NDA E Book 1

DefenceXP NDA & NA
TABLE OF CONTENT
S. No. Topic Page

1. NDA Exam Syllabus 2018-19 1-5
(Mathematics+General Ability Test)
2. NDA Exam Pattern 2018-19 6
3. NDA Examination 2018-1 Solved Paper 7 - 108
(Mathematics+General Ability Test)
NDA – 2019
Mathematics
1. Algebra 109 – 128
2. Matrices and Determinants 129 – 136
3. Trigonometry 137 – 145
4. Analytical Geometry of two and three dimensions 146 – 163
5. Differential Calculus 164 – 177
6. Integral Calculus and Differential equations 178 – 193
7. Vector Algebra 194 – 198
8. Statistics and Probability 199 – 215
9. Exercise 216 – 221
10. Answer Key for Exercise Questions 222
General Ability Test
English
1. Passage 223 – 225
2. Grammer I 225 – 236
3. Grammer II 236 – 253
4. Vocabulary 253 – 262
5. Narration ( Direct and Indirect Speech) 262 – 271
6. Voice ( Active and Passive ) 271 – 277
7. Jumbled Sentences 277 – 279
8. Synonyms 279 – 280
9. Antonyms 280 – 281
10. Exercise 282 – 291
DefenceXP NDA & NA
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
1. Section A (Physics) 293 – 359
2. Section B (Chemistry) 359 – 396
3. Section C (General Science) 397 – 420
4. Section D (History, Freedom Movement ) 421 – 465
5. Section E (Geography) 466 – 515
6. Section F (Current Events) 513 – 537
7. Exercise 538 – 542
DefenceXP NDA & NA
NDA Exam Paper-I Mathematics Syllabus
1. Algebra
Concept of a set, operations on sets, Venn diagrams. De Morgan laws.
Cartesian product, relation, equivalence relation. Representation of real
numbers on a line. Complex numbers - basic properties, modulus, argument,
cube roots of unity. Binary system of numbers. Conversion of a number in
decimal system to binary system and vice-versa. Arithmetic, Geometric and
Harmonic progressions. Quadratic equations with real coefficients. Solution of
linear inequalities of two variables by graphs. Permutation and
Combination. Binomial theorem and its application. Logarithms and their
applications.
2. Matrices and Determinants

Types of matrices, operations on matrices Determinant of a matrix,
basic properties of determinant. Adjoint and inverse of a square matrix,
Applications - Solution of a system of linear equations in two or three
unknowns by Cramer's rule and by Matrix Method.
3. Trigonometry
Angles and their measures in degrees and in radians. Trigonometric
ratios. Trigonometric identities Sum and difference formulae. Multiple and
Sub-multiple angles. Inverse trigonometric functions. Applications - Height
and distance, properties of triangles.
4. Analytical Geometry of two and three dimensions

Rectangular Cartesian Coordinate system. Distance formula. Equation of a
line in various forms. Angle between two lines. Distance of a point from a
line. Equation of a circle in standard and in general form. Standard forms of
parabola, ellipse and hyperbola. Eccentricity and axis of a conic.
Point in a three dimensional space, distance between two points. Direction
Cosines and direction ratios. Equation of a plane and a line in various
forms. Angle between two lines and angle between two planes. Equation of a
sphere.
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
5. Differential Calculus
Concept of a real valued function - domain, range and graph of a
function. Composite functions, one to one, onto and inverse functions. Notion
of limit, Standard limits - examples. Continuity of functions - examples,
algebraic operations on continuous functions. Derivative of a function at a
point, geometrical and physical interpretation of a derivative -
applications. Derivatives of sum, product and quotient of functions, derivative
of a function with respect of another function, derivative of a composite
function. Second order derivatives. Increasing and decreasing
functions. Application of derivatives in problems of maxima and minima.
6. Integral Calculus and Differential equations

Integration as inverse of differentiation, integration by substitution and by
parts, standard integrals involving algebraic expressions, trigonometric,
exponential and hyperbolic functions. Evaluation of definite integrals -
determination of areas of plane regions bounded by curves - applications.
Definition of order and degree of a differential equation, formation of a
differential equation by examples. General and particular solution of a
differential equation, solution of first order and first degree differential
equations of various types - examples. Application in problems of growth and
decay.
7. Vector Algebra
Vectors in two and three dimensions, magnitude and direction of a
vector. Unit and null vectors, addition of vectors, scalar multiplication of
vector, scalar product or dot product of two-vectors. Vector product and cross
product of two vectors. Applications-work done by a force and moment of a
force, and in geometrical problems.
8. Statistics and Probability
Statistics: Classification of data, Frequency distribution, cumulative

frequency distribution - examples Graphical representation - Histogram, Pie
Chart, Frequency Polygon - examples. Measures of Central tendency - mean,
median and mode. Variance and standard deviation - determination and
comparison. Correlation and regression.
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
Probability : Random experiment, outcomes and associated sample space,

events, mutually exclusive and exhaustive events, impossible and certain
events. Union and Intersection of events. Complementary, elementary and
composite events. Definition of probability - classical and statistical -
examples. Elementary theorems on probability - simple
problems. Conditional probability, Bayes' theorem - simple
problems. Random variable as function on a sample space. Binomial
distribution, examples of random experiments giving rise to Binomial
distribution.
NDA Exam Paper- II General Ability Test Syllabus

ENGLISH
The question paper in English will be designed to test the candidate‘s
understanding of English and workman like use of words. The syllabus covers
various aspects like : Grammar and usage, vocabulary, comprehension and
cohesion in extended text to test the candidate‘s proficiency in English.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
The question paper on General Knowledge will broadly cover the subjects :
Physics, Chemistry, General Science, Social Studies, Geography and Current
Events. - The syllabus given below is designed to indicate the scope of these
subjects included in this paper. The topics mentioned are not to be regarded
as exhaustive and questions on topics of similar nature not specifically
mentioned in the syllabus may also be asked. Candidate‘s answers are
expected to show their knowledge and intelligent understanding of the subject.
Section ‘A’ (Physics)

Physical Properties and States of Matter, Mass, Weight, Volume, Density and
Specific Gravity, Principle of Archimedes, Pressure Barometer. Motion of
objects, Velocity and Acceleration, Newton‘s Laws of Motion, Force and
Momentum, Parallelogram of Forces, Stability and Equilibrium of bodies,
Gravitation, elementary ideas of work, Power and Energy. Effects of Heat,
Measurement of Temperature and Heat, change of State and Latent Heat,
Modes of transference of Heat. Sound waves and their properties, Simple
musical instruments.
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
Rectilinear propagation of Light, Reflection and refraction. Spherical mirrors

and Lenses, Human Eye. Natural and Artificial Magnets, Properties of a
Magnet, Earth as a Magnet. Static and Current Electricity, conductors and
Non-conductors, Ohm‘s Law, Simple Electrical Circuits, Heating, Lighting and
Magnetic effects of Current, Measurement of Electrical Power, Primary and
Secondary Cells, Use of X-Rays. General Principles in the working of the
following: Simple Pendulum, Simple Pulleys, Siphon, Levers, Balloon, Pumps,
Hydrometer, Pressure Cooker, Thermos Flask, Gramophone, Telegraphs,
Telephone, Periscope, Telescope, Microscope, Mariner‘s Compass; Lightning
Conductors, Safety Fuses.
Section ‘B’ (Chemistry)

Physical and Chemical changes. Elements, Mixtures and Compounds,
Symbols, Formulae and simple Chemical Equations, Law of Chemical
Combination (excluding problems). Properties of Air and Water. Preparation
and Properties of Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen and Carbon Dioxide, Oxidation
and Reduction. Acids, bases and salts. Carbon— different forms. Fertilizers—
Natural and Artificial. Material used in the preparation of substances like
Soap, Glass, Ink, Paper, Cement, Paints, Safety Matches and Gunpowder.
Elementary ideas about the structure of Atom, Atomic Equivalent and
Molecular Weights, Valency.
Section ‘C’ (General Science)

Difference between the living and nonliving. Basis of Life—Cells, Protoplasms
and Tissues. Growth and Reproduction in Plants and Animals. Elementary
knowledge of Human Body and its important organs. Common Epidemics,
their causes and prevention. Food—Source of Energy for man. Constituents
of food, Balanced Diet. The Solar System—Meteors and Comets, Eclipses.
Achievements of Eminent Scientists.
Section ‘D’ (History, Freedom Movement etc.)

A broad survey of Indian History, with emphasis on Culture and Civilisation.
Freedom Movement in India. Elementary study of Indian Constitution and
Administration. Elementary knowledge of Five Year Plans of India. Panchayati
Raj, Co-operatives and Community Development. Bhoodan, Sarvodaya,
National Integration and Welfare State, Basic Teachings of Mahatma Gandhi.
Forces shaping the modern world,
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Renaissance, Exploration and Discovery; War of American Independence.

French Revolution, Industrial Revolution and Russian Revolution. Impact of
Science and Technology on Society. Concept of one World, United Nations,
Panchsheel, Democracy, Socialism and Communism. Role of India in the
present world.
Section ‘E’ (Geography)

The Earth, its shape and size. Latitudes and Longitudes, Concept of time.
International Date Line. Movements of Earth and their effects. Origin of Earth.
Rocks and their classification; Weathering—Mechanical and Chemical,
Earthquakes and Volcanoes. Ocean Currents and Tides Atmosphere and its
composition; Temperature and Atmospheric Pressure, Planetary Winds,
Cyclones and Anticyclones; Humidity; Condensation and Precipitation; Types
of Climate, Major Natural regions of the World. Regional Geography of India—
Climate, Natural vegetation. Mineral and Power resources; location and
distribution of agricultural and Industrial activities. Important Sea ports and
main sea, land and air routes of India. Main items of Imports and Exports of
India.
Section ‘F’ (Current Events)

Knowledge of Important events that have happened in India in the recent
years. Current important world events. Prominent personalities—both Indian
and International including those connected with cultural activities and sports.
NOTE - Out of maximum marks assigned to part ‗B‘ of this paper, questions
on Sections ‗A‘, ‗B‘, ‗C‘, ‗D‘, ‗E‘ and ‗F‘ will carry approximately 25%, 15%,
10%, 20%, 20% and 10% weightages respectively.
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
NDA Exam Pattern for Mathematics and General Ability Test

NDA 2019 was conducted in offline mode and all the questions was of MCQ
type. The exam is held in both English and Hindi language. Candidates are
asked to attempt two sections- Mathematics and General Ability Test.
Other details related to exam pattern from both the sections have been
tabulated below:
Subject Paper Total No of Duration of Exam Maximum Marks
Questions
Mathematics 1 120 2 ½ Hours 300
General 2 150 2 ½ Hours 600

Ability Test
Total -- 270 900 --
After qualifying the NDA 2019 entrance test, all candidates have to appear for
Second Round Duration Maximum Marks
SSB Interview 4-5 days 900
NDA Interview. Details are as below:

Candidates are advised to go through the syllabus of the examination along
with NDA 2019 Exam Pattern. It will help them to have better preparations for
both Entrance Test as well as Interview.
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
NDA (Maths) Examination 2018 -1 Solved Paper
Q1. If n  N, then 121n – 25n + 1900n – (–4)n is divisible by which one of

the following?
A) 1904
B) 2000
C) 2002
D) 2006
Q2. If n = (2017)!, then what is 1/log2n + 1/log3n + 1/log4n + …. + log2017n

equal to?
A) 0
B) 1
C) n 2
D) n
Q3. In the expansion of (1 + x)43, if the coefficients of (2r+1)th and (r+2)th

terms are equal, then what is the value of r (r  1)?
A) 5
B) 14
C) 21
D) 22
Q4. What is the principal argument of (–1 – i), where i = 1?

A) /4
B) –4
C) – 3/4
D) 3/4
Q5. Let  and  be real numbers and z be a complex number. If z2 + z +

 = 0 has two distinct non real roots with Re(z) = 1, then it is necessary
that
A)  1,0
B)  1
C) 1, 
D) 0,1
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
Q6. Let A and B be subsets of X and C = (A∩B)U(A∩B), where A and B

are complements of A and B respectively in X. What is C equal to?
A) AUB) - (A∩B)
B) AUB) - (A∩B)
C) (AUB) - (A∩B)
D) AUB- (A∩B)

Q7. How many numbers between 100 and 1000 can be formed with the
digits 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, if the repetition of digits is not allowed?
A) 35
B) 53
C) 120
D) 60
Q8. The number of non-zero integral solutions of the equation |12i|x 5x
is
A) Zero (No solution)
B) One
C) Two
D) Three
Q9. If the ratio of AM to GM of two positive numbers a and b is 5: 3, then

a: b is equal to
A) 3: 5
B) 2: 9
C) 9: 1
D) 5: 3
Q10. If the coefficients of am and an in the expansion of (1 + a)m + n are

and , then which one of the following is correct?
A)  = 2
B)  = 
C) 2 =
D)  = (m + n)
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
Q11. If x + log15 (1 + 3x) = x log15 5 + log15 12, where x is an integer, then

what is x equal to?
A) – 3
B) 2
C) 1
D) 3
Q12. How many four-digit numbers divisible by 10 can be formed using

1, 5, 0, 6, 7 without repetition of digits?
A) 24
B) 36
C) 44
D) 64
Consider the information given below and answer the two items (02)
that follow in Mathematics only and 41 students are good in English
only. There are 18 students who are good in both Hindi and
Mathematics. 10 students are good: In a class, 54 students are good in
Hindi only, 63 students are good in all three subjects.
Q13. What is the number of students who are good in either Hindi or
Mathematics but not in English?
A) 99
B) 107
C) 125
D) 130
Q14. What is the number of students who are good in Hindi and
Mathematics but not in English?
A) 18
B) 12
C) 10
D) 8
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
Q15. If and  are different complex numbers with || = 1, then what is
| ⁄ ̅ |equal to?
A) ||
B) 2
C) 1
D) 0
Q16. The equation |1 – x| + x2 = 5 has

A) a rational root and an irrational root
B) two rational roots
C) two irrational roots
D) no real roots
Q17. The binary number expression of the decimal number 31 is

A) 1111
B) 10111
C) 11011
D) 11111
Q18. What is i 1000 + i 1001 + i 1002 + i 1003 equal to (where i √ )?

A) 0
B) i
C) – i
D) 1
Q19. What is 1/log2N + 1/log3N + 1/log4N + ………. + 1/log100 N equal to

(N1)?
A) 1/log100!N
B) 1/log99! N
C) 99/log100! N
D) 99/log99! N
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
Q20. The modulus-amplitude form of √ I, where i √ is

A)2 (cos/3 + isin/3)
B) 2 (cos/6 + isin/6)
C) 4 (cos/3 + isin/3)
D)4 (cos/6 + isin/6)
Q21. What is the number of non-zero terms in the expansion of

(1+ √ )11 + (1- √ )11 (after simplification)?
A) 4
B) 5
C) 6
D) 11
Q22. What is the greatest integer among the following by which the
number 55 + 75 is divisible?
A) 6
B) 8
C) 11
D) 12
Q23. If x = 1 – y + y2 – y3 +.... up to infinite terms, where |y| < 1, then

which one of the following is correct?
A) x = ⁄ 
B) x = ⁄
C) x = ⁄
D) x = ⁄
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
Q24. What is the inverse of the matrix A = [ ] ?
A) [ ]
B) [ ]
C) [ ]
D) [ ]
Q25. If A is a 2 × 3 matrix and AB is a 2 × 5 matrix, then B must be a

A) 3 × 5 matrix
B) 5 × 3 matrix
C) 3 × 2 matrix
D) 5 × 2 matrix
26. If * + and A2 – kA – I2 = O, where I2 is the 2 × 2 identity matrix, then

what is the value of k?
A) 4
B) –4
C) 8
D) –8
Q27. What is the number of triangles that can be formed by choosing

the vertices from a set of 12 points in a plane, seven of which lie on the
same straight line?
A) 185
B) 175
C) 115
D) 105
12
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Q28. What is n C r + 2 n C r-1 + n C r-2 equal to?

A) n+1 C r
B) n-1 C r+1
C) n C r+1
D) n+2 C r
Q29. let [x] denote the greatest integer function. What is the number of
solutions of the equation x2 – 4x + [x] = 0 in the interval [0, 2]?
A) Zero (No solution)
B) One
C) Two
D) Three
Q30. A survey of 850 students in a University yields that 680 students

like music and 215 like dance. What is the least number of students who
like both music and dance?
A) 40
B) 45
C) 50
D) 55
Q31. What is the sum of all two-digit numbers which when divided by 3
leave 2 as the remainder?
A) 1565
B) 1585
C) 1635
D) 1655
Q32. If 0 < a < 1, the value of log10a is negative. This is justified by

A) Negative power of 10 is less than 1
B) Negative power of 10 between 0 and 1
C) Negative power of 10 is positive
D) Negative power of 10 is negative
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
Q33. The third term of a GP is 3. What is the product of the first five
terms?
A) 216
B) 226
C) 243
D) Cannot be determined due to insufficient data
Q34. If x, 3/2, z are in AP; x, y, z is GP; are then which one of the
following will be in HP?
A) x, 6, z
B) x, 4, z
C) x, 2, z
D) x, 1, z
Q35. What is the value of the sum ∑ where i √ ?

A) i
B) 2i
C) –2i
D) 1 + i
Q36. If sinx√ , siny √ , where 0 x 2 , 0y 2 then what
is (x + y) equal to?
A) 
B) 2
C) /4
D) 0
Q37. What is ⁄ equal to?
A) sin x
B) cos x
C) tan x
D) cot x
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
Q38. What is sin 105 + cos 105° equal to?

A) sin 50°
B) cos 50°
C) 1/√
D) 0
Q39. In a triangle ABC if a = 2, b = 3 and sin A 2/3, then what is angle B

equal to?
A) 4
B) 2
C) 3
D) 6
Q40. What is the principal value of ?

A) 4
B) 2
C) 3
D) 2/3
Q41. If x, x – y and x + y are the angles of a triangle (not an equilateral

triangle) such that tan(x – y), tan x and tan (x + y) are in GP, then what is
x equal to?
A) 4
B) 3
C) 6
D) 2
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
Q42. ABC is a triangle inscribed in a circle with centre O. Let  = 

BAC, where 45° < < 90°. Let  = BOC. Which one of the following is
correct?
A) cos ⁄
B) cos ⁄
C) cos ⁄
D) sin
Q43. If a flag-staff of 6 m height placed on the top of a tower throws a

shadow of 2√ m along the ground, then what is the angle that the sun
makes with the ground?
A) 60°
B) 45°
C) 30°
D) 15°
Q44. What is ( ⁄ ) ( ⁄ )equal to?
A) 0
B) 4
C) 3
D) 2
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
Q45. A spherical balloon of radius r subtends an angle  at the eye of

an observer, while the angle of elevation of its centre is . What is the
height of the centre of the balloon (neglecting the height of the
observer)?
A) ⁄ ( ⁄ )
B) ⁄ ( ⁄ )
. ⁄ /
⁄
C)
D)
⁄ . ⁄ /
Q46. If ⁄ = ⁄ then what is ⁄ equal to?
A) ⁄
B) ⁄
C) ⁄
D) ⁄
Q47. If sin + sin = 0 = cos + cos, where 0 <  <  < 2, then which
one of the following is correct?
A) 
B)  
C) 2
D) 22
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
Q48. Suppose cos A is given. If only one value of ( ⁄ ) is possible,
then A must be
A) An odd multiple of 90°
B) A multiple of 90°
C) An odd multiple of 180°
D) A multiple of 180°
Q49. If cos + cos + cos = 0, where 0  2, 0 2, 0 2,

then what is the value of sin  + sin  + sin ?
A) 0
B) 3
C) √ ⁄
D) √ ⁄
Q50. The maximum value of ( ) ( ), where x   ,

is attained at
A) 20
B)/15
C) 10
D) 2
Q51. What is the distance between the points which divide the line
segment joining (4, 3) and (5, 7) internally and externally in the ratio
2:3?
√
A)
√
B)
√
C)
√
D)
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
Q52. What is the angle between the straight lines (m2 – mn) y = (mn + n2)
(x + n3) and (mn + m2) y = (mn – n2) (x + m3), where m > n?
A) ( )
B) ( )
C) ( )
D) 45°
Q53. What is the equation of the straight line cutting off an intercept 2
from the negative direction of y-axis and inclined at 30° with the
positive direction of x-axis?
A) x - 2√ y  √  0
B) x + √ y  √  0
C) x + √ y √  0
D) x  √ y2√  0
Q54. What is the equation of the line passing through the point of
intersection of the lines x + 2y – 3 = 0 and 2x – y + 5 = 0 and parallel to
the line y – x + 10 = 0?
A) 7x – 7y + 18 = 0
B) 5x – 7y + 18 = 0
C) 5x – 5y + 18 = 0
D) x – y + 5 = 0
Q55. Consider the following statements:

1. The length p of the perpendicular from the origin to the line ax + by =
c satisfies the relation p2 = .
2. The length p of the perpendicular from the origin to the line
satisfies the relation .
3.The length p of the perpendicular from the origin to the line y = mx + c
satisfies the relation
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
Which of the above is/are correct?

A) 1, 2 and 3
B) 1 only
C) 1 and 2 only
D) 2 only
Q56. What is the equation of the ellipse whose vertices are (± 5, 0) and
foci are at (± 4, 0)?
A)
B)
C)
D)
Q57. What is the equation of the straight line passing through the point
(2, 3) and making an intercept on the positive y-axis equal to twice its
intercept on the positive x-axis?
A) 2x+ y = 5
B) 2x+ y = 7
C) x+ 2y = 7
D) 2x– y = 1
Q58. Let the coordinates of the points A, B, C be (1, 8, 4), (0, –11, 4) and
(2, –3, 1) respectively. What are the coordinates of the point D which is
the foot of the perpendicular from A on BC?
A) (3, 4, –2)
B) (4, –2, 5)
C) (4, 5, –2)
D) (2, 4, 5)
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
Q59. What is the equation of the plane passing through the points (–2,
6, –6), (–3, 10, –9) and (–5, 0, –6)?
A) 2x – y – 2z = 2
B) 2x+ y + 3z = 3
C) x + y + z = 6
D) x – y – z = 3
Q60. A sphere of constant radius r through the origin intersects the

coordinate axes in A, B and C. What is the locus of the centroid of the
triangle ABC?
A) x2 + y2 + z2 = r2
B) x2 + y2 + z2 = 4r2
C) 9(x2 + y2 + z2) = 4r2
D) 3(x2 + y2 + z2) = 2r2
Q61. The coordinates of the vertices P, Q and R of a triangle PQR are

(1, –1, 1), (3, –2, 2) and (0, 2, 6) respectively. If RQP = , then what is
PRQ equal to?
A) 30
B) 45
C) 60
D) 90
Q62. The perpendiculars that fall from any point of the straight line 2x +
11y = 5 upon the two straight lines 24x + 7y = 20 and 4x – 3y = 2 are
A) 12 and 4 respectively
B) 11 and 5 respectively
C) Equal to each other
D) Not equal to each other
Q63. The equation of the line, when the position of it intercepted

between the axes is divided by the point (2, 3) in the ratio of 3: 2 is
A) Either x + y = 4 or 9x + y = 12
B) Either x + y = 5 or 4x + 9y = 30
C) Either x + y = 4 or x + 9y = 12
D) Either x + y = 5 or 9x + 4y = 30
21
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Q64. What is the distance between the straight lines 3x + 4y = 9 and 6x +

8y = 15?
A) 3/2
B) 3/10
C) 6
D) 5
Q65. What is the equation to the sphere whose centre is at(–2, 3, 4) and
radius is 6 units?
A) x2 + y2 + z2 + 4x – 6y – 8z = 7
B) x2 + y2 + z2 + 6x – 4y – 8z = 7
C) x2 + y2 + z2 + 4x – 6y – 8z = 4
D) x2 + y2 + z2 + 4x + 6y + 8z = 4
Q66. If ⃗ and ⃗⃗ are vectors such that | ⃗| , | ⃗⃗| and ⃗ ⃗⃗ =

̂ ̂ ̂ then what is the acute angle between ⃗ and ⃗⃗ ?
A) 30°
B) 45°
C) 60°
D) 90°
Q67. Let ⃗ and ⃗ be the position vectors of the points P and Q

respectively with respect to origin O. The points R and S divide PQ
internally and externally respectively in the ratio 2: 3. If ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ are
perpendicular, then which one of the following is correct?
A) 9p2 = 4q2
B) 4p2 = 9q2
C) 9p = 4q
D) 4p = 9q
Q68. What is the moment about the point ̂ ̂ ̂ of a force

represented by ̂ ̂ acting through the point ̂ ̂ ̂?
A) ̂ ̂ ̂
B) ̂ ̂ ̂
C) ̂ ̂ ̂
D) ̂ ̂ ̂
22
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Q69. If ⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗ and ⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗  ⃗⃗ ⃗ , then what is

the value of ?
A) 2
B) 3
C) 4
D) 6
Q70. If the vectors ⃗⃗ and ⃗ are parallel to each other, then what is
⃗⃗ ⃗ equal to?
A) k2 ⃗
B) 0
C) –k2
D) ⃗
Q71. Which one of the following is correct in respect of the function :

f : RRdefined as f(x) = |x + 1|?
A) fx2  fx 2
B) f (|x|) |f(x)|
C) fxyf(x) + f(y)
D) None of the above
Q72. Suppose f : RR is defined by f(x) = . What is the range of the

function?
A) [0, 1)
B) [0, 1]
C) (0, 1]
D) (0, 1)
Q73. If f(x) = |x| + |x – 1|, then which one of the following is correct?
A) f(x) is continuous at x = 0 and x = 1
B) f(x) is continuous at x = 0 but not at x = 1
C) f(x) is continuous at x = 1 but not at x = 0
D) f(x) is neither continuous at x = 0 nor at x = 1
23
DefenceXP NDA & NA
| |
Q74. Consider the function , - What is f (0) equal
to?
A) 0
B) 1
C) –1
D) It does not exist
Q75. What is the area of the region bounded by the parabolas y2  6(x-1)
and y23x?
A) √
B) √
C) √
D) √
Consider the following information for the next three (03) items that
follow:
Three sides of a trapezium are each equal to 6 cm. Let  (0, /2) be
the angle between a pair of adjacent sides.
Q76. If the area of the trapezium is the maximum possible, then what is
 equal to?
A) /6
B) /4
C) /3
D) 2/5
Q77. If the area of the trapezium is maximum, what is the length of the
fourth side?
A) 8 cm
B) 9 cm
C) 10 cm
D) 12 cm
24
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Q78. What is the maximum area of the trapezium?

A) √ cm2
B) √ cm2
C) √ cm2
D) √ cm2
Q79. What is ∫ equal to?

A)
B)
C)
D)
Q80. If is continuous at x = 3, then which one of

the following is correct?
A) f(3) = 0
B) f(3) = 1.5
C) f(3) = 3
D) f(3) = –1.5

A)
B)
C)
D)
25
DefenceXP NDA & NA
√
Q82. What is ∫ [ ] equal to (where [.] is the greatest integer
function)?
A) √
B) √
C) √
D) √
Q83. What is the maximum value of 16 sin– 12 sin2?

A) 3/4
B) 4/3
C) 16/3
D) 4
Q84. If f : RS defined by f(x) = 4 sin x – 3 cos x + 1 is onto, then what is

S equal to?
A) [–5, 5]
B) (–5, 5)
C) (–4, 6)
D) [–4, 6]
Q85. For f to be a function, what is the domain of f, if ?

√| |
A) ,0
B) 0, 
C) , 
D) ,0
Q86. What is the solution of the differential equation x dy – y dx = 0?

A) xy = c
B) y = cx
C) x + y = c
D) x – y = c
26
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Q87. What is the derivative of the function

at x  /4?
A) 2 e
B) e
C) 2e
D) 4e
Q88. Which one of the following differential equations has a periodic

solution?
A)
B)
C)
D)
where µ > 0.
Q89. What is the period of the function f(x) = sin x?

A) 4
B)/2
C) 
D) 2

A)
B)
C)
D)
27
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Q91. The order and degree of the differential equation y2 = 4a(x – a),
where ‗a‘ is an arbitrary constant, are respectively
A) 1, 2
B) 2, 1
C) 2, 2
D) 1, 1
Q92. What is the value of ∫ ?
A) ( )
√ √
B) 1/√
C) 0
D) √
Q93. If ∫ and ∫ , then what are the values of a and

b respectively?
A) –1, 1
B) 1, 1
C) 0, 0
D) 2, –2

A) 1 110
B) 1 132
C) 1 148
D) 1 240
Q95. What is equal to?

A) 1/2
B) 1
C) 2
D) Limit does not exist
28
DefenceXP NDA & NA
√ √
Q96. What is equal to?
A)
√
B)
√
C)
√
D)
√
Q97. If f(x) is an even function, whre f(x)  0, then which one of the
following is correct?
A) f(x) is an even function
B) f(x) is an odd function
C) f(x) may be an even or odd function depending on the type of function
D) f(x) is a constant function
Q98. If , then what is at x =  equal to?

A)
B)
C)
D)
Q99. What is the solution of (1 + 2x) dy – (1 – 2y) dx = 0?

A) x – y – 2xy = c
B) y – x – 2xy = c
C) y + x – 2xy = c
D) x + y + 2xy = c
29
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Q100. What are the order and degree, respectively, of the differential
equation( ) ( ) ?
A) 4, 5
B) 2, 3
C) 3, 2
D) 5, 4
Q101. In a Binomial distribution, the mean is three times its variance.

What is the probability of exactly 3 successes out of 5 trials?
A) 80/243
B) 40/243
C) 20/243
D) 10/243

1. P( = P( ) + PB) – P( )
2. P ∩ ) = PB) - P ∩B)
3. P ∩B) = PB) P(A|B)
Which of the above statements are correct?

A) 1 and 2 only
B) 1 and 3 only
C) 2 and 3 only
D) 1, 2 and 3
Q103. If the correlation coefficient between x and y is 0.6, covariance is

27 and variance of y is 25, then what is the variance of x?
A) 9/5
B) 81/25
C) 9
D) 81
30
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Q104. The probabilities that a student will solve Question A and

Question B are 0.4 and 0.5 respectively. What is the probability that he
solves at least one of the two questions?
A) 0.6
B) 0.7
C) 0.8
D) 0.9
Q105. Let x be the mean of x1, x2, x3 ,..., xn. If xi = a + cyi for some
constants a and c, then what will be the mean of y1, y2, y3 ,..., yn?
A) a  c ̅
B) a  ̅
C) ̅ a
̅
D)

1. If the correlation coefficient rxy  0, then the two lines of regression
are parallel to each other.
2. If the correlation coefficient, rxy 1 then the two lines of regression
are perpendicular to each other.
What of the above statements is/are correct?
A) 1 only
B) 2 only
C) Both 1 and 2
D) Neither 1 nor 2
Q107. If 4x – 5y + 33 = 0 and 20x – 9y = 107 are two lines of regression,

then what are the values of and respectively?
A) 12 and 18
B) 18 and 12
C) 13 and 17
D) 17 and 13
31
DefenceXP NDA & NA

1. Mean in independent of change in scale and change in origin.
2. Variance is independent of change in scale but not in origin.
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
A) 1 only
B) 2 only
C) Both 1 and 2
D) Neither 1 nor 2

1. The sum of deviations from mean is always zero
2. The sum of absolute deviations is minimum when taken around
median.
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
A) 1 only
B) 2 only
C) Both 1 and 2
D) Neither 1 nor 2
Q110. What is the median of the numbers 4.6, 0, 9.3, – 4.8, 7.6, 2.3,
12.7, 3.5, 8.2, 6.1, 3.9, 5.2?
A) 3.8
B) 4.9
C) 5.7
D) 6.0
Q111. In a test in Mathematics, 20% of the students obtained ―first

class‖. If the data are represented by a Pie-Chart, what is the central
angle corresponding to ―first class‖?
A) 20°
B) 36°
C) 72°
D) 144°
32
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Q112. The mean and standard deviation of a set of values are 5 and 2
respectively. If 5 is added to each value, then what is the coefficient of
variation for the new set of values?
A) 10
B) 20
C) 40
D) 70
Q113. A train covers the first 5 km of its journey at a speed of 30 km/hr

and the next 15 km at a speed of 45 km/hr. What is the average speed of
the train?
A) 35 km/hr
B) 37.5 km/hr
C) 39.5 km/hr
D) 40 km/hr
Q114. Two fair dice are rolled. What is the probability of getting a sum
of 7?
A) 1/36
B) 1/6
C) 7/12
D) 5/12
Q115. If A and B are two events such that 2PA) = 3PB), whre 0 < PA) <
PB) < 1, then which one of the following is correct?
A) P(A|B) < P(B|A) < P ∩B)
B) P ∩B) < P(B|A) < P(A|B)
C) P(B|A) < P(A|B) < P ∩B)
D) P ∩B) < P(A|B) < P(B|A)
Q116. A box has ten chits numbered 0, 1, 2, 3, ......, 9. First, one chit is
drawn at random and kept aside. From the remaining, a second chit is
drawn at random. What is the probability that the second chit drawn is
―9‖?
A) 1/10
B) 1/9
C) 1/90
D) None of these
33
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Q117. One bag contains 3 white and 2 black balls, another bag contains
5 white and 3 black balls. If a bag is chosen at random and a ball is
drawn from it, what is the chance that it is white?
A) 3/8
B) 49/80
C) 8/13
D) 1/2
Q118. Consider the following in respect of two events A and B.

1. P(A occurs but not B) = PA) – PB) if B A
2. P(A alone or B alone occurs) = PA) + PB) – PA∩B 
3. P(A B) = PA) + PB) if A and B are mutually exclusive
Which of the above is/are correct?

A) 1 only
B) 1 and 3 only
C) 2 and 3 only
D) 1 and 2 only
Q119. A committee of three has to be chosen from a group of 4 men and

5 women. If the selection is made at random, what is the probability
that exactly two members are men?
A) 5/14
B) 1/21
C) 3/14
D) 8/21
Q120. The standard deviation  of the first N natural numbers can be

obtained using which one of the following formulae?
A) 
B)  √
C) √
D) √ 


34
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Solution
Answer 1. B
As 1 is a natural number, let n = 1.
Then, 121n – 25n + 1900n – (– 4)n
= 121 – 25 + 1900 + 4
= 2000
which is divisible by 2000 only.
Hence option (A), (C) and (D) are incorrect for n = 1 but option (B) is correct
for n = 1.
Hence option (B) is correct for all natural numbers.
Answer 2. B
We have 1/log2n + 1/log3n + 1/log4n + …. + log2017n
= logn2 + logn3 + logn4 + …. + logn2017
= logn(234........2017)
= logn (2017!)
But we have given that n = (2017)!
Therefore, 1/log2n + 1/log3n + 1/log4n + …. + log2017n = lognn = 1
Hence option (B) is correct.
Answer 3. B
We have
Coefficient of (2r + 1)th term = 43C2r and Coefficient of (r + 2)th term = 43Cr+1
Therefore, 43C2r = 43Cr+1
 2r + r + 1 = 43
 3r + 1 = 43
 3r = 42
 r = 14
Hence option (B) is correct.
Answer 4. C
The argument of – 1 – i = tan-1(-1/-1) = 3/4
Hence option (C) is correct.
35
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Answer 5. C
The given equation is z2 + z +  = 0
√
z=
/2 1 (Given)

But the given equation has two non real roots.
Therefore,  0


1
1, 
Answer 6. C
Consider the figure
Clearly the shadded region is C = (A∩B)(AB) 

= (AB) (AB) 
Answer 7. D
The required number = 5  4  3 = 60.
Hence option (D) is correct.
Answer 8. A
We have |12i| √
Therefore (√ )x = 5x
 5x/2 = 5x x/2 = x  1/2 = 1 Which is not possible. Hence there is no
solution of the given equation. Hence option (A) is correct.
36
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Answer9. C
We have AM: GM = 5: 3
Therefore, GM = 3 and hence √ = 3
On squaring both sides, we have
ab = 9
 b = 9/a ...(1)
Also GM = 5 and hence ab / 2 = 5
 a + b = 10 ...(2)
on putting the value of b from equation (1) into equation (2), we get
a + 9/a = 10
 a2 – 10a + 9 = 0
 a2 – 9a – a + 9 = 0
 a(a – 9) – 1(a – 9) = 0
 (a – 9)(a – 1) = 0
 a = 9, 1
If a = 9, then b = 9/9 = 1
If a = 1, then b = 9/1 = 9
Therefore a: b = 1: 9 or a: b = 9: 1
Answer10. B
Let Tr + 1 term contains am in the expansion of (1 + a)m + n .
Then Tr + 1 = mnCr ar
Therefore r = m and hence  = mnCm
Similarly r = n and hence  = mnCn Therefore  = 
ence, option (B) is correct.
Answer11. C
The given equation can be written as
x + log15(1 + 3x) = log + log1212
 x + log15(1 + 3 ) = log15(5x  12)
x
 x = log15(5x  12) – log15(1 + 3x)

 x = log15
37
DefenceXP NDA & NA
 x
32x + 3x – 12 = 0
Let 3x = t, then we have t2 + t – 12 = 0
On solving this equation, we get t = 3, - 4
Therefore, 3x = 3  x = 1
(We can not consider t = – 4 as it is negative.)
Answer12. A
Required number = 4  3  2  1 = 24.
Hence option (A) is correct.
Solution for (13 – 14)

We have, n(H) = 54, n(M) = 63, n(E) = 41, n(H  M) = 18 and n(H M E) =
10
Answer13. A
Here n(N  M) = n(H) + n(M) – n(H  M) = 54 + 63 – 18 = 99
Answer14. D
The number of students who are good in Hindi and mathematics but not in
English = 18 – 10 = 8.
Answer15. C
Let  i and i, then | 1.
Now ̅ =| ̅̅̅̅̅̅|
=| |
=| |
=| |=1
38
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Answer16. A
Case I : If x = 1, then the given equation becomes x2 = 5  x = √
but x =  √ does not satisfy the original equation.
Hence x =  √ can not be solution of the original equation.
Case II : If x > 1, then the given equation becomes x – 1 + x2 = 5

x2 + x – 6 = 0
 (x – 2)(x + 3) = 0
 x = 2, –3 but only x = 2
Satisfy the original equation. Hence x = 2 is the rational root of the original
equation.
Case III : If x < 1, then the given equation becomes 1 – x + x2 = 5

 x2 – x – 4 = 0
√
x= 
√
=
√
But only x = satisfy the original equation.
Hence original equation have one irrational roots.
Therefore the given equation has one rational root and one irrational roots.
Answer17. D
The equivallent binary expression of 31 is
(31)10 = (11111)2
2 31 1
2 15 1
2 7 1
2 3 1
2 1 1
2 0 1
Answer18. A
We know that in + in+1 + in+2 + in+3 = 0 for all natural number n
i.e sum of four consecutive powers of i is equal to zero.
Therefore, i 1000 + i 1001 + i 1002 + i 1003 = 0. Hence option (A) is correct.
39
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Answer19. A
19. We have
1/log2N + 1/log3N + 1/log4N + …. + log100N
= logN2 + logN3 + logN4 + …. + logN100
= logn(234........100)
= logn (100!)
= 1/log(100!)N
Answer20. D
The modulus of complex number √  i is 4 and argument is /6.
Hence the polar form of complex number √  i is 4 (cos/6 + isin/6)
Therefore option (D) is correct.
Answer21. C
We know that the number of term in the expansion of
(a + b)n + (a – b)n = n+1 / 2 .
Therefore required number of terms in
(1+ √ x)11 + (1- √ x)11 = 11+1 / 2 = 6
Answer22. D
We know that an + bn is divisible by (a + b) if n is an odd integer number.
So 55 + 75 is divisible by 5 + 7 = 12. Hence option (D) is correct.
Answer23. A
We know that
(1 + y)-1 = 1 – y + y2 - y3 +... up to infinity.
Therefore x = 1 / 1y
Answer24. A
Here
[ ] [ ]=1
40
DefenceXP NDA & NA
[ ] [ ]= 1
Therefore inverse of [ ] is [ ]
Answer25. A
If A is 2  3 and B is 3  5, then AB is 2  5.
Answer26. A
Given that A = * +
2
and A – kA – I2 = O.
Therefore 
* + - k* + – I2 = O
* +- k* + – I2 = O
* += O
* += * +
4 – k = 1, 8 – 2k = 0, 12 – 3k = 1
 k = 3, k = 4, k = 11 3
Answer27. A
Required number of triangles
= 12C3 7C3
=12! / 3!9!  7! / 3!4!
= 121110/32  765/32 
= 220 – 35 = 185
Option (A) is correct
41
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Answer28. D
We have
C(n, r) + 2C(n, r – 1) + C(n, r – 2)
= nCr  2nCr-1 nCr-2
= nCr  nCr-1  nCr-1 nCr-2
= n+1Cr  n+1Cr-1 (From identity nCr  nCr-1 = n+1Cr)
= n+2Cr = C (n + 2, r)
 option (D) is correct.
Answer29. B
Case I : When 0  x < 1
then x2 – 4 x + 0 = 0
 x2 – 4x = 0
 x(x - 4) = 0
 x = 0, – 4
but x = – 4 does not satisty the original equation. So x = 0 is the only solution
in these case.
Case II : None 1  x < 2,

then x2 – 4x + 1 = 0
√
x=
√
=
√
=
=2√
But none of these two satisfy the original equation.
Case III : when x = 2, then x2 – 4x + 2 = 0

√
x=
√
=
= 2  √ 
But none of these satisfy the original equation,
 Option (B) is correct.
42
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Answer30. B
Here n(M) = 680 and n (D) = 215
So, 680 – x + x + 215 – x = 850
 680 – x + 215 = 850
 x = 680 + 215 – 850 = 45
 Option (B) is correct
Answer31. C
First two digit number which when divided by 3, leaves 2 as remainder is 11,
and last two digit number which when divided by 3 leaves remainder 2 is 98
So, 98 = 11 + (n – 1)3
 87/3 = n – 1
 29 = n – 1
 n = 30
 Required sum = n/2 [2a + (n – 1)d]
= 30/2 211 + (30 1)3  = 15 [22 + 87] = 1635
 Option (C) is correct.
Answer32. B
Negative power of 10 is between 0 and 1
Answer33. C
Let a be the first term and r be the common ratio, then ar2 = 3
The product of first five term
= a ar ar2 ar3 ar4
= a5r10
= (ar2)5 = 35 = 243
Answer34. A
We Have x, 3/2, z are in A.P
 3/2 = x+z / 2 
 x + z = 3 ...(i)
and x, 3, z are in G.P
3=√
xz = 9 ...(ii)
43
DefenceXP NDA & NA
From (i) and (ii) we have

2xz / xz = 29 / 3 = 6
x, 6, z are in H.P
Answer35. C
We have
∑
=
=0 (sum of four consecutine power of i is

zero)
=
= - (i4)2 I (i4)2 . i3
= -I i2 . i
=  i i
= – 2i
Answer36. C
We have
sin x =
√
cos x =
√
also sin y =
√
 cos y =
√
Now cos (x + y) = cos x. cos y – sin x sin y

=
√ √ √ √
= = = =
√ √ √ √
 x + y = /4= 45
44
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Answer37. C
We have
= = tan x
 Option (c) is correct
Answer38. C
We have
sin 105+ cos 105
= sin (90 + 15) + cos (90 + 15)
= cos 15– sin 15
√ √
= 
√ √
√ √
=
√
=
√
= 1/2
 Option (C) is correct
Answer39. B
Here a = 2, b = 3 and sin A = 2/3
We know that
a/sinA = b/sinB
 sin B = sin A = 3/2  2/3 = 1
 B = /2
Answer40. C
We have
= [ ]
= [ ]
= /3 (Since -  )
45
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Answer41. B
We have
x + (x – y) + (x + y) = 
 3x = 
x = /3
Answer42. A
Here  = 2  45 = 90
 = 11 / 11 = 0 = cos = cos 90 = 0
 Option (A) is correct.
Answer43. A
Given height of the flag-staff (AB) = 6 m

Length of the Shadow on the ground (BC) = 2√
tan = AB/BC
tan =  6/2√
60
Hence the option (A) is correct
Answer44. B
Here xy = 1/4 3/5 = 3/20
 
= 0 1
= ( )
= tan–1 1 = /4  Option (B) is correct.
46
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Answer45. A
Answer46. A
We have
=
 =
( ) ( )
 =
( ) ( )
 =
 tanx/tany = a/b
 option (A) is correct.
Answer47. A
We know that sin  + sin  = a and cos + cos  = b
then sin (+) =
Here a = 0 = b.
 sin ( +) = 0
+= 
=  – 
option (A) is correct.
Answer48. C
Answer49. B
Answer50. A
We have
= cos – sin =0
tan =1
 x + /5 = /4
 x = /4 – /5 = /20
now = – sin – cos
47
DefenceXP NDA & NA
 = – sin – cos
x = /20
= – sin – cos
= – 1/√ – 1/√
= 2/√ = – √ < 0.
 the required value = /20 
Answer51. A
Coordinate of internally divided point
=( )
= (22/5 , 23/5)
Coordinate of externally divided point

=( )
= (2, – 5)
 Required distance
= √( ) ( )
= √( ) ( )
=√
=√
√
=
 option (A) is correct
Answer52. B
Here m1 = and m2 =
Let  be the angle,
then  =
48
DefenceXP NDA & NA
= ( )
= ( )
Answer53. D
Here m = tan 30° = 1/√ and c = – 2 ,
y = mx+c
y= x–2
√
 x – √ y – 2√ = 0
 Option (D) is correct.
Answer54. C
Answer55. C
Case (1) We have p =
√
p2 =
statement (1) is correct

√
 p2 =
( )
 p2 =
 1/p2 =
49
DefenceXP NDA & NA
 1/p2 = =
statement (2) is correct.

√
p =2

 1/p2 =

statement (2) is correct.
Answer56. B
Vertices (± 5, 0) = (± a, 0)
 major axis is along the x-axis foci (±4, 0) ( ±, 0)
 c 2 = a2 – b2
 16 = 25 – b2
 b2 = 9
 b = ±3
 equation of ellipse is
Option (B) is correct.
Answer57. B
Here b = 2a
 Equation of line is x/a  y/2a = 1
but it is passing through (2,3)
 2/a  3/2a = 1
 7/2a = 1
2a = 7
 a = 7/2
50
DefenceXP NDA & NA
 required equation
( ) ( )
 x  y/2 = 7/2
 2x + y = 7
Answer58. C
Equation of BC is = (say)
x = 2, y = 8– 11, z = –3 + 4
Now 2(x – 1) + 8(y – 8) – 3(z) – 4 = 0
 2x + 8y – 3z = 54
 4 + 64 – 88 + 9 – 12 = 44
 = 1
 foot (4, 5, 1)
Answer59. A
Let P  (–2, 6, –6) Q (–3, 10, –9) R  (–5, 0, –6)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (–1, 4, –3)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (–3, –6, 0)
Now ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ × ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
| | = i (–18) – j(–9) + k(6 + 12)
= –18i + 9j + 18k
 equation of plane is
– 18(x + 3) + 9(y – 10) + 18(z + 9) = 0
 – 18x – 54 + 9y – 90 + 182 + 162 = 0
 – 18 + 9y + 18z = 18
2x – y – 2z = 2
 Option (A) is corect.
Answer60. C
51
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Answer61. D
Answer62. C
Answer63. D
Answer64. B
The required distance
=| |
√ √
=| |
= 3/10
Answer65. A
Equation of sphere is
(x + 2)2 + (y + 3)2 + (z + 4)2 = 62
 x2 + 4 + 4x + y2 + 9 – 6y + z2 + 16 – 8z = 36
 x2 + y2 + z2 + 4x – 6y – 8z = 7
Answer66. A
| ⃗ ⃗⃗ | = |⃗⃗⃗⃗| |⃗⃗⃗⃗| sin 
= 2 × 7 × sin 
=√
sin  = 7
 sin  = 7/14 = 1/2
 = 11/6 = 30°
Answer67. A
Answer68. A
Required moment
= [( ̂ ̂ ̂) ( ̂ ̂ ̂ )] ( ̂ ̂)
52
DefenceXP NDA & NA
=(̂ ̂ ̂) ( ̂ ̂)
̂ ̂ ̂
| |= ̂ ̂ ̂
= 3̂ ̂ ̂
Answer69. D
We have
⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗
 ⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗ multiply by ⃗ )
 ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗
 ⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗
Similarly
 ⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗ multiply by ⃗⃗ )
 ⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗ 
 ⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗ Property ⃗⃗ ⃗  ⃗ ⃗⃗ 
( ⃗ ⃗⃗ ) ⃗⃗ ⃗ 
Similarly
 ⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗ multiply by ⃗ )
 ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ 
 ⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗ Property ⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗
 ⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗
 ⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
 ( ⃗⃗ ⃗ ) ⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗ 
 ( ⃗⃗ ⃗ )

Answer70. B
Since vectors ⃗⃗ and ⃗ are parallel.
 ⃗⃗ ⃗ = | ⃗⃗| | ⃗| sin 0° = 
53
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Answer71. B
Here f(x) = |x 1|
 f (|x|) ||x| 1| > 0
and |f (x)| = ||x 1|| > 0
 f(|x|) = f(x)
Answer72. A
Here,
( )

( )
Also,
( )
( )
Now putting f (x) = 0

 2x = 0
x=0
 f (0) = 2 > 0
 minimum value of f is 0 and clearly f(x) < 1 x  R.
 range (f) = [0, 1)
Answer73. A
Answer74. A
54
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Answer75. C
Point of intersection of y2 = 6 (x – 1) and y2 = 3x
Can find as follows: 6(x – 1) = 3x
6x – 6 = 3x
 3x = 6
x=2
 y2 = 3 × 2 = 6
y = √
So point of intersection are 2, √ ) and (2, √ )
Area OPM = ∫ √ ∫ √
= 0 1 0 1
( ) ( )
= * + * +
= * + * + = * +
= * +
 Required Area = 2  Area OPMQ = 21/9 =
 √  √  Option (C) is correct.
55
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Solution for (76 t o 78)
Let ABCD be given trapezium and given length of three side other than base
AB is 6 cm.
 AD = DC = CB = 10 cm
Draw a perpendicular DP and CQ on AB.
Let AP = x cm.
In APD and BQC
APD = BQC = 90
AD = BC = 6cm
DP = CQ (perpendicular between parallel lines)
APD BQC
 QB = AP = x cm
Let S be the area of trapezium ABCD, Then S = ½ (DC+AB) DP ...(i)
Now since DP and CQ are perpendicular to AB,
DPCQ forms a rectangle.
 PQ = DC = 6 cm
Thus AB = AP + PQ + QB
=x+6+x
= (2x + 6) cm
and DC = 6 cm By Pythagoras theorem.
DP2 + x2 = 62
 DP = √
 From equation (i), we have
S = ½ (DC+AB) DP
= ½x+6 √
= ½x √
= (6+x) √
56
DefenceXP NDA & NA
We need to find the area of trapezium when it is maximum.

So differentiate w.r.t x, we get
* √ +
√
√ + [Applying Product rule]
√ +
√
√ -
√
Now putting
 
√
2x2  6x  36 = 0
x2  3x  18 = 0
x2  6x 3x  18 = 0
x(x6)3(x6) = 0
(x6) (x3) = 0
x = 3, 6
Since x represents distance and distance cannot be negative. So x = 3 only.

when x < 3, then
Sign of f (x)
√
when x > 3, then
Sign of f (x)
√
57
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Since sign of f (x) changes from positive to negative. So it is maxima.

