeolites have
many industrial applications. See Box 7-4 (below).

The compositions of zeolites seem highly variable, but follow

certain patterns. The ratio (Al+Si):O is 1:2. In calcic
zeolites, the ratio (Ca:Al) is always 1:2, and in alkali
zeolites, the ratio (Na,K):Al is always 1:1. Zeolites and
feldspathoids are closely related, but zeolites have more open
structures and contain loosely bonded H 2 O compared with
feldspathoids. Sodalite is sometimes grouped with the
feldspathoids rather than the zeolites, but it has a zeolite-
type structure and contains loosely bonded NaCl. Analcime,
NaAlSi2O6∙H2O, is also sometimes considered a zeolite, but is
closer to leucite and other feldspathoids in structure.
 7.57 The atomic arrangement
in analcime, NaAlSi2O6·H2O

Figure 7.57 shows the atomic arrangement in analcime – it is

similar in most ways to all zeolites. Zeolites contain
tetrahedra containing aluminum and silicon cations surrounded
by four oxygen anions. Corners of the tetrahedra join to other
corners. Analcime and other zeolites contain holes and
channels between tetrahedra that can hold or transmit large
ions, such as sodium, calcium, potassium, H 2 O, or other
molecules. This property sets them apart from most other
minerals.
 ● Box 7-4 Industrial Zeolites

7.58 Industrial zeolite

What do water softeners, fish tanks, kitty litter, and people with
radioactive poisoning have in common? The answer is zeolites.
Zeolites contain water that can be driven off by heat with the basic
structure left intact. Removal of water leaves voids that can be
filled, making them useful for many purposes, including ion exchange,
filtering, odor removal, chemical sieving, and gas absorption. The
best-known use for zeolites is in water softeners. Because calcium in
water causes it to be “hard,” suppressing the effects of soap, forming
scale, or creating other problems, it is often filtered through
zeolite. Zeolite charged with sodium ions (generally from dissolved
salt) allows water to pass through its structure while exchanging
calcium for sodium, thus making the water less hard. This process is
reversible, so the zeolite can be flushed and used again.
In a similar way, zeolites can absorb unwanted chemicals, including
toxins. For example, zeolites may be components of kitty litter because
they absorb cat urine, and zeolites are added to livestock feed to
absorb toxins that are damaging or fatal to animals. Additionally,
people who have been exposed to radioactive elements ingest zeolites to
help rid their system of those dangerous elements, and aquarium
hobbyists use zeolites to remove ammonia and other toxins from fish
tanks. In the highly-developed countries of the world, most municipal
water is processed through zeolites to remove large ions and organic
contaminants before public consumption. Manufacturing industries also
use zeolites as drying agents, catalysts, and as washing materials.
Synthetic zeolites are easily grown in the laboratory, and scientists
have synthesized more than 150 varieties. For many applications,
synthetic zeolites have advantages over their natural cousins because
they can be manufactured to be pure and homogeneous, and to have unique
properties not found in nature.
7.4.7 Chert
Chert is a fine-grained (microcrystalline) variety of quartz.
It is also the name given to rock composed primarily of fine-
grained quartz. So, the name is used in two ways. Chert (the
silica mineral kind) may be massive or layered. It is often in
nodules or concretions in limestone. Some chert forms by
recrystallization of amorphous silica. Chert has many
appearances; the five photos below (Figures 7.59 to 7.63) show
examples of some of the more common varieties. Common chert is
light grey. Jasper is chert with a characteristic red color
due to hematite inclusions. Flint, a darker form of chert,
contains organic matter. Opal and chalcedony, two other types
of silica, are often associated with chert deposits. From the
Stone Age until the Industrial Revolution, chert and flint
were highly valued as weapons, tools, and fire starters.