Hence x = 3 is point of maxima.
 S is maximum at x = 3.
 maximum Area of trapezium
S= √ 
= (6+3) (√
= √
2
= √ cm
Length of fourth side AB = 3 + 6 +3 = 12 cm.
DAP  /4 because (AD = DP = 6 cm)
Answer76. B
Answer77. D
Answer78. C
Answer79. B
Answer80. A
80. L.H.L =
=
=
=0
Since f is continuous at x = 3
 L.H.L = R.H.L = f (3) = 0
Answer81. B
We have
I ∫  ∫ 
 ∫  
 [ ]


58
DefenceXP NDA & NA

∫ * [ ]+ 
* + ( )   

Answer82. A
√ √
∫ [ ]  ∫ [ ] ∫ [ ] 
√
∫ 
 [ ]√ 
 √ 
Answer83. C
83. We have
f() = 16 sin – 12 sin2
 () = 16 cos – 24sin. cos = 16 cos – 12 sin 2
 () = –16 sin – 24 cos 2
Now () = 0
 16 cos – 24 sin cos = 0
 4cos (4 – 6 sin) = 0
 cos = 0 or sin = 2/3
Case I : When cos  = 0

 /2
So (/2) = –16 sin/2 – 24 cos 2
= –16 1 – 24 (-1)
= –16 + 24
=8
 at  /2 f() is minimum.
Case II : When sin2/3 then

cos2 = 1 – 2 sin2



59
DefenceXP NDA & NA

= 1 – 2 4/9 = 1/9
( ( )) = –16 2/3 – 24 1/9
-32/3 – 24/9 

at  = ( ), f() is maximum.
Maximum value = 16 2/3124/9 
= 32/3 – 48/9 = 48/9 = 16/3
Answer84. D
We have
f(x) = 4 sinx – 3cosx + 1
max of 4 sinx – 3 cos x + 1
√ ( )
√ √
( )
But
 Max of f(x) = 5 + 1 = 6
and Min of f(x) = – 5 + 1 = – 4
 S = [–4, 6]
Answer85. A
Answer86. B
The given differential equation is
xdy – ydx = 0

On integrating, we have
lny = lnx + lnc.
 lny – lnx = lnc
ln(y/x) = lnc
y/x = c 


60
DefenceXP NDA & NA

 y = cx
Answer87. C
We have f(x) = etanx + ln(sec x) – elnx
= etanx + ln(sec x) – x
 (x) = etanx. sec2x + . secx. tanx – 1
= etanx. sec2x + tan x – 1
 (/4) = 2e  1  1 = 2e
Answer88. A
Consider
Auxiliary equation is 2 +  = 0
2 = –

 Solution is x(t) = c1 cos√  c2 sin√ 
Which is a periodic function
Answer89. D
The period of function f(x) = sinx is 2.
Answer90. B
We have, I ∫
Let 2x – 1 = t
 2x log 2 dx = dt
dx dt
 I ∫
∫( )
∫
∫( )
61
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Answer91. A
We have y2 = 4a (x – a) ...(1)
 
 
From equation (1), we have
( )( )
( )
( )
( )
 order = 1, degree = 2
 Option (A) is correct. 
Answer92. C
We have
I ∫
Here, f(x) = sinx – tanx
 f(–x) = sin(–x) – tan(–x)
= – sinx + tanx
= – (sinx – tanx) = – f(x)
 f(x) is an odd function.
I=0
Answer93. A
We have, ∫
62
DefenceXP NDA & NA
* + 
 
 
b -a ) (b +a2) = 0
2 2 2
(b-a) (b+a) (b2+a2) = 0

b = a or b = -a or b2 = - a2 ....(1)
Also, ∫
* + 
 
 
(b-a) (b +ab+a2) = 2
2
....(2)
Case I : When b = a then from (2) equation, 0 = 2 Which is not possible.
Case II : When b = –a, then from (2) equation,

2b (b2 – b2 + b2) = 2
2b3 = 2
 b3 = 1
b=1
 a = –1
Case III : When b2 = – a2, then from (2) equation, we have L.H.S.  R.H.S.
Answer94. A
We have, I ∫
Let 1 – x = t
1–t=x
63
DefenceXP NDA & NA
 – dx = dt
I ∫
∫
∫ * + 
 
 
Answer95. A

Answer96. D
√ √

√ √ √ √
√ √
√ √
√ √
√ √
√
Answer97. B
Let f(x) be an even function.
then, f(–x) = f(x)
 (–x) (–1) = (x)
64
DefenceXP NDA & NA
 (–x) = – (x)
 (x) is an odd function.
Answer98. C
We have,

[ ]
( )
Option (C) is correct.
Answer99. A
We have, (1 + 2x) dy – (1 – 2y) dx = 0
 
 (Integrating both side)
 
 
 
1 – 2y + 2x – 4xy = c
1 – 2y + 2x – 4xy = c
x – y – 2xy = c
Answer100. C
The given differential equation is
. / ( )
Which is free from radicals.
 order = 3, degree = 2.
65
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Answer101. A
We have, variance = npq
and mean = np
According to questions, we have np = 3 npq
 q  1/3 
 p  1  q 
 1 1/3
2/3
Here, n = 5
 The Bionominal mass function is
P (X = x) = nCx px qn–x
P (X = 3) = 5C3 (2/3)3 (1/3)2
= 5!/3!2! (8/27) (1/9)
= 10 8/27 1/9
= 80/243
Answer102. B
The shaded region is
̅  ̅ ̅  ̅ 
 P( ̅ ) = P( ̅) + P( ̅ ) – P( ̅ )
 Statement (1) is correct
Here, ̅
66
DefenceXP NDA & NA
 ̅
 Statement 2 is incorrect
Next, we know that

P(A|B)
 Statement 3 is correct.
Answer103. D
Here, r = 0.6, Cov (x, y) = 27 y = 25
We know that, 
√

√

 
 
Answer104. B
Here, P(A) = 0.4, P(B) = 0.5
 P(A  B) = 0.4 × 0.5 = 0.20
 P (A  B) = P(A) + P(B) – P (A  B)
= 0.4 + 0.5 – 0.2 = 0.7
Answer105. D
We have x1 + x2 + x3 +.... + xn = n ̅
 a + cy1 + a + cy2 + a + cy3 +.... + a + cyn = n ̅
 na + c (y1 + y2 + y3 +.... + yn) = n ̅
̅
 y1 + y2 + y3 +.... + yn =
̅
 =
̅
 mean of y1, y2, y3 ..... yn =
67
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Answer106. D
If the value of correlation coefficient rxy = 0, then the value of  /2 i.e. two
lines of regressions are perpendicular to each other.
 Statement (1) is wrong.
If r = +1 or –1, then = 0 or 

i.e. the two lines either coincide or parallel to each other.
 Statement (2) is wrong.
Answer107. C
We have, 4x – 5y + 33 = 0
 y = 4x/5 + 33/5 ....(1)
and 20x – 9y = 107
x = 9y/20 + 107/20 ...(2)
On solving (i) and (ii), we get ̅ = 13 and ̅ = 17 .
Option (C) is correct.
Answer108. D
Change of origin and scale both have direct impact on mean.
 Statement (1) is wrong
Variance is independent of change of origin but not scale
Statement (2) is wrong.
Answer109. C
The sum of the deviations from the mean is always zero.
 Statement (1) is correct.
The sum of absolute deviations is minimum when taken around median. 
Statement (2) is correct.
Answer110. B
The given data is 4.6, 0, 9.3, –4.8, 7.6, 2.3, 12.7, 3.5, 8.2, 6.1, 3.9, 5.2
Ordering the data from least to greatest, we got –4.8, 0, 2.3, 3.5, 3.9, 4.6, 5.2,
6.1, 7.6, 8.2, 9.3, 12.7
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
 median = 4.6 + 5.2 / 2

=9.8/2 = 4.9
 option (B) is correct.
Answer111. C
Here 100% = 360° 20 100
20%   = 72°
Answer112. C
The required coefficient of variation
 40
Answer113. D
The average speed km/hr
( )
km/hr
( )
km/hr = 40 km/hr
( )
Answer114. B
We have favourable cases as (1, 6), (2, 5), (3, 4), (4, 3), (5, 2), (6, 1)
 Required probability 6/36  1/6 
Answer115. B
Let, S = {HH, HT, TH, TT}
A = {HH, HT, TH}
B = {HH, TT}
Then, P(A) =3/4 , P(B) =2/4
2 P(A) = 2  3/4 = 3/2
3 P(B) = 3 2/4 = 3/2
69
DefenceXP NDA & NA
2 P(A) = 3 P(B)

Now A  B = {HH}
PA  B= 1/4
P(A|B) = PA  B/ P(B) = (1/4) / (2/4) = 1/2
P(B|A) = PB  A/ P(A) = (1/4) / (3/4) = 1/3
 P(A  B) < P(B/A) < P(A/B)
 Option (B) is correct
Answer116. C
Required probability = 1/10  1/9 = 1/90
Answer117. B
Required probability = 1/2  3/5 + 1/2  5/8
= 3/10  5/16
= 24+25 / 80 = 49/80
Answer118. B
Clearly statement (1) and (3) are correct.
Answer119. A
Required probability = 4C2  5C1 / 9C3
=
= = 30/84 = 5/14
Answer120. B
The sum of first N natural number
∑
The sum of square of first N natural number
∑
70
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Now Standard Deviation of first N natural number.

SD √∑ (
∑
)
√∑ (
∑
)
√ ( )
√ ( )
√ * +
 √
71
DefenceXP NDA & NA
NDA (General Ability Test) Examination 2018 -1 Solved

Paper
SYNONYMS
Directions: Each item in this section consists of a sentence with an

underlined word/words followed by four words. Select the option that is
nearest in meaning to the underlined word/words and mark you
response in your Answer Sheet accordingly.
Q1. I do not want you to lead a life of sycophancy as you did during the
foreign rule.
A) admiration
B) love
C) appreciation
D) flattery
Q2. In India, it has become easy attack cultural artefacts these days.
A) beckon
B) assault
C) belch
D) appreciate
Q3. A local court granted bail to the criminal on Thursday.

A) confessed
B) donated
C) allowed
D) yielded
Q4. The judge told that he would analyze the evidence and then deliver
the verdict.
A) liberate
B) surrender
C) transfer
D) pronounce
72
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Q5. The growth and development of the peasant movement was

indissolubly linked with the national struggle for freedom
A) firmly
B) vaguely
C) individually
D) steadily
Q6. Weather conditions have been improving over the past few days.
A) mending
B) amending
C) becoming better
D) advancing
Q7. The confusion on the interlocutor‘s face was gratifying.

A) government officer
B) party worker
C) dialogist
D) revolutionary
Q8. He spends his money lavishly.

A) hesitatingly
B) generously
C) foolishly
D) carefully
Q9. The government‘s new policies will come into force from the next
fiscal year.
A) calendar
B) academic
C) financial
D) leap
Q10. Abundant food was available for the soldiers in the mess.
A) little
B) plentiful
C) delicious
D) wholesome
73
DefenceXP NDA & NA
ANTONYMS
Directions: Each item in this section of sentence with a underlined

word/words followed by four words. Select the option that is opposite in
meaning to the underlined word/words and mark your response in your
Answer Sheet accordingly.
Q11. The country‘s economy must be geared to wartime requirements.

A) subordinated to
B) related to
C) adjusted to
D) unlinked to
Q12. Why does fire attract insects?

A) discharge
B) destroy
C) repel
D) remove
Q13. The party was excellent, and I would like to thank all the people
concerned.
A) cared
B) attentive
C) dependable
D) uninvolved
Q14. He is very serious by temperament.

A) grave
B) trivial
C) sober
D) stupid
Q15. There are a few miscellaneous items to discuss in this meeting.

A) pure
B) mixed
C) homogenous
D) discordant
74
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Q16. Due to the postal strike the outgoing mail got delayed.
A) urgent
B) incoming
C) ordinary
D) speedy
Q17. He had a fine ear for music.

A) small
B) close
C) coarse
D) smooth
18. There is no likeness between him and his brother.

A) unlikeliness
B) unlikelihood
C) dissimilarity
D) disaffinity
Q19. Cultural diversity in the working place is good for business.

A) uniformity
B) conformity
C) identity
D) similarity
Q20. The company was liquidated within five years.

A) bankrupt
B) closed down
C) flourishing
D) privatised
SPOTTING ERRORS
Directions: Each item in this section has a sentence with three

underlined parts labelled A), B) and C). Read each sentence to find out
whether there is any error in any underlined part and indicate your
response in the Answer Sheet against the corresponding letter i.e., A)
or B) or C). If you find no error, your response should be indicated as
D).
75
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Q21. A) The politician lost face in his constituency

B) when he broke the pre-election promises he made
C) to his people.
D) No error.
Q22. A) At the request of the Defence Attorney,

B) the jury were called
C) and their individual verdicts were recorded.
D) No error.
Q23. A) Frank Lloyd Wright has been acclaimed

B) by colleagues
C) as the greater of all modern architects.
D) No error.
Q24. A) In my younger days

B) I could run four miles
C) at a stretch.
D) No error
Q25. A) The owner

B) as well as his servants
C) is honest.
D) No error.
IDIOMS AND PHRASES
Directions: Given below are some idioms/phrases followed by four

alternative meanings to each. Choose the response A), B), C) or D)
which is the most appropriate expression.
Q26. Cry over spilt milk

A) Complaining about a loss in the past
B) Too much inquisitive about something
C) When something is done badly to save money
D) Dealing with a problem only in an emergency situation
76
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Q27. Cut the mustard

A) Prepare spices out of mustard seeds
B) To come up to expectations
C) Making absurd expectations
D) Very enthusiastic
Q28. Devil‘s advocate

A) A dangerous person
B) To present a counter argument
C) Very argumentative person
D) Creating an unpleasant situation
Q29. Don‘t count your chickens before the eggs have hatched
A) If you are not good at something, better to avoid that
B) Don‘t make plans for something that might not happen
C) Not to come up to expectations
D) Don‘t put all your resources in one possibility
Q30. Give the benefit of doubt

A) To be partial to someone
B) To be judge mental
C) Regard someone as innocent until proven otherwise
D) Say something exactly right
ORDERING OF SENTENCES
Directions: In this section each items consists of six sentences of a

passage. The first and sixth sentences are given in the beginning as S1
and S6. The middle four sentences in each have been jumbled up and
labelled P, Q, R and S. You are required to find the proper sequence of
the four sentences and mark your response accordingly on the Answer
Sheet.
Q31. S1: The Subsidiary Alliance system was extremely advantageous

to the British.
S6: They controlled the defence and the foreign relations of the
protected ally.
77
DefenceXP NDA & NA
P: They could now maintain a large army at the cost of Indian states.
Q: if any war occurred in the territories.
R: either of the British ally or of the Britishers
S: This enabled them to fight wars far away from their own territories
The proper sequence should be

A) P Q R S
B) P S Q R
C) Q R P S
D) S R P Q
Q32. S1: In reality, by signing a Subsidiary Alliance, an Indian state

virtually signed away its independence.
S6: In fact, the Indian ruler lost all vestiges of sovereignty in
external matters.
P: of maintaining diplomatic relations
Q: It lost the right of self defence
R: with its neighbours
S: and of settling its disputes

A) P Q R S
B) R S P Q
C) Q P S R
D) Q S R P
Q33. S1: A mighty popular Revolt broke out in Northern and Central
India in 1857.
S6: Millions of peasants, artisans and soldiers fought heroically
and wrote a glorious chapter.
P: Sepoys, or the Indian soldiers of the Company‘s army
Q: but soon engulfed wide regions and involved the masses
R: and nearly swept away the British rule
S: It began with a mutiny of the
78
DefenceXP NDA & NA

A) R S P Q
B) P Q R S
C) S R P Q
D) Q R P S
Q34. S1: The Indian Civil Service gradually developed into one of the
most efficient and powerful civil services in the world.
S6: though these qualities obviously served British, and got Indian
interests.
P: and often participated in the making of policy
Q: independence, integrity and hard work
R: They developed certain traditions of
S: Its members exercised vast power

A) P Q R S
B) Q R S P
C) R S Q P
D) S P R Q
Q35. S1: The ruin of Indian handicrafts was reflected in the ruin of the
towns and cities which were famous for their manufactures.
S6: Centres were developed and laid waste.
P: Dacca, Surat, Murshidabad and many other rising industrial
Q: ravages of war and plunder, failed to
R: survive British conquest
S: Cities which had withstood the

A) P Q R S
B) S Q R P
C) S R P Q
D) Q R S P
79
DefenceXP NDA & NA
COMPREHENSION
Directions: In this section you have few short passages. After each
passage, you will find some items based on the passage. First, read a
passage and answer the items based on it. You are required to select
your answers based on the contents of the passage and opinion of the
author only.
Passage
The rule of the road means that in order that the liberties of all may be
preserved, the liberties of everybody must be curtailed. when the policeman,
say, at a road-crossing steps into the middle of the road and puts out his
hand, he is the symbol not of tyranny but of liberty. You have submitted to a
curtailment of private liberty in order that you may enjoy a social order which
makes your liberty a reality. We have both liberties to preserve our individual
liberty and our social liberty. That is, we must have a judicious mixture of both.
I shall not permit any authority to say that my child must go to this school or
that, shall specialize in science or arts. These things are personal. But if I say
that my child shall have no education at all, then society will firmly tell me that
my child must have education whether I like it or not.
Q36. According to the author, the ―rule of the road‖ implies

A) the rule regulating the traffic on the road
B) the principle on which a road is constructed to ensure safe traffic
C) unrestricted freedom for all to lead a happy life
D) restricted individual freedom to ensure freedom for all
Q37. The author thinks that when a policeman signals you to stop on a
road-crossing, he is
A) behaving in a whimsical manner
B) interfering with your freedom to use the road
C) protecting the liberty of all to use the road
D) mischievously creating hurdles in your way from some personal motive
80
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Q38. The author is of the view that we should

A) have absolute individual liberty without any restrictions imposed by the
society
B) have everything controlled by the society without any kind of individual
liberty
C) try to strike a sensible balance between our individual liberty and our social
liberty
D) have more of social liberty than individual liberty
Q39. The author holds that

A) educating or not educating his child is a matter of personal liberty
B) educating or not educating his child is also a matter of social liberty
C) choosing the school for his child is a matter of social liberty
D) choosing the subject of study for his child is a matter of social liberty
Q40. The most suitable title of the passage would be

A) The Policeman at a Road Crossing
B) The Laws of the Road
C) Importance of Liberty
D) Education of Children
Passage
My most interesting visitor comes at night, when the lights are still burning-- a
tiny bat who prefers to fly in through the open door, and will use the window
only if there is no alternative. His object in entering the house is to snap up the
moths that cluster around the lamps. All the bats I have seen fly fairly high,
keeping near the ceiling; but this particular bat flies in low, like a dive-bomber,
zooming in and out of chair legs and under tables. Once, he passed straight
between my legs. Has his radar gone wrong, I wondered, or is he just plain
crazy?

1. The tiny bat flew in low like a dive-bomber.
2. The tiny bat like all bats keeps near the ceiling.
3. It has lost direction because its radar has gone wrong.
4. It wants to entertain the author with its skill in flying.
81
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Which of the above statements may be assumed to be true from the

information given in the passage?
A) 1 only
B) 1 and 3
C) 2 and 4
D) 3 and 4
Q42. The bat entered the room

A) because there was no alternative
B) to eat the moths round the lamps
C) as it had gone mad
D) as it preferred to fly in through the open door
Q43. After comparing the habits of the tiny bat with those of other bats,
the author was
A) sure that this bat had lost its direction
B) not sure of its preferences
C) surprised to find that it was an expert flier
D) unable to give the correct explanation for its behaviour
Q44. The author calls the tiny bat an ―interesting visitor‖. This means
A) the bat visits him at night
B) the bat is interested in the moths
C) this bat has peculiar qualities
D) this bat surprises him by zooming in and out like a dive-bomber
Q45. What, according to you, can be the most suitable title for the
passage?
A) Someone visits me
B) Night of Mysteries
C) My Nocturnal Visitor
D) A funny Visitor
FILL IN THE BLANK
Directions: Each of the following sentences in this section has a blank

space and four words or group of words given after the sentence.
82
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Select the word or group of words you consider most appropriate for
the blank space and indicate your response on the Answer Sheet
accordingly.
Q46. The tired traveller __________ on in the hope of finding some

resting place.
A) strolled
B) scurried
C) paraded
D) plodded
Q47. The car was damaged beyond repair in the __________ accident.
A) outrageous
B) ghastly
C) nasty
D) heinous
Q48. They gave a _________ dinner to celebrate the occasion, which

impressed every guest.
A) austere
B) public
C) sumptuous
D) summary
Q49. Once the __________ manuscript is received by the publishers, it is

typed in double space.
A) total
B) full
C) complete
D) filled
Q50. I am used to __________ in queues.

A) stand
B) standing
C) stand up
D) standing still
83
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Q51. Which one of the following statements is correct?

A) Any energy transfer that does not involve temperature difference in some
way is not heat
B) Any energy transfer always required a temperature difference
C) On heating the length and volume of the object remain exactly the same D)
Whenever there is a temperature difference, heat is the only way of energy
transfer
Q52. If T is the time period of an oscillating pendulum, which one of the

following statements is NOT correct?
A) The motion repeats after time T only once
B) T is the least time after which motion repeats itself
C) The motion repeats itself after nT, where n is a positive integer
D) T remains the same only for small angular displacements
Q53. If an object moves with constant velocity then which one of the
following statements is NOT correct?
A) Its motion is along a straight line
B) Its speed changes with time
C) Its acceleration is zero
D) Its displacement increases linearly with time
Q54. An object is moving with uniform acceleration a. Its initial velocity

is u and after time t its velocity is v. The equation of its motion is v = u +
at. The velocity (along y-axis) time (along x-axis) graph shall be a
straight line
A) passing through origin
B) with x-intercept u
C) with y-intercept u
D) with slope u
Q55. What is the net force experienced by a bar magnet placed in a

uniform magnetic field?
A) Zero
B) Depends upon length of the magnet
C) Never zero
D) Depends upon temperature
84
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Q56. Which one of the following has maximum inertia?

A) An atom
B) A molecule
C) A one-rupee coin
D) A cricket ball
Q57. Which one of the following is the value of 1 kWh of energy

converted into joules?
A) 1.8 × 106 J
B) 3.6 × 106 J
C) 6.0 × 106 J
D) 7.2 × 106 J
Q58. Which one of the following statements about gravitational force is

NOT correct?
A) It is experienced by all bodies in the universe
B) It is a dominant force between celestial bodies
C) It is a negligible force for atoms
D) It is same for all pairs of bodies in our universe.
Q59. Whether an object will float or sink in a liquid, depends on

A) mass of the object only
B) mass of the object and density of liquid only
C) difference in the densities of the object and liquid
D) mass and shape of the object only
Q60. Which one of the following devices is non-ohmic?

A) Conducting copper coil
B) Electric heating coil
C) Semi conductor diode
D) Rheostat
Q61. Which one of the following is the natural phenomenon based on

which a simple periscope works?
A) Reflection of light
B) Refraction of light
C) Dispersion of light
D) Total internal reflection of light
85
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Q62. Which one of the following frequency ranges is sensitive to human

ears? A) 0–200 Hz
B) 20–20,000 Hz
C) 200–20,000 Hz only
D) 2,000–20,000 Hz only
Q63. The accidental touch of Nettle leaves creates a burning sensation,

which is due to inject of
A) Hydrochloric acid
B) Methanoic acid
C) Citric acid
D) Sulphuric acid
Q64. Which of the following properties is true for a tooth paste?

A) It is acidic
B) It is neutral
C) It is basic
D) It is made up of Calcium phosphate, the material of tooth enamel
Q65. Which one of the following gives the highest amount of hydrogen
ions (H+)?
A) Sodium hydroxide solution
B) Milk of magnesia
C) Lemon juice
D) Gastric juice
Q66. Brine is an aqueous solution of

A) NaCl
B) NaOH
C) NaHCO3
D) Na2CO3
Q67. Which one of the following is the chemical formula of Washing

Soda?
A) NaHCO3
B) Na2CO3 .10H2O
C) Na2CO3 .5H2O
D) NaOH
86
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Q68. Which one of the following is NOT true for bleaching powder?
A) It is used as a reducing agent in chemical industries
B) It is used for bleaching wood pulp in paper factories
C) It is used for disinfecting drinking water
D) It is used for bleaching linen in textile industry
Q69. AIDS is caused by a virus whose genetic material is

A) single stranded circular DNA
B) double stranded DNA
C) single stranded RNA
D) double stranded RNA
Q70. Which one of the following is an organelle that is NOT found in pro-
karyotic cells
A) Cell wall
B) Mitochondria
C) Plasma membrane
D) Ribosome
Q71. Which one of the following parts of body does NOT take part in the
process of breathing?
A) Bronchi
B) Bowman‘s capsule
C) Diaphragm
D) Trachea
Q72. Which one of the following statements about classification of

plants is correct?
A) Thallophytes have well differentiated body design
B) Funaria is a fungus
C) All Pteridophytes are Phanerogams
D) Vascular system is not found among Bryophytes
Q73. Which one of the following is the correct sequence of levels of

hierarchy of classification of organisms from higher to lower?
A) Phylum – Class – Order – Family – Genus
B) Phylum – Class – Family – Order – Genus
C) Family – Order – Class – Species – Genus
D) Class – Family – Order – Species – Genus
87
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Q74. Which one of the following statements about meristematic tissues

in plants is correct?
A) These are dead tissues and form wood
B) They provide flexibility to plant due to their thickened walls
C) These are present in the bark of a tree only
D) Growth occurs in plants due to division of cells of these tissues
Q75. Which one of the following Union Territories has the highest
female literacy rate?
A) Chandigarh
B) Lakshadweep
C) Andaman and Nicobar Islands
D) Puducherry
Q76. Consider the following statements about Roaring forties:

1. They are strong Westerly winds found in the oceans of Southern
Hemisphere.
2. The strong east to west air currents are caused by the combination
of air being displaced from the Equator towards the South Pole and the
earth‘s rotation and abundance of landmasses to serve as wind breaks.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A) 1 only
B) 2 only
C) Both 1 and 2
D) Neither 1 nor 2

1. The doldrums is a low pressure area around Equator where the
prevailing winds are calm.
2. Chinook is a hot and dry wind that blows in winter and therefore
raises the temperature in a short time.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A) 1 only
B) 2 only
C) Both 1 and 2
D) Neither 1 nor 2
88
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Q78. Which one of the following is the driest desert of the world?
A) Atacama
B) Gobi
C) Sahara
D) Kalahari
Q79. Which of the following statements about latent heat for a given
substance is/are correct?
1. It is fixed at a given temperature.
2. It depends upon the temperature.
3. It is independent of temperature and volume.
4. It depends on the temperature but independent of volume.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
A) 2
B) 1 and 3
C) 4 only
D) 1 and 4
Q80. Which one of the following statements about the mass of a body is
correct?
A) It changes from one place to another
B) It is same everywhere
C) It depends on its shape
D) It does not depend on its temperature
Q81. A ball balanced on a vertical rod is an example of

A) stable equilibrium
B) unstable equilibrium
C) neutral equilibrium
D) perfect equilibrium
Q82. Which of the following statements about a fluid at rest in a cup

is/are correct?
1. Pressure is same at all the points in the fluid.
2. Pressure is exerted on the walls.
3. Pressure exists everywhere in the fluid.
89
DefenceXP NDA & NA

A) 1 and 2 only
B) 2 and 3 only
C) 1 only
D) 1, 2 and 3
Q83. Which one of the following devices is used to measure

atmospheric pressure?
A) Ammeter
B) Barometer
C) Potentiometer
D) Lactometer
Q84. Which one of the following is the number of water molecules that
share with two formula unit CaSO4 in plaster of Paris?
A) One
B) Two
C) Five
D) Ten
Q85. How is carbon black obtained?

A) By heating wood at high temperature in absence of air
B) By heating coal at high temperature in absence of air
C) By burning hydrocarbons in a limited supply of air
D) By heating coal at high temperature in presence of air
Q86. Which one of the following properties is NOT true for graphite?
A) Hybridisation of each carbon atom is sp3.
B) Hybridisation of each carbon atom is sp2
C) Electrons are delocalized over the whole sheet of atoms
D) Each layer is composed of hexagonal rings.
Q87. Which one of the following is the purest form of Carbon?

A) Charcoal
B) Coke
C) Fullerene
D) Carbon black
90
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Q88. The Poisonous nature of Carbon monoxide (CO) is due to its

A) insolubility in water
B) ability to form a complex with haemoglobin
C) ability to reduce some metal oxides
D) property of having one sigma bond
Q89. Which one of the following elements is needed in the human body
to transfer electrical signals by nerve cells?
A) Lithium
B) Sodium
C) Rubidium
D) Caesium
90. Who among the following first discovered cell?

A) Robert Brown
B) Robert Hooke
C) Leeuwenhoek
D) Rudolf Virchow
Q91. Which one of the following group of organisms forms a food

chain?
A) Grass, human and fish
B) Grass, goat and human
C) Tree, tree cutter and tiger
D) Goat, cow and human
Q92. Which one of the following types of tissues will have contractile
proteins?
A) Nervous tissue
B) Muscle tissue
C) Bone tissue
D) Blood tissue
91
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Q93. If by an unknown accident the acid secreting cells of the stomach

wall of an individual are damaged, digestion of which one of the
following biomolecule will be affected to a greater extent?
A) Protein only
B) Lipid
C) Carbohydrate only
D) Protein and Carbohydrate
Q94. In which one of the following places, Headquarters of a Railway

Zone is located?
A) Kanpur
B) Lucknow
C) Hajipur
D) New Jalpaiguri
Q95. Which of the following statements about Indian Academy of

Highway Engineers is/are correct?
1. It is registered society.
2. It is a collaborative body of both Central Government and State
Governments.
A) 1 only
B) 2 only
C) Both 1 and 2
D) Neither 1 nor 2
Q96. Which one of the following is NOT a tributary of Indus River?

A) Beas
B) Ravi
C) Chenab
D) Tawi
Q97. Which one among the following is the largest tiger reserve of India
in terms of area of the core/critical tiger habitat?
A) Manas
B) Pakke
C) Nagarjunasagar Srisailam
D) Periyar
92
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Q98. Which one of the following is NOT a coastal depositional feature?

A) Tombolo
B) Sand bar
C) Stack
D) Spit
Q99. Which of the following is/are coastal erosional feature(s)

1. Notch
2. Sea Arch
3. Cliff
4. Hook
A) 1, 2 and 3
B) 2, 3 and 4
C) 2 and 3 only
D) 1 only
Q100. Chemical weathering of rocks is much greater in a place with

A) cold and dry climate
B) hot and humid climate
C) hot and dry climate
D) cold and humid climate
Q101. Which of the following statements about specific heat of a body

is/are correct?
1. It depends upon mass and shape of the body
2. It is independent of mass and shape of the body
3. It depends only upon the temperature of the body
A) 1 only
B) 2 and 3
C) 1 and 3
D) 2 only
93
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Q102. Which one of the following is an example of the force of gravity of

the earth acting on a vibrating pendulum bob?
A) Applied force
B) Frictional force
C) Restoring force
D) Virtual force
Q103. Which one of the following statements about the refractive index
of a material medium with respect to air is correct?
A) It can be either positive or negative
B) It can have zero value
C) It is unity for all materials
D) It is always greater than one
Q104. Which one of the following statements about magnetic field lines
is NOT correct?
A) They can emanate from a point
B) They do not cross each other
C) Field lines between two poles cannot be precisely straight lines at the ends
D) There are no field lines within a bar magnet
Q105. Two convex lenses with power 2 dioptre are kept in contact with
each other. The focal length of the combined lens system is
A) 0.10 m
B) 2 m
C) 4 m
D) 0.25 m
Q106. Which one of the following alkali metals has lowest melting
point?
A) Sodium
B) Potassium
C) Rubidium
D) Caesium
94
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Q107. Which one of the following metals is alloyed with sodium to

transfer heat in a nuclear reactor?
A) Potassium
B) Calcium
C) Magnesium
D) Strontium
Q108. Which one of the following metals is used in the filaments of

photo-electric cells that convert light energy into electric energy?
A) Tungsten
B) Copper
C) Rubidium
D) Aluminium
Q109. Which of the following statements about Ring of Fire is/are

correct?
1. It is zone of convergence plate boundaries
2. It is an active seismic and volcanic zone
3. It is associated with deep trench Select the correct answer using the
code given below:
A) 1 and 2 only
B) 2 and 3 only
C) 1 only
D) 1, 2 and 3
Q110. Which one of the following Himalayan vegetation species is

found between the altitudes of 1800 to 2600 metres?
A) Saal
B) Chir
C) Spruce
D) Deodar
Q111. Which one of the following rivers is NOT a tributary of river

Cauvery?
A) Hemavati
B) Arkavati
C) Indravati
D) Amravati
95
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Q112. Which of the following conditions is/are essential for tea

cultivation?
1. Tropical and sub-tropical climate
2. Heavy rainfall ranging from 150 cm to 250 cm
3. Soil should contain good amount of lime
A) 1, 2 and 3
B) 1 and 2 only
C) 2 and 3 only
D) 1 only
Q113. Bharatmala Project is related to

A) Improving road connectivity
B) Interlinking ports and railways
C) Interlinking of rivers
D) Interlinking major cities with gas pipelines
Q114. Which one of the following is a local wind that blows out from
Siberia? A) Bora
B) Purga
C) Mistral
D) Blizzard
Q115. Which one of the following centres is NOT known for iron and
steel industry?
A) Bhadravati
B) Salem
C) Vishakhapatnam
D) Renukoot
Q116. Which of the following are essential prerequisites for

establishment of a thermal power station?
1. Availability of fossil fuels
2. Proximity to a river, lake or sea
3. Good transport network
4. Proximity to an urban centre
96
DefenceXP NDA & NA

A) 1, 2 and 3
B) 2 and 4
C) 2 and 3 only
D) 1 and 3 only
Q117. Which of the following statements about ‗Aadi Mahotsav‘ held

recently in New Delhi is/are correct?
1. The theme of the festival was ‗A Celebration of the Spirit of Tribal
Culture, Cuisine and Commerce‘
2. The festival was organized by the Ministry of Tourism, Government of
India Select the correct answer using the code given below:
A) 1 only
B) 2 only
C) Both 1 and 2
D) Neither 1 nor 2
Q118. Light year is a unit for measurement of

A) age of universe
B) very small time intervals
C) very high temperature
D) very large distance
Q119. Which of the following statements about electromagnetic waves,

sound waves and water waves is/are correct?
1. They exhibit reflection
2. They carry energy
3. They exert pressure
4. They can travel in vacuum
A) 1, 2 and 3
B) 2 and 4
C) 1 and 3 only
D) 1 only
97
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Q120. Thermal capacity of a body depends on the

A) mass of the body only
B) mass and shape of the body only
C) density of the body
D) mass, shape and temperature of the body
Q121. Who among the following first used the term ‗Industrial
Revolution‘ in English to describe the changes that occurred in British
industrial development between 1760 and 1820?
A) Karl Marx
B) Georges Michelet
C) Arrnold Toynbee
D) Friedrich Engels
Q122. Which one of the following statements about the Olympe de

Gouges (1748-1793) is correct?
A) She declared that although citizens should have equal rights, they are not
entitled to the same honours by the State
B) She was a supporter of the Jacobin government
C) She was jailed for treason by the National assembly
D) She declared that the nation is the union of woman and man
Q123. Who among the following built a model steam engine in 1698
called ―Miner‘s Friend‖ to drain mines?
A) Thomas Savery
B) Thomas Newcomen
C) James Watt
D) Richard Arkwright
Q124. Which one of the following statements about Renaissance

Humanist culture is NOT true?
A) It slackened the control of religion over human life
B) It believed that human nature was many-sided
C) It was concerned with good manners
D) It criticized material wealth, power and glory
98
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Q125. Who gifted the Badshah Nama to King George in 1799?

A) Abul Fazl
B) Abdul Hamid Lahori
C) Nawab of Awadh
D) William Jones
Q126. What is the name of the award given to meritorious men in the
Mughal Court in the form of a robe of honour that was once worn by the
Emperor?
A) Sarapa
B) Patka
C) Padma murassa
D) Khilat
Q127. Who among the following social reformer started a society for
the encouragement of widow remarriage in 1866 in Maharashtra?
A) Bal Gangadhar Tilak
B) Jyotirao Phule
C) Vishnusashtri Pandit
D) Pandita Ramabai
Q128. Name the first major voluntary association representing

primarily Indian landlord interests that was set up in Calcutta in 1851?
A) British Indian Association
B) Landholder‘s Society
C) Madras Native Association
D) Bombay Association
Q129. Who among the following introduced the Permanent Settlement

of Bengal in 1793?
A) Lord Cornwallis
B) Lord Ripon
C) Robert Clive
D) John Adam
99
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Q130. Name the rebel who fought against the British in the battle of
Chinhat in the course of the 1857 Revolt?
A) Ahmadullah Shah
B) Shah Mal
C) Mangal Pandey
D) Kunwar Singh
Q131. Who among the following are the two civil servants who assisted
the Constituent Assembly in framing the Constitution of India?
A) B. N. Rau and K. M. Munshi
B) S. N. Mukherjee and Alladi Krishnaswamy Aiyar
C) B. N. Rau and S. N Mukherjee
D) K. M. Munshi and Alladi Krishnaswamy Aiyar
Q132. Which member of the Constituent Assembly proposed the

resolution that the National Flag of India be a ―horizontal tricolour of
saffron, white and dark green in equal proportion‖, with a wheel in navy
blue at the centre?
A) Jawaharlal Nehru
B) B. R. Ambedkar
C) Rajendra Prasad
D) Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel
Q133. Which of the following is/are NOT historical

biography/biographies?
1. Dipavamsa
2. Harshacharita
3. Vikramankadevacharita
4. Prithvirajavijaya
Select the correct answer from the code given below:
A) 1 only
B) 2 and 3 only
C) 2, 3 and 4 only
D) 1, 2, 3 and 4
100
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Q134. Which of the following pairs are correctly matched?

Traveller Country from
1. Marco Polo Italy
2. Ibn Battuta Morocco
3. Nikitin Russia
4. Seydi Ali Reis Turkey
A) 1, 2 and 3 only
B) 2 and 3 only
C) 1, 2, 3, and 4
D) 1 and 4 only
Q135. Which of the following clans are included in the Agnikula

Rajputs?
1. Pratiharas
2. Chaulukyas
3. Paramaras
4. Chahamanas
Select the correct answer from the code given below:
A) 1 and 3 only
B) 1, 3 and 4 only
C) 1, 2, 3 and 4
D) 2 and 4 only
Q136. Who among the following was the author of Humayun Nama?
A) Roshanara Begum
B) Ruquaiya Sultan Begum
C) Gulbadan Begum
D) Gauhara Begum
Q137. Which one of the following about the Parliament of India is NOT
correct?
A) The Parliament consists of the President, the Lok Sabha and The Rajya
Sabha
B) There are no nominated members in The Lok Sabha
C) The Rajya Sabha cannot be dissolved
D) Some members of The Rajya Sabha are nominated by the President
101
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Q138. Which one of the following statements with regard to the

Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) of India is NOT correct?
A) He is appointed by the President of India
B) He can be removed from office in the same way as the judge of the
Supreme Court of India
C) The CAG is eligible for further office under the Government of India after
he has ceased to hold his office
D) The salary of the CAG is charged upon the Consolidated Fund of India.
Q139. The Superintendence, direction and control of elections in India

is vested in
A) The Supreme Court of India
B) The Parliament of India
C) The Election Commission of India
D) The Chief Election Commissioner
Q140. Which of the following provision(s) of the Constitution of India

became effective from 26th November 1949?
1. Electrons
2. Citizenship
3. Emergency provisions
4. Appointment of the Judges
A) 1 only
B) 1 and 2 only
C) 1, 2 and 3
D) 2 and 4
Q141. Which of the following statements regarding construction of

Rohtang tunnel is NOT correct?
A) It is located at an altitude of 5,000 feet
B) It will provide all-year connectivity to Lahaul and Spiti Valley
C) The tunnel is being built by the Border Roads Organization
D) It will reduce the length of the Leh-Manali highway by approximately 50 km
102
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Q142. Who among the following recently became the first woman pilot
in Indian Navy?
A) Astha Segal
B) Roopa A
C) Sakthi Maya S
D) Shubhangi Swaroop
Q143. Who among the following Indians did NOT hold the title of Miss
World? A) Reita Faria
B) Sushmita Sen
C) Diana Hayden
D) Yukta Mookhey
Q144. Which one of the following countries has failed to qualify for the
first time in 60 years for the FIFA World Cup to be held in Russia in the
year 2018?
A) Mexico
B) Iran
C) Saudi Arabia
D) Italy
Q145. The Defence Technology and Trade Initiative (DTTI) is a forum

for dialogue on defence partnership between India and
A) Russia
B) United States of America
C) Israel
D) France
Q146. As per the policy applicable in 2017, how much Foreign Direct
Investment (FDI) is permitted in the defence sector in India?
A) 49 per cent through the automatic route
B) 26 per cent through the government route
C) 26 per cent through the automatic route and beyond that up to 49 percent
through the government route
D) 75 per cent through the automatic route
103
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Q147. Which one of the following countries did NOT participate in the
21st edition of Exercise Malabar?
A) United States of America
B) Japan
C) India
D) Australia
Q148. Justice Dalveer Bhandari of India was recently re-elected to the

International Court of Justice after Christopher Greenwood pulled out
before 12th round of voting. Christopher Greenwood was a nominee of
A) Canada
B) Russia
C) British
D) USA
Q149. In order to review the Income Tax Act, 1961 and to draft a new
Direct Tax Law in consonance with economic needs of the country, the
Government of India in November 2017 has constituted a Task Force.
Who among the following is made the convenor of it?
A) Shri Arvind Subramanian
B) Shri Arbind Modi
C) Shri Amitabh Kant
D) Dr. Bibek Debroy
Q150. The 5th Global Conference on Cyber Space (GCCS) was held in
New Delhi in November, 2017. Which of the following statements about
GCCS is/are correct?
1. The 4th version of GCCS was held in London.
2. The main theme of GCCS 2017 is ‗Cyber4All: A Secure and Inclusive
Cyberspace for Sustainable Development‘.
3. ‗Bindu‘ is the logo of GCCS 2017.
A) 1 only
B) 2 only
C) 2 and 3 only
D) 1, 2 and 3
104
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Answer
1. Answer. D 21. Answer. C
2. Answer. B 22. Answer. D
3. Answer. C 23. Answer. C
4. Answer. D 24. Answer. B
5. Answer. A 25. Answer. D
6. Answer. C 26. Answer. A
7. Answer. C 27. Answer. B
8. Answer. B 28. Answer. C
19. Answer. A 39. Answer. B
105
DefenceXP NDA & NA
41. Answer. A 61. Answer. A
42. Answer. B 62. Answer. B
45. Answer. C 65. Answer. D
46. Answer. D 66. Answer. A
53. Answer. B 73. Answer. A
106
DefenceXP NDA & NA
107
DefenceXP NDA & NA
124. Answer. D 144. Answer. D
128. Answer. A 148. Answer. C
131. Answer. C
132. Answer. C
133. Answer. C
134. Answer. C
135. Answer. C
136. Answer. C
137. Answer. B
138. Answer. C
139. Answer. C
140. Answer. B
108
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Mathematics
1. Algebra
Concept of a Set
A set is simply a collection of items called elements, or members of the

set. Each element is distinguishable from the other elements.
Sets of Number Systems

We use certain letters to define various number systems. This helps to better
define sets and to make them easier to write. We will use the following capital
letters for the respective number system sets:
N = Natural Numbers {1, 2, 3, . . .}
Z = Integers {… -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}
Q = Rational Numbers
I = Irrational Numbers
R = Real Numbers
Representations of a Set
Representation of Sets and its elements is done in the following two ways.
Roster Form
In this form, all the elements are enclosed within braces {} and they are
separated by commas (,). For example, a collection of all the numbers found
on a dice N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. Properties of roster form: –
 The order in which the elements are listed in the Roster form for any Set
is immaterial. For example, V = {a, e, i, o, u} is same as V = {u, o, e, a, i}
 The dots at the end of the last element of any Set represent its infinite
form and indefinite nature. For example, group of odd natural numbers =
{1, 3, 5, …}
 In this form of representation, the elements are generally not repeated.
For example, the group of letters forming the word POOL = {P, O, L}
109
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Set Builder Form

In this form, all the elements possess a single common property which is NOT
featured by any other element outside the Set. For example, a group of
vowels in English alphabetical series.
The representation is done as follows. Let V be the collection of all English
vowels, then – V = {x: x is a vowel in English alphabetical series.} Properties
of Roster form: –
 Colon (:) is a mandatory symbol for this type of representation.
 After the colon sign, we write the common characteristic
property possessed by ALL the elements belonging to that Set and
enclose it within braces.
 If the Set doesn‘t follow a pattern, its Set builder form cannot be written.
Different Types of Sets
 Empty set - A set that has no element should be called as Empty set.
Another name for Empty set could be Null set and Void set. Number of
element in set X is represented as n(X). The empty set is denoted as Φ.
Thus, n(Φ) = 0. The cardinality of an empty set is zero since it has no
element.
 Singleton Set - A set that has one and only one element should be
called as Singleton set. Sometimes, it is known as unit set. The
cardinality of singleton is one. If A is a singleton, then we can express it
as
A = {x : x = A}
 Finite and Infinite Set - A set that has predetermined number of

elements or finite number of elements are said to be Finite set. Like {1
,2, 3, 4, 5, 6} is a finite set whose cardinality is 6, since it has 6
elements.
Otherwise, it is called as infinite set. It may be uncountable or
countable. The union of some infinite sets are infinite and the power set
of any infinite set is infinite.
110
DefenceXP NDA & NA
 Union of Sets - Union of two or else most numbers of sets could be the
set of all elements that belongs to every element of all sets. In the union
set of two sets, every element is written only once even if they belong to
both the sets. This is denoted as ‗ ‘. If we have sets A and B, then the
union of these two is A U B and called as A union B.
Mathematically, we can denote it as A U B = {x : x ∈ A or x∈ B}
The union of two sets is always commutative i.e.A U B = B U A.
 Intersection of Sets - It should be the set of elements that are common

in both the sets. Intersection is similar to grouping up the common
elements. The symbol should be denoted as ‗∩‘. If A and B are two sets,
then the intersection is denoted as A ∩ B and called as A intersection B
and mathematically, we can write it as
A∩B={x:x∈A∧x∈B}
 Difference of Sets
The difference of set A to B should be denoted as A - B. That is, the set
of element that are in set A not in set B is
A - B = {x: x ∈ A and x ∉ B}
And, B - A is the set of all elements of the set B which are in B but not in
A i.e.
B - A = {x: x ∈ B and x ∉ A}.
 Subset of a Set
In set theory, a set P is the subset of any set Q, if the set P is contained
in set Q. It means, all the elements of the set P also belongs to the set
Q. It is represented as '⊆‘ or P ⊆ Q.
 Disjoint Sets
If two sets A and B should have no common elements or we can say
that the intersection of any two sets A and B is the empty set, then
these sets are known as disjoint sets i.e. A ∩ B = ϕ. That means, when
this condition n (A ∩ B) = 0 is true, then the sets are disjoint sets.
111
DefenceXP NDA & NA
 Equality of Two Sets

Two sets are said to be equal or identical to each other, if they contain
the same elements. When the sets P and Q is said to be equal, if P ⊆ Q
and Q ⊆ P, then we will write as P = Q.
Venn Diagrams
Venn diagrams are an efficient way of representing and analyzing sets and
performing set operations. As such, the usage of Venn diagrams is just the
elaboration of a solving technique. Problems that are solved using Venn
diagrams are essentially problems based on sets and set operations.
Operation of Sets
Let us now look at few basic set operations and ways of representing them
using Venn diagrams. For understanding these operations, we will use a
common example and perform operations on it.
Consider a class of students that form the universal set. Set A is the set of all
students who were present in the English lecture, while Set B is the set of all
the students who were present in the History lecture. It is obvious that there
were students who were present in both lectures as well as those who were
not present in either of the two lectures.
There are three basic set operations: union, intersection and difference
(relative complement).
The union of two sets A U B is the set that consists of all elements belonging
to either set A or set B(or both). We say that an element x is in A U B if
either x is in A or x is in B (or x belongs to both).
In formal notation, A U B = { x | x Î A or x Î B or both }.
The intersection of two sets A ∩ B is the set of all elements that are elements
of both A and B.
In formal notation, A ∩ B = { x | x Î A and x Î B }.
112
DefenceXP NDA & NA
The union and the intersections of sets A and B represented by Venn

Diagrams.
The difference (or the relative complement of B in A), denoted

as A − B (or A \ B), is the set of all elements that are elements of A but not
of B. In formal notation, A − B = { x | x Î A and x not Î of B }.
The complement (or the absolute complement) of A in U, denoted

as A' (or Ac), is the set of all elements of a given universal set that are not
elements of A. In formal notation, A' = { x | x Î U and x not Î of A }.
The difference A − B and the complement A' represented by Venn Diagrams.
Law of Algebra of Sets
Associative Law
(A B) C = A (B C )
(A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C )
113
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Commutative Law
A B=B A
A∩B=B∩A
Distributive Law
A ∩ (B C)= (A ∩ B) (A ∩ C )
A (B ∩ C)= (A B) ∩ (A C )
Identity Law
A ∅=A
A∩U=A
Complement Law
A A=U
A∩A=∅
Idempotent Law
A A=A
A∩A=A
Bound Law
A U=U
A ∩ ∅= ∅
Absorption Law
A (A ∩ B) = A
A ∩ (A B) = A
Involution Law
A=A
0/1 Law
∅=U
U=∅
DeMorgan‘s Law
B A = A∩ B
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Cartesian Product
The Cartesian product X×Y between two sets X and Y is the set of all possible
ordered pairs with first element from X and second element from Y:
X×Y={(x,y):x∈X and y∈Y}.
One example is the standard Cartesian coordinates of the plane, where X is

the set of points on the x-axis, Y is the set of points on the y-axis, and X×Y is
the xy-plane.
If X=Y, we can denote the Cartesian product of X with itself as X×X=X2. For
examples, since we can represent both the x-axis and the y-axis as the set of
real numbers R, we can write the xy-plane as R×R=R2.
Relation
A relation is a correspondence between two sets (called the domain and

the range) such that to each element of the domain, there is assigned one or
more elements of the range.
Example - (2,3), (2,4), (3,7), and (5,2) defines a relation with
Domain: {2,3,5}
Range: {2,3,4,7}
Equivalence Relation
A binary relation R on a set A is an equivalence relation if and only if

- R is reflexive
- R is symmetric
- R is transitive
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Some more examples-
 Real numbers that have the same fractional part: {(a,b)∣a,b∈R,a−b∈Z}.

 Reflexive: a −a=0∈Z.
 Symmetric: if a −b∈Z then b −a=−(a −b)∈Z.
 Transitive: if a −b,b −c∈Z, then a −c=(a −b)+(b −c)∈Z.
 For a function f:A→B, the relation on A “maps on to the same element”.
That is, {(a1,a2)∣f(a1)=f(a2)}.
 Reflexive: f(a1)=f(a1).
 Symmetric: f(a1)=f(a2) if f(a2)=f(a1).
 Transitive: if f(a1)=f(a2) and f(a2)=f(a3) then f(a1)=f(a3).
 Remember that our relations don't have to be on numbers. Let L be the
set of all lines on the plane. We will say that (l1,l2)∈R if l1 is parallel to l2.
 [Not going to bother with the details, but should be obvious
enough.]
 Words with the same number of letters.
 Reflexive: a word has the same number of letters as itself.
 Symmetric: if A has the same number of letters as B, then B has
same as A.
 Transitive: if A/B and B/C have same number of letters, then so
do A and C.
Representation of Real numbers on a Line
The real number line, as the name suggests, is a line that denotes real
numbers on it.
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Here, we have shown the positions of few real numbers, such as -4

(negative), 8 (positive), -1.5 (decimal), 1/2 (fraction), zero and value of pi.
Complex numbers - Basic properties

A complex number is any number that can be written as x + iy , where i is
the imaginary unit and x and y are real numbers.
x + iy
Real Part Imaginary Part
The real part of the number, or a, is the real number that is being added to the
pure imaginary number.
The imaginary part of the number, or b, is the real number coefficient of the
pure imaginary number.
 Properties -
 If x, y are real and x + iy = 0 then x = 0, y = 0.
Proof -
Since, x + iy = 0 = 0 + i0, hence by the definition of equality of two complex
numbers it follows that, x = 0 and y = 0.
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 If x, y, p, q are real and x + iy = p + iq then x = p and y = q.
Proof -
Since x + iy = p + iq
Hence x − p = -i(y − q) ⇒ (x − p)2 = i2 (y − q)2
⇒ (x − p)2 + (y − q)2 = 0 (Since i2 = -1) (1)
Since x, y, p, q are real, (x − p)2 and (y − q)2 are both non-negative. Hence the
equation (1) is satisfied if each square is separately zero. Hence,
(x − p)2 = 0 or x = p and (y − q)2 = 0 or y = q.
 Like real numbers, the set of complex numbers also satisfies the
commutative, associative and distributive laws i.e., if z1, z2 and z3 be
three complex numbers then,
1. z1 + z2 = z2 + z1 (commutative law for addition) and

z1. z2 = z2. z1 (commutative law for multiplication).
2. (z1 + z2+ z3 = z1 + (z2 + z3) (associative law for addition) and

(z1.z2) z3 = z1 (z2.z3) (associative law for multiplication).
3. z1(z2 + z3) = z1.z2 + z1.z3 (distributive law).
 The sum and product of two conjugate complex quantities are both
real.
Proof -
Let z = x + iy be a complex number where x, y are real.
Then, conjugate of z is = x − iy.
Now, z + = x + iy + x − iy = 2x, which is real.
And z . = (x + iy)(x − iy) = x2 − i2y2 = x2 + y2 which is also real.
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 If the sum and product of two complex quantities are both real then
the complex quantities are conjugate to each other.
Proof -
Let, z1 = a + ib and z2 = c + id be two complex quantities where a, b, c, d are
real and b ≠ 0, d ≠0.
By hypothesis, z1 + z2 = a + ib + c + id = (a + c) + i(b + d) is real.
Hence b + d = 0 or d = -b
And z1. z2 = (a + ib)( c + id) = (ac − bd) + i(ad + bc) is real.
Hence, ad + bc = 0 or −ab + bc = 0 (Since d = -b)
Or b(c − a) = 0 or c = a (Since b ≠ 0)
Hence z2 = c + id = a + i(-b) = a − ib = , which proves that z1 and z2 are

conjugate to each other.
 For two complex quantities z1 and z2, show that
|z1+ z2 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 |
Proof -
Let z1 = r1(cosθ1 + isinθ1 ) and z2 = r2(cosθ2 + isinθ2 ).
Hence |z1 | = r1 and |z2 | = r2
Now,
z1 + z2 = r1(cosθ1 + isinθ1) + r2(cosθ2 + isinθ2)
= (r1cosθ1+ r2cosθ2 )+ i(r1sinθ1+ r2sinθ2)
Hence |z1+ z2 | = √(r1cosθ1+ r2cosθ2)2 + (r1sinθ1+ r2sinθ2)2
= √r12(cos2θ1+ sin2θ1) + r22(cos2θ2+ sin2θ2) + 2r1r2 (cosθ1 cosθ2+ sinθ1 sinθ2)
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= √r12 + r22 + 2r1r2cos (θ1- θ2)
Now, |cos(θ1- θ2)| ≤ 1
Hence |z1+ z2| ≤ √r12 + r22 + 2r1r2 or |z1+ z2 | ≤ |z1| + |z2 |
Modulus & Argument
A complex number is written in the form
z = x + iy
The modulus of z is
|z | = r = √ x2 + y2
The argument of z is
arg z = θ = tan-1(y/x)
Note - When calculating you must take account of the quadrant in which z lies
- if in doubt draw an Argand diagram.
The principle value of the argument is denoted by Arg z, and is the unique
value of arg z such that -π < arg z ≤ π. Arg z in obtained by adding or
subtracting integer multiples of 2π from arg z.
Writing a complex number in terms of polar coordinates r and θ :
z = x + iy = rcosθ + irsinθ = r(cosθ + isinθ ) = r eiθ .
For any two complex numbers z1 and z2
arg(z1z2) = arg z1 + arg z2 and, for z2 ≠ 0; arg(z1/z2) = arg z1 - arg z2
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Cube roots of Unity
Let x be cube root of unity
 Properties of cube root of Unity -
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Binary system of numbers
In mathematics, positional numeral system employing 2 as the base and so

requiring only two different symbols for its digits, 0 and 1, instead of the usual
10 different symbols needed in the decimal system. The numbers from 0 to 10
are thus in binary 0, 1, 10, 11, 100, 101, 110, 111, 1000, 1001, and 1010. The
importance of the binary system to information theory and computer
technology derives mainly from the compact and reliable manner in which 0s
and 1s can be represented in electromechanical devices with two states—
such as ―on-off,‖ ―open-closed,‖ or ―go–no go.‖
Conversion of a number in decimal system to binary system

and vice-versa
Decimal to Binary - Consider the decimal number 6349
Binary to Decimal - Consider the binary number 1101
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Arithmetic, Geometric and Harmonic progressions
Arithmetic Progressions
An arithmetic progression is a sequence of numbers in which each term is

derived from the preceding term by adding or subtracting a fixed number
called the common difference "d"
For example, the sequence 9, 6, 3, 0,-3, .... is an arithmetic progression with -
3 as the common difference. The progression -3, 0, 3, 6, 9 is an Arithmetic
Progression (AP) with 3 as the common difference.
 The general form of an Arithmetic Progression is a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d

and so on. Thus nth term of an AP series is Tn = a + (n - 1) d, where Tn =
nth term and a = first term. Here d = common difference = Tn - Tn-1.
 Sum of first n terms of an AP: S =(n/2)[2a + (n- 1)d]
 The sum of n terms is also equal to the formula Sn = n/2(a+l)

where l is the last term.
 Tn = Sn - Sn-1 , where Tn = nth term
 When three quantities are in AP, the middle one is called as the arithmetic
mean of the other two. If a, b and c are three terms in AP then b = (a+c)/2
Geometric Progressions
A geometric progression is a sequence in which each term is derived by

multiplying or dividing the preceding term by a fixed number called the
common ratio. For example, the sequence 4, -2, 1, - 1/2,.... is a Geometric
Progression (GP) for which - 1/2 is the common ratio.
 The general form of a GP is a, ar, ar2, ar3 and so on.
 The nth term of a GP series is Tn = arn-1, where a = first term and r =

common ratio = Tn/Tn-1) .
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 The formula applied to calculate sum of first n terms of a GP:

 When three quantities are in GP, the middle one is called as the geometric
mean of the other two. If a, b and c are three quantities in GP and b is the
geometric mean of a and c i.e. b =√ac
 The sum of infinite terms of a GP series S∞= a/(1-r) where 0< r<1.
 If a is the first term, r is the common ratio of a finite G.P. consisting of m
terms, then the nth term from the end will be = arm-n.
 The nth term from the end of the G.P. with the last term l and common ratio
r is l/(r(n-1))
Harmonic Progression
A series of terms is known as a HP series when their reciprocals are in

arithmetic progression.
Example: 1/a, 1/(a+d), 1/(a+2d), and so on are in HP because a, a + d, a + 2d
are in AP.
 The nth term of a HP series is Tn =1/ [a + (n -1) d].
 In order to solve a problem on Harmonic Progression, one should make the
corresponding AP series and then solve the problem.
 nth term of H.P. = 1/(nth term of corresponding A.P.)
 If three terms a, b, c are in HP, then b =2ac/(a+c).
Quadratic equations with real coefficients
An equation of the form ax² + bx + c = 0
Where a ≠ 0, a, b, c є R is called quadratic equation with real coefficients.
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The quality D = b² – 4ac is known as the discriminant of the quadratic equation

in (i) whose roots are given by α= and β=
 The nature of the roots is as given below-
 The roots are real and distinct if D > 0.

 The roots are real and equal if D = 0
 The roots are complex with non-zero imaginary part if D < 0.
 The roots are rational if a, b, c is rational, and D is a perfect square.
 The roots are of the form p + √q (p, q є Q) if a, b, c is rational, and D is not a
perfect square.
 If a = 1, b, c є I and the roots are rational numbers, then these roots must be
integers.
 If a quadratic equation in x has more than two roots, then it is an identity in
x that is a = b = c = 0.
Solution of linear inequalities of two variables by graphs
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 Steps for graphing a Linear inequality –
 Rewrite the inequality in slop - intercept form (y = mx + c) , if possible.

 Graph the point of the boundry line.
 Connect the points with a solid line for ≤ or ≥.
Connect the points with a dashed line if < or >.
 Shade above or below the boundry line.
Shade above for ≥ or > , Shade below for ≤ or <.
Permutation and Combination
Permutation - It is the different arrangements of a given number of elements

taken one by one, or some, or all at a time. For example, if we have two
elements A and B, then there are two possible arrangements, AB and BA.
Number of permutations when ‗r‘ elements are arranged out of a total of ‗n‘
elements is n Pr = n! / (n – r)!. For example, let n = 4 (A, B, C and D) and r = 2
(All permutations of size 2). The answer is 4!/(4-2)! = 12. The twelve
permutations are AB, AC, AD, BA, BC, BD, CA, CB, CD, DA, DB and DC.
Combination - It is the different selections of a given number of elements

taken one by one, or some, or all at a time. For example, if we have two
elements A and B, then there is only one way select two items, we select both
of them.
Number of combinations when ‗r‘ elements are selected out of a total of ‗n‘
elements is n C r = n! / [ (r !) x (n – r)! ]. For example, let n = 4 (A, B, C and D)
and r = 2 (All combinations of size 2). The answer is 4!/((4-2)!*2!) = 6. The six
combinations are AB, AC, AD, BC, BD, CD.
n
C r = n C (n – r)
NOTE : In the same example, we have different cases for permutation and
combination. For permutation, AB and BA are two different things but for
selection, AB and BA are same.
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Binomial theorem and its application
Binomial Theorem -
Applications –
 R-F Factor Relation: Here, we are going to discuss problems involving

(√A + B)ⁿ = I + f, where I and n are positive integers.
0 ≤ f ≤ 1, |A – B²|= k and |√A+B|< 1.
 Divisibility problem: In the expansion, (1 + α)ⁿ = 1 + ⁿC₁ α + ⁿC₂ α² + … +

ⁿCn αⁿ.
We can conclude that,
(1 + α)ⁿ – 1 = ⁿC₁ α + ⁿC₂ α² + … + ⁿCn αⁿ is divisible by α i.e., it is a multiple

of α.
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Logarithms and their applications
Properties of Logarithm -
Application -
A logarithmic function can be used to transform an exponential function into a

linear one. For example, by applying ln to both sides of we get
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2. Matrices and Determinants
Types of matrices
A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers. The size or dimension of a matrix

is defined by the number of rows and columns it contains.
Types of matrix -
 Row matrix - A row matrix is a matrix with only one row. Eg.
 Column matrix - A column matrix is a matrix with only one column. Eg.
 Zero matrix or a Null matrix - A zero matrix or a null matrix is a matrix

that has all its elements zero. Eg.
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 Square matrix - A square matrix is a matrix with an equal number of rows

and columns. Eg.
Square matrix
 Diagonal matrix - A diagonal matrix is a square matrix that has all its
elements zero except for those in the diagonal from top left to bottom right;
which is known as the leading diagonal of the matrix. Eg.
 Scalar matrix - A scalar matrix is a diagonal matrix where all the diagonal
elements are equal. Eg.
 Upper triangular matrix - An upper triangular matrix is a square matrix

where all the elements located below the diagonal are zeros. Eg.
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 Lower triangular matrix - A lower triangular matrix is a square matrix

where all the elements located above the diagonal are zeros. Eg.
 Unit matrix - A unit matrix is a diagonal matrix whose elements in the

diagonal are all ones. Eg.
Operations on Matrices
 Matrices Addition – The addition of two matrices A m*n and Bm*n gives a
matrix Cm*n. The elements of C are sum of corresponding elements in A
and B which can be shown as:
Key points:
 Addition of matrices is commutative which means A+B = B+A
 Addition of matrices is associative which means A+(B+C) = (A+B)+C
 The order of matrices A, B and A+B is always same
 If order of A and B is different, A+B can‘t be computed
 The complexity of addition operation is O(m*n) where m*n is order of
matrices.
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 Matrices Subtraction – The subtraction of two matrices Am*n and

Bm*n gives a matrix Cm*n. The elements of C are difference of corresponding
elements in A and B which can be represented as:
Key points:
 Subtraction of matrices is non-commutative which means A-B ≠ B-A
 Subtraction of matrices is non-associative which means A-(B-C) ≠ (A-B)-
C
 The order of matrices A, B and A-B is always same
 If order of A and B is different, A-B can‘t be computed
 The complexity of subtraction operation is O(m*n) where m*n is order of
matrices
 Matrices Multiplication – The multiplication of two matrices Am*n and

Bn*p gives a matrix Cm*p. It means number of columns in A must be equal to
number of rows in B to calculate C=A*B. To calculate element c11, multiply
elements of 1st row of A with 1st column of B and add them (5*1+6*4)
which can be shown as:
Key points:
 Multiplication of matrices is non-commutative which means A*B ≠ B*A
 Multiplication of matrices is associative which means A*(B*C) = (A*B)*C
 For computing A*B, the number of columns in A must be equal to number
of rows in B
 Existence of A*B does not imply existence of B*A
 The complexity of multiplication operation (A*B) is O(m*n*p) where m*n
and n*p are order of A and B respectively
 The order of matrix C computed as A*B is O(m*p) where m*n and n*p are
order of A and B respectively
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Determinant of a matrix
Determinant of a Matrix is a special number that is defined only for square

matrices (matrices which have same number of rows and columns).
Determinant is used at many places in calculus and other matrix related
algebra, it actually represents the matrix in term of a real number which can
be used in solving system of linear equation and finding the inverse of a
matrix.
 Determinant of 2 x 2 Matrix
 Determinant of 3 x 3 Matrix
Basic properties of Determinant
 A multiple of one row of "A" is added to another row to produce a matrix,

"B", then:
 If two rows are interchanged to produce a matrix, "B", then:
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 If one row is multiplied by "k" to produce a matrix, "B", then:
 If "A" and "B" are both n x n matrices then:
Adjoint and Inverse of a Square matrix
Adjoint of a Matrix
Let A = [aij]n×n denote a square matrix. The adjoint of A is the transpose of
matrix obtained by replacing each element of A by its cofactor in |A|.
It is denoted as
adj A = [bij]n×nbij = Aji
where, Aji represents the cofactor of the (j,i)th element of the matrix A. In
simple terms the transpose of the cofactor matrix of is known as the adjoint of
A or adj A.
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Properties of Adjoint -
1. For a square matrix A of order n the following property holds true
A ( adj A ) = (adj A) A = |A| In , where In is an identity matrix of order n .
2. adj kA = kn−1 ( adj A )
3. adj (AB) = ( adj B) (adj A )
Inverse of a matrix
We have learnt that a square matrix A is called as singular if |A| = 0 and it is
called as non-singular if |A|≠ 0.
Inverse of a square matrix A = [aij]n×n (which is denoted as A−1) is the
matrix B such that
B = [bij]n×n such that AB = BA = In
In simpler terms the product of adj A with 1 / |A| gives the inverse of a matrix
A.
Inverse of a matrix if it exists is unique.
Since AB = In
Then using determinants
|AB| = |I|
|A||B| = 1d|I| = 1 )
1. d)
This indicates that |A| ≠ 0. Therefore A is non-singular.

Now as we know, A(adj A) = ( adj A)A = |A|In (By property of adjoint)
Since AB = BA = I, from equation 1 we can say that B = .
B represents the inverse of the matrix A and is given as B = .
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Solution of a system of linear equations in two or three

unknowns by Cramer's rule and by Matrix Method
For finding the determinant of a 3 × 3 matrix, we can apply Cramer‘s Rule to

solve a system of three equations in three variables. Cramer‘s Rule is
straightforward, following a pattern consistent with Cramer‘s Rule for 2 × 2
matrices. As the order of the matrix increases to 3 × 3, however, there are
many more calculations required.
When we calculate the determinant to be zero, Cramer‘s Rule gives no

indication as to whether the system has no solution or an infinite number of
solutions. To find out, we have to perform elimination on the system.
Consider a 3 × 3 system of equations.
Where,
If we are writing the determinant Dx, we replace the x column with the
constant column. If we are writing the determinant Dy, we replace
the y column with the constant column. If we are writing the determinant Dz,
we replace the z column with the constant column.
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3. Trigonometry
Angles and their measures in Degrees and in Radians
An angle is the shape formed when two rays come together. In trigonometry
we think on one of the sides as being the Initial Side and the angle is formed
by the other side (Terminal Side) rotating away from the initial side.
We will usually draw our angles on the coordinate axes with the positive x –
axis being the Initial Side. If we sweep out an angle in the counter clockwise
direction we will say the angle is positive and if we sweep the angle in the
clockwise direction we will say the angle is negative.
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Measuring an Angle
When we measure angles we can think of them in terms of pieces of a circle.

We have two units for measuring angles. Most people have heard of the
Degree but the Radian is more useful in Trigonometry.
Degrees - one degree (1°) is a rotation of 1/360 of a complete revolution

about the vertex. We can think of this as going all the way around the circle.
There are 360 degrees in one full rotation.
Radian - One Radian is the measure of a central angle θ that intercepts an

arcs equal in length to the radius r of the circle. Since the radian is measured
in terms one r on the arc of a circle and the complete circumference of the
circle is 2πr then there are 2π radians in one full rotation.
This gives us a way to convert between degrees and radians: 360° = 2π rad
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Trigonometric ratios
Trigonometry is primarily a branch of mathematics that deals with triangles,

mostly right triangles. In particular the ratios and relationships between the
triangle's sides and angles.
 Sign of Trignometrical Functions
P – Perpendicular
B – Base
H – Hypotenuse
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Trigonometric identities (Sum and difference formulae)
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Multiple and Sub-multiple angles
 Double Angle Formulas
If In the trigonometric Addition and subtraction formulae we put angle A=B

then we can easily derive following double angle formulas:
 Triple Angle Formulas
We shall now Derive the formulas for triple angle formulas for Sine and
Cosine.
We know ,
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 Half angle formulas:
By replacing by In the double angle formulas above we can easily

derive the
following half angle formulas:
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Inverse trigonometric functions
The inverse trigonometric functions are also called arcus functions or anti
trigonometric functions. These are the inverse functions of the trigonometric
functions with suitably restricted domains. Specifically, they are the inverse
functions of the sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant,
and cosecant functions, and are used to obtain an angle from any of the
angle‘s trigonometric ratios. Inverse trigonometric functions are widely used
in engineering, navigation, physics, and geometry.
 Properties of Trigonometric Inverse Functions
Property 1
Property 2
Property 3
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Property 4
Property 5
Property 6
Height and distance
1. Angle of Elevation
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Suppose a man from a point O looks up at an object P, placed above the

level of his eye. Then, the angle which the line of sight makes with the
horizontal through O, is called the angle of elevation of P as seen from O.
Angle of elevation of P from O = AOP.
2. Angle of Depression:
Suppose a man from a point O looks down at an object P, placed below

the level of his eye, then the angle which the line of sight makes with the
horizontal through O, is called the angle of depression of P as seen from
O.
Properties of Triangles
 Sum of Angles of a triangle is always 180 degrees.
 The exterior angles of a triangle always add up to 360 degrees.
 The sum of the lengths of any two sides of a triangle is greater than the
length of the third side. Similarly, the difference between the lengths of
any two sides of a triangle is less than the length of the third side.
 The shortest side is always opposite to the smallest interior angle.

Similarly, the longest side is always opposite to the largest interior
angle.
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4. Analytical Geometry of two and three dimensions
Rectangular Cartesian Coordinate system
A Cartesian coordinate system, also known as rectangular coordinate system,

can be used to plot points and graph lines.
The following is an example of rectangular coordinate system
It is basically, a set of two number lines

The horizontal line is called x-axis and the vertical line is called y-axis
A good real life example of a vertical number line or y-axis is a thermometer.
Notice that it has 4 quadrants
In quadrant I, x and y are positive

In quadrant II, x is negative, but y is positive
In quadrant III, x and y are negative
In quadrant IV, x is positive, but y is negative
The center or intersection of the two axis is equal to (0,0)
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Distance formula
Given the two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2), the distance d between these points
is given by the formula:
Equation of a Line in various forms
1. Equations of horizontal and vertical lines
Equation of the lines which are horizontal or parallel to the X– axis is y = a,

where a is the y – coordinate of the points on the line.
Similarly, equation of a straight line which is vertical or parallel to Y– axis
is x = a, where a is the x-coordinate of the points on the line.
For example, equation of the line which is parallel to X– axis and contains the
point (2,3) is y = 3.
Similarly, equation of the line which is parallel to Y– axis and contains the
point (3,4) is x = 3.
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
2. Point-slope form equation of line

Consider a non-vertical line L whose slope is m, A(x,y) be an arbitrary point on
the line and P(x1,y1) be the fixed point on the same line.
Slope of the line by the definition is,

m = y − y1 / x − x1
y − y1 = m (x − x1)
For example, equation of the straight line having a slope m = 2 and passes
through the point (2,3) is
y − 3 = 2(x − 2)
y = 2x − 4 + 3
2x − y − 1 = 0
3. Two-point form equation of line

Let P(x,y) be the general point on the line L which passes through the
points A(x1,y1) and B(x2,y2).
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Since the three points are collinear,

slope of PA = slope of AB
y − y1 / x − x1 = y2 − y1 / x2 − x1
y – y1 = (y2–y1) . x–x1 / x2–x1
4. Slope-intercept form equation of line

Consider a line whose slope is m which cuts the Y-axis at a distance ‗a‘ from
the origin. Then the distance a is called the y– intercept of the line. The point
at which the line cuts y-axis will be (0,a).
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Then, equation of the line will be

y − a = m (x − 0)
y = mx + a
Similarly, a straight line having slope m cuts the X-axis at a distance b from
the origin will be at the point (b,0). The distance b is called as x– intercept of
the line.
Equation of the line will be,
y = m(x − b)
5. Intercept form
Consider a line L having x– intercept a and y– intercept b, then the line
touches X– axis at (a,0) and Y– axis at (0,b).
By two-point form equation,

y − 0 = b−0 / 0 − a(x − a)
y = −b / a(x − a)
y = b / a(a − x)
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x/a + y/b = 1
For example, equation of the line which has x– intercept 3 and y–

intercept 4 is,
x/3 + y/4 = 1
4x + 3y = 12
6. Normal form
Consider a perpendicular from the origin having length l to line L and it makes
an angle β with the positive X-axis.
Let OP be the perpendicular from the origin to the line L.

Then,
OQ = l cosβ
PQ = l sinβ
Coordinates of the point P are; P(l cos β,l sin β)
slope of the line OP is tan β

Therefore,
Slope of the line L = −1 / tan β = −cos / βsin β
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
Equation of the line L having slope −cos β / sin β and passing through the
point (l cos β,l sin β) is,
y − l sin β = −cos β/sin β . (x − l cosβ)
y sin β − l sin2 β = −x cos β + l cos2 β
x cos β + y sin β = l(sin2 β + cos2 β)
x cos β + y sin β = l
Angle between two lines
Let y = m1x + c1 and y = m2x + c2 be the equations of two lines in a plane

where,
m1 = slope of line 1
c1 = y-intercept made by line 1
m2 = slope of line 2
c2 = y-intercept made by line 2
<BAX = θ1
<DCX = θ2
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∴ m1 = tan θ1 and
m2 = tan θ2
Let the angle between the lines AB and CD be Ø (<APC) then,
Also if we consider <APD as the angle between lines,
Hence, the angle between two lines is,
 Condition for perpendicularity

The two lines are perpendicular means. Ø = 90°
Thus, the lines are perpendicular if the product of their slope is -1.
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 Condition for parallelism

The two lines are perpendicular means, Ø = 0°
Thus, the lines are parallel if their slopes are equal.
Distance of a Point from a Line
The distance from a point (m, n) to the line Ax + By + C = 0 is given by -
Equation of a Circle in Standard and in General form
Equation of a Circle in Standard form
The standard form for the equation of a circle with radius r, and centered at
point (a,b) is
(x−a)2+(y−b)2=r2
Note: one way to think of this equation is to remember the Pythagorean

Theorem.
If the center is at the origin then the equation is
x2+y2=r2
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This describes a right triangle for any x and y that satisfy this equation. Here r
is the hypotenues, but when all values of x and y are used it stays the same
and the points map out a circle with radius r.
Equation of a Circle in General form
The general form for the equation of a circle is

x2 + y2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0, where D, E, F are constants.
Standard forms of Parabola, Ellipse and Hyperbola
 Standard Equation for Parabola
The standard form equation for parabolas looks like your standard quadratic:
This form provides you a couple of key bits of information.

1. The first number you see, a, tells you whether your parabola opens up or
down. If a is negative, it will open downwards and look like a frown. If 'it is
positive, it will open up and will look like a smile. A good way to remember this
is to think of the phrase, 'Be positive; don't frown.'
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2. Using both a and b will give you the axis of symmetry of the parabola.
The axis of symmetry of the parabola is the line that acts as a mirror for the
parabola. The parabola on either side of the axis of symmetry is the mirror
image of the other side. The formula for finding the axis of symmetry from the
standard form equation is:
 Standard Equation of an Ellipse
- Center coordinates (h, k)

- Major axis 2a
- Major axis 2b
-0<b<a
(x−h)2 / a2+(y−k)2 / b2=1 major axis is horizontal
(x−h)2 / b2+(y−k)2 / a2=1 major axis is vertical
The foci lie on the major axis, c units from the center, with c2 = a2 - b2.
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 Standard Equation for Hyperbola
The standard forms for the equation of hyperbolas are
or
Notice that these formulas look just like the equation for the ellipse except for
the minus sign between the two fractions.
Eccentricity and axis of a conic

A quantity defined for a conic section which can be given in terms
of semimajor and semiminor axes .
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interval curve
circle 0
ellipse
parabola 1
hyperbola
The eccentricity can also be interpreted as the fraction of the distance along
the semimajor axis at which the focus lies,
where is the distance from the center of the conic section to the focus.
Point in a Three Dimensional Space
An arbitrary point P in three-dimensional space is assigned coordinates (x0 ,

y0 , z0 ) provided that
1. the plane through P parallel to the yz-plane intersects the x-axis at

(x0,0,0);
2. the plane through P parallel to the xz-plane intersects the y-axis at

(0,y0,0);
3. the plane through P parallel to the xy-plane intersects the z-axis at

(0,0,z0).
The space coordinates (x0 , y0 , z0 ) are called the Cartesian coordinates of P

or simply the rectangular coordinates of P.
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
Moreover we can say, the plane ADPF ( Fig.1) is perpendicular to the x-axis
or x - axis is perpendicular to the plane ADPF and hence perpendicular to
every line in the plane. Therefore, PA is perpendicular to OX and OX is
perpendicular to PA. Thus A is the foot of perpendicular drawn from P on x-
axis and distance of this foot A from O is x-coordinate of point P. Similarly, we
call B and C are the feet of perpendiculars drawn from point P on the y and z-
axis and distances of these feet B and C from O are the y and z coordinates
of the point P. Hence the coordinates x, y z of a point P are the perpendicular
distance of P from the three coordinate planes yz, zx and xy, respectively.
Fig 1 Fig 1
Distance between Two points
The distance between two points P (x1 , y1 , z 1 ) and Q (x2 , y2 , z 2 ) is given

by
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
Direction Cosines and Direction Ratios
Direction Cosines - If a straight line makes angles α , β and γ with x-axis , y-

axis and z- axis respectively, then cosα, cosβ, cosγ are called direction
cosines of the straight line.
Direction cosines are generally denoted by l , m , n. If O be origin and P is a

point whose co-ordinates are ( x , y , z ),then x = lr , y = mr , z = nr , where l ,
m , n are direction cosines of OP.
Direction Ratios - Any three numbers a , b , c proportional to the direction

cosines of a line are called direction ratios of the line.
If l , m , n are the direction cosines of a line and a, b, c
are its direction ratios, then
Equation of a Plane and a Line in various forms
Equation of a Plane -
 General equation of a plane is ax + by + cz + d = 0
 Equation of the plane in Normal form is lx + my + nz = p where p is the

length of the normal from the origin to the plane and (l, m, n) be the
direction cosines of the normal.
 The equation to the plane passing through P(x1, y1, z1) and having
direction ratios (a, b, c) for its normal is a(x – x1) + b(y – y1) + c (z – z1) = 0
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 The equation of the plane passing through three non-collinear points (x1,
y1, z1), (x2, y2, z2) and (x3, y3 , z3) is
=0
 The equation of the plane whose intercepts are a, b, c on the x, y, z axes

respectively is x/a + y/b + z/c = 1 (a, b, c ≠ 0)
 Equation of YZ plane is x = 0, equation of plane parallel to YZ plane is x =

d.
 Equation of ZX plane is y = 0, equation of plane parallel to ZX plane is y =
d.
 Equation of XY plane is z = 0, equation of plane parallel to XY plane is z =
d.
 Four points namely A (x1, y1, z1), B (x2, y2, z2), C (x3, y3, z3) and D (x4, y4,
z4) will be coplanar if one point lies on the plane passing through other
three points
Equation of a Line –
The equations of lines are of the following forms:
 Slope intercept form-

y=mx+b
The slope intercept form is useful if the slope m and the y intercept (0, b)
are known.
 Point slope form-

y - y1 = m (x - x1).
The point slope form is useful if the slope m and a point (x1 , y1) through
which the line passes are known.
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 Equation of a vertical line-

x = k , where k is a constant.
 Equation of a horizontal line-

y = k , where k is a constant.
 General equation of a line-

a x + b y = c , where a, b and c are constants.
Angle between Two lines and Angle between Two planes
 Angle between Two lines -
The angle θ between the lines having slope m1 and m2 is given by
θ =
Condition for perpendicularity

m1 . m2 = -1
Condition for parallelism

m1 = m2
 Angle between Two Planes -
Angle between the planes is defined as angle between normals of the planes
drawn from any point to the planes.
Angle between the planes a1x + b1y + c1z + d1 = 0

and a2x + b2y + c2z + d2 = 0 is
Note:
If a1a2 +b1b2 +c1c2 = 0, then the planes are perpendicular to each other.
If a1/a2 = b1/b2 = c1/c2 then the planes are parallel to each other.
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Equation of a sphere
 We can calculate the equation of a sphere using the formula
(x−h)2+(y−k)2+(z−l)2=r2
where (h,k,l) is the center of the sphere and r is the radius of the sphere.
 To calculate the radius of the sphere, we can use the distance formula
D=√(x2−x1)2+(y2−y1)2+(z2−z1)2
where D is the length of the radius (x1,y1,z1) is one point on the surface of the
sphere and (x2,y2,z2) is the center of the sphere.
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5. Differential Calculus
Concept of a real valued function - domain, range and

graph of a function
Real-Valued Function
A function defined from a set A to set B is a real-valued function if all the

elements of the set B are real numbers. If the target space of the
function f:A→B is a set of real numbers then the function f can be called a
real-valued function. It can be also written as, f:A→R.
A real valued function can be defined as a function whose range or target

value is of real numbers. Let us take a function f(x)=√x where the domain is all
the real numbers. The range of this function will consist of imaginary values
also, and hence, it is not a real-valued function.
Domain and Range of Real-Valued Functions
Domain of a real-valued function is the set of values for which the function can
be defined. For example, let us take a function f(x) = 1 / (x−2). We can define
this function only when the denominator is not equal to zero. Hence, at the
point (x - 2) = 0, that is, x = 2 the function cannot be defined. The domain of
the given function can be written as R−2.
The range of a real-valued will always be a set of real numbers. It does not
imply that the range of a real-valued function is the complete set of real
numbers. For example, for the function f(x)=x2 the range of the function will
only consist of real values which are all positive real numbers. Similarly, f(x) =
2 is also a real-valued function having range as {2}.
Graph of a function
The most common graphs name the input value xx and the output value yy,
and we say y is a function of x, or y=f(x) where the function is named f.
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The graph of the function is the set of all points (x,y) in the plane that satisfies
the equation y=f(x). If the function is defined for only a few input values, then
the graph of the function is only a few points, where the x-coordinate of each
point is an input value and the y-coordinate of each point is the corresponding
output value. For example, the black dots on the graph in the graph below tell
us that f(0)=2 and f(6)=1. However, the set of all points (x,y) satisfying y=f(x) is
a curve. The curve shown includes (0,2) and (6,1) because the curve passes
through those points.
The vertical line test can be used to determine whether a graph represents a
function. A vertical line includes all points with a particular x value. The y value
of a point where a vertical line intersects a graph represents an output for that
input x value. If we can draw any vertical line that intersects a graph more
than once, then the graph does not define a function because that x value has
more than one output. A function has only one output value for each input
value.
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
Function Not a Function Not a Function
Composite functions, one - one, onto and inverse functions
Composite function
A composite function is a function that depends on another function. A

composite function is created when one function is substituted into another
function.
For example, f(g(x)) is the composite function that is formed when g(x) is
substituted for x in f(x).
f(g(x)) is read as ―f of g of x‖.
f(g(x)) can also be written as (f ο g)(x) or fg(x),
In the composition (f ο g)(x), the domain of f becomes g(x).
one-one function
A function f: A → B is said to be one-to one function if

f ( a 1 ) = f (a 2 )
⇒ ( a 1 ) = ( a 2 ) , ( a 1 )( a 2 ) ∈ A
Let A = {( a 1 )( a 2 )( a 3 )( a 4 )} and B = {( b 1 )( b 2 )( b 3 )( b 4 )}
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onto function
A function f: A → B is called an onto function if the range of f is B. In other

words, if each b ∈ B there exists at least one a ∈ A such that.
f(a) = b, then f is an onto function. An onto function is also called surjective
function.
Let A = {a , b , c , d } and B = {x , y , z } then f : A → B.
Inverse function
Let f be a one−one function with domain A and range B. Then, its inverse
function , denoted by f−1, has domain B and range A and is defined by:
f−1(y)=x ⇔ f(x)=y for any y∈B f−1(y)=x ⇔ f(x)=y for any y∈B
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Notice that if f was not one−one, then f−1 would be mapping y back to two x's,
which would cause f−1 to violate the definition of a function Therefore, inverses
only exist for 1−1 functions!
Notion of limit , Standard limits
Limit
Limit of a function may be a finite or an infinite number.

limx→2 4x = 4*2 = 8
 If limx→a f(x) = ∞, it just implies that the function f(x) tends to assume
extremely large positive values in the vicinity of x = a i.e. limx→0 1/|x|= ∞.
 A function is said to be indeterminate at any point if it acquires one of the

following values at that particular point
0/0 , 0 × ∞ , ∞/∞ , ∞-∞ , 00 , 1∞ , ∞0.
 The 0/0 form is the standard indeterminate form.
 The point ‗∞‘ cannot be plotted on the paper. It is just a symbol and not a
number.
Infinity (∞) does not obey the laws of elementary algebra.

1. ∞ + ∞ = ∞
2. ∞ x ∞ = ∞
3. (a/∞) = 0, if a is finite
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4. (a/0) is not defined if a ≠ 0.

5. ab = 0 iff either a = 0 or b = 0 and both ‗a‘ and ‗b‘ are finite.
In case of limits, it is important to note that the function cannot be manipulated

and cancelled as in usual algebra.
For example - (x2-a2)/(x-a) = (x+a)(x-a)/((x-a)) = (x+a)
This can be done in general, but in limits this is not possible until and unless
(x-a) ≠ 0 or x ≠ a.
The limit may exist at a point x = a even if the function is not defined at that
point.
If a function f is defined at a point ‗a‘ i.e. f(a) exists even then it is not
necessary that the limit at ‗a‘ should exist. Moreover, even if the limit exists it
need not be equal to f(a).
Fundamental Results on Limits -
Suppose limx→a f(x) = α and limx→a g(x) = β then we can define the following
rules -
The above rules are applicable only when both the limits i.e. lim f(x) and g(x)
exist separately.
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
In addition to above rules, we have two more rules:

 limx→a k f(x) = k limx→a f(x), where k is a constant
 limx→a f [g(x)] = f [limx→a g(x)] = f(m), provided f is continuous at g(x) = m.
 Some standard limits which should be remembered include -
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
Let the function f(x) be defined in x ∈ [a, b]. At times, we might have to
calculate lim x→b f(x) or lim x→a f(x).
In such a case, lim x→a f(x) = x→a+ f(x) = R.H.L at x = a, as there is no left
neighborhood of x = a.
Similarly, lim x→b f(x) or lim x→b- f(x) = L.H.L at x = b as there is no left
neighborhood of x = b.
Example - f(x) = cos-1 x

lim x→1 f(x) = lim x→1- cos-1 x = 0.
lim x→-1 f(x) = lim x→-1+ cos-1 x = π.
Continuity of Functions
Continuity
A function f(x) is said to be continuous at x= a if

limx→a- f(x) = limx→a+ f(x) = f(a)
Thus, unlike limits, for continuity it is essential for the function to be defined at
that particular point and the limiting value of the function should be equal to
f(a).
The function f(x) will be discontinuous at x = a in either of the following

situations -
limx→a- f(x) and limx→a+ f(x) exist but are not equal.
limx→a- f(x) and limx→a+ f(x) exist and are equal but not equal to f(a).
f(a) is not defined.
At least one of the limits does not exist.
 Some important properties of continuous functions -
 If the functions f(x) and g(x) are both continuous at x = a then the following
results hold true:
1. f(x) is continuous at x = a where c is any constant.
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
2. f(x) + g(x) is continuous at x = a.

3. f(x).g(x) is continuous at x= a.
4. f(x)/g(x) is continuous at x= a, provided g(a) ≠ 0.
 If a function f is continuous in (a, b), it means it is continuous at every point

of (a, b).
 If f is continuous in [a, b] then in addition to being continuous ay every point

of domain, f should also be continuous at the end points i.e. f(x) is said to
be continuous in the closed interval [a, b] if
1. f(x) is continuous in (a, b)
2. limx→a+ f(x) = f(a)
3. limx→a- f(x) = f(a)
 If the function u = f(x) is continuous at the point x = a, and the function y =

g(u) is continuous at the point u = f(a), then the composite function y =
(gof)(x) = g(f(x)) is continuous at the point x = a.
Derivative of a function at a point
The rate of change of a quantity y with respect to another quantity x is called

the derivative or differential coefficient of y with respect to x .
Let f(x) is a function finitely differentiable at every point on the real number
line. Then, its derivative is given by
Derivatives of sum, product and quotient of functions
(i) Sum or Difference Rule

If the function is sum or difference of two functions, the derivative of the
functions is the sum or difference of the individual functions, i.e.
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
If f(x) = u(x) ± v(x)

then, f'(x) = u'(x) ± v'(x)
(ii) Product Rule

If the function f(x) is product of two functions u(x) and v(x), the derivative of
the function i.e,
If f(x) = u(x) × v(x)

then, f′(x) = u′(x)×v(x) + u(x)×v′(x)
(iii) Quotient rule

If the function f(x) is in the form of two functions [u(x)]/[v(x)], the derivative of
the function is
If, f(x)=u(x) / v(x)
then, f′(x)=
Derivative of a function with respect of another function
Derivatives as the Rate of Change
If a variable quantity y is some function of time t i.e., y = f(t), then small

change in Δt time At have a corresponding change Δy in y.
Thus, the average rate of change = (Δy/Δt)
When limit At Δt→ 0 is applied, the rate of change becomes instantaneous

and we get the rate of change with respect to at the instant x.
So, the differential coefficient of y with respect to x i.e., (dy/dx) is nothing but
the rate of increase of y relative to x.
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
Derivative of a composite function
If g and h are two functions defined by y = g(u) and u = h(x) respectively then
a function defined by y = g [h(x)] or goh(x) is called a composite function or a
function of a function.
Hence, if g(x) and h(x) are two differentiable functions, then fog is also
differentiable and hence (fog)‘(x) = f‘(g(x)).g‘(x)
Explanation -
Let y be a differential function of u and u is a differential function of x, then
dy/dx = dy/(du) × du/(dx)
Let y = g(u) and u = f(x)
Let Δx be increment in x and Δ u and Δy be the Corresponding increments in
u and y respectively.
y + Δ y = g(u + Δu) and u + Δu = f(x + Δx)
Δy = g(u + Δu) - g(u) and Δu = f(x + Δx) - f(x)
Δy/(Δu) = (g (u + Δu)/(Δu) and Δu/(Δx) = (f(x + Δx) – f(x))/ Δx
Δy/(Δx) = Δy/(Δu).Δu/(Δx)
Applying limits
limΔx→0 Δy/Δx = limΔu→0 Δy/Δu × lim?u→0 Δu/Δx
⇒ dy/dx = dy/du × du/dx
= d/du g(u) × d/dx f(x)
Note -
If y = t(u) and u = h(x) then dy/dx = dy/du . du/dx
In fact, this can be extended to any number of chains.
Hence, if we have y = (A)B, where A is a function of x and B is a constant then
we have
dy/dx = B(A)B-1 . d/dx (A).
Second order derivatives
Second Derivative of a function is the derivative of the first derivative.so first

we will find the first derivative then take its derivative again to find the second
derivative.
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
The Second Derivative of function f(x) is represented as
Increasing and Decreasing functions
Increasing function
This is the definition of a function which is increasing on an interval.

If there is a function y = f(x)
A function is increasing over an interval, if for every x1 and x2 in the interval,

x1 < x2, f( x1) ≤ f(x2)
A function is strictly increasing over an interval, if for every x1 and x2 in the

interval,
x1 < x2, f( x1) < f(x2)
There is a difference of symbol in both the above increasing functions.
Decreasing functions
If there is a function y = f(x)
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
A function is decreasing over an interval , if for every x1 and x2 in the interval,

x1 < x2, f( x1) ≥ f(x2)
A function is strictly decreasing over an interval, if for every x1 and x2 in the

interval,
x1 < x2, f( x1) > f(x2)
There is a difference of symbol in both the above decreasing functions.
Maxima and Minima

Maxima - A function y = f(x) is said to have a local maximum at a point x = a.
If f(x) ≤ f(a) for all x ∈ (a – h, a + h), where h is somewhat small but positive
quantity.
The point x = a is called a point of maximum of the function f(x) and f(a) is
known as the maximum value or the greatest value or the absolute maximum
value of f(x).
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
Minima - The function y = f(x) is said to have a local minimum at a point x = a,

if f(x) ≥ f(a) for all x ∈ (a – h, a + h), where h is somewhat small but positive
quantity.
The point x = a is called a point of minimum of the function f(x) and f(a) is
known as the minimum value or the least value or the absolute minimum
value of f(x).
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6. Integral Calculus and Differential equations
Integration as Inverse of Differentiation
Integration is the inverse process of differentiation. Instead of differentiating a

function, we are given the derivative of a function and asked to find its
primitive, i.e., the original function. Such a process is called integration or anti
differentiation.
Let us consider the following examples
We know that
and
We observe that In (1) equation, the function cos x is the derived function of
sin x. We say that sin x is an anti derivative (or an integral) of cos x. Similarly,
In (2) and (3) equation, x3 / 3 and ex are the anti derivatives (or integrals) of
x2 and ex, respectively. Again, we note that for any real number C, treated as
constant function, its derivative is zero and hence, we can write (1), (2) and
(3) equation as follows :
Thus, anti derivatives (or integrals) of the above cited functions are not
unique. Actually, there exist infinitely many anti derivatives of each of these
functions which can be obtained by choosing C arbitrarily from the set of real
numbers. For this reason C is customarily referred to as arbitrary constant. In
fact, C is the parameter by varying which one gets different anti derivatives (or
integrals) of the given function. More generally, if there is a function F such
that ∀ x ∈ I (interval), then for any arbitrary real number C,
(also called constant of integration)
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Thus, {F + C, C ∈ R} denotes a family of anti derivatives of f.
Integration by Substitution and by parts

Consider a definite integral of the following form
Step 1 - Substitute g(x) = t

⇒ g ‗(x) dx = dt
Step 2 - Find the limits of integration in new system of variable i.e.. the lower
limit is g(a) and the upper limit is g(b) and the g(b) integral is now
Step 3 - Evaluate the integral, so obtained by usual method
Standard Integrals involving Algebraic expressions,

Trigonometric, Exponential and Hyperbolic functions
Let f(x) be a function. Then, the collection of all its primitives is called
the indefinite integral of f(x) and is denoted by ∫f(x)dx. Integration as inverse
operation of differentiation. If d/dx {φ(x)) = f(x), ∫f(x)dx = φ(x) + C, where C is
called the constant of integration or arbitrary constant.
 Fundamental integration formulas
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Evaluation of definite integrals
Let f(x) be a function defined on the interval [a, b] and F(x) be its anti-
derivative. Then,
The above is called the second fundamental theorem of calculus.
is defined as the definite integral of f(x) from x = a to x = b. The
numbers a and b are called limits of integration.
We write
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 Properties of Definite Integral
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Determination of areas of plane regions bounded by curves
The space occupied by the curve along with the axis, under the given
condition is called area of bounded region.
 The area bounded by the curve y = F(x) above the X-axis and between the
lines x = a, x = b is given by
 If the curve between the lines x = a, x = b lies below the X-axis, then the
required area is given by
 The area bounded by the curve x = F(y) right to the Y-axis and the lines y =
c, y = d is given by
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 If the curve between the lines y = c, y = d left to the Y-axis, then the area is
given by
 Area bounded by two curves y = F (x) and y = G (x) between x = a and x =

b is given by
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 Area bounded by two curves x = f(y) and x = g(y) between y=c and y=d is
given by
 If F (x) ≥. G (x) in [a, c] and F (x) ≤ G (x) in [c,d], where a < c < b, then area
of the region bounded by the curves is given as
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Definition of order and degree of a Differential equation
Order of a differential equation
Order of a differential equation is defined as the order of the highest order

derivative of the dependent variable with respect to the independent variable
involved in the given differential equation.
Consider the following differential equations:
The equations (1), (2) and (3) involve the highest derivative of first, second
and third order respectively. Therefore, the order of these equations are 1, 2
and 3 respectively.
Degree of a differential equation
To study the degree of a differential equation, the key point is that the
differential equation must be a polynomial equation in derivatives, i.e., y′, y″,
y″′ etc.
Consider the following differential equations:
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We observe that equation (4) is a polynomial equation in y″′, y″ and y′,

equation (5) is a polynomial equation in y′ (not a polynomial in y though).
Degree of such differential equations can be defined. But equation (6) is not a
polynomial equation in y′ and degree of such a differential equation cannot be
defined.
By the degree of a differential equation, when it is a polynomial equation in

derivatives, we mean the highest power (positive integral index) of the highest
order derivative involved in the given differential equation.
In view of the above definition, one may observe that differential equations (1),
(2), (3) and (4) each are of degree one, equation (5) is of degree two while the
degree of differential equation (6) is not defined.
NOTE: Order and degree (if defined) of a differential equation are always
positive integers.
Formation of a differential equation
For any given differential equation, the solution is of the

form f(x,y,c1,c2,…….,cn)=0 where x and y are the variables
and (c1,c2…….cn) are the arbitrary constants.
To obtain the differential equation from this equation we follow the following
steps:-
Step 1: Differentiate the given function w.r.t to the independent variable

present in the equation.
Step 2: Keep differentiating times in such a way that (n+1)equations are

obtained.
Step 3: Using the (n+1) equations obtained, eliminate the

constants (c1,c2…….cn) .
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Example: Find the differential equation of the family of curves y = Aex +

Be3x for different values of A and B.
Solution: y = A ex + Be3x . . . .(1)
x 3x
y1 = Ae + 3Be . . . (2) (y1 = dy/dx)
x 3x
y2 = Ae + 9B . . . (3) (y2 = d2y/dx2)
Eliminating A and B from the above three, we get
= 0 so, ex e3x =0
3y + 4y1 - y2 = 0 or 3y + 4dy/dx – d2y/ dx2 =0.
General and Particular solution of a differential equation
General Solution - Let the solution be represented as y=ϕ(x)+C . It

represents the solution curve or the integral curve of the given differential
equation.
Thus, we can say that a general solution always involves a constant C.
Example - Find the general solution of a differential equation

dy/dx=ex+cos2x+2x3.
Solution – dy/dx=ex+cos2x+2x3.
⇒dy=(ex+cos2x+2x3)dx
Integrating both the sides, we get

y=ex+sin2x/2+x4/2+C
This represents the general solution of the given differential equation as it

involves the constant C.
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Particular Solution - When the arbitrary constant of the general solution

takes some unique value, then the solution becomes the particular solution of
the equation.
By using the boundary conditions (also known as the initial conditions) the
particular solution of a differential equation is obtained.
So, to obtain the particular solution, first of all general solution is found out
and then, by using the given conditions the particular solution is generated.
Suppose in the above mentioned example we are given to find the particular
solution if
dy/dx=ex+cos2x+2x3, given that for
Then we know, the general solution is
y=ex+sin2x/2+x4/2+C
Now,x=0,y=5 substituting this value in the general solution we get,

5=e0+sin(0)2+(0)42+C
⇒C=4
Hence substituting the value of C in the general solution we obtain,
y=ex+sin2x/2+x4/2+4
This represents the particular solution of the given equation.
Solution of First order and First degree differential equations
An equation that involves dependent and independent variable and at least

one derivative of the dependent variable with respect to the independent
variable is called a differential equation.
A separable differential equation can be expressed as the product of a

function of x and a function of y i.e.it can be expressed in the form
f(x)dx + g(y)dy = 0.
The solution of such an equation is given by

∫f(x)dx + ∫g(y)dy = c, where ‗c‘ is the arbitrary constant.
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If the equation is of the form -
To solve this, just substitute t = ax + by + c. Then the equation reduces to

separable type in the variable t and x which can be easily solved.
At times, transformation to the polar coordinates facilitates the separation of

variables. In that case, it is advisable to remember the following differentials:
If x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ then
1. x dx + y dy = r dr
2. x dy – y dx = r2 dθ
If x = r sec θ and y = r tan θ then

1. x dx – y dy = r dr
2. x dy – y dx = r2 sec θ dθ
A differential equation of the form
where both f(x,y) and φ(x,y) are homogeneous functions of x and y and of the
same degree is called homogeneous. This equation can also be reduced to
the form
and is solved by putting y = vx so that the differential equation is transformed

into an equation with variable separable.
Equation of the form
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can be reduced to a homogeneous form by changing the variable x, y to X, Y

by writing x = X + h and y = Y + k, where h and k are constants to be chosen
in such a way that
ah + bk + c = 0 and Ah + Bk + C = 0.
A differential equation is said to be linear if the dependent variable and all its
differential coefficients occur in degree one only and are never multiplied
together.
Linear differential equations of first order first degree
1.
where P & Q are functions of x

I.F. = e ∫Pdx
Solution is e ∫Pdx = ∫ Qe ∫Pdx dx + c
2.
where P1, Q1 are functions of y alone or constants

I.F. = e ∫P1dy
Solution is e ∫P1dy = ∫ Q1e ∫P1dy dy + c
3. Reducible to linear (Bernoulli‘s equation)
P and Q are functions of x are functions of x.