7.59 Chert 7.60 Jasper 7.61 Flint 7.62 Opal 7.63 Chalcedony

7.5 Common Sedimentary Rocks

 7.64 Sediments and sedimentary rocks on top
of basement rocks

Sediments and sedimentary rocks cover about 80% of all

continental areas but are less than 1% of the volume of the
Earth’s crust. They are, in effect, a thin blanket on top of
igneous and metamorphic basement rocks. Yet, we interact with
them more than with any other geological materials except,
perhaps, soils. Sediments, and rocks derived from sediments,
are mostly recycled materials that come from preexisting
igneous, metamorphic, or sedimentary rocks. Petrologists
usually divide sedimentary rocks into two main groups based on
the kinds of material they comprise: clastic rocks and
chemical rocks.

7.5.1 Clastic Sedimentary Rocks

Clastic sedimentary rocks are formed by compaction and
cementation of clasts composed of individual mineral grains or
pieces of rock. Because their mineralogy varies so much, we
generally classify clastic rocks based on grain size rather
than composition. Grain size varies from huge clasts and
boulders in gravels and conglomerates, to fine “clay size”
(<0.004 mm) particles in muds and shales. The table below
gives a standard classification scheme for clastic rocks based
on clast/grain size. See section 7.2 (above), for more
specifics about grain sizes.
 Classification of Clastic Rocks Based on Clast Size
major component
clast of clast
sedimentary rock
size unconsolidated sizes
sediment
more than 60%
claystone clay
clay-sized
mudstone
silt, generally more than 60%
very fine mudrocks siltstone
quartz clay-sized

clay- and
shale clay
silt-sized

small to
sandstone sand, commonly quartz sand
medium

gravel or coarser
pebble
sediment
conglomerate
gravel or coarser
very coarse or cobble
sediment
breccia
gravel or coarser
boulder
sediment

In the coarsest clastic rocks, a fine-grained matrix separates

large clasts that may be of many different compositions. If
the clasts are angular, the rock is a breccia; if they are
rounded, it is a conglomerate. Lithic fragments generally
dominate the clasts in conglomerate and breccia. Figures 7.65
and 7.66 show a conglomerate and a breccia; both are from
Death Valley National Park.

7.65 Conglomerate, Death Valley 7.66 Breccia, Death Valley National Park,
National Park, California California
Rocks containing small- to medium-sized grains are generally
called sandstone. The photos below in Figures 7.67, 7.68, and
7.69 show three examples. Most sandstones contain sand-sized
(0.062 to 2 mm in longest dimension) quartz or feldspar
grains. Coarser sandstones may contain both lithic fragments
and individual detrital mineral grains. Sometimes clays or
other minerals are present in a matrix between larger grains.
We call a sandstone that is entirely, or almost entirely made
of quartz, an arenite (Figure 7.67). We call sandstones
containing significant amounts of matrix material or lithic
fragments wackes, or graywackes (Figure 7.68). Arkoses, like
the one seen in Figure 7.69, are sandstones that contain
significant amounts of K-feldspar.

7.67 Quartz 7.68 Graywacke with 7.69 Arkose Mt. Tom

arenite lithic fragments Massachusetts

Conglomerates and sandstones together account for 20% to 25%

of all sedimentary rocks. Finer-grained clastic rocks,
generally termed mudrocks, are much more common. These fine-
grained rocks consist of microscopic (<0.062 mm in longest
dimension) clay and quartz grains. Lithic fragments are
absent.
7.70 The Marcellus Shale,
Pennsylvania

We call the finest grained rocks shale if they exhibit

fissility. Fissility, the ability to cleave into very thin
layers, results from parallel alignment of clay grains. This
photo (Figure 7.70) shows thin pieces of the Marcellus Shale
from Pennsylvania. Those that are not fissile are mudstones.
We further divide mudstones into claystones or siltstones
depending if they are clay-rich or quartz-rich, respectively.