The equation can be reduced to linear equation by dividing by yn & then
substituting y -n+1 = Z.
Exact differential equation - A differential equation M(x, y)dx + N(x, y) dy = 0

is called an exact differential equation if there exists a function u such that du
= Mdx + Ndy.
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The above differential equation Mdx + Ndy = 0 is termed to be exact if ∂M/∂y =

∂N/∂x. Its solution hence is given by ∫M dx + ∫N dy = c, where in the first
integral, i.e. in M, y is considered as a constant and in N, only those terms
which are independent of x are considered.
Exact differentials to be remembered
The order of the differential equation is the order of thederivative of the

highest order occurring in the differential equation.
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7. Vector Algebra
Vectors in two and three dimensions
Two- Dimensinal Vector - One way to represent a two-dimensional vector is

with vector components, which simply tell you how far the vector goes in each
direction. For example, a vector with an x-component of 4 and a y-component
of 5 that started at the origin would end at coordinates (4,3).
The magnitude of a vector is the total amount of the quantity represented by

the vector. For a two-dimensional vector, the magnitude is equal to the length
of the hypotenuse of a triangle in which the sides are the x- and y-
components. Therefore, if you know the two components of the vector and
want to find the magnitude, you can use the Pythagorean Theorem. You can
also use the tangent function to find the angle that the vector makes with
the x-axis. For the vector shown above, the magnitude would be 5, and the
angle it makes with the x-axis would be 37 degrees.
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Three- Dimensinal Vector - We can represent any vector in rectangular

components form. Let us assume an xyz coordinate plane and unit vector I
,j and k are defined across x ,y ,z respectively
Then we can represent any vector in the components forms like
r= xi+yj+ zk
x ,y and z are scalar components of vector r

xi,yj,zk are called the vector components
x,y,z are termed as rectagular components
Length of vector or magnitude of the vector is defined as
x,y,z are called the direction ratio of vector r
In case it is given l,m,n are direction cosines of a vector then

li+mj+nk=(cosθx) i +(cosθy) j+(cosθz) k is the unit vector in the direction of
the vector and θx , θy , θz are the angles which the vector makes with x,y and
z axis
Magnitude and Direction of a vector
Magnitude of a Vector
The magnitude of a vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is the distance between the initial point P and
the end point Q . In symbols the magnitude of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is written as | ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | .
If the coordinates of the initial point and the end point of a vector is given,
the Distance Formula can be used to find its magnitude.
| ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |=√
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Direction of a Vector
The direction of a vector is the measure of the angle it makes with a horizontal
line .
One of the following formulas can be used to find the direction of a vector:
tanθ=y/x , where x is the horizontal change and y is the vertical change
or
tanθ=y2 − y1/x2 − x1, where (x1,y1) is the initial point and (x2,y2) is the terminal
point.
Unit and Null vectors
Unit Vector - A vector whose magnitude is unity is called a unit vector which
is denoted by n^.
Zero or Null Vector - A vector whose initial and terminal points are coincident
is called zero or null vector.
Addition of vectors, Scalar multiplication of vector
In component form addition of two vectors is

C=A+B
C = (Ax+ Bx)i + (Ay+ By)j + (Az+ Bz)k
Where, A = (Ax, Ay, Az) and B = (Bx, By, Bz)
Thus in component form resultant vector C becomes,
Cx = Ax+ Bx : Cy = Ay+ By : Cz = Az+ Bz
In component form substraction of two vectors is

D=A -B
D = (Ax- Bx)i + (Ay- By)j + (Az- Bz)k
where, A = (Ax, Ay, Az) and B = (Bx, By, Bz)
Thus in component form resultant vector D becomes,
Dx = Ax - Bx : Dy = Ay- By : Dz = Az- Bz
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Equality of vector in components form

A=B
Axi +Ayj+Azk= Bxi+Byj+Bzk
Ax=Bx
Ay=By
Az=Bz
Multiplication of scalar by vector in components form

A=kB
=K(Bxi+Byj+Bzk)
=(kBx)i + (kBy)j+ (kBz)k
Scalar product or dot product of two-vectors
Dot product of two vectors A and B is defined as the product of the

magnitudes of vectors A and B and the cosine of the angle between them
when both te vectors are placed tail to tail. Dot product is represented
as A.B thus,
A.B = |A| |B| cosθ

where θ is the angle between two vectors and 0 =< θ <= 180
 Result of dot product of two vectors is a scalar quantity.

 Dot product is commutative : A.B = B.A
 Dot product is distributive : A . (B+C) = A.B + A.C also A.A = |A|2
 In component form dot product of two vectors
A.B = (Axi + Ayj + Azk) . (Bxi + Byj + Bzk) = AxBx + AyBy + AzBz.
Thus for calculating the dot product of two vectors, first multiply like
components, and then add.
 For two mutually perpendicular vectors A.B = 0
 Scalar product of two equal vectors is A.A=|A|2
 If either a or b is the null vector, then scalar product of the vector is zero.
 If a and b are two unit vectors, then a * b = cos θ
 If i , j and k are mutually perpendicular unit vectors i , j and k, then
i * i = j * j = k * k =1
and i * j = j * k = k * i = 0
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 Angle between Two Vectors If θ is angle between two non-zero vectors, a,

b, then we have
a * b = |a| |b| cos θ
cos θ = a * b / |a| |b|
Vector product and cross product of two vectors
Cross product or vector product of two vectors A and B is defined as
A x B = |A| |B| sinθ n

where n is the unit vector pointing in the direction perpendicular to the plane
of both A and B. Result of vector product is also a vector quantity.
 Cross product is distributive i.e., A x (B + C) = (A x B) + (A x C) but not

commutative and
 The cross product of two parallel vectors is zero.
 Component of any vector is the projection of that vector along the three
coordinate axes X, Y, Z.
A x B = (Axi + Ayj + Azk) x (Bxi + Byj + Bzk)
= (AyBz - AzBy)i + (AzBx - AxBz)j + ( AxBy - AyBx)k.
 Cross product of two vectors is itself a vector.

 To calculate the cross product, form the determinant whose first row is x, y,
z, whose second row is A (in component form), and whose third row is B.
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8. Statistics and Probability
Statistics
Classification of data
Data
Data is a collection of facts, such as numbers, words, measurements,
observations etc.
Types of Data-
1. Qualitative data- it is descriptive data.
Example- She can run fast, He is thin.
2. Quantitative data- it is numerical information.

Example- An Octopus is an Eight legged creature.
Types of quantitative data

Discrete data- has a particular fixed value. It can be counted
Continuous data- is not fixed but has a range of data. It can be measured.
Frequency distribution
Frequency distribution is a representation, either in a graphical or tabular

format, that displays the number of observations within a given interval. The
intervals must be mutually exclusive and exhaustive, and the interval size
depends on the data being analyzed and the goals of the analyst.
Frequency distributions are typically used within a statistical context.
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Cumulative Frequency Distribution
A cumulative frequency distribution is the sum of the class and all classes
below it in a frequency distribution. All that means is you‘re adding up a value
and all of the values that came before it. Here‘s a simple example: You get
paid $250 for a week of work. The second week you get paid $300 and the
third week, $350. Your cumulative amount for week 2 is $550 ($300 for
week 2 and $250 for week 1). Your cumulative amount for week 3 is $900
($350 for week 3, $300 for week 2 and $250 for week 1).
Cumulative frequency distributions can be summarized in a table.
Histogram
A diagram consisting of rectangles whose area is proportional to the
frequency of a variable and whose width is equal to the class interval.
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Pie Chart
A type of graph in which a circle is divided into Sectors that each represent a
proportion of the whole.
Frequency Polygon
A frequency polygon is almost identical to a histogram, which is used to
compare sets of data or to display a cumulative frequency distribution. It uses
a line graph to represent quantitative data.
ABCDEF represents the given data graphically in form of frequency polygon
as:
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Measures of central tendency
A measure of central tendency is a single value that attempts to describe a set

of data by identifying the central position within that set of data. As such,
measures of central tendency are sometimes called measures of central
location. They are also classed as summary statistics. The mean (often called
the average) is most likely the measure of central tendency that you are most
familiar with, but there are others, such as the median and the mode.
The mean, median and mode are all valid measures of central tendency, but
under different conditions, some measures of central tendency become more
appropriate to use than others. In the following sections, we will look at the
mean, mode and median, and learn how to calculate them and under what
conditions they are most appropriate to be used.
Mean
Mean is most commonly used measures of central tendency. It actually
represents the average of the given collection of data. It is applicable for both
continuous and discrete data.
It is equal to the sum of all the values in the collection of data divided by the
total number of values.
Suppose we have n values in a set of data namely
as x1,x2,x3……………….xn Then the mean of data is given by:
x=x1+x2+x3+……..+xn / n
It can also be denoted as:
x=∑ni=0xi / n
Median
Median represents the mid value of the given set of data when arranged in a
particular order
Given that the data collection is arranged in ascending or descending order,
the following method is applied:
i) If number of values or observations in the given data is odd, then the
median is given by (n+1/2)th observation.
ii) If in the given data set the number of values or observations is even then
the median is given by the average of (n/2)th and (n+1/2)th observation.
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Mode
The most frequent number occurring in the data set is known as the mode.
Variance and standard deviation

Variance - Let x1 , x2 , ..., xn be n observations with x as the mean. The
variance, denoted by σ 2 , is given by
σ2 = ̅
Standard Deviation - If σ2 is the variance, then σ, is called the standard

deviation, is given by
σ=√ ̅
Correlation and Regression
Correlation - The correlation coefficient is designed to measure the linear

association between two variables without distinguishing between response
and explanatory variables. The correlation between the variables x and y is
defined as
In this equation, sx refers to the standard deviation of x and sy refers to the

standard deviation of y.
 The correlation between two variables will be positive when they tend to be
both high and low at the same time, will be negative when one tends to be
high when the other is low, and will be near zero when the value on one
variable is unrelated to the value on the second.
 The correlation formula can also be written as
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This is called the calculation formula for r. This formula is easier to use
when calculating correlations by hand, but is not as useful when trying to
understand the meaning of correlations.
 Correlations have several important characteristics.
 The value of r always falls between -1 and 1. Positive values indicate a

positive association between the variables, while negative values
indicate a negative association between the variables.
 If r = 1 or r = −1 then all of the cases fall on a straight line. This means

that the one variable is actually a perfect linear function of the other. In
general, when the correlation is closer to either 1 or -1 then the
relationship between the variables is closer to a straight line.
 The value of r will not change if you change the unit of measurement of
either x or y.
 Correlations only measure the degree of linear association between two

variables. If two variables have a zero correlation, they might still have a
strong nonlinear relationship.
Regression - Simple regression is used to examine the relationship between

one dependent and one independent variable. After performing an analysis,
the regression statistics can be used to predict the dependent variable when
the independent variable is known. Regression goes beyond correlation by
adding prediction capabilities.
People use regression on an intuitive level every day. In business, a well-

dressed man is thought to be financially successful. A mother knows that
more sugar in her children's diet results in higher energy levels. The ease of
waking up in the morning often depends on how late you went to bed the night
before. Quantitative regression adds precision by developing a mathematical
formula that can be used for predictive purposes.
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For example, a medical researcher might want to use body weight

(independent variable) to predict the most appropriate dose for a new drug
(dependent variable). The purpose of running the regression is to find a
formula that fits the relationship between the two variables. Then you can use
that formula to predict values for the dependent variable when only the
independent variable is known. A doctor could prescribe the proper dose
based on a person's body weight.
The regression line (known as the least squares line) is a plot of the expected
value of the dependent variable for all values of the independent variable.
Technically, it is the line that "minimizes the squared residuals". The
regression line is the one that best fits the data on a scatterplot.
Using the regression equation, the dependent variable may be predicted from
the independent variable. The slope of the regression line (b) is defined as the
rise divided by the run. The y intercept (a) is the point on the y axis where the
regression line would intercept the y axis. The slope and y intercept are
incorporated into the regression equation. The intercept is usually called the
constant, and the slope is referred to as the coefficient. Since the regression
model is usually not a perfect predictor, there is also an error term in the
equation.
In the regression equation, y is always the dependent variable and x is always

the independent variable. Here are three equivalent ways to mathematically
describe a linear regression model.
y = intercept + (slope x) + error
y = constant + (coefficient x) + error
y = a + bx + e
The significance of the slope of the regression line is determined from the t-
statistic. It is the probability that the observed correlation coefficient occurred
by chance if the true correlation is zero. Some researchers prefer to report the
F-ratio instead of the t-statistic. The F-ratio is equal to the t-statistic squared.
The t-statistic for the significance of the slope is essentially a test to determine
if the regression model (equation) is usable. If the slope is significantly
different than zero, then we can use the regression model to predict the
dependent variable for any value of the independent variable.
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On the other hand, take an example where the slope is zero. It has no
prediction ability because for every value of the independent variable, the
prediction for the dependent variable would be the same. Knowing the value
of the independent variable would not improve our ability to predict the
dependent variable. Thus, if the slope is not significantly different than zero,
don't use the model to make predictions.
The coefficient of determination (r-squared) is the square of the correlation
coefficient. Its value may vary from zero to one. It has the advantage over the
correlation coefficient in that it may be interpreted directly as the proportion of
variance in the dependent variable that can be accounted for by the
regression equation. For example, an r-squared value of .49 means that 49%
of the variance in the dependent variable can be explained by the regression
equation. The other 51% is unexplained.
The standard error of the estimate for regression measures the amount of
variability in the points around the regression line. It is the standard deviation
of the data points as they are distributed around the regression line. The
standard error of the estimate can be used to develop confidence intervals
around a prediction.
Probability
Random experiment
If all the possible outcomes of an experiment are known but the exact output
cannot be predicted in advance, that experiment is called a random
experiment.
Examples
 Tossing of a fair coin

When we toss a coin, the outcome will be either Head (H) or Tail (T)
 Throwing an unbiased die

Die is a small cube used in games. It has six faces and each of the six faces
shows a different number of dots from 1 to 6. Plural of die is dice.
When a die is thrown or rolled, the outcome is the number that appears on its
upper face and it is a random integer from one to six, each value being
equally likely.
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 Drawing a card from a pack of shuffled cards

A pack or deck of playing cards has 52 cards which are divided into four
categories as given below
Spades (♠)
Clubs (♣)
Hearts (♥)
Diamonds (♦)
Each of the above mentioned categories has 13 cards, 9 cards numbered
from 2 to 10, an Ace, a King, a Queen and a jack
Hearts and Diamonds are red faced cards whereas Spades and Clubs are
black faced cards.
Kings, Queens and Jacks are called face cards
 Taking a ball randomly from a bag containing balls of different

colours
Outcomes and Associated sample space
An experiment is an operation which can produce well-defined outcomes.
Sample Space is the set of all possible outcomes of an experiment. It is

denoted by S.
Examples
 When a coin is tossed, S = {H, T} where H = Head and T = Tail

 When a dice is thrown, S = {1, 2 , 3, 4, 5, 6}
 When two coins are tossed, S = {HH, HT, TH, TT} where H = Head and T =
Tail
Events
Any subset of a Sample Space is an event. Events are generally denoted by
capital letters A, B , C, D etc.
Examples
 When a coin is tossed, outcome of getting head or tail is an event
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 When a die is rolled, outcome of getting 1 or 2 or 3 or 4 or 5 or 6 is an

event
Mutually exclusive and exhaustive events
Mutually Exclusive Events

Two or more than two events are said to be mutually exclusive if the
occurrence of one of the events excludes the occurrence of the other
Examples
 When a coin is tossed, we get either Head or Tail. Head and Tail cannot
come simultaneously. Hence occurrence of Head and Tail are mutually
exclusive events.
 When a die is rolled, we get 1 or 2 or 3 or 4 or 5 or 6. All these faces
cannot come simultaneously. Hence occurrences of particular faces when
rolling a die are mutually exclusive events.
Note - If A and B are mutually exclusive events, A ∩ B = ϕ where ϕ represents
empty set.
 Consider a die is thrown and A be the event of getting 2 or 4 or 6 and B be

the event of getting 4 or 5 or 6. Then
A = {2, 4, 6} and B = {4, 5, 6}
Here A ∩ B ≠ϕ. Hence A and B are not mutually exclusive events.
Exhaustive Event
Exhaustive Event is the total number of all possible outcomes of an
experiment.
Examples
 When a coin is tossed, we get either Head or Tail. Hence there are 2
exhaustive events.
 When two coins are tossed, the possible outcomes are (H, H), (H, T), (T,
H), (T, T). Hence there are 4 (=22) exhaustive events.
 When a dice is thrown, we get 1 or 2 or 3 or 4 or 5 or 6. Hence there are 6
exhaustive events.
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Impossible and Certain events

Impossible Even - An event which cannot occur at any performance of the
experiment is called impossible event.
Examples
(i) ‗Seven‘ in case of throwing a die.
(ii) ‗Sum-13‘ in case of throwing a pair of dice.
Certain Events - An event which is sure to occur at every performance of an

experiment is called a certain event connected with the experiment.
Example, ―Head or Tail‘ is a certain event connected with tossing a coin.

Face-1 or face-2, face-3, ……, face-6is a certain event connected with
throwing a die.
Union and Intersection of events
The probability that Events A or B occur is the probability of the union of A

and B. The probability of the union of Events A and B is denoted by P(A B) .
The probability that Events A and B both occur is the probability of

the intersection of A and B. The probability of the intersection of Events A
and B is denoted by P(A ∩ B). If Events A and B are mutually exclusive,
P(A ∩ B) = 0.
Complementary, Elementary and Composite events
Complementary Event - An event which consists in the negation of another

event is called complementary event. In case of throwing a die, ‗even face‘
and ‗odd face‘ are complementary to each other. ―Multiple of 3‖ and ―Not
multiple of 3‖ are complementary events of each other.
Not happening of the event E is called the complementary event of the event
E. It is denoted by E‘ or E or Ec.
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Note that complementary event of certain event is an impossible event and

vice versa.
Elementary event - If there be only one element of the sample space in the
set representing an event, then this event is called a simple or elementary
event.
Example - if we throw a die, then the sample space, S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. Now
the event of 2 appearing on the die is simple and is given by E = {2}.
Composite event - A composite event is an event made up of a grouping of

elementary events, the possible outcomes of all three coins tossed together is
a composite event.
Definition of Probability
Probability is a common term used in day-to-day life. For example, we

generally say, 'it may rain today'. This statement has a certain uncertainty.
Probability is quantitative measure of the chance of occurrence of a particular

event.
Classical Probability
Classical probability is the statistical concept that measures the likelihood

(probability) of something happening. In a classic sense, it means that every
statistical experiment will contain elements that are equally likely to happen
(equal chances of occurrence of something). Therefore, the concept of
classical probability is the simplest form of probability that has equal odds of
something happening.
Examples
1. The typical example of classical probability would be rolling of a fair dice
because it is equally probable that top face of die will be any of the 6 numbers
on the die: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6.
2. Another example of classical probability would be tossing an unbiased coin.
There is an equal probability that your toss will yield either head or tail.
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Formula for Classical Probability
The probability of a simple event happening is the number of times the event
can happen, divided by the number of possible events (outcomes).
Mathematically,
P(E) = n(E)/n(S)
where, P(E) means ―probability of event E‖ (event E is whatever event you are
looking for, like winning the lottery, that is event of interest), n(E) is the
frequency, or number of possible times the event could happen and n(S) is
the number of times the event could happen.
Elementary theorems on probability
Addition Theorem
Let A and B be two events associated with a random experiment. Then
P(A U B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A ∩ B)
If A and B are mutually exclusive events, then P(A U B) = P(A) + P(B)

because for mutually exclusive events, P(A ∩ B) = 0
If A and B are two independents events, then

P(A ∩ B) = P(A).P(B)
Example
Question. Two dice are rolled. What is the probability of getting an odd
number in one die and getting an even number in the other die?
Answer. Total number of outcomes possible when a die is rolled, n(S) = 6 (∵

any one face out of the 6 faces)
Let A be the event of getting the odd number in one die = {1,3,5}. => n(A)= 3
P(A) = n(A)/n(S)=3/6=1/2
Let B be the event of getting an even number in the other die = {2,4, 6}. =>
n(B)= 3
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P(B) = n(B)/n(S)=3/6=1/2
Required Probability, P(A ∩ B) = P(A).P(B) = 1/2×1/2=1/4
 Let A be any event and be its complementary event (i.e., is the event
that A does not occur). Then
P( ) = 1 - P(A)
Odds on an event
Let E be an event associated with a random experiment. Let xx outcomes are
favourable to E and y outcomes are not favourable to E, then
Odds in favour of E are x:y, i.e., x/y and
Odds against E are y:x, i.e., y/x
P(E) = x/x+y
P( ) =y/x+y
Example
Question. What are the odds in favour of and against getting a 1 when a die
is rolled?
Answer. Let E be an event of getting 1 when a die is rolled

Outcomes which are favourable to E, x=1
Outcomes which are not favourable to E, y=5
Odds in favour of getting 1 = x/y=1/5
Odds against getting 1 =y/x=5/1
Conditional probability
Let A and B be two events associated with a random experiment. Then,

probability of the occurrence of A given that B has already occurred is called
conditional probability and denoted by P(A/B)
Example
Question. A bag contains 5 black and 4 blue balls. Two balls are drawn from
the bag one by one without replacement. What is the probability of drawing a
blue ball in the second draw if a black ball is already drawn in the first draw?
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Answer. Let A be the event of drawing black ball in the first draw and B be the
event of drawing a blue ball in the second draw. Then, P(B/A) = Probability of
drawing a blue ball in the second draw given that a black ball is already drawn
in the first draw.
Total Balls = 5 + 4 = 9
Since a black ball is drawn already,
total number of balls left after the first draw = 8
total number of blue balls after the first draw = 4
P(B/A) =4/8=1/2
Bayes' Theorem
Bayes‘ theorem is a way to figure out conditional probability. Conditional
probability is the probability of an event happening, given that it has some
relationship to one or more other events. For example, your probability of
getting a parking space is connected to the time of day you park, where you
park, and what conventions are going on at any time. Bayes‘ theorem is
slightly more nuanced. In a nutshell, it gives you the actual probability of
an event given information about tests.
Bayes‘ Theorem (also known as Bayes‘ rule) is a deceptively simple formula

used to calculate conditional probability. The Theorem was named after
English mathematician Thomas Bayes (1701-1761). The formal definition for
the rule is:
where A and B are two events and P(B) ≠ 0
P(A ∣ B) is the conditional probability of event A occurring given that B is true.

P(B ∣ A) is the conditional probability of event B occurring given that A is true.
P(A) and P(B) are the probabilities of A and B occurring independently of one
another (the marginal probability).
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Example - Bag I contains 4 white and 6 black balls while another Bag II
contains 4 white and 3 black balls. One ball is drawn at random from one of
the bags and it is found to be black. Find the probability that it was drawn from
Bag I.
Solution - Let E1 be the event of choosing the bag I, E2 the event of
choosing the bag II and A be the event of drawing a black ball.
Then,P(E1) = P(E2) = 1/2
Also,P(A|E1) = P(drawing a black ball from Bag I) = 6/10 = 35
P(A|E2) = P(drawing a black ball from Bag II) = 3/7
By using Bayes‘ theorem, the probability of drawing a black ball from bag I out
of two bags,
|
P(E1|A) =
|
= 7/12
Binomial distribution
A binomial experiment is a probability experiment which satisfies the following

requirements.
1. Each trial can have only two outcomes. These outcomes can be considered
as either success or failure.
2. There must be a fixed number of trials.
3. The outcomes of each trial must be independent of each other.
4. The probability of a success must remain the same for each trial.
In a binomial experiment, The probability of achieving exactly r successes in n
trials can be given by
P (r successes in n trials) = n C r prqn−r
where p = probability of success in one trial
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q = 1 - p = probability of failure in one trial
More Shortcut Formulas

If n fair coins are tossed,
Total number of outcomes in the sample space = 2n
The probability of getting exactly r-number of heads when n coins are tossed
= nCr/2n
Example - Toss a coin for 12 times. What is the probability of getting exactly 7
heads.
Solution -
Number of trails (n) = 12
Number of success (r) = 7
probability of single trail(p) = 12 = 0.5
n
C r = n! / r!(n–r)!
= 12! / 7!(12–7)!
= 12! / 7!5!
= 95040 / 120
= 792
pr = 0.57 = 0.0078125
To Find (1−p)n−r Calculate 1-p and n-r.

1-p = 1-0.5 = 0.5
n-r = 12-7 = 5
(1−p)n−r = 0.57 = 0.03125
Solve P(X = r) = n C r . pr . (1−p)n−r

= 792 x 0.0078125 x 0.03125
= 0.193359375
The probability of getting exactly 7 heads is 0.19
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 Exercise
Q1. Let A = {x : x is a multiple of 3} and B = { x : x is a multiple of 5}. Then
A∩B is given by
(A) {3, 6, 9,…}
(B) {5, 10, 15, 20,…}
(C) {15, 30, 45,…}
(D) None of these
Q2. The value of sin150 is equal to___________

√
(A)
√
√
(B)
√
√
(C)
√
√
(D)
√
Q3. If P(n) is the statement ―n (n+1) (n+2) is divisible by 12, then what is
P(3) ?
(A) 12 is divisible by 12
(B) 24 is divisible by 12
(C) 48 is divisible by 12
(D) 60 is divisible by 12
Q4. The modulus of is _____.

(A) 1
(B) 3
(C) 5
(D) 2
Q5. Solution of the equation 52x − 5x+3 + 125 = 5x is ___.

(A) x = 0,3
(B) x = 1, 3
(C) x = 0, 4
(D) x = 2, 3
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Q6. The vertices of a triangle are (0, 0), (3, 0) and (0, 4). The centroid of
the
triangle is
(A) (1/2 , 2)
(B) (1, 4/3)
(C) (0, 0)
(D) None of these
Q7. The value of p for which the circles x2 + y2 – px + 3y – 7=0 and x2 + y2

–16x – 9py – 4 = 0 cut orthogonally is _________.
(A) 3
(B) 1
(C) 2
(D) 4
Q8. The equation of a parabola whose focus is (-3, 0) and the directrix is
x+5=0, is___
(A) x2 = 4 (y – 4)
(B) x2 = 4 (y + 5)
(C) y2 =4 (x – 4)
(D) y2 = 4 (x + 4)
Q9. If the rth term in the expansion of (x/3 – 2/x2)10 contains x4, then r is
equal to
(A) 2
(B) 3
(C) 4
(D) 5
Q10. In an A.P the sum of terms equidistant from the beginning and end
is equal to _____.
(A) First term
(B) Second term
(C) sum of first and last terms
(D) last term
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Q11. How many words can be formed using the letter A thrice, the
letter B twice and the letter C once ?
(A) 50
(B) 60
(C) 55
(D) 40
Q12. ex = 1 + x + x2/2 ! + x3/3 ! + ……… ∞ , is valid for ___.

(A) –1 < x < 1
(B) –1 ≤ x ≤ 1
(C) all real x
(D) None of these
Q13. If A =* + and B =* + the 2A + 3B ?
A) * +
B) * +
C) * +
D) None of these
Q14. Determinant | | is equal to
(A) –1
(B) 1
(C) 2
(D) 0
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Q15. is equal to_______.

(A) e – 1
(B) e + 1
(C) e
(D) e + 2
Q16. Find the value of the constant λ so that at the function given below
is continuous at x = -1:
f(x) = 2
(A) – 4
(B) 4
(C) 3
(D) –3
Q17. =______
(A) sinx ecos x

(B) – sinx ecos x
(C) cosx ecos x
(D) None of these
Q18. = __________
(A)
[ ]
(B)
[ ]
(C)
[ ]
(D) None of these
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Q19. The radius of a ballon is increasing at the rate of 10 cm/sec. At

what rate is the surface area of the ballon increasing when the radius is
15 cm?
(A) 1200 π cm2/sec
(B) 120 πcm2/sec
(C) 150 π cm2/sec
(D) 1500 π cm2/sec
Q20. The interval in which the function f(x) = 2x3 – 3x2 – 36x + 7 is strictly
decreasing is :
(A) (-2, 3)
(B) (- ∞ , -2)
(C) (3, ∞ )
(D) None of these
Q21. The equation of the normal to the curve y = sin x at (0, 0) is

(A) x = 0
(B) y = 0
(C) x + y = 0
(D) x – y = 0
Q22. ∫ = _______.
2
(A) cosx (tan-1x) + C
(B) - cosx (tan-1x) + C
(C) 2x cosx (tan-1x) + C
(D) - 2x cosx (tan-1x) + C
Q23. The area cut off the parabola 4y = 3x2 by the straight line 2y = 3x
+ 12 in sq units is:
(A) 16
(B) 21
(C) 27
(D) 36
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
Q24.The differential equation of the family of curves y = ex (A cosx + B

sinx), where A and B are arbitrary constants, is:
(A) d2y/ dx2 - 2dy/dx + 2y = 0
(B) d2y/ dx2 + 2dy/dx - 2y = 0
(C) d2y/ dx2 + (dy/dx)2 + y = 0
(D) d2y/ dx2 - 7dy/dx + 2y = 0
Q25. One die and one coin are tossed simultaneously. The probability
of getting 6 on die and head on coin is
(A) 1/2
(B) 1/6
(C) 1/12
(D) None of these
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 Answer Key for Exercise Questions
5. Answer. A 25. Answer. C
6. Answer. B
7. Answer. C
8. Answer. D
9. Answer. B
10. Answer. C
11. Answer. B
12. Answer. C
13. Answer. B
14. Answer. D
15. Answer. A
16. Answer. A
17. Answer. B
18. Answer. A
19. Answer. A
20. Answer. A
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ENGLISH
1. Passage
 Introduction - The word comprehension actually means grasping with
intellect and understanding. Reading comprehension is about
understanding what you read of course, there's more to it than that. When
you comprehend what you are reading, you're not only understanding the
words and their meanings, but you are also understanding them enough to
form opinions, thoughts and reflections about what the words mean
together.
Reading comprehension is like having a conversation with someone. If you

do not understand what the other person is saying, you will have no idea
what they are talking about and have nothing to say in return.
 Rule & Tips - Steps to approach ‗Reading Comprehension‘
 Step 1: The very first step is to read the questions quickly. This gives some
idea of what you should be looking for as you read the passage.
 Step 2: The second step is to read the passage. The questions that have
got located in your subconscious after reading the questions earlier will
help you come to pick up anything that is relevant or important.
 Step 3 : Once you have read the questions and have started reading the
passage, make sure you highlight any headings, phrases, keywords etc
that can help in answering the questions. This method will help you save a
lot of time, searching through the passage again.
 Step 4 : Again reread the questions one at a time. You will get some idea
of the location in the passage of material that Answers the questions. If you
have no idea as to the location of material that answers the questions, go
on the next question. Come back to it after you have answered the other
questions.
 Step 5: Reread the question carefully that is still unanswered and try to
find the reason. They may be analytical in nature which requires the
analysis of a certain part of the passage.
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 Step 6: A good knowledge of vocabulary is always helpful in attempting a

comprehension.
 Tips to improve
 Annotate and highlight text

Teach your students to highlight and underline valuable information as they
read . Have students write notes on the pages they are reading to help them
stay focused and improve comprehension. Students can also write down
questions as they read to receive more explanation on a new concept or to
define a new word .
 Personalize the content

Students can increase their understanding by seeing how the material
connects with their life. Have your students make personal connections with
the text by writing it down on the page. You can also help students
comprehend the text by helping them see an association with current events.
 Practice problem solving skills

Blend real-world problem solving skills into your curriculum. Have your
students write out solutions to the problem and discuss their ideas as a class
or in small groups.
 Incorporate more senses

Add in activities that reinforce learning and comprehension by using more
senses as they reaD) Remind students to read with a pen or pencil to
annotate the text. Have your students take turns reading out louD) Use
projectors to guide your lesson and write down questions for those who are
visual learners.
 Understand common themes

Ask your students to look for examples of a certain theme throughout the
chapter to increase engagement. Have students share their findings with the
class to help students learn a specific theme more in-depth.
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 Set reading goals

Have each student set their own reading goals. This can help them take
action in building reading skills and students will be more mindful of how they
are improving.
 Read in portions
Long, complex reading can be more digestible by breaking it up into pieces.
Shorter segments will help students retain the information as the class
discusses the materials. It can also help students build confidence in
understanding a complex subject.
 Let students guide their reading

Your students process reading material and curriculum in very different ways.
As you implement reading activities to help your class learn complex
materials, you will learn what works best for each student individually.
2. Grammar I
 Verb - A verb is a word that expresses an action or a state of being. A verb
forms the predicate of a sentence. To have a complete sentence, you must
have a verb .
There are two types of verbs -
 Action verbs - Action verbs are verbs that express an action-physical or

mental.
 Linking verbs - Linking verbs are verbs that express a state of being.
Examples of Verbs -
Examples of verbs expressing physical action -

Run , talk , dance , shout , cook
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
Examples of verbs expressing mental action -

Think, believe , fear , want , wonder
Examples of linking verbs -

Am , is , are , was , feels (She feels sick.) , seem (They seem nice.)
 Rule
Rule 1 - The verb and subject must agree in number (singular or plural).This
means that if the subject is singular, the verb should be singular and if the
subject is plural, the verb should also be plural.
Examples -
 He plays football. (SINGULAR)

 They play football. (PLURAL)
Rule 2 - The number of the subject (singular or plural) will not change due to
words/phrases in between the subject and the verb.
Examples –
 One of the glasses is empty. (Here, since the subject is ‗one‘, the verb
should be ‗is‘).
 The bouquet of red roses smells so sweet. (Here, since ‗bouquet‘ is the
subject and not ‗roses‘, the verb should be ‗smells‘ and not ‗smell‘)
Rule 3 - Subjects that are joined by ‗and‘ in a sentence, use a plural verb.
Subjects that are joined by ‗either/or‘, neither/nor‘ use a singular verb.
Examples -
 Radha and Meera are coming home.
 Neither Akshay nor Rohit is coming home.
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
 My dad or my mom is arriving today.
Rule 4 - The verb in a sentence containing ‗or‘, ‗either/or‘, ‗neither/nor‘ agrees

with the noun or pronoun closest to it.
Examples -
 Neither the shoes nor the bag matches the dress. (Here, ‗bag‘ is closest to
the verb, hence ‗matches‘)
 Neither the bag nor the shoes match the dress. (Here, ‗shoes‘ is closest to
the verb, hence ‗match‘)
Rule 5 - When the subject is followed by words such as ‗as well as‘, ‗along
with‘, ‗besides‘, ‗not‘ etc. ignore them and use a singular verb if the subject is
singular.
Examples -
 Matt, as well as his dog, is expected shortly.
 Pratik, along with his brother, is going to school.
Rule 6 - In sentences that begin with ‗here‘, ‗there‘, the true subject usually
follows the verb.
Examples -
 Here are the chocolates.
 There is a big puddle on the road.
Rule 7 - In sentences that include sums of money, periods of time or

distances etc. (as a unit), use singular verbs.
Examples -
 500 rupees is a high price to pay.
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 62 years is the minimum age of retirement.
 10 kilometers is too far to walk.
Rule 8 - In the case of words such as ‗a lot of‘, all‘, ‗some‘ etc. in a sentence,
pay attention to the noun after ‗of‘. If the noun after ‗of‘ is singular then use
a singular verb, if plural, use a plural verb.
Examples -
 All of the cake is gone.
 All of the cakes are gone.
 A lot of the cake is gone.
 A lot of the cakes are gone.
 Some of the cake is gone.
 Some of the cakes are gone.
Rule 9 - In the case of collective nouns such as ‗group, ‗population‘, ‗family‘, in

a sentence, the verb can be singular or plural depending on their use in the
sentence.
Examples -
 Most of my family is here OR are here.
 Half of the population was against the bill OR were against the bill.
Rule 10 - Nouns such as ‗mathematics‘, ‗civics‘, ‗news‘ etc. while plural in

form, are singular in meaning and use singular verbs.
Examples -
 Mathematics is very difficult for some people.
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 The news is very saddening.
Rule 11 - In sentences that express a wish, request or contrary to fact, the

word ‗were‘ is used instead of ‗was.
Examples -
 I wish my sister were here.
 Aditya requested that she raise her glass.
 Forms of Verb
 BASE FORM - The base form is simply the verb itself. Sometimes we
refer to a verb by its base form: call, toss, decontaminate. Sometimes
we refer to it by its infinitive form: to call, to toss, to decontaminate.
Examples -
admit
debunk
escape
swim
think
be
 INFINITIVE FORM - The infinitive form is identical to the base form,

though in actual usage, it frequently appears with the word to at the
beginning.
Examples -
(to) admit
(to) debunk
(to) escape
(to) swim
(to) think
(to) be
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 PAST FORM - In regular verbs, the past form ends in -ed.

Unfortunately, there are a great many irregular verbs in English and the
rules for forming their past forms are varied. Many of these verbs are
common, however, and already come naturally to us.
Examples -
admitted
debunked
escaped
swam (irregular)
thought (irregular)
was/were (irregular)
 PRESENT PARTICIPLE - The present participle is always formed by

adding -ing to the end of the base form. Sometimes this requires
eliminating a vowel or doubling a consonant.
Examples -
admitting
debunking
escaping
swimming
thinking
 PAST PARTICIPLE - In regular verbs, the past participle is the same as

the past form. Again, however, there are many irregular verbs and
these often take different forms as past participles. There‘s nothing to
do but learn the various forms of irregular past participles. Again, if you
are unsure, consult a dictionary or other reference work. If it helps, the
past participle is the form that goes with has or have.
Example -
(have) admitted
(have) debunked
(have) escaped
(have) swum (irregular)
(have) been (irregular)
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 Errors in the use of verbs
 Incorrect: She told to me an interesting story.

Correct: She told me an interesting story.
The verb tell is followed by an indirect object without to.
 Incorrect: She told that she wouldn‘t come.

Correct: She told me that she wouldn‘t come. OR She said that she
wouldn‘t come.
When used with a that-clause tell takes an indirect object, while saydoes not.
 Incorrect: I want that you should be your partner.

Correct: I want you to be my partner.
The verb want cannot be used with a that-clause. It is used with a to-
infinitive.
 Incorrect: She suggested me to consult a doctor.

Correct: She suggested that I should consult a doctor. OR
She suggested consulting a doctor.
The verb suggest should be used with a gerund or a that-clause. It cannot

be used with a to-infinitive.
 Incorrect: We discussed about his plans.

Correct: We discussed his plans.
 Incorrect: He described about the situation.

Correct: He described the situation.
 Incorrect: I have ordered for two cups of coffee.

Correct: I have ordered two cups of coffee.
 Incorrect: She requested for my help.

Correct: She requested my help.
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The verbs discuss, describe, order and request are transitive verbs. They
should be followed by direct objects, and not prepositions.
 Sequence of tenses
Tenses are verbs that describe when an event, action or condition has
occurred. There are three types of tenses based on the time:
Past Tense
Present Tense
Future Tense
 Rule -
Rule 1 - A past tense in the principal clause is always followed by a past

tense in the subordinate clause.
Example - I found out that she was out of town.
However, there is an exception to this rule. When the principal clause in the
past tense, the subordinate clause can be in the present tense if it is citing a
universal truth. Example: The children were taught that honesty is the best
policy.
Another exception to this rule is when the word ‗than‘ is used in the sentence
to introduce the subordinate clause. In this case, we can use any tense with
the subordinate clause irrespective of the tense used with the principal clause.
Rule 2 - If the tense used with the principal clause is in the present or future
tense, the tense of the subordinate clause can be in any tense based on what
needs to be conveyed.
Example - She is saying that she is alright. She says she is fine.
Rule 3 - When we use the principal clause in the future tense, we do not use
subordinating clauses in the future tense and use the subordinating clause
beginning with when, until, before, after etc.
Example - I will call you when dinner is ready. I shall wait until you return.
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Rule 4 - When the subordinate clause is introduced with the conjunction ‗that‘,
we do the following,
- We use ‗may‘ in the subordinate clause when the principal clause is in the
present tense. AND
- We use ‗might‘ in the subordinate clause when the principal clause is in the
past tense.
Example - We eat that we may live. She tried to live so that he might have a
chance at life.
Rule 5 - When some phrases such as If only, Wish that, What if, It is time are
used, the clauses that follow it are always in the past tense.
Example - I wish I could eat another ice cream.
 Errors in the use of tenses
 Incorrect: It is raining for two days.

Correct: It has been raining for two days.
 Incorrect: The baby is sleeping for three hours now.

Correct: The baby has been sleeping for three hours now.
Here the error lies in using the present continuous instead of the present
perfect continuous. We use the present perfect continuous tense to talk about
an action which started in the past, has gone on till the present and is still
continuing.
 Incorrect: I have seen him yesterday.

Correct: I saw him yesterday.
 Incorrect: He has returned from London last week.

Correct: He returned from London last week.
Here the error lies in using the present perfect tense instead of the simple
past tense. The present perfect is a present tense. It can‘t be used with
adverbs of past time.
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 Incorrect: See that you will not do any damage.

Correct: See that you do not do any damage.
It is wrong to use the future tense in the subordinate clause when the verb in
the main clause is in the imperative mood.
 Incorrect: I will call you when the dinner will be ready.

Correct: I will call you when the dinner is ready.
 Incorrect: He will help if you will ask him.

Correct: He will help if you ask him.
When the verb in the main clause is in the future tense, the verb in the
subordinate clause should be in the present and not in the future.
 Transformation of sentences
Simple Sentence - When in a sentence that has one independent clause it is

called simple sentence.
Example - He confessed his illegal act.
Complex Sentence - When in a sentence that has one clause and one or
more subordinate clauses it is called a complex sentence.
Example - He confessed that he was guilty of his illegal act.
Compound Sentence - When in a sentence that has more than one main
clause it is called the compound sentence.
Example - I went to watch a movie named Justice League, but the movie was
already houseful.
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Affirmative Sentence - Affirmative sentence means the sentences which are

used to describe any general action, event, speech, or expression.
Examples -
Every student is present today.
He was always punctual.
Negative sentence - A negative sentence is a sentence that states that
something is false. In English, we create negative sentences by adding the
word 'not' after the auxiliary, or helping, verb. An example of an auxiliary verb
is the helping verb 'be.' There are different forms that 'be' takes, including 'am,'
'is,' 'are,' 'was,' and 'were.'
Examples -
David isn't a happy person.
The clouds weren't blocking the sun's rays.
Positive Degree - The Positive Degree is used to denote the mere existence
of quality.
The Positive Degree of an adjective in comparison is the adjective in its
simple form. It is used to denote the mere existence of some quality of what
we speak about. It is used when no comparison is made.
Examples -
It is a tall building.
Apple is sweet to taste.

Comparative Degree - The Comparative Degree is used to compare the
qualities of two persons or things.
The Comparative Degree denotes the existence of a higher degree of the
quality than the positive. It is used when two things (or two sets of things)
are compared.
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Examples -
This building is taller than any other building.
Apple is sweeter than pear.
Superlative Degree - The Superlative Degree denotes the existence of the

highest degree of the quality. It is used when more than two things are
compared.
Examples -
This is the tallest building.
Apple is the sweetest fruit.
The Superlative Degree is used when more than two nouns or things are
compared.
Johnsy is kind (Positive Degree)
Johnsy is kinder than Rosy (Comparative Degree)
Johnsy is the kindest of all (Superlative Degree)
3. Grammar II
 Formation of words
Verb to Noun
Accept – Acceptance
Accredit – Accreditation
Achieve – Achievement
Appreciate – Appreciation
Apprehend – Apprehension
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Adjective to Noun
Accessible – Access
Distressed – Distress
Effusive – Effusion
Efficient – Efficiency
Truthful – Truth
Noun to Adjective
Effort – Effortless
Farce – Farcical
Hazard – Hazardous
Provision – Provisional
Spite – Spiteful
Verb to Adjective
Absorb – Absorbed
Bereave – Bereaved
Captivated – Captivating
Care – Careless
Fascinate – Fascinated
Adjectives to Adverbs
Cheap – Cheaply
Easy – Easily
Probable – Probably
Basic - Basically
Quick - Quickly
 Determiners - A determiner is used to modify a noun. It indicates

reference to something specific or something of a particular type. This
function is usually performed by articles, demonstratives, possessive
determiners, or quantifiers.
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 Types of determiners
 Articles - The definite and indefinite articles are all determiners.

Definite article - the
Indefinite article - a or an (a is used before a consonant sound; an is used
before a vowel sound.)
Examples -
Close the door, please.
I've got a friend in Canada.
 Demonstratives - There are four demonstrative determiners in English

and they are: this, that, these and those
Note that demonstrative determiners can also be used as demonstrative

pronouns. When they are used as determiners they are followed by the nouns
they modify.
Compare -
This is my camera. (Demonstrative used as a pronoun, subject of the verb is)
This camera is mine. (Demonstrative used as a determiner modifying the

noun camera.)
 Possessives - Possessive adjectives - my, your, his, her, its, our, your,
their - modify the noun following it in order to show possession.
Possessive determiners are different from possessive pronouns - mine, his,

hers, yours, ours, their.
Possessive pronouns can stand alone and are not followed by nouns.
Possessive determiners, on the other hand, are followed by nouns.
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Compare -
This is my house. (my is a possessive determiner. It is followed by the

noun house which it modifies)
Is that car yours? (yours is a possessive pronoun. It is not followed by a

noun.)
 Quantifiers - Quantifiers are followed by nouns which they modify.
Examples of quantifiers include: some, any, few, little, more, much, many,
each, every, both, all, enough, half, little, whole, less etc.
Quantifiers are commonly used before either countable or uncountable nouns.
Examples -
He knows more people than his wife.
Little knowledge is a dangerous thing .
 Preposition - A preposition is a word (usually a short word) that shows

the relationship between two other nearby words. For example
(prepositions highlighted):
a boy from the ghetto

(Here, the preposition from tells us the relationship between ghetto and boy.)
a bone for the dog

(Here, the preposition for tells us the relationship between dog and bone.)
The following are all examples of prepositions -

in, on, at, around, above, near, underneath, alongside, of, and for.
Note - The word preposition means positioned before. A preposition will sit
before a word (a noun or a pronoun) to show that word's relationship to
another nearby word.
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 Nouns and Pronouns
Nouns
In simple terms, a noun is the name of a person, place or thing.
This could either be a proper noun like Joe, Jessy, Canada, Cambridge or
a common noun like pencil, computer, animal, city, girl.
Common nouns include -
The collective noun which is the name of a group (of persons, animals or
things) as in herd, team, audience, fleet.
The abstract noun is the opposite of concrete noun. It is either the name of a
feeling (fear, anger, pride, curiosity), quality (kindness, patience, courage,
loyalty), ideas or experiences (information, work).
 Nouns come under the following two categories -
 countable noun – that can be counted

Examples:
One bag –> Hundred bags
One man –> Several men
 Uncountable nouns – that cannot be counted

Example: Salt, water, rice, cement, knowledge, lightning, money
Uncountable nouns are in the form of an entity that cannot be separated, and
hence they do not have a plural form. They cannot be used with ‗a‘, ‗an‘ or
numbers.
Pronouns
Pronouns are used in a sentence in place of a noun in order to avoid

repetition.
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 Types of Pronouns
Personal , Possessive , Reflexive , Emphatic , Relative , Indefinite ,

Demonstrative , Interrogative.
 Personal pronoun
Personal pronouns may be used in different ways -
A. First person personal pronoun
Subject Pronoun Object Pronoun

I (singular) me
We (plural) us
Examples -
I have a lot to do. Can Tanya help me?
We are going to meet Aunt Angela. John can accompany us.
A subject pronoun works as a subject in a sentence whereas the object

pronoun does the work of an object.
B. Second person pronoun
Examples -
You (subject pronoun) have to eat fast.
Daniel can help you (object pronoun).
C. Third person pronoun
Subject pronoun Object pronoun

She her
He him
It it
They them
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Examples -
They came here. Tina spoke to them.
It is an easy assignment. The trainees will manage it.
 Possessive pronouns
They are used to show possession or ownership.
First person - Mine, ours

Second person - yours
Third person - his, hers, theirs, its
Examples -
The car in the garage is hers.
The bag on the table is not theirs.
 Reflexive pronoun
This is used in sentences where the action of the ‗subject‘ affects itself.
Singular form: Myself, yourself, herself, himself, itself
Plural form: Ourselves, yourselves, themselves
Examples -
Don‘t play with the scissors. You (subject) might hurt yourself (reflexive
pronoun).
The little boy (subject) enjoyed himself (reflexive pronoun).
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 Emphatic pronoun
The reflexive pronoun should not be confused with the emphatic pronoun
which is used to create emphasis. The list remains the same in both emphatic
and reflexive pronoun.
Examples -
I myself cleaned the room.
She herself admitted that she was wrong.
 Relative pronoun
Relative pronoun serves the purpose of joining the two sentences as seen in
the example. It shows the relation of the noun to a group of words that follow.
Who, whose, whom are used for persons; that and which for things.
Examples –
This is Mary. She works in a travel agency.
This is Mary who works in a travel agency.
The book which you got from the library is torn.
 Indefinite pronoun
The pronouns – ‗neither, either, many, few, several, some, anyone, everyone,
nobody, somebody, everybody, anything, nothing‘ are the indefinite pronouns
which do not specifically replace any noun.
Examples -
Anyone can participate in the contest.
Few could perform the difficult task.
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 Demonstrative pronoun
The demonstrative pronouns ‗this, that, these, those‘ are used to point out to
an object.
Examples -
This is a really comfortable chair.
These are the books from the library.
 Interrogative pronoun
These pronouns are used to ask questions about a person or object.

Who, whom, whose, which – used for persons
What, which – used for things
 The Adjective
Adjectives describe nouns and provide additional information about it.
Examples -
Some food, five chairs, no mistake, third rank, great work, enough water
 Adjective phrase
The adjective phrase refers to a group of words that are used to describe the
noun/pronoun and does the work of an adjective.
Adjective phrases beginning with prepositions (prepositional phrase) -
Examples -
Serena is a teacher with good experience.
Jack is a man of few words.
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The person in the car is my uncle.
Adjective phrases used as participial phrases -
Examples -
Ryan, having won the competition went to collect his prize.
We saw Peter walking towards our house.
Moving quickly, we managed to reach the garden in five minutes.
Worried about her son’s future, Nita decided to seek advice from an expert.
Adjective phrases can also be used as a cluster of adjectives occurring

together.
Examples -
She was wearing a short dark blue
The soft brand new mattress has replaced the old worn-out
 Adjective clause
Examples -
The book which I have belongs to Henry.
Maria who is a professor teaches in an engineering college.
In these examples, the adjective clause is used to describe the nouns ‗book‘
and ‗Maria‘. These usually begin with a relative pronoun – ‗who, whom,
whose‘ (shows possession) for humans and ‗that, which‘ for things.
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 The Adverb
An adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
Example –
She swims quickly.

(Here, the adverb quickly modifies the verb swims.)
She swims extremely quickly.

(Here, the adverb extremely modifies the adverb quickly.)
She is an extremely quick swimmer.

(Here, the adverb extremely modifies the adjective quick.)
When an adverb modifies a verb, it usually tells us when, where, how, in what
manner, or to what extent the action is performed.
Examples –
 How: He ran quickly.

 When: He ran yesterday.
 Where: He ran here.
 In what manner: He ran barefoot.
 To what extent: He ran fastest.
In the examples above, each adverb is a single word, but an adverb can be
made up of more than one word.
Example –
 How: He ran at 10 miles per hour.

 When: He ran when the police arrived.
 Where: He ran to the shops.
 In what manner: He ran like a man possessed.
 To what extent: He ran quicker than me.
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 The Conjunction
The conjunction is the part of speech used as a ―joiner‖ for words, phrases, or
clauses in a particular sentence. It links these words or groups of words
together, in such a way that certain relationships among these different parts
of the sentence will be established, and the thoughts that all of these convey
will be connected.
Types of Conjunctions
 Coordinating Conjunction
Among the three types of conjunctions, this is probably the most common
one. The main function of coordinating conjunctions is to join words, phrases,
and clauses together, which are usually grammatically equal. Aside from that,
this type of conjunctions is placed in between the words or groups of words
that it links together, and not at the beginning or at the end.
Examples -
 Pizza and burgers are my favorite snacks.
In the sample sentence above, the underlined word serves as a coordinating

conjunction that links two words together (pizza + burgers).
 The treasure was hidden in the cave or in the underground lagoon.
The example above shows how coordinating conjunctions can join together
two (or more) phrases. The coordinating conjunction ―or‖ in the sentence
above links ―in the cave‖ and ―in the underground lagoon.‖
 What those girls say and what they actually do are completely different.
In this sentence, you‘ll see how the same coordinating conjunction ‖and‖ from
the first sample sentence can be used to link clauses together (―what those
girls say‖ and ―what they actually do‖), instead of just single words.
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 Subordinating Conjunction
This type of conjunctions is used in linking two clauses together. Aside from
the fact that they introduce a dependent clause, subordinating conjunctions
also describe the relationship between the dependent clause and the
independent clause in the sentence.
List of Common Subordinating Conjunctions -
While , as soon as , although , before , even if , because , no matter how,

whether , wherever , when , until , after , as if , how , if , provided , in that,
once , supposing , while , unless , in case , as far as , now that , as , so that ,
though , since
Examples -
 It is so cold outside, so I brought you a jacket.

 Because it is so cold outside, I brought you a jacket.
By looking at the sentences above, you will easily notice that a subordinating
conjunction can be found either at the beginning of the sentence or between
the clauses that it links together. Aside from that, a comma should also be
placed in between the two clauses (independent clause and dependent
clause) of the sentence.
 Correlative Conjunction
The correlative conjunctions are simply pairs of conjunctions which are used
to join equal sentence elements together.
List of Common Correlative Conjunctions –
either… or , neither… nor , not only… but also , both… and , whether… or,
so… as
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Examples -
 Both my brother and my father are lawyers.

 I can‘t decide whether I‘ll take Chemical Engineering or take Medical
Technology in college.
 Modals
A modal verb is a helping (auxiliary) verb that expresses ability, possibility,

permission, or obligation. The modal verb must be used in a verb phrase.
A verb phrase is more than one verb used in together to express an action.
Modal verbs are always paired with at least one other verb.
Modal verbs express possibility or necessity.
List of Modal
can
could
may
might
must
shall
should
will
would
Examples -
Shane can swim.

―Can‖ is the modal verb in the verb phrase ―can swim.‖
Suzy could sing if she tried.

―Could‖ is the modal verb in the verb phrase ―could sing.‖
You must attend our wedding.

―Must‖ is a modal verb; ―must attend‖ is the verb phrase.
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 Clauses – Noun clauses, Adverb clauses of condition and time and

Relative clauses
A clause is a group of related word that contains a subject as well as a verb.
A clause is a meaningful combination of words, as it can, alone, express a

complete thought. A clause can be a simple sentence. Hence, clause is also
sometimes defined as group of words having a subject and predicate.
It can also be said that each sentence consists of at least one clause.
Examples -
He laughed.
I am sleeping.
He sings song.
The dark is barking.
The above examples reveal that a clause can be a simple sentence.

A clause can also be a part of a compound or complex sentence which
consists of more than one clause.
Examples -
She is crying. (one clause)

The patient died. (one clause)
I waited for him, but he didn‘t come. (two clauses)
He is going to college, because he wants to meet his friend. (two clauses)
My sister likes Biology, but I like Physics because I want to become an
engineer. (three clauses)
A clause by definition is a combination of words having both subject and verb.

Hence, a part of a simple sentence can also be viewed as a clause.
Examples -
They are laughing at a joker.

I saw him in the street.
She cooks food in the kitchen.
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 Noun clause definition: A noun clause is a type of dependent clause that

acts as a noun in the sentence. A noun clause will always contain a subject
and a verb. However, it cannot stand alone as a complete thought.
Example –
 I remember what you said yesterday.
Here, the underlined portion is the independent clause that can stand alone.
The italicized words, ―what you said yesterday,‖ serve as a dependent noun
clause.
The noun clause is acting as the object of the sentence. In the noun clause
―you said‖ is a subject plus a verb. This creates the clause (a subject plus a
verb). However, ―what you said yesterday‖ cannot stand alone and therefore
must be paired with an independent clause.
 Adverbial clause definition: An adverbial clause is a type of dependent

clause that acts as an adverb in the sentence. An adverbial clause will
always contain a subject and a verb. However, it cannot stand alone as a
complete thought.
Example –
 You will continue driving north until you see a stop sign.
The adverbial clause is acting as an adverb in this sentence. The adverbial

clause modifies how you will drive. The adverbial clause contains a subject
and verb, ―you will continue.‖ However, it cannot stand alone as a complete
thought. ―Until you see a stop sign‖ is not a complete statement.
Additional adverbial clause examples -
 After the movie ended, we ate ice cream.

 Beth visits her grandfather whenever she is in town.
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 Relative clause - A relative clause is one kind of dependent clause. It has

a subject and verb, but can‘t stand alone as a sentence. It is sometimes
called an ―adjective clause‖ because it functions like an adjective—it gives
more information about a noun. A relative clause always begins with a
―relative pronoun,‖ which substitutes for a noun, a noun phrase, or a
pronoun when sentences are combined.
 Relative Pronouns
who (to describe people – subject)

The woman who works in the bank is my neighbor.
whom (to describe people – object)

My cousins, one of whom is a doctor, live in England.
whose (to describe possession)

The man whose car was stolen went to the police station.
that (to describe things – defining relative clauses)

I‘m selling the computer that I bought in the U.S.
which (to describe things – non-defining relative clauses)

I‘m selling this computer, which has a 250-GB hard drive, for $500.
 Relative Adverbs
when (to describe times)

My favorite season is fall, when all the leaves change color.
where (to describe places)

I visited the neighborhood where I grew up
why (to give a reason)

Do you know the reason why the stores are closed today?
Example -
Yesterday I met a man. He works in the circus.
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I bought a cell phone. It has internet access.

There‘s the restaurant. I ate at that restaurant last night.
These sentences are correct, but they are very short and simple. You can
use relative clauses to make your sentences in English sound more fluent
and natural:
Yesterday I met a man who works in the circus.

I bought a cell phone that has internet access.
There‘s the restaurant where I ate last night.
4. Vocabulary
 Synonyms and Synonyms in context
Words that have similar definitions are known as synonyms. We use

synonyms constantly in speech and in writing. These are the words that can
be used interchangeably, but the meaning of the message remains the same.
Rule & Tips - Steps to approach ‗Synonyms‘
 If one does not know the exact meaning of the word, try understanding it
in the context of the paragraph.
 In case the meaning of the word is not clear, going through all the available
options can certainly be considered as a good ideA) By doing so, one can
start getting idea about the given question & start negating the available
options one after the other.
 Sometimes it so happens that a particular word sounds more like a tongue

twister, so try & break it into meaningful parts. Chances are there that the
full word might start making more sense in this way.
 One of the effective ways of knowing & scoring well in this section is to
keep a regular tab & enough involvement of reading synonyms & making
one‘s own list. Revising the list regularly helps one in remembering the
synonyms more often.
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 While replacing a particular word in sentence, using its synonym, please

see to it that the context does not change nor the whole meaning of the
sentence.
 Antonyms and Antonyms in context
An antonym is a word that means the opposite of another word. For instance,
the antonym of 'hot' may be 'colD)' The root words for the word 'antonym' are
the words 'anti,' meaning 'against' or 'opposite,' and 'onym,' meaning 'name.'
Rule & Tips - Steps to approach ‗Antonyms‘
questions.

comprehension.
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 One word substitution
One word Substitution is one of the integral parts of vocabulary. It simply

means that a sentence has to be replaced with a single word. This area
requires a good vocabulary to solve the questions well.
Example –
A hater of womankind - Misogynist
One easy method of doing one word substitution is by using the root method.
Roots are nothing but the words from which the main word has been derived.
In our other series of vocabulary, we have consolidated the lists of root words
that will ease your preparation.
Example -
CRACY = RULE / GOVERNMENT

A government by the people - Democracy
A government by a king or queen - Monarchy
A government by the officials - Bureaucracy
A government by the rich - Plutocracy
A government by few - Oligarchy
A government by the nobles - Aristocracy
OMNI = ALL
One who is all powerful - Omnipotent
One who is present everywhere - Omnipresent
One who knows everything - Omniscient
CIDE= KILLING
Killing of a human being - Homicide
Killing/ Murder of a king - Regicide
Killing of an Infant/ newborn baby - Infanticide
Killing of a race or community - Genocide
Killing of One's sister - Sorocide
Killing of self or self-murder - Suicide
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Killing of either or both parents - Parricide

Killing of one's brother - Fratricide
Killing of one's father - Patricide
Killing of one's mother - Matricide
Killing of one's husband - Mariticide
Killing of one's wife - Uxoricide
Ible= Able to be
Inaudible - a sound that cannot be heard
Inaccessible - that cannot be easily approached
Incorrigible - incapable of being corrected
Irreparable - incapable of being repaired
Illegible - incapable of being read
Inevitable - incapable of being avoided
Impracticable - incapable of being practiced
Invincible - one, too strong to be overcome
Indelible - that cannot be erased
Indefatigable - one, who does not tire easily
Infallible - one who is free from all mistakes and failures
 Spelling pitfalls / Words often confused/Selecting the correct word

fitting in a sentence
It‘s hard enough to come up with the right words to sell yourself in a resume or
cover letter, without the English language tripping you up. One little mistake in
spelling or grammar can ruin an entire resume or cover letter.
It‘s not easy to remember all the rules of the English language. So here‘s a
little cheat-cheat to help you avoid some common grammar and spelling
errors, and make your writing clean and concise.
Since these words sound exactly the same, everyone has made these
mistakes while writing, and spell-check is no help since they are proper words.
When you go back to edit, pay special attention to which version of the word
you are using.
There, Their and They’re - ―There‖ refers to a place. ―Their‖ is the possessive
of ―they.‖ ―They‘re‖ is a contraction of ―they‖ and ―are.‖
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Then and Than - ―Then‖ is used to show chronology. (We went to lunch, then
to the movies.) ―Than‖ is used to show comparison. (The rabbit is faster than
the turtle.)
Too, To and Two - ―Too‖ means in addition or as well. (Jim is coming, too.)
―To‖ is a preposition that indicates approach and arrival, motion made in the
direction of a place or thing. ―Two‖ is the written version of the number 2.
Here and Hear - ―Here‖ refers to a place. (I am here.) ―Hear‖ refers to the act
of listening. (I can hear the music.)
Its and It’s - ―Its‖ is used as the possessive of it. ―It‘s‖ is a contraction of it and
is.
Except and Accept - ―Except‖ means to exclude. (Everyone except Terry can
come.) ―Accept‖ means to receive. (I accepted his invitation.)
Affect and Effect - ―Affect‖ means to influence. (The layoff affected his
mood.) ―Effect‖ refers to a result. (The effect of drinking on the liver is
damaging.)
Bad Grammar
Regardless of what career path you‘re on, basic grammar is expected of every
job candidate. Don‘t get caught in the trap of these simple grammar mistakes.
Either/or and neither/nor - Remember to always use the parallel conjunction

when using either or neither. (e.g. Neither Joe nor Paul are going. Either John
or Michael can be a substitute.)
Run-on sentences - Two independent thoughts should be separated by a

period, semicolon or conjunction. No exceptions.
Dangling participles - Make sure that it is clear which noun the phrase is
supposed to modify. (Wrong: After crying for hours, the mechanical swing
finally put the baby to sleep. Correct: The baby was crying for hours before
the swing put her to sleep.)
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
Would’ve, could’ve, should’ve - Don‘t use ―of‖ in place of the contraction

‗ve. (e.g. should of.) Just remember each of these is a contraction of the word
have.
Compound modifiers - Use a hyphen when compound modifiers proceed a

noun. (e.g. fast-paced curriculum) Do not use a hyphen for compound
modifiers after the noun or following an adverb.
A lot - A lot is two words. Every time.
Split infinitives - This is one of the most common grammatical mistakes. Do

not insert adverbs in between ―to‖ and the verb. (Wrong: to swiftly run.
Correct: to run swiftly.)
Changing Tenses
Switching tenses in the middle of a resume or cover letter can be confusing to

the reader. But it is one of the most confusing grammar situations when
dealing with resumes and cover letters. Since you are (usually) still employed
at your current job, you use the present tense to describe it, but switch to the
past tense to describe former jobs. Here are a few common tips to help deal
with tense-switching situations.
 Use the present tense when referring to accomplishments that are

ongoing.
 Use the past tense (ending in –ed) when referring to accomplishments that
you have completed.
 Never change tenses in the middle of a sentence. Break the idea into
smaller sentences if needed.
 Avoid starting sentences with –ing verbs.
 Avoid perfect and progressive tenses when talking about

accomplishments. Keep it simple.
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Unnecessary Phrases
You only have so much room to sell yourself in a resume or cover letter, so
why clutter it with unnecessary phrases. Many use these phrases to
emphasize their point, but in the end, it just complicates the sentence. Avoid
these commonly-used extraneous phrases.
It goes without saying: If it goes without saying, there is no point in saying it.
I will say this: You are already saying it, there is no need to announce that
fact.
Exactly the same: If two things are the same, they are already exactly the
same.
Each and every: Every doesn‘t add anything to this phrase, just use each.
As a matter of fact: If you are stating a fact, you don‘t need this phrase.
As far as I’m concerned: If you are stating your opinion, you don‘t need to
preface it with this phrase. It will speak for itself.
For the most part: If you are making a generalized statement, most is
already implied.
In a manner of speaking: This phrase is useless since anything you write is

a manner of speaking.
What I mean to say is: If you have properly stated your case, there should be
no reason to point out the meaning of your writing.
 Simple Idioms/phrases
Phrases in a sentence are a group of words that act as a part of a speech but
cannot stand alone in order to form a complete sentence because they do not
include both a subject and a predicate. However, the words in a phrase work
together in a manner that entails that they can function as a single part of
speech, i.e. together the words in a phrase can form a noun, verb, adverb or
adjective.
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Rule & Tips - Steps to approach ‗Phrases
 Read
Reading may be the number one way you can improve your grammar skills.
When you read, you reinforce correct grammar in your minD) It can be
particularly helpful to read out loud, as the combination of seeing, saying, and
hearing assists in solidifying what you have learneD) In addition to improving
your grammar, reading will help with all aspects of your writing, from sentence
fluency to increased vocabulary.
 Get a grammar manual

It is useful to have a thorough reference book nearby that you can consult
when writing. This way, any time a grammatical question arises, you can
quickly refer to the manual to obtain the answer. There are many high quality
grammar and writing guidebooks on the market. Speak to a librarian or writing
instructor for recommendations.
 Review the basics

While classes in English linguistics and writing may not be something you are
interested in, it is vital to spend a bit of time learning or reviewing the basic
principles. Do some research on the basic parts of speech, as well as on the
common grammatical errors people tend to make. Here are some simple
ways to improve your writing skills.
 Practice
There are many excellent resources, both online and in print, conducive to
improving your grammar skills. A quick Internet search will reveal a multitude
of websites that offer grammar games and exercises. If you know that
grammar is an area you struggle with, set aside a few minutes each day to
complete grammar exercises. Even the simple act of taking a few English
practice tests of any level can help you improve your grammar skills.
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 Listen to others
When instructors, writing lab staff, or writing tutors give you feedback, listen to
them! Find out if you have a consistent issue with any topics in particular. For
example, do you frequently receive feedback regarding run-on sentences or
have issues with subject-verb agreement? If so, make sure that when you
proofread your assignments, you pay special attention to those details. It may
even be wise to create your own personalized checklist of items to be aware
of in your writing.
 Proofread…out loud
Sometimes when we re-read pieces we have written, our brain fills in the gaps
of missing information. We do not always catch our own mistakes when we
proof read. Reading what you have written out loud, preferably to someone
else, is an efficient way to evaluate whether or not you have used correct
grammar. You are more likely to notice your errors if you read the content
aloud, rather than in your head to yourself.
 Write
Just as it helps to read a great deal, it will also benefit you to write more. The
more you practice writing with proper grammar, the more naturally it will come
to you. These are great tips to help you with writing a college essay.
Examples –
1. ‘The best of both worlds’ – means you can enjoy two different
opportunities at the same time.
―By working part-time and looking after her kids two days a week she
managed to get the best of both worlds.‖
2. ‘Speak of the devil’ – this means that the person you‘re just talking about
actually turns up at that moment.
―Hi Tom, speak of the devil, I was just telling Sara about your new car.‖
3. ‘See eye to eye’ – this means agreeing with someone.

―They finally saw eye to eye on the business deal.‖
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4. ‘Once in a blue moon’ – an event that happens infrequently.

―I only go to the cinema once in a blue moon.‖
5. ‘When pigs fly’ – something that will never happen.

―When pigs fly she‘ll tidy up her room.‖
6. ‘To cost an arm and a leg’– something is very expensive.

―Fuel these days costs and arm and a leg.‖
7. ‘A piece of cake’– something is very easy.

―The English test was a piece of cake.‖
8. ‘Let the cat out of the bag’ – to accidentally reveal a secret.

―I let the cat out of the bag about their wedding plans.‖
9. ‘To feel under the weather’ – to not feel well.

―I‘m really feeling under the weather today; I have a terrible cold.‖
10. ‘To kill two birds with one stone’ – to solve two problems at once.
―By taking my dad on holiday, I killed two birds with one stone. I got to go
away but also spend time with him.‖
5. Narration (Direct and Indirect)

 Commands and requests
Reported Commands
Form
 affirmative commands → to + infinitive

 negative commands → not + to + infinitive
Affirmative commands
 Direct Speech → Mum: ―Tidy your room.‖

 Reported Speech → Mum told me to tidy my room.
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Negative commands
 Direct Speech → Policeman: ―Don’t park there.‖

 Reported Speech → The policeman told me not to park there.
The introductory sentence in commands etc.,
The word tell is often used in introductory sentences in Reported Commands

but others are possible such asorder, insist, command etc.,
Reported Requests
Requests are when someone asks you to do something in a polite way.
Form
 affirmative request → asked me + to + infinitive

 negative request → asked me + not + to + infinitive
Affirmative commands
 Direct Speech → Speaker: ―Could you close the window, please?‖

 Reported Speech → She asked me to close the window.
Negative commands
 Direct Speech → Speaker: ―Could you not make so much .‖

 Reported Speech → She asked me not to make so much noise.
 Statements (Various tenses)
If you use a statement in Reported Speech, follow the steps described.
Changing of the person, backshift of tenses, shifting of expressions of

time/place
 The introductory sentence
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The introductory sentence in the Simple Present
If the introductory sentence is in the Simple Present, there is no backshift of

tenses.
Direct Speech → Susan: ―Mary works in an office.‖

Reported Speech → Susan says (that)* Mary works in an office.
The introductory sentence is here: Susan says ... → this sentence is in the
Simple Present, so there is no backshift of tenses.
The introductory sentence in the Simple Past
If the introductory sentence is in the Simple Past, there is mostly backshift of

tenses.
Direct Speech → Susan: ―Mary works in an office.‖

Reported Speech → Susan said (that)* Mary worked in an office.
The introductory sentence is here: Susan said ... → this sentence is in the
Simple Past, so there is backshift of tenses.
Types of introductory sentences
The word say in introductory sentences can be substituted with other words,
Examples -
add
decide
know
mention
remark
tell *
think
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 Change of persons/pronouns
The person/pronoun used in Direct Speech may be adapted in Reported
Speech, depending on the situation.
Emily and John are talking about fashion at school. Emily says to John:
Emily: ―I like your new T-shirt.‖
Possibility 1:
John says to his friend Max in the afternoon:
Emily said (that) she liked my new T-shirt.
Possibility 2:
Emily says to her friend Julia in the afternoon:
I said (that) I liked his new T-shirt.

 Backshift of tenses
If the introductory sentence in in the Simple Past, there is backshift of
tenses in Reported Speech. We shift the tense used in Direct Speech one
step back in Reported Speech. If we use Past Perfect or the modals would,
could, should, might, must, ought to and needn't in Direct Speech there is
possibility to shift the tense back in Reported Speech.
Simple Present → Simple Past
Direct Speech Reported Speech
Peter: ―I work in the garden.‖ Peter said (that) he worked in the garden.
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Simple Past, Present Perfect, Past Perfect → Past Perfect
Peter: ―I worked in the garden.‖ Peter said (that) he had worked in the
garden.
Peter: ―I have worked in the
garden.‖
Peter: ―I had worked in the

garden.‖
Auxiliaries, Modals
Peter: ―I will work in the Peter said (that) he would work in the
garden.‖ garden.
Peter: ―I can work in the Peter said (that) he could work in the
garden.‖ garden.
Peter: ―I may work in the Peter said (that) he might work in the
garden.‖ garden.
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Peter: ―I would work in the Peter said (that) he would work in the
garden.‖ garden.
 could  could
 might  might
 should  should
 ought to  ought to
Present Progressive → Past Progressive
Peter: ―I'm working in the Peter said (that) he was working in the
garden.‖ garden.
Peter: ―I was working in the Peter said (that) he had been working in
garden.‖ the garden.
Peter: ―I have been working in

the garden.‖
Peter: ―I had been working in the

garden.‖
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Past Progressive, Present Perfect Progressive, Past Perfect Progressive

→ Past Perfect Progressive
Peter: ―I was working in the Peter said (that) he had been working in
garden.‖ the garden.
Peter: ―I have been working in

the garden.‖
Peter: ―I had been working in the

garden.‖
 Shifting/Conversion of expressions of time and place

If there is an expression of time/place in the sentence, it my be shifted,
depending on the situation.
Emily is at school, writing in her workbook. She misses her red pen at
lunchtime. Emily says to John:
―I lost my red pen here this morning.‖
Possibility 1:
John says to his friend Max who is in the same room.
Emily said (that) she had lost her red pen here this morning.
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Possibility 2:
One day later, John sees his friend Gerry at his house. They talk about
school.
John says to Gerry → Emily said (that) she had lost her red pen at our
school that morning.
John says to Gerry → Emily said (that) she had lost her red
pen there yesterday morning.
this evening that evening
today/this day that day
these days those days
now then
a week ago a week before
last weekend the weekend before / the previous weekend
next week the following week
tomorrow the next/following day
here there
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* Do not forget the person after the word tell -
She told me (that) ...
She told George (that) ...

 Questions (Various forms of questions, tenses)
When we report what people say, we usually change the tense of the verbs to
reflect that we are reporting – not giving direct speech. This pattern is followed
when we report questions and there are also other important changes
between direct questions and reported questions.
Yes/no questions
Direct question: ―Do you like working in team?‖

Reported question: He asked if I liked working in teams.
When we report yes/no questions we use ‗if‘ or ‗whether‘.
Direct question: ―Did you enjoy the party?‖

Reported question: She asked me whether I‘d enjoyed the party.
The tense of the verb changes as it does in reported speech but we don’t use
auxiliary verbs. The word order is the same as in an affirmative sentence.
Questions with a question word
Direct question: ―What time does the train leave?‖

Reported question: He asked what time the train left.
When there is a question word (what, where, why, who, when, how) we use
that question word in the reported question but there is no auxiliary verb and
the word order is like an affirmative sentence.
Examples -
Direct question: ―Who did you see?‖

Reported question: She asked me who I‘d seen.
Direct question: ―Where did you go to school?‖

Reported question: He asked me where I‘d gone to school.
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Direct question: ―Why are you crying?‖

Reported question: She asked him why he was crying.
Notice that the reported questions do not have a question mark at the end.
6. Voice (Active and Passive)

 Changes required under each tense
 Present Tense
Simple Present Tense
Normal structure of sentence in active voice for simple present tense is

Subject + Verb + Object (Active Voice)
Example - She cooks the food. (Active Voice)

(Here ‗she‘ is subject, ‗cooks‘ is verb and ‗the food‘ is object.)
While changing the sentence into passive, this structure becomes

Subject + is + V-3 + by + Agent. (Passive Voice)
(Agent = person or thing which is doing the action)
Example - The food is cooked by her. (Passive Voice)

(Here ‗The food‘ becomes subject in passive voice, ‗cooked‘ is V-3 (past
participle) of cook, and ‗her‘ is agent.
See some more examples to clarify this -
Shubham writes homework. (Active Voice)

Homework is written by Shubham. (Passive Voice)
Simran learns English. (Active Voice)

English is learnt by Simran. (Passive Voice)
Sachin plays cricket. (Active Voice)

Cricket is played by Sachin. (Passive Voice)
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Present Continuous Tense
Normal structure of sentence in active voice for simple continuous tense is

Subject + am/is/are + verb + ing + object. (Active Voice)
Example - She is cooking the food. (Active Voice)

(Here ‗she‘ is subject, ‗cooking‘ is verb and ‗the food‘ is object.)

Subject + is + being + V-3 + by + agent. (Passive Voice)
Example - The food is being cooked by her. (Passive Voice)

participle) of cook, and ‗her‘ is agent.
Shubham is writing homework. (Active Voice)

Homework is being written by Shubham. (Passive Voice)
Simran is learning English. (Active Voice)

English is being learnt by Simran. (Passive Voice)
Sachin is playing cricket. (Active Voice)

Cricket is being played by Sachin. (Passive Voice)
Present Perfect Tense
Normal structure of sentence in active voice for present perfect tense is

Subject + has/have + V-3 + object. (Active Voice)
Example - She has cooked the food. (Active Voice)

(Here ‗she‘ is subject, ‗cooked‘ is V-3 (past participle) of cook and ‗the food‘ is
object.)

Subject + has been + V-3 + by + agent. (Passive Voice)
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
Example - The food has been cooked by her. (Passive Voice)

participle) of cook, and ‗her‘ is agent (doer))
Shubham has written homework. (Active Voice)

Homework has been written by Shubham. (Passive Voice)
Simran has learnt English. (Acive Voice)

English has been learnt by Simran. (Passive Voice)
Sachin has played cricket. (Acive Voice)

Cricket has been played by Sachin. (Passive Voice)
 Past Tense
Simple Past Tense
Normal structure of sentence in active voice for simple past tense is

Subject + V-2 + object. (Active Voice)
Example - She cooked the food. (Active Voice)

(Here ‗she‘ is subject, ‗cooked‘ is V-2 of cook and ‗the food‘ is object.)

Subject + was + V-3 + by + agent. (Passive Voice)
Example - The food was cooked by her. (Passive Voice)

Shubham wrote homework. (Active Voice)

Home was written by Shubham. (Passive Voice)
Simran learned English. (Active Voice)

English was learnt by Simran. (Passive Voice)
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Sachin played cricket. (Active Voice)

Cricket was played by Sachin. (Passive Voice)
Past Continuous Tense
Normal structure of sentence in active voice for past continuous tense is

Subject + was/were + verb + ing + object. (Active Voice)
Example - She was cooking the food. (Active Voice)
(Here ‗she‘ is subject, ‗cooking‘ is verb and ‗the food‘ is object.)

Subject + was + being + V-3 + by + agent. (Passive Voice)
Example - The food was being cooked by her. (Passive Voice)

Shubham was writing homework. (Active voice)

Homework was being written by Shubham. (Passive voice)
Simran was learning English. (Active voice)

English was being learnt by Simran. (Passive voice)
Sachin was playing cricket. (Active Voice)

Cricket was being played by Sachin. (Passive Voice)
Past Perfect Tense
Normal structure of sentence in active voice for past perfect tense is

Subject + had + V-3 + object. (Active Voice)
Example - She had cooked the food. (Active Voice)

object.)

Subject + had been + V-3 + by + agent. (Passive Voice)
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Example - The food had been cooked by her. (Passive Voice)

Shubham had written homework. (Active voice)

Homework had been written by Shubham. (Passive voice)
Simran had learnt English. (Active voice)

English had been learnt by Simran. (Passive Voice)
Sachin had played cricket. (Active voice)

Cricket had been played by Sachin. (Passive Voice)
 Future Tense
Simple Future Tense
Normal structure of sentence in active voice for simple future tense is

Subject + will/shall + verb + object. (Active Voice)
Example - She will cook the food. (Active Voice)

(Here ‗she‘ is subject, ‗cook‘ is verb and ‗the food‘ is object.)

Subject + will be + V-3 + by + agent. (Passive Voice)
Example - The food will be cooked by her. (Passive Voice)

Shubham will write homework. (Active Voice)

Homework will be written by Shubham. (Passive Voice)
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Simran will learn English. (Active Voice)

English will be learnt by Simran. (Passive Voice)
Sachin will play cricket. (Active Voice)

Cricket will be played by Sachin. (Passive Voice)
Future Perfect Tense
Normal structure of sentence in active voice for simple future tense is

Subject + will/shall have + V-3 + object. (Active Voice)
Examples - She will have cooked the food. (Active Voice)

object.)

Subject + will have been + V-3 + by + agent. (Passive Voice)
Example - The food will have been cooked by her. (Passive Voice)
Shubham will have written homework. (Active Voice)

Homework will have been written by Shubham. (Passive Voice)
Simran will have learnt English. (Active Voice)

English will have been learnt by Simran. (Passive Voice)
Sachin will have played cricket. (Active Voice)

Cricket will have been played by Sachin. (Passive Voice)
Future Tense with Going To
Normal structure of sentence in active voice for future tense with going to is
Subject + am/is/are + going to + verb + object. (Active Voice)
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
Example - She is going to cook the food. (Active Voice)

(Here ‗she‘ is subject, ‗cook‘ is verb and ‗the food‘ is object.)

Subject + am/is/are + going to + be + V3 + by + agent. (Passive Voice)
Example - The food is going to be cooked by her. (Passive Voice)

See some more examples to clarify this
Shubham is going to write homework. (Active Voice)

Homework is going to be written by Shubham. (Passive Voice)
Simran is going to learn English. (Active Voice)

English is going to be learnt by Simran. (Passive Voice)
Sachin is going to play cricket. (Active Voice)

Cricket is going to be played by Sachin. (Passive Voice)
7. Jumbled Sentences
 Arrangement of jumbled sentences into meaningful ones.
In these type of questions, the candidate is given a set of five or six

sentences which are in jumbled order.
The given sentences should be arranged properly to form a meaningful

paragraph and answer the questions based on the sequence formed
SOME IMPORTANT TIPS TO ARRANGE JUMBLED SENTENCES -
 Try to find out the topic addressed by the paragraph. This can be done by
looking for the words that are repeated often in the given sentences.
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
 If a particular word is repeated in more than one sentence then the

sentences can be placed one by one in the paragraph
 If a sentence starts with a ‘name’ of a person, then that sentence will

definitely be the 1stsentence in the paragraph to be formed
 If a sentence starts with pronouns other than ‘I’ and ‘You’, then that
sentence will not be the 1stsentence of the paragraph
 The sentences starting with the words ‘That’, ‗These‘, ‗Thus‘ and ‗Those‘ ,
then those sentences will not come 1st in the paragraph
 If an article namely ‘a’, ‘an’ or ‘the’ is present at the starting of a sentence.

Then the chances of that sentence to be the 1st in the arrangement is
more
 If all the articles (a, an, the) are present as the starting words of different
sentences then they are arranged as follows
The sentence starting with ‘A’ comes first
The sentences starting with ‘An’ and ‘The’ will follow the sentence starting
with ‗A‘ according to their content
 If there are 3-sentences starting with the words ‘But’ , ‘So’ and ‘Now’
respectively. Then those 3-sentences will be arranged in the following
order
1 => sentence starting with ‗But
2 => sentence starting with ‗So‘
3 => sentence starting with ‗Now‘
 If the given set of sentences consists of simple, compound and complex

sentences they are arranged in the following order
1. A simple sentence – a sentence that consists of basic elements like a

subject, a verb and a completed thought.
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
Example -
Arun waited for the bus.
2. A compound sentence – a sentence that consists of 2-independent

clauses connected to one another with a conjunction.
Example -
Arun waited for the bus, but the bus was late.
3. Complex sentence – a sentence that consists of an independent clause

and one or more dependent clauses connected to it
Example -
Arun realized that the bus was late while he waited at the bus stop
Or
While he waited at the bus stop, Arun realized that the bus was late.
 If a sentence starts with the words Hence, Finally or Therefore then that
sentence comes last in the arrangement.
8. Synonyms
Introduction - Words that have similar definitions are known as synonyms.
We use synonyms constantly in speech and in writing. These are the words
that can be used interchangeably, but the meaning of the message remains
the same.
Rule & Tips - Steps to approach ‗Synonyms‘
 If one does not know the exact meaning of the word, try understanding it in
the context of the paragraph.
279
DefenceXP NDA & NA
 In case the meaning of the word is not clear, going through all the available
options can certainly be considered as a good idea) By doing so, one can
start getting idea about the given question & start negating the available
options one after the other.
 Sometimes it so happens that a particular word sounds more like a tongue

twister, so try & break it into meaningful parts. Chances are there that the
full word might start making more sense in this way.
 One of the effective ways of knowing & scoring well in this section is to
keep a regular tab & enough involvement of reading synonyms & making
one‘s own list. Revising the list regularly helps one in remembering the
synonyms more often.
 While replacing a particular word in sentence, using its synonym, please

see to it that the context does not change nor the whole meaning of the
sentence.
9. Antonyms
Introduction - An antonym is a word that means the opposite of another
word) For instance, the antonym of 'hot' may be 'cold)' The root words for the
word 'antonym' are the words 'anti,' meaning 'against' or 'opposite,' and
'onym,' meaning 'name.'
Rule & Tips - Steps to approach ‗Antonyms‘
280
DefenceXP NDA & NA
questions.

comprehension.
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
 Exercise
Directions—(Q. 1–5) In this section, each of the following nine items
consists of a word in CAPITAL LETTERS, followed by four words. Select
the word that is most similar in MEANING to the bold word in CAPITAL
LETTERS.
Q1. PERPLEX
A) Distract
B) Intrigue
C) Perspective
D) Baffle
Q2.HOSPITABLE
A) Convivial
B) Liberal
C) Congential
D) Welcoming
Q3. GAIETY
A) Dexterity
B) Wonder
C) Colourfulness
D) Jollity
Q4. SCARCELY
A) Hardly
B) Always
C) Sometimes
D) Frequently
Q5. COUNTERFEIT
A) Imitated
B) Duplicate
C) Fake
D) Foreign
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
Directions—(Q. 5–10) In the following items, some parts of the sentence

have been jumbled up. You are required to re-arrange these parts
which are labelled (P), (Q), (R) and (S) to produce the correct sentence.
Choose the proper sequence and indicate your correct response
accordingly.
Q6. It is a privilege to pay tax (P)/ of every citizen (Q)/ as well as the duty
(R)/ who is well-placed (S)
Which one of the following is the correct sequence ?
A) R P S Q
B) S P R Q
C) R Q S P
D) S Q R P
Q7. It is not good of the wicked persons (P)/ to overthrow (Q)/ to accept
the help (R)/ the righteous persons. (S)
A) R S Q P
B) Q S R P
C) R P Q S
D) Q P R S
Q8. Life is judged and not by (P)/ of work done (Q)/ the longevity of
years (R)/ by the quality. (S)
A) Q S P R
B) S Q R P
C) Q S R P
D) S Q P R
Q9. When he learns that (P)/ you have passed the examination (Q)/ in
the first division (R)/ your father will be delighted (S)
A) Q P S R
B) S P Q R
C) Q R S P
D) S R Q P
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Q10. The journalist (P)/ saw (Q)/ countless number of the dead (R)/
driving across the field of battle (S)
A) P Q S R
B) P Q R S
C) P S Q R
D) S R Q P
Directions—(Q. 11–15) In this section, each of the following nine items

consists of a word in CAPITAL LETTERS, followed by four words. Select
the word that is FARTHEST in MEANING to the bold word in CAPITAL
LETTERS.
Q11. EPHEMERAL
A) Temporal
B) Stable
C) Permanent
D) Earthly
Q12. OBLIGATORY
A) Doubtful
B) Voluntary
C) Sincerely
D) Faithfully
Q13. CIRCUMSPECT
A) Careless
B) Pusillanimous
C) Reticent
D) Hostile
Q14. OBSCURE
A) Suitable
B) Apt
C) Thalamus
D) Clear
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Q15. REPULSIVE
A) Attractive
B) Colourful
C) Unattractive
D) Striking
Directions—(Q. 16–26) In this section, you have four short passages.

After each passage, you will find several questions based on the
passage. First, read a passage, and then answer the questions based
on it. You are required to select your answers based on the contents of
the passage and opinion of the author only.
PASSAGE 1
In our approach to life, be it pragmatic or otherwise, a basic fact that confronts
us squarely and unmistakably is the desire for peace, security and happiness.
Different forms of life at different levels of existence make up the teeming
denizens of this earth of ours. And, no matter whether they belong to the
higher groups such as human beings or to the lower groups such as animals,
all beings primarily seek peace, comfort and security. Life is as dear to a mute
creature as it is to a man. Even the lowliest insect strives for protection
against dangers that threaten its life. Just as each one of us wants to live and
not to die, so do all other creatures.
Q16. The author‘s main point is that

A) different forms of life are found on earth
B) different levels of existence are possible in nature
C) peace and security are the chief goals of all living beings
D) even the weakest creature struggles to preserve its life
Q17. Which one of the following assumptions or steps is essential in

developing the author‘s position ?
A) All forms of life have a single overriding goal
B) The will to survive of a creature is identified with a desire for peace
C) All beings are divided into higher and lower groups
D) A parallel is drawn between happiness and life, and pain and death
285
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PASSAGE 2
We have built up an energy intensive society such that hundreds of daily acts
are dependent on having energy at our ready command. Most of that energy
comes from fossil fuels. Yet, within two centuries we will have used up nearly
all of the fossil fuel that has been built up over millions of years of earth time.
Furthermore, the extraction and consumption of fossil fuels is a major polluter
of our environment. Our appetite for energy is seemingly insatiable. We are
now searching for it in different places and using methods that inevitably upset
and pollute the environment. Since fossil energy will soon be gone we are
searching for alternative sources.
Q18. Today we are dependent on energy for everything. What is the

most likely factor that contributes to this situation ?
A) Sufficient quantity of energy is available at present
B) We have developed a society which makes intensive use of energy
C) Energy is most convenient and easy to use
D) We have no alternatives
Q19. The author seems to disapprove further extraction and

consumption of fossil fuels. Which of the following is the most likely
reason for that?
A) Further extraction of fossil fuel is a costly affair
B) Further extraction and consumption of fossil fuel may lead to conflict
between countries
C) We do not have the technical know-how for further extraction of fossil fuels
D) Further extraction and consumption of fossil fuels will lead to worldwide
environmental pollution.
Q20. According to the author, we are searching for alternative sources

of energy. What is the most likely reason for this ?
A) Alternative sources of energy are cheaper
B) It is feared that fossil energy will soon be exhausted
C) A number of alternative energy sources are easily available
D) Alternative sources of energy will not cause any environmental problems
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PASSAGE 3
Books are by far, the most lasting product of human effort. Temples crumble
into ruins, pictures and statues decay, but books survive. Time does not
destroy the great thoughts which are as fresh today as when they first passed
through their author‘s minds ages ago. The only effect of time has been to
throw out of currency the bad products, for nothing in literature can long
survive but what is really good and of lasting value. Books introduce us into
the best society; they bring us into the presence of the greatest minds that
have ever lived, we hear what they said and did; we see them as if they were
really alive, we sympathise with them, enjoy with them and grieve with them.
Q21. According to the passage, books live for ever because—

A) they have productive value
B) time does not destroy great thoughts
C) they are in printed form
D) they have the power to influence people
Q22. According to the passage, temples, pictures and statues belong

to the same category because—
A) all of them are beautiful
B) all of them are substantial
C) all of them are likely to decay
D) all of them are fashioned by men
Q23. ―Lasting value‖ in the passage means—

A) something which has survived the passage of time
B) something which has been lost with the passage of time
C) something which has relevance for the present
D) something which had relevance for the past
PASSAGE 4
The pre-historic man preferred this area as three of his primary needs—water,
raw material for tool making and game in the thick jungles, were available
here in plenty. Mr. Sharma found sites on top of hills where huge boulders
have been cut flat. These flat rocks were found in the round formation.
Probably they sat on these and there was a fire in the middle. It was also a
site where the tools were made. It was like a national pastime. They made
tools to throw at animals. There was little chance of killing them with one tool.
Mr. Sharma says there are strong chances of finding fossils in the area.
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Q24. Mr. Sharma is most probably working as—

A) a Civil Engineer
B) a Geographer
C) an Archaeologist
D) a Tourist officer
Q25. ―There was little chance of killing them with one tool‖ implies
that—
A) the animals were too clever
B) the men did not know how to hunt
C) the tools were not sophisticated enough
D) the hunters wanted to use more than one tool
Q26. Which of the following does not describe the activities of the man
as mentioned in the passage ?
A) Hunting animals
B) Lighting fires
C) Cutting stones
D) Cultivating land
Directions—(Q. 27–31) (i) In this Section a number of sentences are

given. The sentences are in three separate parts and each one is
labeled (A), (B) and (C). Read each sentence to find out whether there
is an error in any part. No sentence has more than one error. When you
find an error in any one of the parts (A), (B) or (C), indicate your
response on the separate Answer Sheet at the appropriate space. You
may feel that there is no error in a sentence. In that case letter (D) will
signify a ‗No error‘ response.
Q27. I informed the principal (A)/ that I was running temperature (B)/ and
therefore could not attend the meeting. (C) No error (D)
Q28. The lady was broken with grief (A)/ when she heard the sad news of the
train disaster (B)/ in which her brother was killed. (C) No error (D)
Q29. The farmer is irrigating (A)/ his fields (B)/ since morning. (C) No error (D)
Q30. I could not (A)/ answer to (B)/ the question. (C) No error (D)
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Q31. Two years passed (A)/ since (B)/ my cousin died. No error (D)
Directions—(Q. 32–36) In the following items, each passage consists of

six sentences. The first sentence (S1) and the final sentence (S6) are
given in the beginning. The middle four sentences in each have been
removed and jumbled up. These are labelled P, Q, R and S. You are
required to find out the proper sequence of the four sentences and
indicate your correct answer accordingly.
Q32. S1 : When you have to study for examination, you have many things
to do.
S6 : The final aim, of course, is to pass the examination that is two
months away.
P : Suppose you have only two months to do it.
Q : The time-table tells you what you have to do everyday and for how
many hours.
R : You have to read a number of books, learn tables and formulas.
S : Then the best way is to make a time-table for yourself.
A) R P S Q
B) S R Q P
C) Q R S P
D) P S Q R
Q33. S1 : The umpire has to do a lot of hard work before qualifying to

surpervise a match.
S6 : So an umpire must keep abreast of time and apply the rules as
occasion demands.
P : However, umpires are human and are sometimes prone to make
mistakes.
Q : The rules of the game are being constantly changed.
R : The players should gracefully and sportingly accept these mistakes.
S : He is aware of the responsibilities that go with the job.
A) Q R R S
B) S P R Q
C) S R P Q
D) Q R P S
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Q34. S1 : Mohan came to the city to meet a friend.

S6 : He should not have behaved so rudely
P : Mohan asked her to join them for tea.
Q : Mohan‘s friend who had some grudge against Shiela quickly got up
and left the restaurant without saying a word.
R : While they were having tea at a restaurant Sheila, a former fellow
student of theirs, came in.
S : Though Sheila knew Mohan‘s friend was a bad fellow, she accepted
the invitation.
A) P R S Q
B) R P S Q
C) P R Q S
D) R P Q S
Q35. S1 : When the Romans invaded Britain about 2,000 years ago, their
calendar was calculated on the phases of the moon.
S6 : The astronomer‘s name was Sosigenes and his calendar had a year
of 365 days.
P : This calender had gradually become so out of line with the seasons
that it was two or three months behind.
Q : The Emperor Julius Caesar was determined to correct it.
R : Caesar had been to Egypt and seen the advantages of a calender
which used only the sun.
S : So he sought help from a Greek astronomer who lived in the
Egyptian city of Alexandria.
A) R Q P S
B) P Q R S
C) P S R Q
D) R S P Q
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Q36. S1 : Education is in great demand today in India.

S6 : Things have changed considerably now.
P : These people were accustomed to applying their intelligence to the
profession of their fathers.
Q : Since independence it has spread to backward classes.
R : They had no idea that they could train themselves to do something
else.
S : Besides this training they had little book learning.
A) P Q R S
B) Q P R S
C) P Q S R
D) Q P S R
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17. Answer. B
18. Answer. B
19. Answer. D
20. Answer. B
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GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
Section ‘A’ Physics
Physical Properties and States of Matter

Physical properties can be observed or measured without changing the
composition of matter. Physical properties are used to observe and describe
matter. Physical properties of materials and systems are often described as
intensive and extensive properties. This classification relates to the
dependency of the properties upon the size or extent of the system or object
in question.
An intensive property is a bulk property, meaning that it is a physical property

of a system that does not depend on the system size or the amount of
material in the system. Examples of intensive properties include temperature,
refractive index, density, and hardness of an object. When a diamond is cut,
the pieces maintain their intrinsic hardness (until their size reaches a few
atoms thick). In contrast, an extensive property is additive for independent,
non-interacting subsystems. The property is proportional to the amount of
material in the system.
 Intensive properties: A physical property that will be the same

regardless of the amount of matter.
 density: ρ=m/v
 color: The pigment or shade
 conductivity: electricity to flow through the substance
 malleability: if a substance can be flattened
 luster: how shiny the substance looks
 Extensive Properties: A physical property that will change if the amount of

matter changes.
 mass: how much matter in the sample
 volume: How much space the sample takes up
 length: How long the sample is
The three main states of matter are: Solid, Liquid, Gas
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 Solid is distinguished by a fixed structure. Its shape and volume do not

change. In a solid, atoms are tightly packed together in a fixed
arrangement.
 Liquid is distinguished by its malleable shape (is able to form into the
shape of its container), but constant volume. In a liquid, atoms are close
together but not in a fixed arrangement.
 Gas is made up of atoms that are separate. However, unlike solid & liquid,
a gas has no fixed shape and volume.
Mass
Mass is the measure of the amount of matter. It is approximately the measure

of the number of atoms in a given object. Mass is also the measure of an
object‘s resistance to gravity. The Kilogram is the basic SI unit of mass.
Weight
Weight is a force that is caused by the gravitational pull of the earth towards
its surface. The basic SI unit for weight is a newton.
Volume
Volume is the amount of space occupied by an object. Volume is measured
using a graduated cylinder or is determined by calculation using the
dimensions of the object. Volume is measured in cm3, m3, mL and L.
Density
Density is a property of matter and can be defined as the ratio of mass to a
unit volume of matter. It's typically expressed in units of grams per cubic
centimeter, kilograms per cubic meter, or pounds per cubic inch.
Density is expressed by the formula:
ρ = m/V where
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ρ is the density
m is the mass
V is the volume
Specific Gravity
Specific gravity is a measure of density relative to the density of a reference
substance. The reference material could be anything, but the most common
reference is pure water. If a material has a specific gravity less than 1, it will
float on water.
Specific gravity is often abbreviated as sp gr. Specific gravity is also

called relative density and is expressed by the formula:
Specific Gravitysubstance = ρsubstance/ρreference
Principle of Archimedes
It states that a body immersed in a fluid is buoyed up by a force equal to the

weight of the displaced fluid. It applies to both floating and submerged bodies
and to all fluids, i.e., liquids and gases.
The difference between the upward and downward forces acting on the
bottom and the top of the cube, respectively, is called buoyancy.
If you look at the figure, the weight due to gravity is opposed by the thrust
provided by the fluid. The object inside the liquid only feels the total force
acting on it as the weight. Because the actual gravitational force is decreased
by the liquid‘s upthrust, the object feels as though its weight is reduced. The
apparent weight is thus given by:
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Apparent weight= Weight of object (in air) – Thrust force (buoyancy)

Archimedes principle tells us that this loss of weight is equal to the weight of
liquid the object displaces. If the object has a volume of V, then it displaces a
volume V of the liquid when it is fully submerged. If only a part of the volume
is submerged, the object can only displace that much of liquid.
 Archimedes principle equation
The mass of the liquid displaced is.
Mass = Density × Volume = ρ × V
This is because density (ρ) is defined as

Density, ρ = Mass/Volume = M/V
Thus the weight of that displaced liquid is:
Weight = Mass × Acceleration due to gravity
W=M×g=ρ×V×g
Thus from Archimedes principle, we can write:
Apparent loss of weight = weight of water displaced = ρ×V×g
Thus the Thrust force is,
Thrust = ρ × V × g
Where, ρ = density of liquid
V = volume of liquid displaced
The thrust force is also called the buoyant force because it is responsible for
objects to float. Thus, this equation is also called the law of buoyancy.
Pressure Barometer
A barometer is a scientific instrument used to measure air pressure.
A barometer can be made by filling up a long glass tube with mercury, then
turning it upside down in a bath of mercury as shown. The space at the top of
the barometer tube is a vacuum and exerts no pressure on the mercury
column.
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The atmosphere pushes against the mercury bath, which in turn pushes the
mercury up the tube. Hence, Pressure due to mercury column=Pressure due
to atmospheric pressure
The vertical height of the mercury column gives the required atmospheric
pressure. pair=hρg, where h is the height of mercury column, ρ is density of
mercury, g is gravitational acceleration.
Motion of objects
Motion is a change in position of an object or else a process of moving or

being moved. When the body changes its position with respect to its
surrounding, the body is said to be in Motion.
Examples - Football on ground, motion of moon around earth, rock falling off
a cliff, a car moving on the road to trees on the roadside, person inside a
moving bus with respect to person outside the bus, bird flying in sky are the
examples of motion.
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
Velocity and Acceleration
 Velocity
The rate of change of displacement of an object with respect to time is
known as velocity.
 The velocity of a moving object is defined as the displacement of the

object in unit time interval i.e., velocity
 It is a vector quantity and its SI unit is meter/second.
 If a body goes equal displacement in equal interval of time then it is
called uniform velocity.
 If a body undergoes unequal displacement in equal interval of time
then it is called variable velocity.
 Relative velocity
= V1 +V2 if two travels in opposite direction
=V1-V2 if two travels in the same direction
 Acceleration
The rate of change of velocity with respect to time is called acceleration.
When a body completes equal displacement in equal interval of time, its
velocity is constant and hence, it does not have an acceleration. When a
body shows equal change in velocity in equal interval of time its velocity is
not constant but it has a constant acceleration.
 It is a vector quantity and its SI unit is meter/second 2 (m/s 2)

 If velocity decreases with time then acceleration is negative and is
called retardation.
 If acceleration does not change with time it is called constant
acceleration.
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Newton’s Laws of Motion
1. First Law of Motion

Every body continues to be in a state of rest or uniform motion in a straight
line, except in so far as it may be compelled by force to change that state.‘
Newton‘s first law of motion defines inertia.
 The inertia of Rest
 Inertia is the property of a body by virtue of which it opposes any

change in its state of rest or of uniform motion.
 When a bus or train at rest starts to move suddenly the passengers
sitting in it feels a jerk in backward direction due to the inertia of rest.
 Dust particle comes out of a carpet if we beat it with the stick.
 A passenger jumping out of a train is advised to jump in the direction
of the bus and ran for a short distance.
 The inertia of Motion
 When a running bus or train stops suddenly, the passengers sitting in

it jerk in the forward direction due to the inertia of motion.
2. Second Law of Motion

‗The rate of change of linear momentum of a body is directly proportional to
the external force applied on the body and this change takes place always in
the direction of the applied force‘.
3. Third Law of Motion

‗‘To every action, there is always, an equal and opposite reaction.‘‘
Force and Momentum
 Force
Force can be defined as a push or a pull that changes or tends to change the
state of rest or uniform motion of an object or changes the direction or shape
of an object. It causes objects to accelerate or add to their overall pressure.
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In simple terms, it is a push or a pull on an object that takes place when two
objects interact. It is the basic cause of motion from rest.
Force = mass x acceleration
F = ma
 Momentum
It is the quantity of motion which a body possesses and is measured as the
product of the mass and velocity of the body.
Linear momentum = mass × velocity.
Linear momentum is defined as the product of a system‘s mass multiplied by

its velocity:
p = mv
Parallelogram of Forces
The law of parallelogram of forces states that if two vectors acting on a

particle at the same time be represented in magnitude and direction by the
two adjacent sides of a parallelogram drawn from a point their resultant vector
is represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram
drawn from the same point .
So let us assume that the two vectors A and B, inclined at angle θ, be acting
on a particle at the same time. Let they be represented in magnitude and
direction by two adjacent sides OP and OS of parallelogram OPQS, drawn
from a point O.
According to parallelogram law of vectors, their resultant vector will be
represented by the diagonal of the parallelogram .
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Parrallelogram Law of vectors
 Magnitude and Direction of Resultant -