Minerals in Mudrocks and Sandstones

Mudrocks
Sandstones
Minerals average
average %
%
clay
60 5
minerals
quartz 30 65
feldspar 4 10-15
carbonate
3 <1
minerals

Since clastic sediments can be derived from any preexisting

rocks, they may contain a variety of minerals and rock
fragments. However, only a few minerals are common. The table
compares the most common minerals in mudrocks and sandstones.
Clays, with subordinate quartz, dominate the mudrocks, but
quartz dominates the sandstones.

Quartz, feldspar, and lithic fragments containing quartz and

feldspar comprise all but the finest grained rocks because
they are resistant to weathering. We call rocks dominated by
quartz quartzose, while we term those containing large amounts
of feldspar feldspathic, or (if they are rich in K-feldspar)
arkosic. In mudstones and shales, clay minerals dominate. In
all these rocks, other minerals, including micas, magnetite,
rutile, ilmenite, sphene, zircon, apatite, or garnet may
occasionally be significant components. Carbonate grains and
organic material may be present as well. Because most minerals
break down to clay and quartz if exposed at the Earth surface
for sufficient time, it should be no surprise that mudstone
and shale, which are composed primarily of clay and quartz,
are the most abundant sedimentary rocks.

7.71 Examining a rock

with a hand lens

In the coarser-grained clastic rocks, the compositions of

lithic fragments give clues to the origin of the sediment. In
the finer-grained rocks, mineralogical composition is often
difficult to determine and interpret. Suppose we look at a
sandstone with a hand lens (Figure 7.71). Quartz, and perhaps
K-feldspar, may be easy to find. However, lithic fragments can
be confusing and small grains of chert or magnetite may be
impossible to identify. For fine sandstones and finer-grained
rocks, mineral identification can be problematic, even with a
petrographic microscope. Distinguishing quartz from feldspar
and telling clay minerals apart may be impossible without
using an X-ray diffractometer or other sophisticated
equipment.

7.5.2 Chemical Sedimentary Rocks

Chemical sedimentary rocks are formed by precipitation of
minerals from water or by alteration of already existing
material in place. The most common of these rocks include
evaporites, chert, and some varieties of carbonate rocks
(limestones and dolostones). In contrast with clastic
sedimentary rocks, petrologists name chemical sedimentary
rocks based on chemical composition. This is because chemical
sedimentary rocks usually include only one or a few minerals –
the chemical processes that form them tend to isolate certain
elements. The most common precipitated minerals consist of
elements of high solubility (for example, alkalis such as
sodium or potassium) or elements of great abundance (for
example, silicon).

7.5.2.1 Carbonate Rocks

7.72 Crumbling
limestone cliffs on
the Isle of Purbeck,
south coast of
England

7.73 The Cairn

Formation, a
dolostone near
Canmore, Alberta.
Red Swiss Army
knife for scale.

While limestone is a general term given to all carbonate

rocks, we use the names dolomite or dolostone for rocks in
which dolomite is the dominant carbonate mineral. Limestone
and dolostone account for 10% to 15% of all sedimentary rocks.
They are mostly composed of calcite or dolomite, one or the
other. Surprisingly, rocks with significant amounts of both
calcite and dolomite are rare. Besides calcite and dolomite,
carbonate rocks often contain detrital quartz or clay minerals
and sometimes authigenic minerals of many kinds. Both
limestones and dolostones often weather or dissolve, producing
distinctive textures such as seen in Figures 7.72 and 7.73.
Cracks appear enlarged, and edges are rounded.
Distinguishing limestone from dolostone, based on appearance,
can be difficult or impossible in outcrop. On a fresh surface
calcite and dolomite may look the same, although weathering
sometimes alters dolomite to a yellow-brown color that is
distinctive. Field geologists carry dilute hydrochloric acid –
which reacts only with calcite or powdered dolomite – or
chemical stains to help identification of carbonate minerals.
Aragonite, a polymorph of calcite, exists in some very young
carbonate deposits, but never in old rocks because it changes
to calcite over time. In contrast, for reasons that are not
completely clear, dolomite is rare in modern carbonates but is
common in Paleozoic and Precambrian rocks.