Draw a perpendicular QN to OP produced.
And let us assume that OP=A, OS= PQ= B, OQ=R and angle SOP= angle
QPN = θ.
Now considering this if we proceed further, in the case of triangle law of vector
addition , the magnitude and direction of resultant vector will be given by
R= √
tanβ = B sinθ / A+B cosθ
 Special cases -
1. When two vectors are acting in the same direction , then θ= 0 , cosθ=1 and
sinθ= 0
R= √
R= √
R= A+B
tanβ = B X 0/ A+B = 0
β=0
Thus for two vectors acting in the same direction the magnitude of the
resultant vector is equal to the sum of the magnitudes of two vectors and act
along the direction of A and B.
2. When two vectors are acting in opposite directions , then θ= 180 , cos θ= -1
and sinθ= 0
R= √
R= √ or √
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R = (A-B) or (B-A)
tanβ = B X 0/ A+ B (-1)= 0
β = 0 or 180.
Thus for two vectors acting in opposite directions, the magnitude of the
resultant vector is equal to the difference of the magnitudes of the two vectors
and acts in the direction of bigger vector .
3. When two vectors act at right angle to each other θ = 90 , sinθ = 1 and
cosθ = 0
R= √
R= √
tanβ = B(1)/A+B(0)= B/A

or, β = tan-1 B/A
 Important Note -
1. It is to be noted that the magnitude of the resultant of two vectors is

maximum, when the vectors act in the same direction and is minimum when
they act in opposite directions.
2. It should be noted that while finding the resultant vector of two vectors by
the parallelogram law of vector addition , the two vector A and B should be
either act towards the point or away from the point .
Stability and Equilibrium of bodies
Stability is the resistance to a change in the body‘s acceleration, or the

resistance to a disturbance of the body‘s equilibrium.
For example consider the following situation:
Equilibrium is a state of zero acceleration where there is no change in the
speed or direction of the body. Balance is the ability to control equilibrium.
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In this case the body is in translational equilibrium but the two forces form a
couple hence it is not in rotational equilibrium. So suppose for a rod kept on a
table minimum number coplanar forces (having different line of actions) that
must act so that body remains in equilibrium, So if we analyze with one force it
can‘t be either translational or rotational equilibrium, with two force
translational is possible but not rotational but with three we can achieve both.
Equilibrium is classified as Dynamic or Static equilibrium. The next question is
what static equilibrium is and how it is different from dynamic? So if the body
is in equilibrium but continues to move with uniform velocity it is known as
dynamic equilibrium. For example, a ball moving with uniform velocity. On the
other hand, if the body is in equilibrium while being at rest it is termed as static
equilibrium.
Equilibrium is also classified as stable, unstable and neutral. Let‘s see what
these mean. Stable equilibrium is one in which if the body is displaced from its
equilibrium position then it tends to move towards that equilibrium point. For
example a ball kept at the bottom of a hemisphere.While in case of unstable
equilibrium, if it is displaced from that point the body tends to move away from
that point. Consider a ball kept at the top of a sphere. If we slide it, the ball
tends to roll away from the topmost point. Similarly in neutral equilibrium the
body neither moves towards nor away from the equilibrium point. For example
displace a ball kept on horizontal surface slightly.
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Gravitation
 Universal law of gravitation - Every object in the universe attracts every

other object with a force which is proportional to the product of their
masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
them.
The force is along the line joining the centres of two objects.
Let two objects A and B of masses M and m lie at a distance of d from each
other as shown in the figure.
Let F be the force of attraction between two objects. According to the

universal law of gravitation
G is called a universal constant because its value does not depend on the
nature of intervening medium or temperature or any other physical variable.
S.I. unit of G = Nm2/kg2
Value of G = 6.673 × 10–11 Nm2/kg2
 Importance of universal law of gravitation

Universal law of gravitation successfully explained several phenomena like:
(i) the force that binds us to the earth.
(ii) the motion of moon around the earth.
(iii) the motion of planets around the sun.
(iv) the tides due to the moon and the sun.
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 Free fall
When an object falls down towards the earth under the gravitational force
alone, we say the object is in free fall.
This acceleration is called acceleration due to gravity, denoted by ‗g‘. Unit is

m/s2.
As F = ma (a = g) ...(i)
F = mg ...(ii)
M = Mass of the earth

d = Distance between the object and the earth
G = Gravitational constant
If the object is place on the earth then d =R
(R = radius of the earth)
Earth is not a sphere it is flattened at poles.
Calculation of value of g
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G = 6.67 × 10–11 Nm2/kg2

M = 6 × 1024 kg (Mass of the earth)
R = 6.4 × 106 m
On substituting the given values
Motion of objects under the influence of gravity ‗g‘ does not depend on the
mass of the body. All objects small, big, heavy, light, hollow or solid fall at
same rate.
The three equation of motion viz.
(iii) v2 – u2 = 2as are true for motion of objects under gravity.
For free fall, value of acceleration a = g = 9.5 ms–2.
If an object is just let fall from a height then in that as u = 0 and a = g = 9.8
m/s2.
If an object is projected vertically upward with an initial velocity u, then a = –g

= –9.8 ms–2 and the object will go to a maximum height h where its final
velocity becomes zero (i.e., v = 0).
 Mass - Mass of an object is the measure of its inertia. It is the matter

present in it. It remains the same everywhere in the universe.
 Weight - The force of attraction of the earth on the object is known as the
weight of the object. Its S.I. unit is Newton.
W=m×g
The weight of an object can change from one place to the other, from one
planet to the other.
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Weight of an object on moon is given by the formula
Wm = weight of an object on moon

Mm = mass of the moon = 7.36 × 1022
Rm = radius of the moon = 1.74 × 106
G = 6.67 × 10–11 Nm2/lg2
∴ Weight of an object on moon th the weight of an object on the earth.
Work, Power and Energy
 Work - Work is said to be done when a force applied to an object moves

that object.
We can calculate work by multiplying the force by the movement of the object.
W=F×d
The SI unit of work is the joule (J)
 Power - Power can be defined as the rate at which work is done i.e.
energy converted.
The formula for power is P = W/t
The unit of power is watt (W).
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 Energy - In physics, we can define energy as the capacity to do work.
For the potential energy the formula is P.E. = mgh
The unit of energy is joule (J), which is named in honour of James Prescott
Joule.
Effects of Heat
The important effects of heat on an object are listed below:

1. Raises the temperature.
2. Increases volume.
3. Changes state
4. Brings about chemical action.
5. Changes physical properties.
Examples
i. On a hot day while cycling on a road if we touch the handle of a bicycle

instead of the grips, the handle will seem to be hotter than the grips because
the handle is a good conductor of heat and when we touch any part of it, heat
flows to the hand, not only from that part but also from the neigbouring parts:
whereas in the case of grips the heat flows to the hand from only that part
which is touched.
The handle seems hotter because it is a good conductor of heat and the flow
of heat to the hand is greater and more rapid than in the case of the grips.
ii. The rails on a railway line are laid with a small gap between them so that
with a rise in temperature in summer the gap would provide room for
expansion. Heat will also be generated when the train passes over the rails.
iii. The iron tyre of a cart wheel is always made a bit smaller in diameter than
the wooden wheel. After making the tyre red hot, it is slipped on the wheel,
and water is poured on it. On cooling the iron tyre contracts, and holds the
parts firmly together.
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iv. To loosen a glass stopper which has struck fast in the neck of a glass
bottle we heat the neck a little by turning it round over a flame. Owing to the
expansion of the neck the stopper can be easily pulled out.
v. Two plates which are to be fastened together are held fast, whilst a hole is
drilled through them both. A red hot rivet is passed through the hole and is
hammered until both ends have heads closely gripping the plates. The
contraction of the rivet as it cools binds the plates together with a great force.
Measurement of Temperature and Heat
Temperature is measured by a thermometer. A thermometer is a device in

which a property that changes with temperature is measured and used to
indicate the value of the temperature
A thermometer has two important elements -

 A sensor which responds to temperature changes
 A means of converting the sensor response into values of temperature
By definition, temperature is the measurable extent of hotness or coldness. It

is a mathematical representation of heat. There are different units to measure
temperature, like Celsius (˚C), Kelvin (K) and Fahrenheit (˚F).
There are different types of thermometers according to the needs. For
example, there are one set of thermometers which is used to measure body
temperature while another set of thermometers to measure boiling point and
freezing point during experiments. Here, we will discuss the two types of
thermometers, namely, clinical thermometer and laboratory thermometer.
 Clinical Thermometer
Clinical thermometers are meant for clinical purposes. It is developed for
measuring the human body temperature. It is a long narrow glass tube with a
bulb containing mercury at the end. The normal human body temperature is
37˚C; which can fluctuate between the ranges 35˚C to 42˚C. Hence, the
clinical thermometers have the range 35˚C to 42˚C. The level of mercury tells
our body temperature in ˚C. Since mercury is a toxic element, thus these
thermometers have been replaced by digital thermometers nowadays.
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 Laboratory Thermometer
Since clinical thermometers can‘t be used to measure temperature other than
the human body, we need a special type of thermometers for other purposes.
A laboratory thermometer is used for measuring temperatures other than the
human body temperature. It ranges from -10˚C to 110˚C. Laboratory
thermometers are designed for lab purposes such as checking boiling point,
freezing point, or temperature of other substances. You can use a laboratory
thermometer for checking the temperature of a solvent but not a clinical one.
Weather reporters also use maximum-minimum thermometers for measuring
maximum and minimum temperatures of a place.
We have all noticed that when you heat something up, its temperature rises.
Often we think that heat and temperature are the same thing. However, this is
not the case. Heat and temperature are related to each other, but are different
concepts.
Heat is the total energy of molecular motion in a substance while temperature

is a measure of the average energy of molecular motion in a substance. Heat
energy depends on the speed of the particles, the number of particles (the
size or mass), and the type of particles in an object. Temperature does not
depend on the size or type of object. For example, the temperature of a small
cup of water might be the same as the temperature of a large tub of water, but
the tub of water has more heat because it has more water and thus more total
thermal energy.
It is heat that will increase or decrease the temperature. If we add heat, the
temperature will become higher. If we remove heat the temperature will
become lower. Higher temperatures mean that the molecules are moving,
vibrating and rotating with more energy.
If we take two objects which have the same temperature and bring them into
contact, there will be no overall transfer of energy between them because the
average energies of the particles in each object are the same. But if the
temperature of one object is higher than that of the other object, there will be a
transfer of energy from the hotter to the colder object until both objects reach
the same temperature.
Temperature is not energy, but a measure of it. Heat is energy.
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Change of State and Latent Heat
When a substance changes from one state to another energy is either

absorbed or liberated. This heat energy is called the latent heat, and part of it
is the energy used to overcome the forces of attraction between the
molecules.
It is clearly useful to know the energy required to change the state of unit
mass of the substance. This is known as the specific latent heat and is
defined as The specific latent heat is the energy required to change the state
of 1 kg of the substance.
 Any material has two specific latent heats
 The specific latent heat fusion is the heat energy needed to change 1 kg of
the material in its solid state at its melting point to 1 kg of the material in its
liquid state, and that released when 1 kg of the liquid changes to 1 kg of
solid.
 The specific latent heat of vaporisation of a liquid is the heat energy

needed to change 1 kg of the material in its liquid state at its boiling point to
1 kg of the material in its gaseous state, and that released when 1 kg of
vapour changes to 1 kg of liquid.
It is important to realise that no temperature change occurs during the change

of state. The temperature will only rise or fall when the entire specimen has
changed from one state to the other.
Generally the specific latent heats of vaporisation are greater than the specific
latent heats of fusion. The change of state from a liquid to a gas results in a
large increase of volume and therefore a large amount of work has to be done
against the surrounding atmosphere.
In general energy is needed to
a. change the state of the material at a constant temperature (and pressure),

and
b. to do external work if there is a change of volume during the change of
state.
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This external work is usually positive, although there are exceptions. Ice
contracts when it melts, the volume of a sample of water being a minimum at
4 oC, and therefore the external work done on melting is negative.
If a volatile liquid is allowed to evaporate from the surface of an object then its
latent heat of vaporisation may be used to cool the object: the heat energy
needed to evaporate the liquid is drawn from the object itself and so its
temperature falls. You can hand will cool.
Figure1. shows how the temperature of a specimen might alter with time due
to a steady heat input - heat losses to the exterior have been ignored here.
Figure (1)
Figure2. shows how the molecular arrangements within the material change
as the heat energy is supplied
 Arrangement of the molecules
Figure(2)
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Modes of Transference of Heat
In our everyday life, it has been observed that when a pan full of water is
boiled on a flame, its temperature increases, but when the flame is turned off,
it slowly cools down.
This is because of the phenomenon of heat transfer taking place between the
pan full of water and the flame. It has been established that heat transfer
takes place from hotter objects to colder objects.
When there are objects which are at different temperatures or there is an

object at a different temperature from the surroundings, then the transfer of
heat takes place so that the object and the surrounding, both reach an
equilibrium temperature.
There are three modes of heat transfer -

1. Conduction
2. Convection
3. Radiation
1. Conduction of heat – Heat conduction is a process in which heat is

transferred from the hotter part to the colder part in a body without involving
any actual movement of the molecules of the body. Heat transfer takes place
from one molecule to another molecule as a result of the vibratory motion of
the molecules. Heat transfer through the process of conduction occurs in
substances which are in direct contact with each other. It generally takes
place in solids.
Example - When frying vegetables in a pan. Heat transfer takes place from
flame to the pan and then to the vegetables.
Based on the conductivity of heat, substances can be classified as conductors

and insulators.
 Substances which conduct heat easily are known as conductors.
 Substances which do not conduct heat are known as insulators.
2. Convection of heat - In this process, heat is transferred in the liquid and

gases from a region of higher temperature to a region of lower temperature.
Convection heat transfer occurs partly due to the actual movement of
molecules or due to the mass transfer.
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Example - Heating of milk in a pan.
3. Radiation of heat - It is the process in which heat is transferred from one

body to another body without involving the molecules or the medium.
Radiation heat transfer does not depend on the medium.
Example - In a microwave the substances are heated directly without any
heating medium.
Sound waves and their properties
Sound waves are the vibrations that pass through an object or material. These
waves are actually produced when the sound hits with the materials and
objects and vibration is created as a result of this collision.
The medium in which it propagates can either be a solid, a liquid or a gas.

Sound travels fastest in solids, relatively slower in liquids and slowest in
gases. A sound wave is the pattern of disturbance caused by the energy
traveling away from the source of the sound. This means that the propagation
of vibration of particles is parallel to the direction of the energy wave
propagation. When the atoms are set in vibration they move back and forth.
This continuous back and forth motion result in a high-pressure and a low-
pressure region in the medium. These high- pressure and low-pressure
regions are termed as compressions and rarefactions, respectively. These
regions are transported to the surrounding medium resulting in the sound
waves to travel from one medium to another.
 Properties –
 Sound waves are longitudinal waves.

 It requires a material medium for its propagation.
 Sound waves can be reflected.
 Sound waves suffer refraction.
 Sound waves show the phenomenon of interference
 Sound waves shows diffraction
 Sound propagates with a velocity much smaller than that of light.
 Sound gets absorbed in the medium through which it passes.
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1. The amplitude determines the loudness of the sound.
2. The frequency is the number of complete waves that pass a point in one
second. Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz). The frequency of a sound wave
determines the pitch of the sound, i.e. how high or low it is.
3. Wavelength can be defined as the distance between two successive crests

or troughs of a wave. It is measured in the direction of the wave. Crest is the
highest point of the wave whereas the trough is the lowest. Since wavelength
is distance/length, it is measured in units of lengths such as metres,
centimetres, milimetres, nanometres, etc.
4. The speed of a wave is calculated using the following formulae

Wave speed = frequency × wavelength
Wave speed = distance / time
Humans can hear sounds with a frequency from 20 to 20,000 Hz. Sound
waves with frequencies below 20 Hz are called infrasound.
Some animals like elephants and giraffes communicate using infrasound.

Whales also communicate with infrasound and their calls can travel for
hundreds of Kilometres in the ocean, because infrasound waves travel further
than sound waves of higher frequencies.
Infrasound is used for studying animals and detecting volcanic eruptions.
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Ultrasound is sound made by waves with frequencies higher than 20,000 Hz.
Dolphins use ultrasound to communicate and bats use sonar (sending
ultrasound waves, which are reflected by things around them, so the animal
listens out for the echo) to detect what is around them. Sonar is also used in
submarines and ships to detect the depth of the sea or to detect fish. Some of
the ultrasound sent by the ship is reflected by the sea bed. The echo is
detected and the sonar equipment measures the time between the ultrasound
being sent and the echo returning. One of the wave speed formulae is then
used to calculate the distance to the sea bed. Ultrasound is also used to make
images of things in the body, for example, unborn babies.
Simple Musical Instruments
Musical instrument, any device for producing a musical sound. The principal
types of such instruments, classified by the method of producing sound,
are percussion, stringed, keyboard, wind, and electronic.
Musical instruments have been used since earliest times for a variety of
purposes, ranging from the entertainment of concert audiences to
the accompaniment of dances, rituals, work, and medicine.
The sound produced by an instrument can be affected by many factors,

including the material from which the instrument is made, its size and shape,
and the way that it is played.
The different musical instruments that are available in different parts of the
world at present are categorized as follows:
1. Wind Instruments - This class of musical instruments requires you to blow

into a specific wind instrument by following an order to ensure that the sound
that you desire is produced. The instruments can be expected to work
depending on the principles of frequencies, sound waves, acoustics,
resonance and harmonics. The pitch of the produced sound when you start
blowing the instrument is actually dependent on the length of the air column
through which the waves of the sounds vibrate. Some of the most popular
wind instruments are piccolo, flute, clarinet, shakuhachi, bassoon, oboe,
accordion, English horn, harmonica, saxophone, pianica, bagpie and shehnai.
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2. Brass Instruments - These instruments can be expected to work similarly

to wind instruments with a few modifications. The length of air column of brass
instruments can actually be changed with the help of slide mechanism or
press valves. One of the many examples of brass instruments is trumpet. It
can be played horizontally using a series of valves that can be found at the
top of the instrument. The valves are then opened and closed using a variety
of combinations so that you can start producing different kinds of pitches.
Another example of brass instruments is the French horn. This instrument is
composed of a basic tube which is rounded into a compact shape and is being
culminated in a bell or a conical bore. You can then find a series of valves that
are set centrally on it. Other brass instruments that you can use are trombone,
tuba, bugle and conch.
3. Percussion Instruments - These instruments require you to strike the

surface of the instrument to generate vibrations to produce your desired note.
Percussion instruments can actually be divided into two types. The first type
includes tuned instruments that are known to produce a definite pitch or a
series of different pitches. Some examples of the tuned percussion
instruments include xylophone, vibraphone, marimba, tubular bells and
timpani or kettle drum. The second type of percussion instruments is the
indefinite pitch. Its examples include triangle, castanets, rattle, cymbals,
tambourine, anvil and gong.
4. String Instruments - These are composed of those instruments that work

based on sound wave vibrations produced by strings. The pitch that can be
produced by these instruments is dependent on the length of air column and
the type and thickness of strings used. Among the most popular string
instruments are guitar, viola, violin, cello, mandolin, harp, double bass and
banjo.
5. Electronic Instruments - These are those instruments that are produced

using the latest technology. These instruments are created in a way that
makes it simpler and easier for anyone to produce sounds. These are known
to be user friendly so you will never have a hard time learning the basics of
producing sounds out of any of them. Among the most popular examples of
electronic instruments are piano keyboards, synthesizers, rhythm machines,
octopads and samplers.
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Rectilinear propagation of Light

The property of light travelling in a straight line is called as the rectilinear
propagation of light.
A light source can be seen only if there is a straight-line path between the
source and our eyes.
You will understand the propagation of light with a simple experiment. Place a
candle on a table and light it. Place three cardboard sheets blocking your view
of the candle. In these cardboard sheets make three pinholes at equal heights
such that the flame of the candle is visible through the cardboard sheets. Now
view the flame through the holes, you‘ll find it visible. Now move one of the
cardboard sheets and try to see the flame. Can you? On moving the
cardboard sheet, you will see that the flame is no longer visible. Now bring the
sheets back in line. The flame is visible again.
The light is visible only when all the three pinholes are aligned proving the
rectilinear propagation of light
From this experiment, we can deduce that light moves from place to place
through rectilinear propagation. Rectilinear is a fancy word for straight. Light
travels from the source in a straight line. Let‘s examine another characteristic
of light; The Reflection of Light.
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Examples -
 Sunrays entering a dark room through a small opening appear to travel in a
straight line.
 Light from torch, headlights of cars, etc. appears to travel in a straight line.
 Light from a projector travels in a straight line in the form of light rays
towards the screen.
 Light emitted from a laser pointer appears to travel in a straight line.
Reflection and refraction
 Reflection
It is the property of light by virtue of which, light is sent back into the same
medium from which it is coming after being obstructed by a surface.
 Laws of reflection
 The incident ray, the reflected ray and normal to the reflecting surface at
the point of incidence, all lie in one plane and that plane is perpendicular to
the reflecting surface.
 The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

So, ∠i = ∠r
 Refraction
Refraction is the phenomenon by virtue of which a ray of light going from one
medium to the other undergoes a change in its velocity.
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Incident ray - The ray which approaches the interface is called incident ray.
Refracted ray - Ray which goes into the second medium is called angle of
incidence.
 Laws of refraction
 Snell’s law - The sine of the angle of incidence bears a constant ratio with
the sine of the angle of refraction.
Sin i / Sin r = constant
 The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the interface at the
point of incidence all lie in one plane and that plane is perpendicular to the
interface separating the two media.
 Refractive Index
a. Refractive index of a medium with respect to another is defined as the ratio
between sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction.
Sin i / Sin r = constant = 1µ2
b. Refractive index of medium 2 with respect to1 is also defind as the ratio
between velocity of light in medium 1 to the velocity of light in medium 2.
c. 1µ2 = v1/v2
d. µ = c/v
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e. Refractive index of a second medium with respect to first is defined as the

ratio between absolute refractive index of second medium to the absolute
refractive index of first medium.
f. 1µ2 = µ2/µ1
 Total internal reflection
a. Critical angle - Critical angle is the angle of incidence of a ray of light in

denser medium such that its angle of refraction in the rarer medium is 90º.
b. Total internal reflection - It is the phenomenon by virtue of which, a ray of

light travelling from a denser to a rarer medium is sent back in the same
medium provided, it is incident on the interface at an angle greater than critical
angle.
c. μ = 1/sin C
Spherical mirrors and Lenses

A spherical mirror is a mirror which has the shape of a piece cut out of a
spherical surface. The most commonly occurring examples of concave mirrors
are shaving mirrors and makeup mirrors. As is well-known, these types of
mirrors magnify objects placed close to them. The most commonly occurring
examples of convex mirrors are the passenger-side wing mirrors of cars.
These type of mirrors have wider fields of view than equivalent flat mirrors, but
objects which appear in them generally look smaller (and, therefore, farther
away) than they actually are.
There are two types of spherical mirrors - concave and convex
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 Concave mirror
It is a spherical mirror which when looked from the reflecting side is depressed
at the center and bulging at the edges.
 Convex mirror
It is a spherical mirror which when looked from the reflecting side bulges at
the center and is depressed at the edges.
Radius of curvature(R)
Radius curvature of a mirror is defined as the radius of that sphere of which
the mirror forms a part.
Principal focus
Principal focus is a point, situated on the principal axis, at which a beam
coming parallel to principal axis meets or appears to meet after reflection from
the mirror.
Focal plane
It is a vertical plane passing through the principal focus and perpendicular to
the principal axis.
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Focal length (f)

Focal length, of a spherical mirror is the distance of its principal focus from its
pole.
 Relation between focal length and radius of curvature

f = R/2
This signifies, the focal length of a spherical mirror is half of its radius of
curvature.
 Mirror formula
1/f = 1/v + 1/u = 2/r
 Lens
A portion of refracting material bound between two spherical surfaces is called
a lens.
Converging lens
A lens is said to be converging if the width of the beam decreases after
refraction through it.
Diverging lens
A lens is said to be diverge if the width of the beam increases after refraction
through it.
Center of curvature
Center of curvature of a surface of a lens is defined as the center of that
sphere of which that surface forms a part.
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Radius of curvature
Radius of curvature of a surface of a lens is defined as the radius of that
sphere of which the surface forms a part.
 Image Formation by Concave and Convex Lens
 Image Formation by Concave Lens
In case of the concave lens, we always get erect images, diminished images and
virtual images.
Object location Image location Image nature Image size
Infinity At F2 Virtual and Erect Highly Diminished
Beyond infinity and 0 Between F1 and Virtual and Erect Diminished

Optical centre
 Image Formation by Convex Lens
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Object location Image location Image nature Image size
Infinity At F2 Real and Inverted Diminished
Beyond 2F1 Between 2F2 and F2 Real and Inverted Diminished
Between 2F1 and F1 Beyond 2F2 Real and Inverted Enlarged
At F1 At infinity Real and Inverted Enlarged
At 2 F1 At 2F2 Real and Inverted Same size
Between F1 and 0 On the same side as Virtual and Erect Enlarged

object
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 Lens formula
1/f = 1/v – 1/u
 Linear magnification
It is the ratio between the size of the image to the size of the object.
m = I/O
 Combination of two convex lenses in contact

F = f1f2 / f1+ f2
 Power of a lens
The reciprocal of the focal length of a lens, expressed in meter, is called its
power.
P = 1/f
Human Eye
The Human Eye It is a natural optical instrument which is used to see the
objects by human beings. It is like a camera which has lens and screen
system.
i. Retina - It is a light sensitive screen inside the eye on which image is

formed. It contains rods and cones.
ii. Cornea - It is a thin membrane which covers the eye ball. It acts like a lens
which refracts the light entering the eye.
iii. Aqueous humour - It is fluid which fills the space between cornea and eye
lens.
iv. Eye lens - It is a Convex lens made of transparent and flexible jelly like
material. Its curvature can be adjusted with the help of ciliary muscles.
v. Pupil - It is a hole in the middle of iris through which light enters the eye. It
appears black because light falling on it goes into the eye and does not come
back.
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vi. Ciliary muscles - These are the muscles which are attached to eye lens
and can modify the shape of eye lens which leads to the variation in focal
lengths.
vii. Iris - It controls the amount of light entering the eye by changing the size
of pupil.
viii. Optical nerve - These are the nerves which take the image to the brain in
the form of electrical signals.
 Accomodation power - The ability of eye to change the focal length of

eye lens with the help of ciliary muscles to get the clear view of nearby
objects (about 25 cm) and far distant objects (at infinity).
 Colour blindness - Some people do not possess some cone cells that
respond to certain specific colours due to genetic disorder.
 Myopia (Short sightedness) - It is a kind of defect in human eye due to

which a person can see near objects clearly but he can not see the distant
objects clearly. Myopia is due to
(i) excessive curvature of cornea.
(ii) elongation of eye ball.
 Hypermetropia (Long sightedness) - It is a kind of defect in human eye

due to which a person can see distant objects properly but cannot see the
nearby objects clearly. It happens due to
(i) decrease in power of eye lens i.e., increase in focal length of eye lens.
(ii) shortening of eye ball.
 Presbyopia - It is a kind of defect in human eye which occurs due to

ageing. It happens due to
(i) decrease in flexibility of eye lens.
(ii) gradual weakening of cilliary muscles.
 Astigmatism - It is a kind of defect in human eye due to which a person

cannot see (focus) simultaneously horizontal and vertical lines both.
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 Cataract - Due to the membrane growth over eye lens, the eye lens
becomes hazy or even opaque. This leads to decrease or loss of vision.
The problem is called cataract. It can be corrected only by surgery.
Natural and Artificial Magnets
 Natural Magnets
A natural magnet is a magnet that occurs naturally in nature. All natural
magnets are permanent magnets, meaning they will never lose their magnetic
power.
Natural magnets can be found in sandy deposits in various parts of the world.
The strongest natural magnet material is lodestone, also called magnetite.
This mineral is black in color and very shiny when polished. The lodestone
was actually used in the very first compasses ever made. Because natural
magnets are permanent magnets, if lodestone is allowed to freely spin, its
north pole will always align itself with the Earth's geographic north pole.
 Artificial Magnets
When magnets are made by people, they are called artificial magnets. It's
these magnets that are on your refrigerator door, and they have extra-strong
magnetic power, like those really tiny super-strong magnets that you can buy
from toy or science stores.
There are two types of artificial magnets: temporary and
permanent. Temporary magnets are magnets that aren't always magnetic, but
their magnetism can be turned on at will. Permanent magnets are those
magnets whose magnetic strength never fades.
Properties of Magnets
 Magnets attract magnetic substances like steel, cobalt, iron etc. This is also
known as its attractive property.
 When a bar magnet is freely suspended, it points in the north-south

direction. The tip which points to the geographic north is called the north
pole and the tip which points to the geographic south is called the south
pole. This is also known as its directive property.
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 There is a repulsive force when north poles (or south poles) of two magnets
are brought close together. Conversely, there is an attractive force between
the north pole of one and the south pole of the other. This states that unlike
poles attract each other and like poles repel each other.
 We cannot isolate the north or south pole of the magnets. If magnets are
broken into two halves, we get two similar bar magnets with somewhat
weaker properties. Unlike electric charges, isolated magnetic north and
south poles known as magnetic monopoles do not exist.
Earth as a Magnet
The earth‘s magnetic field extends millions of kilometres into outer space and
looks very much like a bar magnet. The earth‘s south magnetic pole is actually
near the North Pole and the magnetic north pole is in Antarctica. This is why a
compass magnet‘s north pole actually points north (north and south poles
attract). The Earth‘s magnetic field extends far and wide but is very weak in
terms of field strength. A mere 40,000 nT compared to a refrigerator magnet
which has a strength of 10
The Earth‘s magnetic field extends far and wide but is very weak in terms of
field strength. A mere 40,000 nT compared to a refrigerator magnet which has
a strength of 107 nT.
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 How is Earth’s Magnetism generated?

Earth‘s Magnetism is generated by convection currents of molten iron and
nickel in the earth‘s core. These currents carry streams of charged particles
and generate magnetic fields. This magnetic field deflects ionising charged
particles coming from the sun (called solar wind) and prevents them from
entering our atmosphere. Without this magnetic shield, the solar wind could
have slowly destroyed our atmosphere preventing life on earth to exist. Mars
does not have a strong atmosphere that can sustain life because it does not
have a magnetic field protecting it.
The earth‘s magnetic poles are not aligned to the actual geographic north and
south poles. Instead, the magnetic south pole is in Canada while the magnetic
north pole lies in Antarctica. The magnetic poles are inclined by about 10
degrees to the earth‘s rotational axis. So, all this time your compass was
really pointing to Canada, not the true North!
These quirks are characterised by the 7 components of the earth‘s magnetic

field.
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 Components of Magnetic Field
Component Definition Description

B Total Magnetic-field Strength vector B=(√X2 + Y2 + Z2)
X Magnetic field component along Geographic X = H cos α
North direction
Y Magnetic field component along Geographic Y = H sin α
East direction
Z Magnetic field component pointing vertically
downwards
H Magnetic field component parallel to the H = (√X2 + Y2)
earth‘s surface (Points towards magnetic
south pole)
α Magnetic declination: Angle between true α = tan−1Y/X
north and magnetic north
θ Magnetic Inclination: Angle measured from θ = tan−1Z/H
horizontal to magnetic field vector. It is 90
deg. at magnetic poles.
Static and Current Electricity
 Static Electricity
Rubbing a polythene strip on wool causes some of the outer electrons in the
wool to move over to the polythene strip. As the polythene gains electrons it
becomes negatively charged. The wool looses electrons and is left with a net
positive charge (more protons to electrons).
Static electricity is caused by the transfer of charge.
Atoms are made up of protons, neutrons and electrons each with their own
properties.
Protons have a Positive (+) charge.

Electrons have a Negative (-) charge.
Neutrons are Neutral (no charge).
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The positive charges (protons) are held in the nucleus of the atom.
The negative charges (electrons) are spread in orbits around the nucleus.
The protons and neutrons are held very tightly in the nucleus. But some of the
electrons are held very loosely and can move from one atom to another. If an
atom looses an electron the number of protons (positive charges) exceeds the
number of electrons (negative charges) and the atom is positively charged.
If an atom gains an electron the number of protons (positive charges) is lesser
than the number of electrons (negative charges) and the atom is negatively
charged.
One method in which electrons can be moved or transferred is by rubbing two

insulators together. Rubbing causes friction between the two surfaces
increasing the surface contact and allowing more electrons to be transferred.
The object which looses electrons becomes positively charged and the one
that gains the electrons becomes negatively charged.
Therefore, Static Electricity is the imbalance of Positive and Negative Charge.
 Current Electricity
Electric Current (I)

The rate of flow of charge through any cross-section of a wire is called electric
current flowing through it.
Electric current (I) = q / t. Its SI unit is ampere (A).
The conventional direction of electric current is the direction of motion of

positive charge.
The current is the same for all cross-sections of a conductor of non-uniform
cross-section. Similar to the water flow, charge flows faster where the
conductor is smaller in cross-section and slower where the conductor is larger
in cross-section, so that charge rate remains unchanged.
If a charge q revolves in a circle with frequency f, the equivalent current,
i = qf
(In a metallic conductor current flows due to motion of free electrons while in
electrolytes and ionized gases current flows due to electrons and positive
ions.)
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 Types of Electric Current

According to its magnitude and direction electric current is of two types
 Direct Current (DC) Its magnitude and direction do not change with time. A
ceil, battery or DC dynamo are the sources of direct current.
 Alternating Current (AC) An electric current whose magnitude changes

continuously and changes its direction periodically is called alternating
current. AC dynamo is source of alternating current.
 Current Density
The electric current flowing per unit area of cross-section of conductor is
called current density.
Current density (J) = I / A
Its S1 unit is ampere metre-2 and dimensional formula is [AT-2].
It is a vector quantity and its direction is in the direction of motion positive
charge or in the direction of flow of current.
Conductors and Non-conductors
 Conductors
Conductors are the materials or substances which allow electricity to flow
through them. They are able to conduct electricity because they allow
electrons to flow inside them very easily. Conductors have this property of
allowing the transition of heat or light from one source to another.
Metals, humans, earth, and animal bodies are all conductors. This is the
reason we get electric shocks! The main reason is that being a good
conductor, our human body allows a resistance-free path for the current to
flow from wire to our body.
Conductors have free electrons on its surface which allows current to pass
through. This is the reason why conductors are able to conduct electricity.
 Examples of Conductors
 Silver is the best conductor of electricity. However, it is costly and so, we

don‘t use silver in industries and transmission of electricity.
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 Copper, Brass, Steel, Gold, and Aluminium are good conductors of

electricity. We use them mostly in electric circuits and systems in form of
wires.
 Mercury is an excellent liquid conductor that finds use in many instruments.
 Gases are not good conductors of electricity as the particles of matter are
quite far away and thus, they are unable to conduct electrons.
 Applications of Conductors
 Conductors are quite useful in many ways. They find used in many real-life
applications like:
 Mercury is a common ingredient in thermometer to check the temperature

of the body.
 Aluminium finds use in making foils to store food and also in the production
of fry pans to store heat quickly.
 Iron is common in vehicle engine manufacturing to conduct heat.
 The plate of an iron is made up of steel to absorb heat briskly.

Conductors find their use in car radiators to eradicate heat away from the
engine.
 Non conductor
Non conductors are also called Insulators. Insulators are the materials or
substances which resist or don‘t allow the current to flow through them. They
are mostly solid in nature and are finding use in a variety of systems. They do
not allow the flow of heat as well. The property which makes insulators
different from conductors is its resistivity.
Wood, cloth, glass, mica, and quartz are some good examples of insulators.
Insulators are also protectors as they give protection against heat, sound and
of course passage of electricity. Insulators don‘t have any free electrons and it
is the main reason why they don‘t conduct electricity.
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 Examples of Insulators
 Glass is the best insulator as it has the highest resistivity.
 Plastic is a good insulator and it finds its use in making a number of things.
 Rubber is a common component in making tyres, fire-resistant clothes and

slippers. This is because it is a very good insulator.
 Applications of Insulators
 Being resistive to flow of electron, insulators find application worldwide in a

number of ways. Some of the common uses include:
 Thermal Insulators, disallow heat to move from one place to another. We

use them in making thermoplastic bottles, in fireproofing ceilings and walls.
 Sound Insulators help in controlling noise level, as they are good in

absorbance of sound. Therefore, we use them in buildings, conference
halls, and buildings to make them noise free
 Electrical Insulators hinder the flow of electron or passage of current

through them. We use them extensively in circuit boards, high-voltage
systems and also in coating electric wire and cables.
Ohm’s Law
If physical conditions of a conductor such as temperature remains unchanged,
then the electric current (I) flowing through the conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference (V) applied across its ends.
I∝V
or V = IR
where R is the electrical resistance of the conductor
Electrical resistance of a conductor R = ρl / A

where, l = length of the conductor, A = cross-section area and
ρ = resistivity of the material of the conductor.
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Simple Electrical Circuits
 In Series
(i) Equivalent resistance, R = R1 + R2 + R3
(ii) Current through each resistor is same.
(iii) Sum of potential differences across individual resistors is equal to the
potential difference, applied by the source.
 In Parallel
Equivalent resistance
1 / R = 1 /R1 + 1 / R2 + 1 / R3
Potential difference across each resistor is same.

Sum of electric currents flowing through individual resistors is equal to the be
electric current drawn from the source.
 Kirchhoff’s Laws
There are two Kirchhoff‘s laws for solving complicated electrical circuits
 Junction Rule - The algebraic sum of all currents meeting at a junction in

a closed circuit is zero, i.e., Σ I = O.
This law follows law of conservation of charge.
 Loop Rule - The algebraic sum of all the potential differences in any
closed circuit is zero, i.e.,
ΣV = 0 ⇒ ΣE = ΣIR
This law follows law of conservation of energy.
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Heating
Heat is the agent which produces in us the sensation of warmth and makes
bodies hot. It is form of energy. The part of thermal energy which flows from
one body to the other due to temperature difference is called heat.
 Nature of heat -
a. The weight of a body remains the same weather it is heated or cooled.
b. Heat flows from higher to lower temperature
c. In any exchange of heat, heat lost by the hot body is equal to the heat
gained by the cold body.
d. Substances generally expand when heated
e. A certain amount of heat known as latent heat is required to change the

state of a body from solid to liquid or from liquid to gas without any change in
temperature.
 Unit of Heat -
a. Calorie (cal):- It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1

gram of water through 1ºC.
b. Kilocalorie (kcal):- It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature

of 1 kilo gram of water through 1ºC.
Lighting and Magnetic effects of Current
 Lighting effects of current

The mechanism of lighting is also similar to the heating effect. When the wire
gets hot due to the resistance it produces heat and light at the same time. But
we can use a different alloy of metals to get more lighting effect than heating
effect. For more heating effect we used Nichrome but for light, we have to use
Tungsten metal. Tungsten metal has higher resistance it can be heated up to
33000°C as it melts at 34000°C.
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But tungsten metal reacts with atmospheric oxygen when heated, so it has to
be enclosed in glass bulb with an inert gas, Nitrogen or Argon, with it. Instead
of filling with inert gas the bulb can be made a vacuum. Out of the total
energy, only 10% is converted into the light energy and rest is converted into
heat.
 The Heating Effect of Electric Current

When an electric current passes through a wire the wire gets heated up. This
is known as the heating effect of electric current.
The heat that is produced in the wire depends upon the following factors
 the material of the wire
 the length of the wire
 the thickness of the wire
Many appliances work on the heating effect of electric current such as

 electric heater
 electric iron
 electric stove
 geysers
 electric coffee maker
 toaster
 hair dryer
All these elements produce a high amount of heat when electricity passes
through them. However, this amount can change depending upon the
requirements of the device. This is so because they contain a coil of wire
known as an element.
Depending upon the amount of heat required by such appliances different
types, sizes and length of wire are used in them. Some virus can break down
or melt as they get heated.
 Magnetic effects of Current

Any substance that attracts iron and iron like objects is defined as magnet.
When a wire carries an electric current, it behaves as a magnet.
 Properties of Magnet
 Every magnet has north and south poles.
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 Same poles repel each other and unlike poles attract each other.
 A freely suspended magnet will align itself in north south direction, north
facing north of the magnet and south facing south of the magnet.
 Characteristics of Field Lines

 Field lines arise from north pole and end into south pole of the magnet.
 They are closed curves.
 Field lines never intersect each other.
 Direction of magnetic field lines inside the magnet is from south to north.
Measurement of Electrical Power
Electric power is the rate per unit time, at which electrical energy is transferred
by an electric circuit. It is the rate of doing work.
In terms of an electric circuit, electrical power is the rate, per unit time, at
which electrical energy is transferred by an electric circuit.
From the definition it can be seen that:
P = VQ/t
Substituting I = Q/t then
P = VI
Where,
P = power in watts
V = potential in volts
I = current in amps
Q = charge in coulombs
t = time in seconds
Electrical voltage and current are two important quantities in an electrical

network. The voltage is the effort variable without which no current is
available. It is measured across an electrical circuit element or branch of a
circuit.
The device that measures the voltage is the voltmeter. The current is the flow
variable that represents net motion of the charged particles (electrons in
solids, ions in a liquid) in a given direction.
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The current is measured by an ammeter (also called an ampere meter).

Ammeters are connected in series with the load to measure the current in the
load.
The product of the two yields the instantaneous electrical power. The ratio of
the voltage to the current is the impedance.
The electrical resistance of a circuit component is measured using an

ohmmeter that applies a voltage across and determines the current passing
through the component.
Primary and Secondary Cells
Electric Cell
An electric cell is a device which converts chemical energy into electrical
energy. Electric cells are of two types
 Primary cells
 Primary cells are ―the cells that can be used only once and disposed after
the usage‖.
 Primary cells function with chemical reactions. The discharge rate is lower
than that of secondary cells. The initial cost of these cells is lesser than
that of secondary cells. Small home appliances use these kinds of cells.
For example, smoke detectors use primary cells.
 Secondary cells
 Secondary cells are ―the cells that can be recharged after usage (after
discharging), and it is possible to use them several times‖.
 Secondary cells have a quick discharge rate and need to be recharged

again and again. These cells incur more initial cost than primary cells. All
mobile phones use these kinds of cells. The examples for these cells are
lead storage cells and nickel–cadmium storage cells.
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Use of X-Rays
X-rays are a type of radiation called electromagnetic waves. X-ray imaging
creates pictures of the inside of your body. The images show the parts of your
body in different shades of black and white. This is because different tissues
absorb different amounts of radiation. Calcium in bones absorbs x-rays the
most, so bones look white. Fat and other soft tissues absorb less, and look
gray. Air absorbs the least, so lungs look black.
 Use of X-Rays
The main use of X-rays is in medicine. A common application is in the form of
X-ray machines, which take photos of a patient‘s body. If an arm or leg were
broken for example, then this limb would be put in front of the X-ray with a
piece of photographic film behind. The X –ray is turned on briefly and goes
through to the film. The rays go through the skin and flesh easily, showing up
as dark areas on the film, but with more difficulty through bone. They are
slowed down and so these areas are much lighter. X-rays can also be used to
kill cancer cells, but also kill healthy cells, so must be used with much care.
Other uses are in industry, at airports to check customers and baggage and
by art historians to see if a picture has been painted on top of an older
one. X-ray diffraction is also very important in spectroscopy and as a basis for
X-ray crystallography. The diffraction of X-rays by a crystal where the
wavelength of X-rays is comparable in size to the distances between atoms in
most crystals is used to disperse X-rays in a spectrometer and to determine
the structure of crystals or molecules.
General Principles in the working of Simple Pendulum
The motion of a simple pendulum for very small angles is said to be in the
form of simple harmonic oscillations. The simple harmonic motion is defined
as a motion taking the form of a = – (ω2) x where ―a‖ is the acceleration and
―x‖ is the displacement from the equilibrium point. The term ω is a constant. A
simple harmonic motion requires a restoring force. In this case, the restoring
force is the conservative force field of gravitation. The total mechanical energy
of the system is conserved. The period of oscillation is given by where l is the
length of the string and g is the gravitational acceleration. If viscosity or any
other damping force is present, the system is identified as a damped
oscillation.
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A mass m suspended by a wire of length L is a simple pendulum and

undergoes simple harmonic motion for amplitudes less than about
The period of a simple pendulum is
where L is the length of the string and g is the acceleration due to gravity.
 The period of an ideal spring-mass system is independent of any

gravitational influence.
 The period of a swinging pendulum depends on the local value of the

acceleration due to gravity and, therefore will change if the value of g is
different at the top of a mountain from its value at sea level.
 The ideal spring system is a more accurate time keeper when moved to the
top of a mountain than the swinging pendulum is.
 The swinging pendulum keeps the more accurate time interval when
moved to the mountain top than the spring-mass device does.
Both clock devices give the same readings no matter where they are
located.
 The period of an ideal spring-mass system depends on the local value of

the acceleration due to gravity.
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General Principles in the working of Simple Pulleys
As Pulley is a type of simple machine it helps to reverse the direction of lifting

force. When one end of the rope is pulled downwards, the load on the other
end of the rope is pulled upward. Therefore, the direction of force is changed
from downwards to upwards. Pulley can work on one, two and four wheels.
The theory of operation for a pulley system assumes that the pulleys and lines
are weightless, and that there is no energy loss due to friction. The more
pulleys, the easier it is to pull or lift an object. If pulley involved is more, the
greater distance to pull, is still easier to lift an object.
 Fixed And Moving Pulleys
 A Fixed Pulley
When a pulley is hinged to a fixed support, it is a Fixed Pulley. It does not
mean that it cannot move. It changes the direction of the force on a rope or
belt that moves along its circumference. It is free to rotate around the fixed
pivot.
 A Moving Pulley
The pulley which is made free to move up and down along with the load, it
is called a Movable Pulley. It can rotate like fixed pulley and is supported
by two parts of the same rope and has a mechanical advantage of two.
Hence, we can say that a single fixed pulley can be used to change only the
direction of the applied force whereas a movable pulley can be used to
decrease the input force required.
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General Principles in the working of Siphon
This has a greater volume of liquid in the long leg than it has in the short leg.
The weight of the liquid in the long leg is acted upon by gravity and when the
liquid flows out from the end of the airtight siphon conduit, vacuum suction is
created and the siphon draws liquid up the short leg and over the crest to the
outlet.
A siphon must have a longer outlet leg below the short leg inlet elevation to
allow the weight of the liquid in the longer leg to create suction which causes
the siphoned liquid to flow down and out the siphon end.
It is a long bent pipe which is used to transfer liquid from a reservoir at a

higher elevation to another reservoir at a lower level when the two reservoirs
are separated by a hill or high-level ground as shown in the figure below.
The point C which is at the highest of the siphon is called a summit. As the
point c is above the free surface of the water in the tank A, the pressure at C
will be less than atmospheric pressure.
Theoretically, the pressure at c may be reduced to -10.3m of water, but in
actual practice, this pressure is only -7.6m of water or 2.7m of water absolute.
If the pressure at c becomes less than 2.7m of water absolute, the dissolved
air and other gases would come out from water and collect at the summit.
The Flow of water will be obstructed.
 Application or Uses of Siphon-
 To carry water from one reservoir to another reservoir separated by a hill or

ridge.
 To take out the liquid from the tank which is not having any outlet.
 To empty a channel not provided with any outlet sluice.
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General Principles in the working of Levers

It has been found by experiment that two equal forces acting in opposite
directions, i.e., clockwise and counterclockwise, and applied to a uniform lever
at equal distances from the fulcrum counteract each other and establish a
state of equilibrium , or balance, in the lever. Experiment has also shown that
two unequal forces when acting in opposite directions will bring about an
equilibrium when the product of the magnitude of one force and its effort arm,
or lever arm (the distance of its point of application from the fulcrum), is equal
to the product of the magnitude of the other force and its effort arm. In physics
the product of a force by its effort arm is called a moment of the force; the
general conclusion known as the principle of moments states that equilibrium
is established when the sum of the moments of the forces acting in a
clockwise direction is equal to the sum of the moments of the forces acting in
a counterclockwise direction. It is possible, as a result, to overcome a very
large force at a short distance from the fulcrum with a very small force at a
great distance from the fulcrum. Archimedes is supposed to have boasted,
having the lever in mind, that given a place to stand he could move the world.
The picture above shows two masses balanced on a beam across a fulcrum.
In this situation, we see that there are four key quantities that can be
measured (these are also shown in the picture)
M1 - The mass on one end of the fulcrum (the input force)

a - The distance from the fulcrum to M1
M2 - The mass on the other end of the fulcrum (the output force)
b - The distance from the fulcrum to M2
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General Principles in the working of Balloon
The principle behind hot air balloon physics is the Archimedes Principle which
states that the buoyant force on a submerged object is equal to the weight of
the fluid that is displaced by the object.
In helium balloons the buoyant force is created because helium is less dense
and lighter than the air surrounding them. In hot air balloons the lifting force is
created by modifying the temperature of the air inside of the envelope,
reducing its density.
The basis of how the balloon works is that warmer air rises in cooler air. This
is because hot air is lighter than cool air as it has less mass per unit of
volume. Mass can be defined by the measure of how much matter something
contains. The actual balloon (called an envelope) has to be so large as it
takes such a large amount of heated air to lift it off the ground. For example,
to lift 1000 pounds worth of weight you would need almost 65,000 cubic feet
of heated air! To help keep the balloon in the air and rising, hot air needs to be
propelled upwards into the envelope using the burner
A hot air balloon is made up of 3 main parts -
 The Envelope - The actual fabric balloon which holds the air
 The Burner - The unit which propels the heat up inside the envelope
 The Basket - Where the passengers and pilot stand
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The burner uses propane gas to heat up the air in the envelope to move the
balloon off the ground and into the air. The pilot must keep firing the burner at
regular intervals throughout the flight to ensure that the balloon continues to
be stable. Naturally, the hot air will not escape from the hole at the very
bottom of the envelope as firstly, hot air rises and secondly, the buoyancy
keeps it moving up.
The controls for piloting a balloon are actually extremely simple
1 - To move the balloon upwards - the pilot opens up the propane valve
which lets the propane flow to the burner which in turn fires the flame up into
the envelope. Works in much the same way as a gas grill, the more you open
the valve, the bigger the flame to heat the air, the faster the balloon rises.
2 - To move the balloon downwards - the 'Parachute Valve' at the very top
of the balloon is what is used to bring the balloon down towards the ground. It
is essentially a circle of fabric cut out of the top of the envelope which is
controlled by a long chord which runs down through the middle of the
envelope to the basket. If the pilot wants to bring the balloon down he simply
pulls on the chord which will open the valve, letting hot air escape, decreasing
the inner air temperature. This cooling of air causes the balloon to slow its
ascent.
So essentially this takes care of the up and down movement, so how does the
balloon move from place to place? Again the answer is very simple, the pilot
can maneuver horizontally by changing the vertical position of the balloon
because the wind blows in different directions at different altitudes. If the pilot
wants to move in a particular direction they simply ascend and descend to the
appropriate level and ride with the wind.
General Principles in the working of Pumps
A pump in general is a machine which imparts energy to anything flowing

through it. This can be any fluid, heat or even electrons. The devices pumping
heat are called as heat pumps and electrical batteries can pump electrons.
The spontaneous tendency of anything is to flow from high potential to low
potential and this natural tendency is harnessed in many applications.
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But the pump does exactly the reverse; it forces something to move from low
potential to high potential. For this purpose pumps use energy and by their
functioning transfer that energy to the substance flowing through them.
Fluid pumps or Hydraulic pumps move fluids and displace them from one
position to another and in course energizes them. In fluids this energy is
manifested as its pressure and velocity.
Similarly, heat pumps move heat from low temperature to high temperature
against its natural tendency to flow from high temperature to low temperature.
An electrical battery is also a type of pump; it pumps electrons in a circuit from
low electrical potential to high electrical potential which is against the
spontaneous tendency of electrons to move from high electrical potential to
low electrical potential. Hence, an electrical battery can be called as an
Electron Pump.
In simple words we consider a pump to be a black box to understand its

working. Fluid enters a pump at certain velocity and pressure, which may be
even zero, and leaves it with increased energy, that is, velocity and pressure.
For this a pump consumes a certain amount of energy from any external
source. Now, what is happening inside that black box? There are rotating
components inside which move the fluid either by confining it in definite
volumes and then displacing it or by imparting energy to the fluid by dynamic
action of the moving parts and increasing velocity and pressure of the fluid.
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General Principles in the working of Hydrometer
Hydrometer, device used to determine directly the specific gravity of a liquid.

It usually consists of a thin glass tube closed at both ends, with one end
enlarged into a bulb that contains fine lead shot or mercury to cause the
instrument to float upright in a liquid. In the glass tube is a scale so calibrated
that the reading on it level with the surface of the liquid in which the
hydrometer is floating indicates the number of times heavier or lighter the
liquid is than water, i.e., the specific gravity of the liquid. The hydrometer is
based on Archimede‘s principle . The level at which the hydrometer floats
depends only on the density of the liquid. Hence this level can be used to
measure both the density and the specific gravity, which is proportional to it.
Commercial hydrometers are usually calibrated for ordinary room
temperature, which is taken to be 20°C (68°C), or for 4°C (39.2°C). Because
of the variation in the depth to which the instrument sinks in heavy and in light
liquids, one type is made for use in liquids more dense than water and another
for use in those less dense than water. The so-called bulb hydrometer
consists of a small commercial hydrometer contained in a larger glass tube
into which the solution to be tested is drawn by the action of a rubber bulb. It
is used to measure the specific gravity of the sulfuric acid solution in
automobile batteries.
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General Principles in the working of Pressure Cooker
Pressure-cooking is a cooking method that uses steam sealed in a pressure

cooker, which is a special airtight cooking pot. Sealing a liquid such as water,
wine, stock or broth in a pressure cooker traps the vapour that rises from the
liquid. This in turn raises the pressure inside the pressure cooker along with
the maximum temperature that the liquid can reach. The increased
temperature and pressure significantly speed up the cooking process. The
pressure infuses the hot steam into the food. Pressure-cooking can cook
foods in 1/3 the ordinary time on average and often over 10 times
faster. Compared to a microwave, the food tastes considerably better and
compared to slow cooker, only takes a fraction of the time.
The higher the pressure of the pressure cooker, the shorter the cooking time.
The steam pressure inside the pressure cooker cooks food much, much more
rapidly than just boiling or baking food. Unlike microwave cooking, pressure-
cooked foods become moist and succulent with an intense intermingling of
flavours. Pressure-cooked foods retain much more of their vitamins and
nutrients than boiled or commercially processed foods do.
General Principles in the working of Thermos Flask
The thermos flask consists of a double-walled glass vessel resting on a cork

inside a metal or plastic case. The outer surface of its inner wall and the inner
surface of its outer wall are silvered. The space between the two walls is
almost vacuum and the walls are sealed at the top. The flask is placed on a
cork in a metal case and is secured at the neck with a ring of rubber.
Heat from a hot liquid in the thermos flask cannot escape from it by
conduction or convection as there is vacuum between the two walls of the
glass vessel. The silvered outer surface of the inner wall is a bad radiator and
hence it does not radiate heat. At the same time, the silvered inner surface of
the outer wall is a good reflector of heat radiation. The materials used to make
the thermos flask, namely, glass, cork and rubber between the flask and the
container, are all bad conductors of heat. They don't allow the heat to flow out
of the flask by conduction or convection.
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The insulating stopper or cork at the top minimises heat loss by convection. In
the same way, the vacuum between the two walls, rubber, cork and cup on
the flask and air do not allow heat from outside to enter into the flask. Thus a
thermos flask keeps a hot liquid hot and a cold liquid cold for a long time.
General Principles in the working of Gramophone

The phonograph is a device for the mechanical recording and
reproduction of sound. In its later forms, it is also called a gramophone
In a simple sense, sound is a series of pressure waves sent through a

medium like air or water. Think of standing in front of a speaker when loud
music is playing — you can feel the sound vibrations travelling through your
body from the soles of your feet. With his understanding of how sound waves
behave, Thomas Edison developed the phonograph, the grandfather of
modern record players, in 1877.
The phonograph could record sound and play it back. The receiver consisted
of a tin foil wrapped cylinder and a very thin membrane, called a diaphragm,
attached to a needle. Sound waves were directed into the diaphragm, making
it vibrate. A hand crank turned the cylinder to rotate the tinfoil cylinder while
the needle cut a groove into it to record the sound vibrations from the
diaphragm.
The output side of the machine played the sound through a needle and an
amplifier. The needle was set in the groove and the cylinder set to the
beginning. The amplified vibrations played back the recorded sounds.
The recording medium used in the original phonograph was awkward to use
and broke easily.
In 1887, Emile Berliner, a German living in America, developed a hand-

cranked machine that turned a hard rubber disc on a flat plate (instead of a
cylinder) which became known as the gramophone. Unlike Edison's
phonograph, it could only play back recordings, but this format gave the public
access to music they would not have heard, and sparked the start of the
recording industry.
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General Principles in the working of Telegraphs
A telegraph is a communications system in which information is transmitted

over a wire through a series of electrical current pulses, usually in the form
of Morse code. The basic components include a source of direct current, a
length of wire or cable, and a current-indicating device such as a relay,
buzzer, or light bulb.
The telegraph key is simply a switch in an electric circuit that turns on an

electric current. As the sender taps out a word the switch completes a circuit
which allows an electric current to flow around it. As with all electric circuits, at
least two wires are needed between the sender and the receiver -although for
the very simplest of telegraph circuits, just one real wire and a return path
through the earth is normally sufficient.
At the receiving end of the circuit the electric current can be used to provide
power to an indicator dial or pointer machine (so the operator can watch the
message coming in), to an electric 'sounder' or a buzzer (so the operator can
hear the message) or to a device printing on paper tape (so the message can
be stored and read later).
General Principles in the working of Telephone
When a person speaks into a telephone, the sound waves created by his
voice enter the mouthpiece. An electric current carries the sound to the
telephone of the person he is talking to.
A telephone has two main parts

1. the transmitter and
2. the receiver.
The Transmitter of a telephone serves as a sensitive "electric ear." It lies

behind the mouthpiece of the phone. Like the human ear, the transmitter has
an 14 eardrum." The eardrum of the telephone is a thin, round metal disk
called a diaphragm. When a person talks into the telephone, the sound waves
strike the diaphragm and make it vibrate. The diaphragm vibrates at various
speeds, depending on the variations in air pressure caused by the varying
tones of the speaker's voice.
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Behind the diaphragm lies a small cup filled with tiny grains of carbon. The
diaphragm presses against these carbon grains. Low voltage electric current
travels through the grains. This current comes from batteries at the telephone
company. The pressure on the carbon grains varies as sound waves make
the diaphragm vibrate. A loud sound causes the sound waves to push hard on
the diaphragm. In turn, the diaphragm presses the grains tightly together. This
action makes it easier for the electric current to travel through, and a large
amount of electricity flows through the grains. When the sound is soft, the
sound waves push lightly on the diaphragm. In turn, the diaphragm puts only a
light pressure on the carbon grains. The grains are pressed together loosely.
This makes it harder for the electric current to pass through them, and less
current flows through the grains.
Thus, the pattern of the sound waves determines the pressure on the
diaphragm. This pressure, in turn, regulates the pressure on the carbon
grains. The crowded or loose grains cause the electric current to become
stronger or weaker. The current copies the pattern of the sound waves and
travels over a telephone wire to the receiver of another telephone. For more
modern phones that have a telephone answering service, the sound wave is
captured on a recording device which allows for the operator of the phone to
playback at a later time.
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The Receiver serves as an "electric mouth." Like a human voice, it has "vocal
cords." The vocal cords of the receiver are a diaphragm. Two magnets located
at the edge of the diaphragm cause it to vibrate. One of the magnets is a
permanent magnet that constantly holds the diaphragm close to it. The other
magnet is an electromagnet. It consists of a piece of iron with a coil of wire
wound around it. When an electric current passes through the coil, the iron
core becomes magnetized. The diaphragm is pulled toward the iron core and
away from the permanent magnet. The pull of the electromagnet varies
between strong and weak, depending on the variations in the current. Thus,
the electromagnet controls the vibrations of the diaphragm in the receiver.
The electric current passing through the electromagnet becomes stronger or

weaker according to the loud or soft sounds. This action causes the
diaphragm to vibrate according to the speaker's speech pattern. As the
diaphragm moves in and out, it pulls and pushes the air in front of it. The
pressure on the air sets up sound waves that are the same as the ones sent
into the transmitter. The sound waves strike the ear of the listener and he
hears the words of the speaker.
General Principles in the working of Periscope
A periscope is an optical instrument that allows objects that are not in direct
line of sight to be viewed. Periscopes have proven to be of great help to
submariners by allowing these professions to have a view above the surface
of water and aid in navigation under water.
A simple periscope only requires mirrors, whereas a more complicated

periscope utilizes prisms rather than mirrors. The periscopes used in
submarine applications are complex, typically requiring the use of tubes that
are at least 10 meters in length to achieve a greater range of scope.
Recent developments in science and technology have incorporated the use of

fiber optics in periscopes. Fiber optic periscopes, such as cystoscopes and
endoscopes, are used by medical physicians to view the organs of a human
body without requiring invasive procedures.
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A periscope works on the Laws of Reflection which states that the light from
the object falls on one mirror at a 45o angle from the object and is reflected.
This reflected light then falls on another mirror and is again reflected until it
reaches the human eye.
General Principles in the working of Telescope
A telescope is an amazing device that has the ability to make faraway objects
appear much closer.
There are two basic types of telescopes, refracting and reflecting. Refracting
telescopes use lenses to focus the light, and reflecting telescopes use mirrors.
Refracting telescopes work by using two lenses to focus the light and make it
look like the object is closer to you than it really is. Both lenses are in a shape
that‘s called 'convex'. Convex lenses work by bending light inwards (like in the
diagram). This is what makes the image look smaller.
Reflecting telescopes, on the other hand, don‘t use lenses at all. Instead, they
use mirrors to focus the light together. In this case, the type of mirror that they
use is a concave mirror. Mirrors of this shape also accomplish the goal of
bending light together, except that they do it by reflecting the light instead of
bending it as it passes through (like lenses do).
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When you combine the objective lens or primary mirror with the eyepiece, you
have a telescope. Again, the basic idea is to collect lots of light to form a
bright image inside the telescope, and then use something like a magnifying
glass to magnify (enlarge) that bright image so that it takes up a lot of space
on your retina.
A telescope has two general properties:

 how well it can collect the light
 how much it can magnify the image
General Principles in the working of Microscope
The most commonly used microscope for general purposes is the standard
compound microscope. It magnifies the size of the object by a complex
system of lens arrangement.
It has a series of two lenses
i. the objective lens close to the object to be observed
ii. the ocular lens or eyepiece, through which the image is viewed by eye.
Light from a light source (mirror or electric lamp) passes through a thin
transparent object
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The objective lens produces a magnified ‗real image‘ first image) of the object.
This image is again magnified by the ocular lens (eyepiece) to obtain a
magnified ‗virtual image‘ (final image), which can be seen by eye through the
eyepiece. As light passes directly from the source to the eye through the two
lenses, the field of vision is brightly illuminated. That is why; it is a bright-field
microscope.
General Principles in the working of Mariner’s Compass
A compass is an instrument containing a freely suspended magnetic element

which displays the direction of the horizontal component of the Earth‘s
magnetic field at the point of observation.
A magnetic compass consists of a small magnetic needle pivoted at the

centre of a small brass box which has a glass top. Generally, the north end is
painted in red.
It works on the principle that when a magnet is free to rotate about a

transverse axis then under the action of Earth‘s magnetic field, the needle
aligns itself in North-South direction. Thus using Compass the North and
South direction can be located and thus other directions can be obtained.
 Uses of the magnetic compass are

 To decide North-South directions.
 To find the direction of magnetic field at a place.
 To plot or draw magnetic lines of force
 To test the polarity of a magnet.
 It is very useful for travelers, mariners a, d navigators to find direction when
they sail through the unknown location.
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Lightning Conductors
A lightning conductor is a metal rod or metallic object mounted on top of a
building, electrically bonded using a wire or electrical conductor to interface
with ground or "earth" through an electrode, engineered to protect the building
in the event of lightning strike. If lightning hits the building it will preferentially
strike the rod and be conducted to ground through the wire, instead of passing
through the building, where it could start a fire or cause electrocution.
A lightning rod is a single component in a lightning protection system.

Lightning rods are also called finials, air terminals or strike termination
devices. The lighting rod requires a connection to earth to perform its
protective function. Lightning rods come in many different forms, including
hollow, solid, pointed, rounded, flat strips or even bristle brush-like. The main
attribute of all lightning rods is they are conductive.
Copper and its alloys are the most common materials used in lightning
protection.
Safety Fuses
An electric fuse is a safety device which is used to limit the current in an

electric circuit. The use of a fuse safeguards the circuit and the appliances
connected in that circuit from being damaged.
A fuse works on heating effect of current.
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A fuse is short and a thin piece of wire of uniform area of cross section and
high resistance so as to produce sufficient heat to melt it. It is made up of a
material of low melting point so that it may easily melt due to overheating
when current in excess to prescribed limit, passes through it. Generally an
alloy of lead and tin is used as the material of the fuse wire coz its melting
point is low and specific resistance is more than that of copper and aluminium.
Section ‘B’ Chemistry
Physical and Chemical changes
 Physical Change
Physical changes are changes in which no bonds are broken or formed. This
means that the same types of compounds or elements that were there at the
beginning of the change are there at the end of the change. Because the
ending materials are the same as the beginning materials, the properties
(such as color, boiling point, etc) will also be the same. Physical changes
involve moving molecules around, but not changing them.
Some types of physical changes include
 Changes of state (changes from a solid to a liquid or a gas and vice versa)
 Separation of a mixture
 Physical deformation (cutting, denting, stretching)
 Making solutions (special kinds of mixtures)
As an ice cube melts, its shape changes as it acquires the ability to flow.
However, its composition does not change. Melting is an example of
a physical change. A physical change is a change to a sample of matter in
which some properties of the material change, but the identity of the matter
does not. When we heat the liquid water, it changes to water vapor. But even
though the physical properties have changed, the molecules are exactly the
same as before. We still have each water molecule containing two hydrogen
atoms and one oxygen atom covalently bonded. When you have a jar
containing a mixture of pennies and nickels and you sort the mixture so that
you have one pile of pennies and another pile of nickels, you have not altered
the identity of either the pennies or the nickels - you've merely separated them
into two groups. This would be an example of a physical change.
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Similarly, if you have a piece of paper, you don't change it into something
other than a piece of paper by ripping it up. What was paper before you
started tearing is still paper when you're done. Again, this is an example of a
physical change.
Physical changes can further be classified as reversible or irreversible. The

melted ice cube may be refrozen, so melting is a reversible physical change.
Physical changes that involve a change of state are all reversible.
Other changes of state include vaporization (liquid to gas), freezing (liquid to

solid), and condensation (gas to liquid). Dissolving is also a reversible
physical change. When salt is dissolved into water, the salt is said to have
entered the aqueous state. The salt may be regained by boiling off the water,
leaving the salt behind.
 Chemical Change
Chemical changes occur when bonds are broken and/or formed between
molecules or atoms. This means that one substance with a certain set of
properties (such as melting point, color, taste, etc) is turned into a different
substance with different properties. Chemical changes are frequently harder
to reverse than physical changes.
One good example of a chemical change is burning a candle. The act of

burning paper actually results in the formation of new chemicals (carbon
dioxide and water, to be exact) from the burning of the wax.
Another example of a chemical change is what occurs when natural gas is

burned in your furnace. This time, on the left we have a molecule of methane,
CH4, and two molecules of oxygen, O2, while on the right we have two
molecules of water, H2O, and one molecule of carbon dioxide, CO2.
In this case, not only has the appearance changed, but the structure of the
molecules has also changed. The new substances do not have the same
chemical properties as the original ones.
Therefore, this is a chemical change.
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Elements
An element is a substance that cannot be broken down into any other

substance. There are about 118 elements, each with its own type of atom.
Everything in the universe contains the atoms of at least one or more
elements.
The periodic table lists all the known elements, grouping together those with
similar properties. Most elements are metals, which are shiny and conduct
electricity . Metals include gold, aluminium and iron which are all solid at room
temperature. Mercury is the only metal that is liquid at room temperature.
Some elements are non-metals. Most non-metals are gases at room
temperature and do not conduct electricity. Non-metal elements with these
properties include oxygen, hydrogen and chlorine. A few non-metals, such as
carbon and sulphur, are in a solid state at room temperature.
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Facts to Remember Element

Atoms of elements can have different number of electrons and
neutrons.
A variant of an element with different number of Isotope
neutrons is known as its
Different physical form of an element is known as its Allotrope
(e.g. graphite and diamond)
Element most abundant in the Universe Hydrogen
Element most abundant in the human body Oxygen
Element which forms more than 10 million compounds Carbon
Element with the lowest melting and boiling point Helium
Element with the highest melting point Carbon
Element with the highest boiling point Tungsten
Element with highest density Osmium
Element with lowest density Hydrogen
Element with highest electronegativity Flourine
Mixtures and Compounds
 Mixture
When two or more substances are put together, in any ratio such that no
chemical reaction takes place, the material comes out, is a mixture. For
Example – Sand and water, sugar and salt, air, etc.
In a mixture, the properties of the components are retained even after they are
mixed, as a solution, suspension and colloids. The combination should be
capable of being separated back to normal through physical means. These
are made up of a diverse range of molecules which are arranged in two ways-
 Homogeneous mixture - A uniform mixture, where the constituents

cannot be distinguished easily by way of simple observation.
Example –vinegar is a homogeneous mixture of ethanoic acid and water.
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 Heterogeneous mixture - A mixture in which ingredients are of difference

shape, size or state and are easily distinguished through simple
observation.
Example –oil and water.
 Compound
Compound means a substance formed as a blend of various elements
chemically in a certain proportion, by weight. It is entirely new substance,
which possesses properties different from that of its constituent substances.
Example – Water, salt, carbon dioxide, sodium chloride, etc.
The compound is the unification of various elements so that the atoms present
in the elements are clasped together by the chemical bond, which cannot be
easily split. Bonds are created out of sharing of electrons among atoms. So,
there are different types of bonds-
 Covalent bond: A chemical bond in which exchange of a pair of electrons

between atoms takes place, is known as a molecular bond or covalent
bond.
 Ionic bond: A chemical bond, wherein whole sole transmission of valence

electrons between atoms takes place is called the ionic bond.
 Metallic bond: Bond occurring as a result of electrostatic attraction

between metallic ions and conduction electrons.
A molecule is the smallest part of a compound whose properties are those of

the compound.
Symbols
H – Hydrogen He - Helium
Li – Lithium Be - Beryllium
B – Boron C - Carbon
N – Nitrogen O - Oxygen
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F – Fluorine Ne - Neon
Na – Sodium Mg - Magnesium
Al – Aluminum Si - Silicon
P – Phosphorus S - Sulphur
Cl – Chlorine Ar - Argon
K – Potassium Ca - Calcium
Formulae and Simple Chemical Equations
 Formulae
A chemical formula tells us the number of atoms of each element in a
compound. It contains the symbols of the atoms of the elements present in the
compound as well as how many there are for each element in the form of
subscripts.
Each chemical substance has a specific chemical composition, so these

chemical substances have their own chemical formula.
Example of Chemical Formula for Salt (Sodium Chloride) - NaCl

The chemical formula for sodium chloride (Salt) is NaCl indicating that one
atom of sodium combines with one atom of chlorine in a one-to-one ratio.
Example of Chemical Formula for Water - H2O

The chemical formula for water is H2O which indicates that 2 atoms of
Hydrogen combines with 1 atom of oxygen.
Example of Chemical Formula for magnesium bromide - MgBr2

The chemical formula for magnesium bromide MgBr2 which indicates that one
magnesium atom combines with two bromine atoms.
There are different types of chemical formulas and each type gives us
different information about a chemical substance. The different types of
chemical formulas include: molecular, empirical, structural and condensed
structural formulas.
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 Simple Chemical Equations
Changes in the states of substance or system are known as reactions and can
be divided into chemical and physical reactions.
 Physical reaction
The equation can be represented to describe a physical reaction involving
change of physical states. For example, evaporation, melting and
condensation can be represented in this manner where (s) is solids, (l) is
liquid and (g) is gas.
Melting
H2O(s) —-> H2O(l)
Evaporation
C2H5OH(l) —-> C2H5OH(g)
 Chemical reaction
When atoms or group of atoms rearrange resulting in the formation of new
chemical state due to the formation of chemical bonds are called Chemical
reactions.The substances undergoing changes are called reactants, written on
the left-hand side of the equation, and newly formed substances are called
products.
 Steps in writing a chemical reaction

 Draft a skeleton equation wherein reactants formula is on left and products
o right side of the equation.
 Mention the physical state of each reactant and product as (g) for gaseous,
(l) for liquid, (s) for solids and (aq) for an aqueous solution in a chemical
reaction.
 Make sure that the equation is balanced. The number of atoms of all the
elements on the left-hand side of the reactants must be equal to the
number of atoms of every element on the right-hand side of the product.
Example -
Sodium chloride reacts with silver nitrate to form sodium nitrate and silver
chloride. Write a chemical equation for this process.
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Solution -
Sketch a skeleton equation where in reactants are on left and products are on
the right side.
NaCl + AgNO3 —> NaNO3 + AgCl
Show the physical state of every reactant and product

NaCl(aq) + AgNO3(aq) —> NaNO3(aq) + AgCl(s)
Balance the equation

NaCl(aq) + AgNO3(aq) —> NaNO3(aq) + AgCl(s)
Law of Chemical Combination
The laws of chemical combination describe the basic principles obeyed by

interacting atoms and molecules, interactions that can include many different
combinations that happen in many different ways.
There are five basic laws of chemical combination that govern the chemical
combinations of elements
1. Law of Conservation of Mass

In simple terms, this law states that matter can neither be created nor
destroyed. In other words, the total mass, that is, the sum of mass of reacting
mixture and the products formed remains constant. Antoine Lavoisier gave
this law in the year 1789 based on the data he obtained after carefully
studying numerous combustion reactions.
2. Law of Definite Proportions

Joseph Proust, a French chemist stated that the proportion of elements by
weight in a given compound will always remain exactly the same. In simple
terms we can say that, irrespective of its source, origin or its quantity, the
percent composition of elements by weight in a given compound will always
remain the same.
3. Law of Multiple Proportions

This law states that if two elements combine to form more than one
compound, the masses of these elements in the reaction are in the ratio of
small whole numbers. This law was given by Dalton in the year 1803.
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4. Gay Lussac’s Law of Gaseous Volumes

In 1808, Gay Lussac gave this law based on his observations. This law states
that when gases are produced or combine in a chemical reaction, they do so
in simple ratio by volume given that all the gases are at same temperature
and pressure. This law can be considered as another form of law of definite
proportions. The only difference between these two laws of chemical
combination is that Gay Lussac‘s Law is stated with respect to volume while
law of definite proportions is stated with respect to mass.
5. Avogadro’s Law
Avogadro proposed this law in the year 1811. It stated that under same
conditions of temperature and pressure, equal volume of all the gases contain
equal number of molecules. This implies that 2 litres of hydrogen will have the
same number of molecules as 2 litres of oxygen given that both the gases are
at same temperature and pressure.
Properties of Air and Water
 Properties of Air
The matter is anything that occupies space. Air is a matter which is inevitable
in our lives. The earth is covered with a blanket of air called the atmosphere.
Among the few fundamental elements, it is the most important because no life
can exist for a pulse of time without it. It is needed by every single organism
for their survival. In addition to breathing, it has an influential role on abiotic
components of environment like wind, rain, climate, etc.
They exhibit certain properties like any other matter. Some common
properties are as follows:
 Colorless and odourless

Air generally has no color or odour. It is an invisible matter that can only be
felt. All living things breathe air for their survival. Moving air is called the wind.
 Occupy space
It is a mixture of different gases. Hence, like every other matter, they also
occupy space. On blowing, a balloon expands because the air being blown
into it fills in the empty space.
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 Air exerts pressure

It has weight, and the pressure exerted by the weight of air is known as air
pressure. Due to gravity, this mixture of gases near the surface is denser than
at high altitudes. This is why the gaseous atmosphere in mountains is thinner
than that at the surface.
 Expansion
Another property is its expanding property. On heating, it expands and
occupies more space. More it expands, more it becomes thinner. Hence, the
pressure of warm wind is lower than that of cold wind.
 Properties of Water
A glance of earth taken from space will depict it blue in color. This blue color is
actually water, the major part of the earth is covered with water. We need
water for almost everything, for example- drinking, bathing, cooking etc and
therefore we should know about the properties of water. 65 % human body is
composed of water. Water is essential for the survival of life on earth. Water is
distributed unevenly on the earth‘s surface. It forms a major solvent and
dissolves almost every polar solute. So let us have a look at its properties and
understand the reason for its significance:
 Physical properties of water

Water is colorless and tasteless liquid. The molecules of water have extensive
hydrogen bonds resulting to unusual properties in the condensed form. This
also leads to high melting and boiling points. As compared to other liquids,
water has a higher specific heat, thermal conductivity, surface tension, dipole
moment etc. These properties form the reason for its significance in the
biosphere. Water is an excellent solvent and therefore it helps in the
transportation of ions and molecules required for metabolism. It has a high
latent heat of vaporization which helps in the regulation of body temperature.
 Chemical properties of water

Water reacts with a lot of substances to form different compounds. Some
significant reactions are as follows:
1. Amphoteric nature - Water can act as both acid and base, which means
that it is amphoteric in nature.
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Example
Acidic Behavior H2O(l)+NH3(aq) ⇌ H3O+(aq)+NH4+ (aq)
Basic Behavior H2O(l)+H2S(aq) ⇌ H3O+(aq)+HS−(aq)
2. Redox reactions - Electropositive elements reduce water to hydrogen

molecule. Thus water is a great source of hydrogen. Let us see an example in
this case:
2H2O(l)+2Na(s)→2NaOH(aq)+H2(g)
During the process of photosynthesis, water is oxidized to O2. As water can be

oxidized and reduced, it is very useful in redox reactions.
3. Hydrolysis reaction - Water has a very strong hydrating tendency due to

its dielectric constant. It dissolves many ionic compounds. Some covalent and
ionic compounds can be hydrolyzed in water.
Preparation and Properties of Hydrogen

Hydrogen is the lightest element in the periodic table. Its atomic number is 1.
 Preparation methods
It can be prepared by reacting magnesium with hydrochloric acid.

Mg + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2↑
Hydrogen gas is also produced when iron reacts with hydrochloric acid.
Fe + 2HCl → FeCl2 + H2↑
 Properties of Hydrogen
 Physical properties
 Pure hydrogen is a colourless, odourless, tasteless diatomic gas.
 It is lighter than air and neutral in nature.
 It is almost insouble in water.
 It is inflammable gas.
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 Chemical properties
1. Reaction with active metals

Hydrogen reacts with active metals like sodium, potassium, calcium, etc to
form the corresponding metal hydrides.
H2 + 2Na → 2NaH
H2 + Ca → CaH2
2. Reaction with non-metals

Hydrogen reacts with non-metals like fluorine and chlorine to form the
corresponding hydrogen halides.
H2 + Cl2 → 2HCl
 Uses of hydrogen
 In the form of an oxyacetylene flame, it is used in welding and cutting of
metals at high temperatures of 2400oC.
 It is used to obtain electricity.
 It is lighter than air. It is used in meteorological balloons to study weather
conditions.
 It is used as a rocket fuel and as a fuel in the fuel cell.
Preparation and Properties of Oxygen
Oxygen is the most abundant element on earth. It is found almost in

everything in nature and also in free state.
 Preparation of oxygen
From metallic oxides

Oxides of metals give oxygen when heated.
2HgO → 2Hg + O2↑
From metal peroxide

When sodium peroxide is treated with water, oxygen is liberated.
2Na2O2 + 2H2O → 4NaOH + O2↑
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From electrolysis of water

Oxygen is evolved in the positive electrode during the electrolysis of acidic
water in Hofmann Voltameter.
2H2O→ 2H2 +O2
 Properties of Oxygen
 Physical Properties
 It is colourless, has no odour and is neutral.
 It is slightly soluble in water.
 It has almost the same density as air.
 It freezes at 54K.
 It has a boiling point of 90K at 1 atmosphere pressure (i.e. 760 mm Hg).
It is very active and reacts with many metals and non-metals to form
basic and acidic oxides respectively.
Basic oxide - Examples include MgO, Na2O and CaO;

Acidic oxide - Examples are CO2, SO2 and P4O10 (acidic oxides of non-metal
are also called acid anhydrides).
Summary of Reactivity of Oxygen with Metals
 K, Na, Ca, Mg, Al, Zn, Fe, Pb, Cu - show decreasing readiness to form
oxides when heated in air, with Cu the least reactive with oxygen.
 Hg, Ag, Au - these metals show the least readiness to form oxides. Their
oxides are easily decomposed to the
metal and oxygen.
 K, Na, Ca, Mg, Al, Zn - the oxides of these metals are not reduced to the
metals by heating in a stream of hydrogen,
carbon or carbon(II) oxide.
 Fe, Pb, Cu - the oxides of these metals are reduced to the metals by
heating in a stream of hydrogen, carbon or carbon(II) oxide.
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Note - the more readily a metal combines with oxygen to form an oxide, the
less readily it will be reduced to the metal by either heating in a stream of
hydrogen or CO.
Therefore, the oxides of K to Zn are not reduced, while those of Fe and below
are reduced.
 Chemical Properties
1. Reaction with compounds - Most hydrocarbons and compounds of

carbon, hydrogen and oxygen burn in oxygen to form carbon (IV) oxide and
water.
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
C2H5OH(l) + 3O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(g)
4NH3(g) + 5O2(g) → 4NO(g) + 6H2O(l)
 Uses of Oxygen
 Used as an aid for breathing where problem of breathing arises. Example

in high altitude flying or climbing, and when a patient is under anesthetics.
 In the oxyacetylene (i.e. oxygen-ethyne) flame - used in welding and
cutting steel plate - due to the very high temperature of the flame (about
2200oC).
 Used in the L-D process for making steel.
 Commercial Production of Oxygen from Liquid Air
The process involves air firstly liquefied by compression, cooling, expansion

and successive cooling. Then by fractional distillation of the liquid air - oxygen
is separated.
Liquid air contains mainly oxygen and nitrogen. Nitrogen evolves first at 77 K
while oxygen evolves later at 90 K, 760 mm Hg.
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Preparation and Properties of Nitrogen
Nitrogen makes up to 78% of the earth‘s atmosphere and it is the most

abundant element present in the air and the seventh most abundant
uncombined element found in the universe.
 Preparation of Nitrogen
Nitrogen is obtained commercially by liquefaction and fractional distillation of
air. This process mainly involves two steps
Step 1 - Air is reduced to liquid air by applying high pressure ranging between
100 to 200 atmospheres.This compressed air is then passed through fine jet
where it undergoes expansion.This method is repeated several times which
results in the formation of liquid air.
Step 2 - The liquid formed undergoes fractional distillation.The boiling point of

dinitrogen is lower than that of the liquid oxygen and hence it distils out,
leaving behind liquid oxygen. Nitrogen is obtained from the impure liquid.
In laboratory, nitrogen is obtained by reacting aqueous solution of ammonium
chloride with sodium nitrite.
NH4Cl(aq) + NaNO2(aq) → N2(g)+ 2H2O(l) + NaCl(aq)
The products obtained consists of impurities such as NO and HNO3 which
can be removed by thermal decomposition of ammonium dichromate. Another
method to remove the impurities is to pass the gaseous mixture through
sulphuric acid containing potassium dichromate.
(NH4)2Cr2O7 → N2+ 4H2O+ Cr2O3
Decomposition of sodium or barium azide in the presence of high temperature
also results in the formation of pure nitrogen.
 Properties of Nitrogen
 Physical properties of Nitrogen

 Nitrogen is a colourless, odourless and diamagnetic in nature. It is a non-
toxic gas.
 It is sparingly soluble in water.
 Nitrogen undergoes condensation to form a colourless liquid which on
solidification results in the formation of snow like mass.
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 Chemical properties of Dinitrogen
 Nitrogen has a high bond enthalpy due to the N = N bond. Due to this it is
inert at room temperature. However the reactivity increases as the
temperature increases. At high temperatures, nitrogen molecules react with
metals to form respective ionic nitrides and with non-metals to form
covalent nitrides.
6Li +N2 → 2Li3N
 At about 773 K it reacts with hydrogen to form ammonia in Haber‘s

Process.
N2(g) + 3H2(g) ↔ 2NH3(g)
 Nitric oxide is formed when nitrogen molecule reacts with oxygen molecule
at a temperature of 2000 K.
N2(g) + O2(g) → 2NO(g)
 Uses of Nitrogen
 It is mainly used in the industrial manufacturing of compounds such as
ammonia, calcium cynamide etc.
 It is used in the manufacturing industries such as iron and steel to obtain
an inert atmosphere.
 Liquid nitrogen is used in food industries as a preservative and as a
refrigerant.
Preparation and Properties of Carbon Dioxide
 Preparation of Carbon dioxide
 Method 1.
Metal Carbonates react with acids.
Carbonate + Acid --> Salt + Water + Carbon Dioxide.
Calcium Carbonate is often used to produce Carbon Dioxide because it is

readily and cheaply available as Limestone.
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We react it with Hydrochloric Acid so the salt formed will be Calcium Chloride.
Calcium Carbonate + Hydrochloric Acid --> Calcium Chloride + Water +

Carbon Dioxide.
You would see the Calcium Carbonate slowly dissolve and the Carbon
Dioxide being made as bubbles.
But you would not see the Calcium Chloride or the water being made since
there is already water in the flask and the Calcium Chloride will dissolve in it.
The method of capturing a gas shown above is called collecting "over
water" for obvious reasons.
But we could just as well have allowed the gas to fill a container because it
is denser than air, so it would sink to the bottom and push the air out.
However, Carbon Dioxide is colourless, so using this method means you
never know how much Carbon Dioxide you have made
 Method 2.
Thermal means to do with heat; decomposition means to break down into

simpler substances.
Heating Metal Carbonates causes them to give out Carbon Dioxide, leaving a
Metal Oxide behind.
For example,
Copper Carbonate --> Copper Oxide + Carbon Dioxide
CuCO3 (s) --> CuO (s) + CO2 (g)
In this instance, you would notice the green Copper Carbonate slowly turn to
black Copper Oxide.
You would also see the black powder being blown around inside the boiling
tube as the Carbon Dioxide was made.
If you stop heating, the reaction will stop. This is an endothermic reaction - it
requires a constant source of heat for it to happen.
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The limewater should initially turn milky colour since this is the test for Carbon
Dioxide.
If you continue to heat the milky colour will eventually re-dissolve.
If we changed Metal Carbonate the only obvious difference would be the
colour change.
This reaction is important for making lime (Calcium Oxide) for cement and
many other industrial uses.
Calcium Carbonate --> Calcium Oxide + Carbon Dioxide

CaCO3 (s) --> CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
In this case both Calcium Carbonate and Calcium Oxide are white
 Properties of Carbon Dioxide
 Physical properties
 Colourless and odourless gas with a sour taste.
 Slightly soluble in water.
 Heavier than air.
 Solidifies at room temperature and 70 atmospheres pressure.
 Solid CO2 is called Dry ice.
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 Chemical properties
 CO2 Reacts with water to form carbonic acid.

CO2 + H2O → H2CO3
 CO2 Reacts with sodium hydroxide to form sodium carbonate. Excess

carbon dioxide produces sodium bicarbonate.
CO2 + 2NaOH → Na2CO3 + H2O
Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2 → 2NaHCO3
 CO2 Reacts with calcium hydroxide to form calcium carbonate and water.
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O
 CO2 Reacts with metals to form metallic oxides.

2Mg + CO2 → 2MgO + C
 CO2 Reacts with non-metals to form carbon monoxide.

C + CO2 → 2CO
 Uses of Carbon dioxide

 To prepare soft drinks and soda, in fire extinguishers, as a refrigerating
agent, to prepare several chemicals like urea, washing soda and baking
soda, to preserve food.
 Helps to maintain the temperature of the earth‘s surface. Used in welding
to control corrosion.
Oxidation and Reduction
 Oxidation and Reduction in terms of oxygen transfer

The terms Oxidation and Reduction can be defined in terms of the adding or
removing oxygen to a compound.
Oxidation and Reduction with respect to oxygen transfer

Oxidation is the gain of oxygen.
Reduction is the loss of oxygen.
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Example - in the extraction of iron from its ore:
Both reduction and oxidation are occurring simultaneously, this is known as a

redox reaction.
An oxidizing agent is substance which oxidizes something else. In the above

example, the iron(III) oxide is the oxidizing agent. A reducing agent reduces
something else. In the equation, the carbon monoxide is the reducing agent.
Oxidizing agents give oxygen to another substance.
Reducing agents remove oxygen from another substance.
 Oxidation and reduction in terms of hydrogen transfer

removing hydrogen to a compound.
Oxidation and Reduction with respect to hydrogen transfer

Oxidation is the loss of hydrogen.
Reduction is the gain of hydrogen.
Example - ethanol can be oxidized to ethanal
An oxidizing agent is required to remove the hydrogen from the ethanol. A

commonly used oxidizing agent is potassium dichromate(VI) solution acidified
with dilute sulfuric acid. Ethanal can also be reduced back to ethanol by
adding hydrogen. A possible reducing agent is sodium tetrahydridoborate,
NaBH4. Again the equation is too complicated to consider at this point.
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 Oxidizing and Reducing agents are

Oxidizing agents add oxygen to another substance or remove hydrogen from
it.
Reducing agents remove oxygen from another substance or add hydrogen to
it.
 Oxidation and reduction in terms of electron transfer

removing of electron.
Oxidation and Reduction with respect to electron transfer

Oxidation is loss of electrons
Reduction is gain of electrons
Example - The equation below shows an obvious example of oxygen transfer

in a simple redox reaction
CuO+Mg→Cu+MgO
Copper(II) oxide and magnesium oxide are both ionic compounds. If the
above is written as an ionic equation, it becomes apparent that the oxide ions
are spectator ions. Omitting them gives:
In the above reaction, magnesium reduces the copper(II) ion by transferring

electrons to the ion and neutralizing its charge. Therefore, magnesium is a
reducing agent. Another way of putting this is that the copper(II) ion is
removing electrons from the magnesium to create a magnesium ion. The
copper(II) ion is acting as an oxidizing agent.
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Acids, Bases and Salts
 Acids
The term acid is derived from a Latin word ‗acidus‘ or ‗acere‘, which means
sour. The most common characteristic is their sour taste. An acid is a
substance that renders ionizable hydronium ion (H3O+) in its aqueous solution.
It turns blue litmus paper red. These dissociate in their aqueous solution to
form their constituent ions, as given by the following examples.
Based on their occurrence, they are divided into two types- Natural and
mineral acids.
 Natural Acids: These are obtained from natural sources, such as fruits
and animal products. For e.g. lactic, citric, and tartaric acid etc.
 Mineral Acids: Mineral acids are acids prepared from minerals. For
example, Hydrochloric acid (HCl), Sulphuric Acid (H2SO4), and nitric acid
(HNO3) etc.
 Bases
The most common character of bases is their bitter taste and soapy feel. A
base is a substance that renders hydroxyl ion(OH–) in their aqueous solution.
Bases turn the color of red litmus paper to blue.
The bases dissociate in their aqueous solution to form their constituent ions,
given by the following examples.
 Salts
Salt is an ionic compound that results from the neutralization reaction of acids
and bases. Salts are constituted of positively charged ions, known as cations
and negatively charged ions, known as anions, which can either be organic or
inorganic in nature.
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These ions are present in a relative amount, thus rendering the nature of the
salt neutral.
The formation of salt can be seen from the chemical reactions shown in the
equations below.
Carbon— different forms
Carbon is the sixth most abundant element in the earth. The property of an
element to take more than one physical form is called allotropy and the
different forms are called allotropes. As allotropes take different chemical
structures, they exhibit different properties as well. Carbon exists in three
basic forms in nature – diamond, graphite and fullerite.
 Diamond is the hardest substance known. Each atom in diamond is linked

to four other carbon atoms through covalent bonds. As the valence
electrons are not free to move, it is a poor electrical conductor. The
network of covalent bonds is very strong to break and hence the melting
point of diamond is very high. It is a good thermal conductor and is used for
cutting, grinding tools and making jewelry.
 The softest form of carbon is the graphite. Each carbon atom is linked to
only three other carbon atoms to form sheets of carbon atoms. Since the
fourth carbon atom is free to move, it is a good conductor of electricity. The
melting point of graphite is more than that of melting point of diamond
because of a stronger covalent double bond existing between two carbon
atoms in graphite. Graphite mixed with clay is used to make pencils and
are used in making electrodes found in the batteries.
 Fullerite is an allotrope that was not known until 1985. It is a mineral made
up of molecules each comprising exactly 60 carbon atoms arranged in a
form of sphere.
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Fertilizers—Natural and Artificial
Fertilizer, natural or artificial substance containing the chemical elements that

improve growth and productiveness of plants. Fertilizers enhance the natural
fertility of the soil or replace the chemical elements taken from the soil by
previous crops.
Natural Fertilizers
Natural fertilizer includes biodegradable compounds such as green manure,
animal waste and compost. In other words, application of any natural
organism or element for the improvement of soil fertility is referred as the
natural fertilizer. Natural fertilizers release chemicals slowly to the soil.
Therefore, they are suitable for long-term crops such as perennials. On the
other hand, natural fertilizers are enriched with micronutrients other than
macronutrients. At present micronutrients are a limitation factor of the fertilizer
application. Therefore, there is a high demand for organic fertilizer. On the
other hand, natural fertilizers include more nutrients together. Also, natural
fertilizer minimizes the negative environmental impacts. Natural fertilizers are
cheaper than artificial fertilizer. They have minimum health hazards.
Therefore, they are applicable in environmentally sensitive areas, such as
home gardens. Since organic fertilizer improves the soil texture and the water
holding capacity of the soil, it prevents soil erosion.
Artificial Fertilizers
Artificial fertilizer is synthetic fertilizer that is made out of non-degradable
elements. This fertilizer comprises with one or two essential growth nutrients.
It releases chemicals quickly. Therefore, this is suitable for fast growing crops
or annual crops. During the manufacturing process chemical fertilizer
incorporates with acids, which causes environmental hazards. Urea, MOP (
muriate of potash), superphosphate and diammonium phosphate are
frequently used in crop cultivation. There are some disadvantages of Artificial
fertilizer. Some of them are excessive in vegetation growth (eutrophication ),
they increase the acidity of the soil and inhibit the microbial growth in soil. On
the other hand, some plants cease their fruit setting due to excessive nutrient
availability. There are advantages of Artificial fertilizer as well. It ensures the
uniform application all over the field. It can immediately recover nutrient
deficiency in plants. Also, Artificial fertilizer can precise the required quantity
of fertilizer for a plant (for economical purposes).
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Material used in the preparation of Soap

Soap is a combination of animal fat or plant oil and caustic soda. When
dissolved in water, it breaks dirt away from surfaces. Through the ages soap
has been used to cleanse, to cure skin sores, to dye hair, and as a salve or
skin ointment. But today we generally use soap as a cleanser or perfume.
 Raw Material
Soap requires two major raw materials - fat and alkali. The alkali most
commonly used today is sodium hydroxide. Potassium hydroxide can also be
used. Potassium-based soap creates a more water-soluble product than
sodium-based soap, and so it is called "soft soap." Soft soap, alone or in
combination with sodium-based soap, is commonly used inshaving products.
Animal fat in the past was obtained directly from a slaughterhouse. Modern
soapmakers use fat that has been processed into fatty acids. This eliminates
many impurities, and it produces as a byproduct water instead of glycerin.
Many vegetable fats, including olive oil, palm kernel oil, and coconut oil, are
also used in soap making.
Additives are used to enhance the color, texture, and scent of soap.
Fragrances and perfumes are added to the soap mixture to cover the odor of
dirt and to leave behind a fresh-smelling scent. Abrasives to enhance the
texture of soap include talc, silica, and marble pumice (volcanic ash). Soap
made without dye is a dull grey or brown color, but modern manufacturers
color soap to make it more enticing to the consumer.
Material used in the preparation of Glass

Glass is completely a vitrified product which has no definite composition. The
major ingredients form over 90% of all types of glasses are Lime (CaCO3),
Sand (SiO2) and soda ash (Na2CO3). The raw materials used in the
manufacture of glass can be broadly divided. into the following categories -
 Acidic oxides
 Basic oxides
 Cullets
 Colouring matter
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 ACIDIC OXIDES
A large variety of acidic oxides can be used. The choice depends upon the
quality of glass to be made. The various acidic oxides that can be used are as
follows:
Sand (SiO2) - It forms silicates on fusion with the other ingredients. The sand
used in glass manufacture should be pure and free from iron as it imparts
colour to the glass. The sand is washed before its use in order to make it free
from impurities. The sand used should not be too fine as it makes the reaction
violent. It should not be too coarse either because it makes the reaction slow.
Borax (Na2B4O7.10H2O) - It is a minor ingredient which supplies B2O3.

Besides its high fluxing power, borax lowers the coefficient of expansion of
glass and adds to its chemical durability.
Phosphorus(V) Oxide, P2O5 - It is used as Na2HP04 or Ca3(PO4)2 and is

added in tableware glass for imparting bright appearance.
Arsenious oxide, As2O3 - It is generally used to remove air bubbles from the
glass.
 BASIC OXIDES
Some of the basic oxides used are as follows:
Limestone (CaCO3) - It provides CaO. Sometimes burnt dolomite containing

CaO and MgO is employed as a substitute of lime.
Feldspar - It is a naturally occurring mineral with a formula Na2O. A12O3.