7.74 Fossiliferous
limestone from East
Lothian, Scotland

When CaCO3 precipitates to form limestones, it may be as fine-

grained lime muds, resulting in microcrystalline calcite,
called micrite. It also precipitates as coarser sparry
calcite, with crystals that may be clear and easily visible
with the naked eye. However, most carbonate rocks are
detrital. They form from organic debris deposited in shallow
marine environments, where most biological activity occurs.
These rocks often contain fossils amidst clastic grains. The
fossils can be of many different sorts. The limestone in
Figure 7.74 contains conspicuous ribbed brachiopods.
7.5.2.2 Evaporites
Earlier in this chapter, we discussed evaporite deposits. Such
deposits may contain thick beds of halite or gypsum many
meters thick. Rocks composed of these two minerals are found
in many places. Halite deposits may be 1000 m thick or more
but gypsum rock deposits are generally much thinner. Both
kinds of deposits form during evaporation of inland seas or
other isolated waters. For example, halite and gypsum are
mined in Michigan and Ontario where the minerals collected
when water trapped in an inland basin, called the Michigan
Basin, evaporated 360-440 million years ago. The world’s
largest underground salt mine is in Goderich, Ontario, on the
edge of the basin.

7.5.2.3 Chert

7.75 Folded chert

beds, Glen Canyon
Park, San Francisco

We talked about varieties of mineralogical chert in Section

7.4.7 above. Chert is also the name given to hard sedimentary
rock composed of fine quartz crystals. The rock seen in Figure
7.75 is an example. Chert (the rock) is usually of biological
origin, being the petrified remains of siliceous ooze, the
biogenic sediment that covers large areas of the deep ocean
floor. Chert often contains microscopic skeletal remains of
diatoms, silicoflagellates, and radiolarians made of silica.
Depending on its origin, chert can contain either
microfossils, small macrofossils, or both. Chert (the rock)
varies greatly in color (from white to black), but most often
manifests as gray, brown, grayish brown and light green to
rusty red (occasionally dark green too). Its color is an
expression of trace elements present in the rock, and both red
and green colors are most often related to small amounts of
iron (in its oxidized and reduced forms respectively). Thick
beds of chert, up to several hundred meters thick, underlie
most of the southern plains states of the United States and
parts of California. For poorly understood reasons, thick
chert beds are especially common in Precambrian rocks.

7.5.2.4 Organic Sedimentary Rocks

7.76 Coquina, Cayo Costa Island,

Florida

Some sedimentary rocks are formed largely from biogenic

(organic) debris. We classify such rocks as organic
sedimentary rocks, separate from chemical and clastic
sedimentary rocks. Examples are limestones formed from shell
or skeletal remains, coquina (a sedimentary rock made of shell
fragments), diatomite (a sedimentary rock made of the remains
of diatoms), and coal. This photo (Figure 7.76) shows an
example of coquina.

Much overlap exists between chemical, clastic, and organic

sedimentary rocks. Many chemical sedimentary rocks contain
clastic material, and many clastic sedimentary rocks are held
together by chemical cements precipitated from water. Both
chemical and clastic rocks may contain biogenic components.

7.5.2.5 Other Chemical Sedimentary Rocks

Many other types of chemical sedimentary rocks and minerals
exist. They are not abundant, but they may be important as
sources of ore. For example, collophane, a cryptocrystalline
form of apatite, Ca5(PO4)3(OH,F,Cl), is found in small amounts
in many kinds of sedimentary rocks. It has an organic origin.
In rocks called phosphorites, apatite may comprise nearly the
entire rock. Major phosphorite deposits are in Wyoming and
Idaho, where mines produce phosphate, an important component
of fertilizers.

7.77 Banded iron

formation, northern
Minnesota

Iron formations, most Precambrian in age, are mined for iron

in the Mesabi Range of Minnesota and elsewhere. Iron oxides
and hydroxides, including hematite (Fe2O3), goethite (FeO(OH))
and magnetite (Fe3O4), or Fe-carbonate (siderite, FeCO3), are
the most common iron minerals in iron formations.
Occasionally, iron silicates (e.g., fayalite, Fe 2 SiO 4 ) or
sulfide (pyrite, FeS 2 ) may be present. The outcrop seen in
Figure 7.77 is iron formation that contains layers rich in red
chert alternating with layers rich in specular hematite
(silver grey). Iron formations form from sediments originally
deposited in shallow marine conditions. Young manganese
deposits, similar to iron formations, have been dredged from
ocean floors.
this is a blank line

7.6 Sedimentary Environments and

Facies

7.78 Some of the many environments where

sediments may be deposited

The processes that form sedimentary rock occur in many

environments, and different minerals or rocks can characterize
each. In many places, however, the rate of sediment deposition
is slow. In other places, erosion removes sediment as fast as
it is deposited. Consequently, most of the sedimentary rocks
and minerals that we see are associated with a few special
environments where the rate of deposition is relatively fast,
and the volume of sediments deposited was relatively large.
The most significant such environments are large basins on
continents, and shallow seas. Lesser amounts of sedimentary
rocks are associated with other environments such as
shorelines, rivers, lakes, deserts, and glaciers. Because
different environments are different physically, chemically,
and biologically, the nature of sedimentary rocks is highly
variable. The most significant factors that account for the
differences are the energy and biology of the environment, the
distance from the source of the sediment, and the way the
sediment was transported. Figure 7.78 show some of the many
different places where sediments are deposited.
Sedimentologists divide all of them into smaller categories
that produce distinctive sediments and sedimentary rocks.

Most sedimentary environments vary laterally. Large basins,

for example, are not the same everywhere. So different kinds
of sediment can be deposited in different parts of a basin
simultaneously. We use the term facies to refer to the
different rocks that characterize a particular process or
environment. So, geologists may talk about continental,
transitional, or marine facies. More specifically, they may
consider reef facies, continental shelf facies, deep ocean
facies, and so on. Different contemporaneous facies often
grade into each other. Consider, for example, sedimentation at
or near a shoreline. Coarse sediments are typically deposited
on dry land and on beaches, somewhat finer sediments in
shallow water, and the finest materials farther offshore. If
the sedimentary environment changes, the nature of
sedimentation changes. With rising sea level, for example,
fine deep-water sediments may be deposited over coarser
shoreline sediments. With failing sea level, the opposite may
occur. So, sedimentary facies vary both laterally and
vertically (geographically and temporally).

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 ●Figure Credits
Uncredited graphics/photos came from the authors and other primary contributors to this book.
7.1 Salt deposits on the shore of the Dead Sea, Jordan, Gerda Arendt, Wikimedia Commons
7.3 Talus on Electric Peak, Yellowstone National Park, National Park Service
7.4 Weathered sandstone in Ohio, James St. John, Wikimedia Commons
7.5 Weathered limestone outcrop, Youngbohemian, Wikimedia Commons
7.6 Weathered granite in a British quarry, Alan Souter, Wikimedia Commons
7.7 Bauxite above sandstone,Werner Schellmann,Wikimedia Commons
7.8 Silt along the North Esk River, Gary Houston, Wikimedia Commons
7.9 Sand at Pfeiffer Beach, sandatlas.org
7.10 Pebbles at Lychnos, Greece, Annatsach, Wikimedia Commons
7.11 Hope River Cobbles, Eviatar Bach, Wikimedia Commons
7.12 Alluvium, Eurico Zimbres, Wikimedia Commons
77.14 Tranertine terraces, Acroterion, Wikimedia Commons
7.15 Devil’s Golf Course, Brocken Inaglory, Wikimedia Commons
7.16 The Trona Pinnacles, Bobak Ha’Eri, Wikimedia Commons
7.17 Salt deposits on the shore of Utah’s Great Salt Lake, brittanica.com
7.18 Kaolinite, James St. John, Wikimedia Commons
7.19 Illite, USGS, Wikimedia Commons
7.20 Montmorillonite, gardenstatenaturals.com
7.21 Porcelain Ming vase, King muh, Wikimedia Commons
7.23 Pyrophyllite, Robert M. Lavinsky, Wikimedia Commons
7.22 Talc in schist, James St. John, Wikimedia Commons
7.24 Maze coral, Hobgood, Wikimedia Commons
7.25 Marble from Tate, Georgia, James St. John, Wikimedia Commons
7.26 Hydromagnesite on basalt, dakotamatrix.com
7.27 Calcite with siderite, Didier Descouens, Wikimedia Commons
7.28 Aragonite from Sicily, Marie Lan Taÿ Pamart, Wikimedia Commons
7.29 Azurite and malachite, Marie Lan Taÿ Pamart, Wikimedia Commons
7.30 Rhodochrosite with quartz, Géry Parent, Wikimedia Commons
7.31 Smithsonite from France, Géry Parent, Wikimedia Commons
7.32 Dolomite with talc, Didier Descouens, Wikimedia Commons
7.33 Calcite, sandatlas.com
7.34 Blue calcite cleavage fragments, etsy.com
7.35 Translucent calcite, gemrockauctions.com
7.40 Twinned calcite, irocks.com
7.41 The arrangement of atoms in barite
7.42 Cueva de los Cristales, Alexander van Driessche, Wikimedia Commons
7.43 Plaster of Paris, homedepot.com
7.44 Selenite with hematite, Géry Parent, Wikimedia Commons
7.45 Twinned gypsum, Robert M. Lavinsky, Wikimedia Commons
7.47 Gypsum desert rose, Didier Descouens, Wikimedia Commons
7.46 Satinspar variety of gypsum, pinterest.com
7.48 Barite from Texas Co, Missouri, Missouri Dept. Natural Resources
7.49 Barite roses, Robert M. Lavinsky, Wikimedia Commons
7.51 Galena with anglesite, Didier Descouens, Wikimedia Commons
7.50 Celestite crystals, H. Zell, Wikimedia Commons
7.53 Blue fluorite crystals from southern France, Marie Lan Taÿ Pamart, Wikimedia Commons
7.52 Halite crystals from the Great Salt lake, Utah, Géry Parent, Wikimedia Commons
7.56 Chabazite on top of heulandite, Robert M. Lavinsky, Wikimedia Commons
7.58 Industrial zeolite, amazon.com
7.59 Chert, USGS, Wikimedia.com
7.60 Jasper, oakrocks.com
7.61 Flint, anonymous, Wikimedia Commons
7.62 Opal, James St. John, Wikimedia Commons
7.63 Chalcedony, etsy.com
7.65 Conglomerate, Daniel Mayer, Wikimedia Commons
7.66 Breccia, Michael C. Rygel, Wikimedia Commons
7.68 Graywack, sandatlas.com
7.69 Arkose, Mt. Tom Massachusetts
7.70 The Marcellus Shale, Pennsylvania, Wiktionary.com
7.71 Examining a rock with a hand lens, National Park Service
7.72 Crumbling limestone cliffs, geograph.ork, Wikimedia Commons
7.73 Cairn_Formation_dolostone, Georgialh, Wikimedia Commons
7.74 Fossiliferous limestone, S. Rae, Wikimedia Commons
7.75 Folded chert beds, Easchiff, Wikimedia Commons
7.76 Coquina, James St. John, Wikimedia Commons
7.77 Banded iron formation, James St. John, Wikimedia Commons