6SiO2(soda feldspar) or K2O.Al2O3.6SiO2 (Potash feldspar). It is cheap, pure
and easily fusible. Feldspar is used as a flux, i.e., to lower the melting point,
and to retard denitrification
of glass.
Lead oxide - Litharge (PbO) or red lead (Pb3O4) is used for the production of
heavy and high quality flint glass, which is used in optical instruments,
tableware and decorative articles.
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 CULLET
It is the crushed glass from imperfect or defective articles or their trimmings. It
makes the melting easy and also utilization of waste.
 COLOURING MATTER
Coloured glasses are obtained by adding certain metallic oxide or salts in the
fused mass. Various colouring agents and the corresponding shades are
grouped as follows:
Red - CdO (1.4%), Se (1 %)
Ruby red - (i) Colloidal gold or ruby gold, (ii) Cu20
Light yellow - Cerium oxide (2%), Titanium oxide (TiO2)
Deep blue - Cobalt oxide (CoO) (0.1%)
Greenish blue - Copper (II) oxide, CuO
Emerald green - Cr2O3 (0.15%), CoO (0.001%)
Amber - FeS (0.3%)
Black - MnO2 + Fe2O3
Yellow - CdS
Material used in the preparation of Ink
Ink is a liquid or paste that contains pigments and / or dyes and is used to
color a surface to produce an image, text, or design. Ink is used for drawing
and / or writing with a pen, brush, or quill. Thicker inks, in paste form, are used
extensively in letterpress and lithographic printing. Ink is an essential item for
students, teachers, authors and others. Ink was first, used by the Egyptians
around 4000 years ago.
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Following substances are mixed for preparing this type of ink -
 Main Materials
 Blue-black color - Naphtha blue-black
 Blue color - Acid blue, Methylene blue
 Red color - Scarlet red, Eosin
 Black color - Aniline black
 Green color - Malachite green
 Some aniline colors are also used in preparing ink which is dissolved
directly in water.
 Other materials
 Glue - Gum Arabic (or gum acacia) is dissolved in hot water and this
results in a sticky solution. Mixing of this in an ink solution, helps in many
ways -
a. The ink turns bright.
b. The color of ink does not fade with time.
c. The flow of ink is maintained smooth.
 Glycerine - Sometimes, glycerine is also used in preparing ink. The mixing

of glycerine checks the early drying of ink. This is mainly used in preparing
the stamp pad inks.
 Alcohol - Spirit or alcohol is mixed in ink because it helps in -

a. Quick drying of ink, and
b. The ink does not diffuse on papers after writing.
 Boric or carbolic acids - The principal constituents of ink are organic in

nature. The breakdown of these materials spoils the ink and this causes
deposition of constituents in fountain pen of in the ink pot. Incorporation of
boric or carbolic acid to the ink preparation checks this problem.
 Scented materials - The organic decay of ink gives it sometimes, foul

smell. To avoid this, scented materials are incorporated at the time of ink
preparation.
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Material used in the preparation of Paper
Formed from wood pulp or plant fiber, paper is chiefly used for written
communication. The earliest paper was papyrus, made from reeds by the
ancient Egyptians. Paper was made by the Chinese in the second century,
probably by a Chinese court official named Cai Lun. His paper was made from
such things as tree bark and old fish netting. Recognized almost immediately
as a valuable secret, it was 500 years before the Japanese acquired
knowledge of the method. Papermaking was known in the Islamic world from
the end of the eighth century
 Raw Material
Probably half of the fiber used for paper today comes from wood that has
been purposely harvested. The remaining material comes from wood fiber
from sawmills, recycled newspaper, some vegetable matter, and recycled
cloth. Coniferous trees, such as spruce and fir, used to be preferred for
papermaking because the cellulose fibers in the pulp of these species are
longer, therefore making for stronger paper. These trees are called "softwood"
by the paper industry. Deciduous trees (leafy trees such as poplar and elm)
are called "hardwood." Because of increasing demand for paper, and
improvements in pulp processing technology, almost any species of tree can
now be harvested for paper.
Some plants other than trees are suitable for paper-making. In areas without
significant forests, bamboo has been used for paper pulp, as has straw and
sugarcane. Flax, hemp, and jute fibers are commonly used for textiles
and rope making, but they can also be used for paper. Some high-
grade cigarette paper is made from flax.
Cotton and linen rags are used in fine-grade papers such as letterhead and
resume paper, and for bank notes and security certificates. The rags are
usually cuttings and waste from textile and garment mills. The rags must be
cut and cleaned, boiled, and beaten before they can be used by the paper
mill.
Other materials used in paper manufacture include bleaches and dyes, fillers
such as chalk, clay, or titanium oxide, and sizings such as rosin, gum,
and starch.
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Material used in the preparation of Cement
The most common raw rock types used in cement production are -
 Limestone (supplies the bulk of the lime)

 Clay, marl or shale (supplies the bulk of the silica, alumina and ferric oxide)
 Other supplementary materials such as sand, fly ash/pulverised fuel ash
(PFA), or ironstone to achieve the desired bulk composition
Quarry management is an art; most quarries will probably have "good

material" from which cement can easily be made. They may also have some
material that is not as good. This might be harder to grind, or be of less
convenient composition.
If the 'good stuff' is all used up first, it may be more difficult to make cement
out of what is left. Careful selection on a day-to-day basis is needed to make
the best use of all the materials available.
Raw materials are extracted from the quarry, then crushed and ground as
necessary to provide a fine material for blending. Most of the material is
usually ground finer than 90 microns - the fineness is often expressed in terms
of the percentage retained on a 90 micron sieve.
Once the raw materials are ground fine enough, they are blended in the
proportions required to produce clinker of the desired composition.
The blended raw materials are stored in a silo before being fed into the kiln.
The silo stores several days' supply of material to provide a buffer against any
glitches in the supply of raw material from the quarry.
Technically, a cement producer can have almost complete control over clinker
composition by blending raw materials of different compositions to produce
the desired result. In practice, however, clinker composition is largely
determined by the compositions of the locally-available raw materials which
make up the bulk of the raw meal.
Supplementary materials are used to adjust the composition of the raw meal
but cost and availability are likely to determine the extent to which they are
used. Transport costs in particular become significant in view of the large
quantities of materials used in making cement.
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Material used in the preparation of Paints
Paint is a term used to describe a number of substances that consist of a

pigment suspended in a liquid or paste vehicle such as oil or water. With a
brush, a roller, or a spray gun, paint is applied in a thin coat to various
surfaces such as wood, metal, or stone.
Although its primary purpose is to protect the surface to which it is applied,
paint also provides decoration.
 Raw Material
A paint is composed of pigments, solvents, resins, and various additives. The
pigments give the paint color; solvents make it easier to apply; resins help it
dry; and additives serve as everything from fillers to antifungal agents.
Hundreds of different pigments, both natural and synthetic, exist.
The basic white pigment is titanium dioxide, selected for its excellent
concealing properties, and black pigment is commonly made from carbon
black. Other pigments used to make paint include iron oxide and cadmium
sulfide for reds, metallic salts for yellows and oranges, and iron blue and
chrome yellows for blues and greens.
Solvents are various low viscosity, volatile liquids. They include petroleum
mineral spirits and aromatic solvents such as benzol, alcohols, esters,
ketones, and acetone.
The natural resins most commonly used are linseed, coconut, and soybean
oil, while alkyds, acrylics, epoxies, and polyurethanes number among the
most popular synthetic resins.
Additives serve many purposes. Some, like calcium carbonate and aluminum
silicate, are simply fillers that give the paint body and substance without
changing its properties.
Other additives produce certain desired characteristics in paint, such as the
thixotropic agents that give paint its smooth texture, driers, anti-settling
agents, anti-skinning agents, defoamers, and a host of others that enable
paint to cover well and last long.
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Material used in the preparation of Safety Matches
A match is a small stick of wood or strip of cardboard with a solidified mixture

of flammable chemicals deposited on one end. When that end is struck on a
rough surface, the friction generates enough heat to ignite the chemicals and
produce a small flame. Some matches, called strike-anywhere matches, may
be ignited by striking them on any rough surface. Other matches, called safety
matches, will ignite only when they are struck on a special rough surface
containing certain chemicals.
 Raw Materials
 Straight grained wood, usually white pine or aspen.
 Ammonium phosphate and Paraffin wax for the treatment of wood.
 Antimony trisulfide and potassium chlorate for the match head.
 Powdered glass and other inert materials for better friction and burning
rate.
 Animal glue for binding ingredients.
 Zinc oxide for coloring of the match head.
 Sulfur, rosin, small amount of paraffin wax and phosphorus sesquisulfide
for the base of the match.
 Water-soluble dye for coloring of the base.
 Striking surface contains red phosphorus, powdered glass, and an
adhesives (gum arabic or urea formaldehyde)
 Cardboard for match boxes and match books.
Material used in the preparation of Safety Gunpowder
Gunpowder consists of charcoal, sulfur, and potassium nitrate (commonly

known as saltpeter). Charcoal and sulfur act as the fuels while saltpeter is the
oxidizer. Because of its incendiary properties and the amount of heat and gas
volume that it generates, gunpowder has been widely used as
a propellant in firearms, artillery, rockets, and fireworks, and as a blasting
powder in quarrying, mining, and road building.
Gunpowder is classified as a low explosive because of its relatively slow

decomposition rate and consequently low brisance.
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
Elementary ideas about the structure of Atom
The word ‗atom‘ has always been used to represent a particle that cannot be
further cut into smaller particles. However, in the modern scientific
terminology, the term ‗atom‘ comprises of several subatomic particles. The
particles constituting an atom are the electron, the proton, and the neutron.
Electrons have a negative charge, protons have a positive charge and

neutrons have no charge. Neutrons are neutral. Due to the presence of an
equal number of negative electrons and positive protons, the atom as a whole
is electrically neutral. Based on the above findings, one can say that the atom
has two major divisions.
The first is the center of an atom, called its nucleus. The protons and neutrons
are located in the small nucleus at the center of the atom. Due to the
presence of protons the nucleus is positively charged.
The second are electrons which revolve around the nucleus in different shells
(or orbits). The space around the nucleus in which the electrons revolve,
determines the size of the atom.
 Atomic Structure
Atomic structure is the core of chemistry. Atomic structure is the study of the
structure of an atom, and also the sub atomic particles present in it.
There are many atomic theories put forward to describe the structure of an
atom. The first ever theory put forward, Dalton's atomic theory, paved the way
for all the other atomic theories.
 Dalton's atomic theory
John Dalton used the Greek concept of an atom and the laws of definite
proportions, conservation of mass and multiple proportions to give the
atomic theory on scientific basis.
Dalton proposed that the properties of elements differ from one another
because their atoms differ. He also recognized that even though they may
share the same atoms, compounds have properties that bear no
relationship to those elements of which they are composed.
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 J . J. Thompson Plum pudding model

The discovery that atoms contained electrons caused Thompson to predict an
atomic structure, according to which the whole atom was considered to be a
positive sphere, with negatively charged electrons embedded in it like a plum
in a pudding. Thompson's model did not have any nucleus in it.
But, with the discovery of the nucleus and positively charged proton and
neutrally charged neutrons, two more important models of atomic structure
were put forward:
 Rutherford atomic model

Rutherford atomic model, though a major breakthrough with a central nucleus
and surrounding electrons, did not explain how an electron keeps revolving
around the nucleus without losing energy.
 Bohr's atomic structure

Niels Bohr expanded Rutherford's theory further and gave a clear concept of
balancing the attractive force and the centrifugal force of the revolving
electrons.
The atomic theory put forward by Niel's Bohr, was completely successful,
except for certain corrections, like replacement of the orbits of Bohr by
orbitals, etc.
Atomic Equivalent and Molecular Weights
Avogadro’s hypothesis
Equal volumes of all gases at the same temperature and pressure contain the
same number of molecules.
EQUIVALENT WEIGHT (On the basis of Hydrogen)

The weight of an element that combines with one part by weight of hydrogen.
Examples
In H2O, 16 parts by weight of oxygen combine with 2 parts by weight of
hydrogen. Therefore 8 parts by weight of oxygen will combine with 1 part by
weight of hydrogen. Therefore equivalent weight of oxygen is 8.
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In HCl, 35.5 parts by weight of chlorine combine with 1 part by weight of

hydrogen. Therefore the equivalent weight of chlorine is 35.5.
Mole concept
This is the unit that consists of 6.023 x 1023 particles.
Avogadro number (N)

It is the number of atoms present in exactly 12 grams of 6C12 isotope.
Its value is 6.023 × 1023.
Atomicity
The number of atoms contained in one molecule of the element.
Vapour density
Vapour Density is defined as the ratio of the mass of a certain volume of the
gas or vapour to the mass of the same volume of hydrogen at the same
temperature and pressure.
Atomic weight
The relative atomic mass of an element is the mass of one atom of the
element compared with the mass of one atom of hydrogen taken as one unit.
Gram atomic weight of an atom

The atomic weight of an element expressed in grams is known as the gram
atomic weight (or gram atom) of the element. For example, Gram atomic
weight of carbon = 12 g Gram atomic weight of oxygen = 16 g.
Molecular mass
The relative molecular mass of an element or a compound is the mass of one
molecule of the element or compound compared with the mass of one atom of
hydrogen taken as one unit.
Gram molecular weight

The molecular weight of a substance expressed in grams is known as gram
molecular weight of the substance. The gram molecular weight of oxygen is
32g and that of sulphuric acid is 98g.
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Molar volume
Volume occupied by one mole of any gas is called molar volume or gram
molecular volume. It is 22.4L (or) 2.24 × 10-2 m3at S.T.P. It contains 6.023 ×
1023 molecules.
Equivalent mass of an element

Equivalent mass of an element is the number of parts by mass of that element
which can displace or combine with 1.008 parts by mass of hydrogen or 8
parts by mass of oxygen or 35.46 parts by mass of chlorine or one equivalent
mass of any other element. It is only a relative number and hence it does not
have any units. When equivalent mass is expressed in gram, it is called gram
equivalent mass.
Equivalent mass of an acid

Equivalent mass of an acid is the number of parts by mass of the acids which
contains 1.008 parts by mass of replaceable hydrogen.
Basicity
Basicity of mineral acid is defined as the number of Replaceable hydrogen
atoms present in one mole of the acid. Basicity of organic acid is defined as
the number of carboxylic groups present in the acid
Equivalent weight of base

Equivalent mass of the base is the number of parts by mass of the base
required to neutralize one equivalent mass of an acid.
Acidity of a base
Acidity of hydroxide base is defined as the number of replaceable hydroxyl
ions present in one mole of the base.
Equivalent mass of salt

Equivalent mass of a salt is the number of parts by mass of salt which reacts
with one equivalent of mass of any other substance.
Equivalent weight of an oxidising agent

Equivalent weight of oxidizing agent is the number of parts by mass of it,
which contains 8 parts by mass of available oxygen. Available oxygen means,
oxygen capable of being utilised for oxidation.
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Equivalent mass of a reducing agent

Equivalent weight of reducing agent is the number of parts by mass of it,
which can be oxidized by 8 parts by mass of oxygen.
Normality of a solution
Normal solution is a solution, which contains one gram equivalent mass of the
substance dissolved in one litre of the solution.
Law of volumetric analysis

When two solutions completely react with each other, the product of volume
and normality of one solution will be equal to the product of volume and
normality of the other solution.
Standard solution
In a titration, concentration of either the solution in the burette or in the conical
flask should be exactly known. The solution whose concentration is exactly
known is called the standard solution. A standard solution can be prepared by
dissolving a known mass of the substance in a known volume of the solution.
Valency
Valency is the measure of the combining capacity of atoms or molecules.
Therefore, it is the capacity of an atom of a single element to react and combine
with particular numbers of atoms of another element.
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 Examples of Valency
 Valency of Sodium
The atomic number of sodium is 11 (Z=11). The electronic configuration of
sodium can be written as 2, 8, 1. 2, 8, 1 electrons are distributed in the shells
K, L, M respectively. Therefore, valence electron in sodium is 1 and it needs
to lose 1 electron from the outermost orbit to attain octet. Hence, the valency
of sodium is 1.
 Valency of Chlorine
The atomic number of chlorine is 17 (Z=17). The electronic configuration of
chlorine can be written as 2, 8, 7. 2, 8, 7 electrons are distributed in the shells
K, L, M respectively. Therefore, valence electron in chlorine is 7 and it needs
to gain 1 electron from the outermost orbit to attain octet. Hence, the valency
of chlorine is 1.
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Section ‘C’ General Science

Difference between the living and nonliving
 Living things (or organisms) require nutrition, i.e., nourishment and

feeding. Non-living things do not require nutrition.
 Living organisms can reproduce new individuals to continue the

Organism. Non-living things cannot reproduce.
 Living things show the process of metabolism. Metabolism is absent in

case of Non-living objects.
 Living things can move bodily or show movement of parts of organs of their
body in response to external stimuli. Non-living things never move on their
own effort.
 Living organisms respond to external stimuli. Non-living things have no

power to respond to external stimuli.
 Living things show growth which comes from within. Non-living thingsdo
not show any growth like living ones; their increase in size is always due to
addition of more particles from outside.
 Living organism respire, i.e., they take in Oxygen and give out Carbon-
dioxide, releasing energy for work, whereas, Non-living things do not
respire.
 Living organisms have a definite Life Cycle, whereas, Non-Living

objects have no definite Life Cycle.
Basis of Life—Cells
Basic smallest structural and functions unit of life is called cell through
which organisms are made up.
The most basic categorisation of Earth‘s organisms is determined by different
types of cells. All cells can be divided into one of two classifications:
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Prokaryotic cells and Eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cells are found in bacteria
and archaea. Eukaryotic cells are found in organisms from the domain
Eukaryota which includes animals, plants, fungi and protists.
 STRUCTURE OF A CELL
Every cell is different but there is a basic structure that is common to all cells.
A cell is essentially genetic material in a gel-like substance surrounded by a
membrane.
The genetic material of cells is found as molecules called DNA. The DNA of a
cell holds all the information that a cell needs to keep itself alive. A DNA
molecule contains a code that can be translated by a cell and tells it how to
perform different tasks. A gene is a specific segment of a DNA molecule and
each gene tells a cell how to perform one specific task.
The gel-like substance that the genetic material is found in is called the
cytoplasm. The cytoplasm fills a cell and gives it it‘s shape. The cytoplasm
also allows for different materials to move around the cell. All cells have other
structures in their cytoplasm that help the cell stay alive.
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The cytoplasm of all cells is surrounded by a membrane called the plasma

membrane. The plasma membrane separates the cell from the outside world
and keeps the contents of the cell together. The plasma membrane provides a
barrier that substances have to pass through before they can enter or exit a
cell.
 EUKARYOTIC CELLS VS. PROKARYOTIC CELLS

The main difference between prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells is the
presence of a nucleus and organelles. Prokaryotic cells do not have either a
nucleus or organelles. The word prokaryotic can be translated to mean ‗before
nucleus‘.
Eukaryotic cells have both a nucleus and a range of different organelles. The
nucleus is a structure found in eukaryotic cells that contains the cell‘s DNA.
Organelles are cellular ‗factories‘ that perform important functions such as
building different molecules of life, removing wastes and breaking down
sugars.
Having organelles makes eukaryotic cells much more efficient at completing

important cellular functions. Because they are more efficient, eukaryotic cells
can grow much larger than prokaryotic cells.
For a cellular structure to be considered an organelle it must be surrounded

by a membrane just as the nucleus is. Prokaryotic cells contain various
structures that help with certain functions, such as ribosomes, but these
structures are not encapsulated by membranes and are therefore not
considered organelles.
Eukaryotic cells have evolved into multicellular organisms. By specializing into

different types of cells, they are able to perform functions even more efficiently
and are able to keep large, multicellular organisms alive.
 ORGANELLES
Organelles are a common feature of eukaryotic cells. A wide range of different
organelles has evolved over millions of years to perform various roles within
cells. Some are widespread across most of the Eukaryota domain. Others are
less common and only found in one or two groups of eukaryotes.
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Important organelles include the nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts, and the

endoplasmic reticulum. Mitochondria are involved in the process of
cellular respiration where sugar is broken down and converted into cellular
energy.
Chloroplasts are found in the cells of plants and other photosynthetic

organisms. Inside chloroplasts are where plant cells are able to use energy
from the sun to create sugars from carbon dioxide and water.
The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of membranes that are attached to

the membrane of the nucleus. The endoplasmic reticulum is involved with
many important tasks such as producing proteins and breaking down fats and
carbohydrates.
 Differences Between Plant and Animal Cells
The major differences between the structure of animal and plant cells are
tabulated below-
Sl.No Plant Cell Animal Cell
Cell: size and Plant cell have fixed and The animal cell is irregular and
shape rectangular shape. round in shape.
Cell wall A cell wall is present A cell wall is absent
Plasma membrane Present Present
Endoplasmic Are present Are present
reticulum
Nucleus Are present and lies on one Are present and lies in center
side of the cell. of the cell
Lysosomes Are present but are very rare Are present
Centrosomes Are absent Are present
Golgi apparatus Are present Are present
Cytoplasm Are present Are present
Ribosome Present Present
Plastids Are present with chloroplast in Plastids are absent
them.
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Essential The plant cell can synthesize The animal cell cannot synthesize
nutrients amino acids, vitamins and amino acids, vitamins, and
coenzymes which are required coenzymes which are required by
by them them
Vacuoles Usually large and few central Usually small and numerous
vacuoles central vacuoles
Cilia Are absent Most of the animal cells consist of
cilia in them
Mitochondria Are present and are fewer. Are present and are numerous.
Ribosomes Are present Are present
Protoplasms and Tissues
 Protoplasm
Protoplasm is the colourless liquid within a cell that comprises the cytoplasm,
nucleus and organelles.
A cell is made up of a cell wall that contains protoplasm.
The protoplasm is generally divided into two parts: cytoplasm (that part of the
protoplasm that lies outside and around the nucleus) and nucleoplasm (that
part of the protoplasm that lies within the nucleus).
The cytoplasm contains various organelles, while the nucleoplasm contains
the nuclear material (chromosomes) and nucleoli.
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 Tissues
Tissues are groups of cells that have a similar structure and act together to
perform a specific function. The word tissue comes from a form of an old
French verb meaning ―to weave‖. There are four different types of tissues in
animals: connective, muscle, nervous, and epithelial. In plants, tissues are
divided into three types: vascular, ground, and epidermal. Groups of tissues
make up organs in the body such as the brain and heart.
 Types of Animal Tissues
Connective
Connective tissue connects or separates groups of other tissues. It is found in
between all the other tissues and organs in the body. Connective tissue is
made up of cells and ground substance, which is a gel that surrounds cells.
Most connective tissue, except for lymph and blood, also contains fibers,
which are long, narrow proteins. Fibers can be collagenous, which bind bones
to tissues; elastic, which allow organs like the lungs to move; or reticular,
which provide physical support to cells. Connective tissue also allows oxygen
to diffuse from blood vessels into cells.
Some connective tissue disorders include sarcomas, Marfan syndrome, lupus,
and scurvy, which is a Vitamin C deficiency that leads to fragile connective
tissue.
Muscle
Muscle tissue comprises all the muscles in the body, and the specialized
nature of the tissue is what allows muscles to contract. There are three types
of muscle tissue: skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle.
Skeletal muscle anchors tendons to bones and allows the body to move.
Cardiac muscle is found in the heart and contracts to pump blood. Smooth
muscle is found in the intestines, where it helps move food through the
digestive tract, and it is also found in other organs like blood vessels, the
uterus, and the bladder. Skeletal and cardiac muscles are striated; this means
that they contain sarcomeres (a unit of muscle tissue) that are arranged in a
uniform pattern. Smooth muscle does not have sarcomeres.
Duchenne muscular dystrophy is an example of a muscle tissue disorder. It is
an inherited disorder that causes muscles to atrophy over time. The muscles
shorten as they atrophy, which can cause scoliosis and immobile joints.
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Individuals with the disorder are usually male because the gene responsible
for it is found on the X chromosome (of which males have only one).
Nervous
Nervous tissue is found in the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves, which
are all parts of the nervous system. It is made up of neurons, which are nerve
cells, and neuroglia, which are cells that help nerve impulses travel. Nervous
tissue is grouped into four types: gray matter and white matter in the brain,
and nerves and ganglia in the peripheral nervous system. The main difference
between gray and white matter is that axons of the neurons in gray matter are
unmyelinated, while white matter is myelinated. Myelin is a white, fatty
substance that insulates neurons and is crucial for nervous system
functioning.
The symptoms of Alzheimer‘s disease, such as memory loss, mood swings,

and confusion, are caused by the breakdown of nervous tissue. Amyotrophic
Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) is another disease that causes nervous tissue to
degenerate, which leads to the loss of higher brain functions over time. Other
nervous tissue disorders include multiple sclerosis, where the immune system
attacks and destroys nervous tissue, Huntington‘s disease, where an
abnormal protein causes neuron death, and Parkinson‘s disease, where the
part of the brain that controls movement is impaired because not enough
dopamine is produced.
 Types of Plant Tissues
Vascular
Vascular tissues in plants transport substances throughout the different parts
of the plant. The two types of vascular tissue are xylem and phloem. Xylem
transports water and some soluble nutrients, while phloem transports organic
compounds the plant uses as food, particularly sucrose. Vascular tissues are
long and thin, and form cylinders that nutrients are transported through like
pipes. Vascular tissue is also involved with two types of meristems, which are
tissues that contain undifferentiated cells that are used during a plant‘s
growth. The meristems accompanying vascular tissue are the cork cambium
and the vascular cambium. These meristems are associated with the growth
of the plant‘s vascular tissues.
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Ground
Ground tissue is made up of all cells that are not vascular or dermal (having to
do with the epidermis; see below). There are three types of ground tissue:
parenchyma, collenchyma, and sclerenchyma. Parenchyma cells form the
―filler‖ tissue in plants, and perform many functions like photosynthesis,
storage of starch, fats, oils, proteins, and water, and repairing damaged
tissue. Collenchyma tissue is made up of long cells with irregularly thick walls
that provide structural support to the plant. Plants that grow in windy areas
have thicker walls of collenchyma tissue. Sclerenchyma is also supporting
tissue, but it is made of dead cells. There are two types of sclerenchyma:
fibers and sclereids. Fibers are long, slender cells, while sclereids are star-
shaped with thick cell walls. Sclerenchyma fibers make up fabrics such as
hemp and flax.
Epidermal
The epidermis is made up of a single layer of cells that covers a plant‘s roots,
stems, leaves, and flowers. (Epidermis is also the word for skin in human
anatomy.) It guards the plant against water loss, regulates the exchange of
carbon dioxide and oxygen, and in roots, it absorbs water and nutrients from
the soil. The epidermis on a plant‘s stems and leaves have pores called
stomata, which carbon dioxide, water vapor, and oxygen diffuse through.
Epidermal cells are themselves covered by the plant cuticle, which contains
mainly cutin, a waxy substance that protects against water loss. Plants in
deserts and other arid regions often have thick cuticles to help conserve
water.
Growth and Reproduction in Plants and Animals
 Plant Growth
 Growth continues throughout the life of the plant.
 Here the growth involves increases in the number of parts.
 Growth take place during definite seasons.
 Growing pattern is distinct each species.
 Plant possess well-defined growing regions.
 A seedling does not resemble an adult plant.
 A juvenile stage with distinct may be present in the life-history of a plant.
 Growth is by addition of new parts ahead or around the older ones.
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 Animal Growth
 Growth takes place for definite periods before maturity.
 Here it does not involve increase in the number of parts.
 Each species has a distinct season for growth.
 Growing pattern is absent.
 They have no such defined growing regions.
 The young one are identical to adults except in the body size and sexual
maturity.
 A juvenile stage with different morphology does not occur in higher animal.
 Growth is diffused by all round increases in different organs of the body.
 Reproduction in Plants and Animals

Reproduction is the process by which plants and animals produce offspring.
Reproduction may be asexual or sexual. Asexual reproduction occurs when a
single cell divides to form two daughter cells that are genetically identical to
the parent cell. Sexual reproduction involves the union of an egg (female sex
cell) and sperm (male sex cell) to produce a cell that is genetically different
than the parent cells.
 Asexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction usually occurs by mitosis, a process in which the
chromosomes in a cell's nucleus are duplicated before cell division.
(Chromosomes are structures that organize genetic information in the nuclei
of cells. Genes are units of hereditary information that control what traits are
passed from one generation to another.) After the nucleus divides,
the cytoplasm of the cell splits, forming two new daughter cells having nuclei
with the same number and kind of chromosomes as the parent. Asexual
reproduction occurs rapidly and can produce many individuals in a short
amount of time. For example, some bacteria that reproduce in this way double
their numbers every 20 minutes.
Bacteria, algae, most protozoa, yeast, dandelions, and flatworms all
reproduce asexually. Yeasts reproduce asexually by budding, a process in
which a small bulge, or bud, forms on the outer edge of a yeast cell and
eventually separates, developing into a new cell. Flatworms and starfish can
regrow an entire new organism from a piece of their body that is broken off, a
process called fragmentation.
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Budding - A form of asexual reproduction in which a small part of the parent's

body separates and develops into a new individual.
Chromosome - Structures that organize genetic information in the nuclei of

cells.
Cytoplasm - The semifluid substance of a cell containing organelles and

enclosed by the cell membrane.
Diploid - Having two sets of chromosomes.
Fragmentation - The regeneration of an entire individual from a broken off

piece of an organism.
Gamete - A male or female sex cell.
Gene - A section of a chromosome that carries instructions for the formation,

functioning, and transmission of specific traits from one generation to another.
Haploid - Having a single set of unpaired chromosomes.
Meiosis - Process of cell division by which a diploid cell produces four haploid
cells.
Mitosis - Process of cell division resulting in the formation of two daughter

cells genetically identical to the parent cell.
Zygote - A diploid cell formed by the union of two haploid gametes.
 Sexual reproduction
In plants and animals, sexual reproduction is the fusion of a sperm and egg,
called gametes, from two different parents to form a fertilized egg called a
zygote. Gametes are produced in the male testes and female ovaries by a
process called meiosis. Meiosis is a type of cell division in which the number
of chromosomes in a diploid cell (a cell having two sets of chromosomes in its
nucleus) are reduced by half following two successive cell divisions. The four
daughter cells that are produced are each haploid, having only half the
number of chromosomes as the original diploid cell.
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In males, all four daughter cells produced by meiosis become sperm, while in
females, only one daughter cell develops into an egg. When an egg and
sperm fuse at fertilization, the normal number of chromosomes are restored in
the zygote. The shuffling of the parents' genetic material that occurs during
meiosis allows for new gene combinations in offspring that over time can
improve a species' chances of survival.
Alternation of generations - Plants go through two stages in their life cycle,

called alternation of generations. One is the diploid stage, in which cells
undergoing meiosis produce haploid reproductive cells called spores. During
the haploid stage, the spores develop into gametophytes (or gamete-
producing plants) that produce haploid gametes (eggs and sperm) by mitosis.
The gametes unite to produce a diploid zygote that grows into
a sporophyte (spore-producing plant), thus completing the cycle.
Hermaphroditism - Hermaphroditism is a form of sexual reproduction in

which an organism has both male and female organs. Thus, hermaphrodites
produce both male gametes (sperm) and female gametes (eggs). In some
animals, the male and female organs develop at different times. Some
hermaphrodites, such as the tapeworm, are capable of fertilizing their own
eggs with their own sperm. Most hermaphrodites, however, engage in cross-
fertilization, meaning that two organisms of the same species inject sperm into
the eggs of the other.
Elementary knowledge of Human Body and its important

organs
The human body is the entire structure of a human being and comprises a
head, neck, trunk (which includes the thorax and abdomen), arms and hands,
legs and feet. Our bodies consist of a number of biological systems that carry
out specific functions necessary for everyday living.
Digestive System: The digestive system consists of a series of connected

organs that together, allow the body to break down and absorb food, and
remove waste. It includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine,
large intestine, rectum, and anus. The liver and pancreas also play a role in
the digestive system because they produce digestive juices.
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Endocrine systems: The endocrine system consists of eight major glands

that secrete hormones into the blood. These hormones, in turn, travel to
different tissues and regulate various bodily functions, such as metabolism,
growth, and sexual function.
Immune system: The immune system is the body's defense against bacteria,
viruses and other pathogens that may be harmful. It includes lymph nodes,
the spleen, bone marrow, lymphocytes (including B-cells and T-cells), the
thymus and leukocytes, which are white blood cells.
Lymphatic System: The lymphatic system includes lymph nodes, lymph

ducts, and lymph vessels, and also plays a role in the body's defenses. Its
main job is to make is to make and move lymph, a clear fluid that contains
white blood cells, which help the body fight infection. The lymphatic system
also removes excess lymph fluid from bodily tissues and returns it to the
blood.
Nervous System: The nervous system controls both voluntary action (like
conscious movement) and involuntary actions (like breathing), and sends
signals to different parts of the body. The central nervous system includes the
brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system consists of nerves that
connect every other part of the body to the central nervous system.
Muscular System: The body's muscular system consists of about 650

muscles that aid in movement, blood flow, and other bodily functions. There
are three types of muscle: skeletal muscle which is connected to the bone and
helps with voluntary movement, smooth muscle which is found inside organs
and helps to move substances through organs, and cardiac muscle which is
found in the heart and helps pump blood.
Reproductive System: The reproductive system allows humans to

reproduce. The male reproductive system includes the penis and the testes,
which produce sperm. The female reproductive system consists of the vagina,
the uterus, and the ovaries, which produce eggs. During conception, a sperm
cell fuses with an egg cell, which creates a fertilized egg that implants and
grows in the uterus.
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Skeletal System: Our bodies are supported by the skeletal system, which
consists of 206 bones that are connected by tendons, ligaments, and
cartilage. The skeleton not only helps us move, but it's also involved in the
production of blood cells and the storage of calcium. The teeth are also part of
the skeletal system, but they aren't considered bones.
Respiratory System: The respiratory system allows us to take in vital oxygen

and expel carbon dioxide in a process we call breathing. It consists mainly of
the trachea, the diaphragm, and the lungs.
Urinary System: The urinary system helps eliminate a waste product called
urea from the body, which is produced when certain foods are broken down.
The whole system includes two kidneys, two ureters, the bladder, two
sphincter muscles and the urethra. Urine produced by the kidneys travels
down the ureters to the bladder and exits the body through the urethra.
Integumentary system: The skin, or integumentary system, is the body's

largest organ. It protects us from the outside world and is our first defense
against bacteria, viruses, and other pathogens. Our skin also helps regulate
body temperature and eliminate waste through perspiration. In addition to
skin, the integumentary system includes hair and nails.
Vital Organs
Humans have five vital organs that are essential for survival. These are:-
Brain
Heart
Kidney
Lever
Lung
Brain: The human brain is the body's control center, receiving and sending
signals to other organs through the nervous system and through secreted
hormones. It is responsible for our thoughts, feelings, memory storage and
general perception of the world.
Heart: The human heart is a responsible for pumping blood throughout our
body.
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Kidney: The job of the kidneys is to remove waste and extra fluid from the
blood. The kidneys take urea out of the blood and combine it with water and
other substances to make urine.
Liver: The liver has many functions, including detoxifying of harmful

chemicals, the breakdown of drugs, filtering of blood, secretion of bile and
production of blood-clotting proteins.
Lungs: The lungs are responsible for removing oxygen from the air we
breathe and transferring it to our blood where it can be sent to our cells. The
lungs also remove carbon dioxide, which we exhale.
Common Epidemics, their causes and prevention
Deficiency diseases are diseases that are caused by the lack of certain
essential nutrients, especially vitamins and minerals, in one‘s diet over a
prolonged period of time.
A balanced diet is extremely important for the overall good health of a person
and an imbalanced diet may lead to the excess or insufficient intake of a
certain nutrient. Insufficient intake of a particular nutrient can lead to a
deficiency disease.
 Vitamin deficiency diseases

The human body requires a certain amount of all kinds of vitamins and
minerals to stay healthy. Insufficient intake of vitamins may cause a host of
different diseases.
 Vitamin A deficiency diseases

Vitamin A is a major nutrient that our body requires. Its major function is
maintaining normal and night visions. It is also essential for the immune
system and the growth of the body. Night blindness is the most common
effect of the deficiency of Vitamin A. It also affects the immune system and
leaves the person prone to other diseases and infections. Vitamin A deficiency
in a pregnant woman can lead to complications during pregnancy and
childbirth.
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 Vitamin B deficiency diseases

Vitamin B can be of different types, such as Vitamin B1, B2, B12 etc. The
Deficiency diseases depend on the type of Vitamin B that a person is lacking.
Vitamin B1: Deficiency can cause a disease called Beriberi, which results in
weak muscles and severe loss of weight. Severe deficiency can cause
paralysis and cardiac failure.
Vitamin B6: Deficiency can cause anemia and certain skin disorders such as
cracks around the mouth. It can also lead to depression and nervous
breakdowns.
Vitamin B12: Lack of Vitamin B12 can cause Pernicious anemia. Other
diseases related to B12 deficiency are muscle and nerve paralysis, extreme
fatigue, dementia and depression.
 Vitamin C deficiency diseases

Deficiency of Vitamin C can cause Scurvy, a disease that leads to the
bleeding of gums, skin spots and swelling of joints. It also affects the immune
system and can also cause death in extreme situations.
 Vitamin D deficiency diseases

Vitamin D deficiency can lead to a disease called Rickets, which leads to
weakening of bones, especially near the joints. It can also lead to the
decaying of teeth.
 Protozoa - The Protozoa are a varied cluster of unicellular eukaryotic

organisms which consume bacteria and other food sources. The diseases
caused by Protozoa are life threatening and dangerous.
Diseases Protozoa
Amoebic dysentery Entamoeba Histolytica.
Kala Azar Leishmania Donovani.
Malaria Plasmodium parasite
Sleeping sickness Trypanosoma Brucei.
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 Virus - The virus is a tiny infectious agent that duplicates only inside the
living cells of other creatures. These are diverse in nature and can infect
animals, plants, and microorganisms and transmitted by biological
vectors only. It is made up of a DNA or RNA genome inside a protein
shell known as the capsid. Some viruses have an internal or external
membrane covering. It lacks enzymes essential for the energy
production.
Diseases Virus
AIDS Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
Chicken pox Varicella-zoster virus.
Common Cold Rhinovirus
Chikungunya Chikungunya virus (CHIKV)
Dengue fever Dengue virus
Ebola Ebola virus
Foot and mouth Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV)
Hepatitis A Hepatitis A Virus(HAV)
Measles Measles virus
MERS Corona virus (MERS-CoV)
Mumps Mumps virus.
Rabies Rabies virus
Small Pox Variola virus
 Bacteria - Bacteria are prokaryotes, a minuscule single-celled organism

that grows well in varied environments. They can live inside soil, in the
ocean, and inside the human bowel. They can be differentiated by, by their
shape, the nature of their cell walls and genetic differences. The bacteria
multiply by a process called binary fission.
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Diseases Bacteria
Cholera Vibrio cholerae
Leprosy Mycobacterium Leprae
Plague Yersinia pestis
Pneumonia Streptococcus pneumoniae
Tetanus Clostridium tetani
Tuberculosis Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
Typhoid Salmonella typhi
Whooping Cough Bordetella pertussis.
 Preventing the Spread of Infectious Diseases
Decrease your risk of infecting yourself or others:
 Wash your hands often. This is especially important before and after
preparing food, before eating and after using the toilet.
 Get vaccinated. Immunization can drastically reduce your chances of

contracting many diseases. Keep your recommended vaccinations up-to-
date.
 Use antibiotics sensibly. Take antibiotics only when prescribed. Unless

otherwise directed, or unless you are allergic to them, take all prescribed
doses of your antibiotic, even if you begin to feel better before you have
completed the medication.
 Stay at home if you have signs and symptoms of an infection. Don't go

to work or class if you're vomiting, have diarrhea or are running a fever.
 Be smart about food preparation. Keep counters and other kitchen

surfaces clean when preparing meals.
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In addition, promptly refrigerate leftovers. Don't let cooked foods remain at

room temperature for an extended period of time.
 Disinfect the 'hot zones' in your residence. These include the kitchen
and bathroom — two rooms that can have a high concentration of bacteria
and other infectious agents.
 Practice safer sex. Use condoms. Get tested for sexually transmitted
diseases (STDs), and have your partner get tested— or, abstain
altogether.
 Don't share personal items. Use your own toothbrush, comb or razor
blade. Avoid sharing drinking glasses or dining utensils.
 Travel wisely. Don't fly when you're ill. With so many people confined to
such a small area, you may infect other passengers in the plane. And your
trip won't be comfortable, either. Depending on where your travels take
you, talk to your doctor about any special immunizations you may need.
Food - Source of Energy for man

Food refers to anything, which nourishes the body. It would include solids,
semi-solids, and liquids which can be consumed and which help to sustain
body and keep it healthy.
Food is a substance which after ingestion, digestion and absorption is capable
being utilized by the body for its various functions
 Source of Energy for man
 Carbohydrates
Complex carbohydrates, particularly starch, are found in foods such as pasta,
bread, rice potatoes, and cereals. During digestion, starch is broken down to
the simple sugar glucose, the body‘s main source of energy.
 Vitamins and Minerals

Only needed in tiny amounts, vitamins and minerals are nonetheless essential
for growth and good health.
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Most vitamins come from fresh fruit and vegetables, with some also found in
fish, meat, dairy, and eggs. Minerals, such as calcium and iron, also help the
body perform optimally. The best sources are vegetables, dairy, meat, and
some fish.
 Fats
Dairy food, meat, seeds, and nuts all supply fats, as do vegetable oils. Fat is
digested into fatty acids, which are used as an energy source and to make cell
membranes. Or they are rebuilt into fat that, under the skin, insulates the
body and helps to keep us warm.
 Proteins
Rich sources of proteins are fish, lean meat, poultry, and beans. Once
digested, proteins supply the body with amino acids. These building blocks
are reassembled by cells into different proteins used for construction such as
enzymes, and a myriad of other roles.
 Water
Around 50 – 70 percent of our body is made of water. Therefore this amount
should always be maintained in the body.
 Digestion in Human Beings

Digestion in humans happens through a stepwise process which is common
to all organisms. The order in which it occurs in human beings is described
below
 Ingestion - It is the process of us ingesting the food by actually eating it. In

the mouth the food material is subject to cutting, tearing, chewing, and a
little bit of pre-digestion using the salivary juice and finally swallowing.
 Digestion - It is the breakdown of the ingested food into microscopic and

finally molecular fragments. Most of the digestion happens in the stomach
and a small part of it also occurs in the small intestine.
 Absorption: This is a critical stage where nutrients are taken up from

digestive organs and distributed to the body‘s tissues. This process is
where food ingested is converted to actual energy to be used by our
bodies.
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 Excretion: This is the final process where waste material is excreted from
our bodies.
Balanced Diet
Nutrients are the substances in food that maintain the body and make it
work. Most of what one eats is made up of carbohydrates, proteins, and
fats. Nutrients needed in smaller amounts, but still vital, are vitamins and
minerals. Also on the list are fiber and water. Our diet should comprise a mix
of foods that supply all necessary nutrients in the right amounts. Such a diet is
called a balanced diet.
The Solar System—Meteors and Comets

The solar system is the sun and everything that orbits around it. It includes the
planets and their moons as well as numerous asteroids and comets. These
objects are all held in orbit around the sun by the sun's strong gravity.
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 Meteors and Comets
Meteor - A meteoroid that enters the earth‘s atmosphere and vaporizes. Also
called a ―shooting star.‖
Comet - A body of ice, rock and dust that can be several miles in diameter
and orbits the sun. Debris from comets is the source of many meteoroids.
Meteoroid - A small rocky or metal object, usually between the size of a grain
of sand or a boulder, that orbits the sun. It originates from a comet or asteroid.
Meteorite - A meteor that hits Earth without burning up in the atmosphere.

Meteor shower: A collection of meteors visible when Earth passes through a
trail of debris left by a comet.
Asteroid - An object larger than a meteoroid that orbits the sun and is made
of rock or metal.
Eclipses
An eclipse takes place when one heavenly body such as a moon or planet
moves into the shadow of another heavenly body. There are two types of
eclipses on Earth: an eclipse of the moon and an eclipse of the sun.
What Is a Lunar Eclipse?

The moon moves in an orbit around Earth, and at the same time, Earth orbits
the sun. Sometimes Earth moves between the sun and the moon. When this
happens, Earth blocks the sunlight that normally is reflected by the moon.
(This sunlight is what causes the moon to shine.)
Instead of light hitting the moon‘s surface, Earth's shadow falls on it. This is an
eclipse of the moon -- a lunar eclipse. A lunar eclipse can occur only when the
moon is full.
A lunar eclipse can be seen from Earth at night.
There are two types of lunar eclipses: Total lunar eclipses and Partial lunar
eclipses.
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A total lunar eclipse occurs when the moon and the sun are on exact opposite
sides of Earth. Although the moon is in Earth's shadow, some sunlight
reaches the moon. The sunlight passes through Earth's atmosphere, which
causes Earth‘s atmosphere to filter out most of the blue light. This makes the
moon appear red to people on Earth.
A partial lunar eclipse happens when only a part of the moon enters Earth's
shadow. In a partial eclipse, Earth's shadow appears very dark on the side of
the moon facing Earth. What people see from Earth during a partial lunar
eclipse depends on how the sun, Earth and moon are lined up.
A lunar eclipse usually lasts for a few hours. At least two partial lunar eclipses
happen every year, but total lunar eclipses are rare. It is safe to look at a lunar
eclipse.
What Is a Solar Eclipse?

Sometimes when the moon orbits Earth, it moves between the sun and Earth.
When this happens, the moon blocks the light of the sun from reaching Earth.
This causes an eclipse of the sun, or solar eclipse. During a solar eclipse, the
moon casts a shadow onto Earth.
There are three types of solar eclipses.

The first is a total solar eclipse. A total solar eclipse is only visible from a small
area on Earth. The people who see the total eclipse are in the center of the
moon‘s shadow when it hits Earth. The sky becomes very dark, as if it were
night. For a total eclipse to take place, the sun, moon and Earth must be in a
direct line.
The second type of solar eclipse is a partial solar eclipse. This happens when
the sun, moon and Earth are not exactly lined up. The sun appears to have a
dark shadow on only a small part of its surface.
The third type is an annular (ANN you ler) solar eclipse. An annular eclipse
happens when the moon is farthest from Earth. Because the moon is farther
away from Earth, it seems smaller. It does not block the entire view of the sun.
The moon in front of the sun looks like a dark disk on top of a larger sun-
colored disk. This creates what looks like a ring around the moon.
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During a solar eclipse, the moon casts two shadows on Earth. The first
shadow is called the umbra (UM bruh). This shadow gets smaller as it
reaches Earth. It is the dark center of the moon‘s shadow. The second
shadow is called the penumbra (pe NUM bruh). The penumbra gets larger as
it reaches Earth. People standing in the penumbra will see a partial eclipse.
People standing in the umbra will see a total eclipse.
Solar eclipses happen once every 18 months. Unlike lunar eclipses, solar
eclipses only last for a few minutes.
Achievements of Eminent Scientists

 Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1726)
Newton was a polymath who made investigations into a whole range of
subjects including mathematics, optics, physics, and astronomy. In
his Principia Mathematica, published in 1687, he laid the foundations for
classical mechanics, explaining the law of gravity and the laws of motion.
 Louis Pasteur (1822–1895)

Pasteur contributed greatly towards the advancement of medical sciences
developing cures for rabies, anthrax and other infectious diseases. Also
invented the process of pasteurisation to make milk safer to drink. He
probably saved more lives than any other person.
 Galileo (1564–1642)
Creating one of the first modern telescopes, Galileo revolutionised our
understanding of the world, successfully proving the Earth revolves around
the Sun and not the other way around. His work Two New Sciences laid the
groundwork for the science of Kinetics and strength of materials.
 Marie Curie (1867–1934)

Polish physicist and chemist. Discovered radiation and helped to apply it in
the field of X-ray. She won the Nobel Prize in both Chemistry and Physics.
 Albert Einstein (1879–1955)

Revolutionised modern physics with his general theory of relativity. He won
the Nobel Prize in Physics (1921) for his discovery of the Photoelectric effect,
which formed the basis of Quantum Theory.
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 Charles Darwin (1809–1882)

Darwin developed his theory of evolution against a backdrop of disbelief and
scepticism. He collected evidence over 20 years and published his
conclusions in On the Origin of Species (1859).
 Otto Hahn (1879–1968)

Hahn was a German chemist who discovered nuclear fission (1939). He was
a pioneering scientist in the field of radiochemistry and discovered radioactive
elements and nuclear isomerism (1921). He was awarded the Nobel Prize for
Chemistry in 1944.
 Nikola Tesla (1856–1943)

Tesla worked on electromagnetism and AC current. He is credited with many
patents from electricity to radio transmission and played a key role in the
development of modern electricity.
 James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879)

Maxwell made great strides in understanding electromagnetism. His research
in electricity and kinetics laid the foundation for quantum physics. Einstein
said of Maxwell, ―The work of James Clerk Maxwell changed the world
forever.‖
 Aristotle (384 BCE–322 BCE)

A great early Greek scientist who made many types of research in the natural
sciences including botany, zoology, physics, astronomy, chemistry,
meteorology and geometry.
 Michael Faraday (1791 – 1867)

English scientist who contributed to the fields of electromagnetic induction,
diamagnetism, electrolysis and electrochemistry. Discovered Carbon and
Chlorine.
 Alexander Fleming (1881-1955)

Scottish biologist who discovered penicillin. Shared Nobel Prize in 1945 with
Howard Florey and Ernst Boris Chain, who helped produce penicillin on a
large scale.
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Section ‘D’ History, Freedom Movement
A broad survey of Indian History
 Ancient History of India

The following are the major events associated with the history of Ancient
India.
 Indus Valley and Harappan Civilization

The Indus Valley civilization existed around the Indus River between 3300 to
1300 BCE. It is also referred to as the Harappan Civilization.
This period is known as the Bronze Age because the civilization had
techniques in metallurgy.
The Indus Valley Civilization is characterized by the following:
 Support of the common and the living people,
 few weapons,
 no violence, and
 a highly organized society.
The population had social classes, a writing system, established trade routes,
and well-planned cities.
Vedic Period (1500 – 500 BCE)

The Vedic era in India refers to the historical era when the Vedas (the oldest
scriptures in the Hindu religion) were written. The Indo-Aryans settled in the
northern part of present-day India at the onset of the Vedic Period. The
civilization engaged in agriculture and had four social classes. The Vedic
Civilization is believed to have been a composition of the Indo-Aryans and the
Harappan Civilization after the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilization. As the
period came to an end, movements that opposed the Vedic orthodoxy
emerged.
The Sixteen Mahajanapadas - Monarchical polities were a defining feature

of the Vedic Civilization. Around 600 BCE, the political units or the Vedic
States came together to form large kingdoms referred to as Mahajanapadas.
In total, there were sixteen Mahajanapadas. The general economy was
characterized by agricultural communities.
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Through the use of iron technology, both the cattle as well as the crops
increased in numbers. It also marked the emergence of territorial boundaries
as well as organized taxation.
Maurya Empire (321 BCE – 185 BCE)

The Maurya Empire was a dominant power in Ancient India. It unified India
into a single state. It was the first empire to do so and also the largest in the
sub-continent. During this period, India thrive in trade, agriculture, as well as
other economic activities.
 Chandragupta Maurya was responsible for the establishment of the empire
after defeating the Nanda Dynasty.
 He was succeeded by his son Bindusara Maurya.
 Ashoka the Great, who later embraced Buddhism, was next on the throne
and his reign lasted about four decades.
 After his death, the Maurya Empire began to decline. Brihadratha
Maurya was his successor and the last of the Mauryan dynasty to rule the
empire. He was assassinated, and the Sunga Empireestablished.
Satavahana Empire (230 BCE)

The Satavahana Empire was large and extended to many parts of India. The
dynasty lasted for around 450 years. The royal dynasty was formed out of the
opposition to the Maurya Empire and declared independence once the
Mauryan dynasty began to decline. The era was notable because it was a
generally peaceful era.
The period of Satavahana empire is notable for the following:

 the the use of coins with images of the ruler,
 taking care of Buddhist facilities and traditions, and
 resistance to foreign invasion.
Saka
The Saka people were people who originated from the horse-riding
pastoralists of Ancient Iran. They were displaced by another powerful tribe
and they therefore invaded other parts of Asia including Iran.
In India, they established a number of major kingdoms including in the
following places
Taxila, Mathura, Nasik, and Ujjain.
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Kushan Empire (50 CE)

The Kushan empire was a dominant world power. It began in the present-day
Afghanistan and expanded into the northwestern parts of the India sub-
continent under the leadership of Emperor Kujula Kadphises I. The first
emperor was succeeded by his son Kadphises II also known as Vima
Kadphises. Kanishka the Great was the third ruler of the empire, and his rule
was marked by a growing urban life and great wealth. Their history is known
with the following:
 gold pieces coins,
 great respect to its rulers,
 a kingdom which was not divided, and
 rising prosperity.
Gupta Empire (Golden Age of India)

The Gupta Empire, was a notable Indian era due to the Indian contribution to
engineering, arts, science, technology, philosophy, as well as religion. The era
is also known as the Golden Age of India due to its prosperity. The Gupta
Empire was established by Sri Gupta, and it was associated with peace and
prosperity which allowed the growth of arts and sciences. Its other rulers
included Chandragupta I (320 AD), Samudragupta (335 AD), Chandragupta
II (380 AD). The Huna invasion contributed immensely to its decline.
The Hunas
The Hunas originated from Central Asia. The invaded Asia in two groups: one
extending towards India while the counterpart extended towards the Roman
Empire. They destroyed the influence of the Gupta empire.
Harsha Empire
The empire was ruled by Harsha Vardhana (606 AD – 647 AD). Harsha
Empire was one of the monarchical states that rose after the decline of the
Gupta Empire. It was also characterized by peace and prosperity. It was also
a time that Ancient India recorded visitors of religion and scholarship.
Late Classical Era (600 AD – 1200 AD)
Badami Chalukya
This period saw the rise of the Badami Chalukya dynasty which ruled most
parts of central and southern India.
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Due to the fact that the kings built special temples for Shiva, the Hindu God,
there was a drastic improvement in architecture.
The Rashtrakuta Dynasty

The Rashtrakuta Dynasty was founded around 753 AD and ruled for about
two centuries.
The defeat of Raja Dahir

The late classical ear also saw the defeat of Raja Dahir, the ruler of Sindh, by
Muhammad Bin Qasim in 712 AD.
The Gurjara Pratiharas

The Gurjara Pratiharas ruled a high portion of the Northern part of India in the
period between mid-seventh to eleventh century. The Gurjara Pratiharas
Dynasty was instrumental in repulsing the Arab invaders that had been
moving towards the east of the Indus River.
The Chola Empire

The Chola Empire became prominent around 930 AD. The Chola dynasty
mainly ruled the Kaveri River and beyond. The dynasty is notable because of
the following: guarding the Tamil literature, builders of great temples, unique
architecture, and a centralized government. The Cholas used their naval skills
to spread their influence to countries in Southeast Asia.
The Chauhans
The Prithviraj Chauhan era is characterized by a number of battles.
The Kakatiya Dynasty

The Kakatiya Dynasty showed a striking balance between sculpture as well as
architecture. The loyal sub-ordinates helped the dynasty resist internal
rebellion as well as external invasion.
Early Medieval Period

This period is characterized by the growth of Muslim population in India. The
Chauhan Dynasty was successful in resisting the Arab invasion. Its most
famous ruler was Prithviraj Chauhan. His battles with Mohammad Ghori, a
Muslim sultan, are considered to be very significant in India‘s history.
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The Kakatiya Dynasty, on the other hand, ruled southern India between 1175
AD and 1324 AD. It was conquered by the Delhi Sultanate.
A study of Ancient India helps one understand the history of Indian culture,
economic activities, military use, and democracy.
 History of Medieval India

The History of Medieval India is rich and fascinating. An overview is provided
below, with particular emphasis on the Delhi Sultanate.
The Slave Dynasty

The Delhi Sultanate was actually founded by a former slave, and for this
reason in its early years the Sultanate was known as the Slave Dynasty
(Ghulam Dynasty, Mamluk Dynasty). The slave who rose to become the first
Sultan of Delhi was Qutubuddin Aibak (who reigned between 1206 and 10).
Some scholars believe that Aibak started the construction of the
gigantic Qutub Minar. He was a former slave of Muhammad Ghori. His
dynasty was later ruled by Shams-ud-din Iltutmish and the Sultan Razia (or
Raziya).
 Aram Shah ruled Delhi for a short period from 1210 to 1210.
 Shams-ud-din Iltutmish succeeded Aram Shah and became the third ruler
of the slave dyansty in 1211 AD with the support of officials at Delhi. He is
credited for completing the splendid structure of the Qutub Minar. He died
in 1236 A.D.
 Rukn-ud-din Firoz succeeded his father to gain the throne of Delhi

Sultanate. However, he could not manage the affairs of kingdom and was
soon replaced by his sister, Razia Sultana.
 Razia Sultana reigned from 1236 to 1240 and was the only women to ever
ascend to rule over Delhi Sultanate.
The Tughlaq Dynasty

Like the main players in the Khiji Dynasty, the Sultans of the Tughlaq Dynasty
were of Turkic origin.
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One of the most famous members of this dynasty was Muhammad Bin
Tughlaq, who succeeded his father Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughlaq.
Muhammad Bin Tughlaq‘s reign was blighted by rebellion (there were no less
than 22 rebellions against his rule), and he was renowned for being a learned
man, interested in medicine and fluent at speaking several different
languages, including Persian. He ruled from 1324 to 1351.
Firoz Shah Tughla, (reigned from 1351 to 1388), the cousin brother
of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq, became the next Sultan of Delhi. He is known for
lowering tariffs and abolishing several taxes.
This dynasty began in 1320 and ended in 1413. At the same time,
the Vijayanagara Empire was controlling much of the South of India.
The Sayyid Dynasty

This dynasty was founded after the end of the Tughlaq dynasty by Khizr Khan,
and he was succeeded by Mubarak Shah, Khizr Khan (who ascended to the
throne with the title of Muhammad Shah) and finally Ala-ud-Din Alam Shah.
The end of Ala-ud Din Alam Shah‘s rule in 1451 marked the end of this
dynasty as a whole.
The Lodi Dynasty

Founded by Bahlul Lodi after the end of the Sayyid Dynasty, this dynasty was
ruled afterwards by Sikandar Lodi. Sikandar‘s son Ibrahim Lodi was elevated
to the throne without any opposition. However, he did face opposition from
other forces. The First Battle of Panipat was fought between armies of Ibrahim
Lodi and Mughal Emperor Babur. Ibrahim Lodi was defeated in the battle,
which took place on 21st April, 1526 thus marking the end of this dynasty and
the start of the Suri Empire.
The Suri Empire

This empire was controlled by the Sher Shah Suri, whose real name was Jalal
Khan. Ethnically, he was a Pashtun and he belonged to a house known as
Sur. His empire, which controlled most of northern India, and which
supplanted the Mughal rulers who had previously controlled this territory, was
in place until 1545.
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The Mughal Empire

This empire is one of the longest running empires in the world. It ran
continuously from 1526-1540, and then after a break of some years, ran
continuously again from 1555 to 1857. The empire covered most of the Indian
subcontinent, with the exception of the very south. The Mughal emperors
included Babur, Humayun, Akbar, (who put in place the Rajput Policy of
Akbar or Religious Policy of Akbar which, in the mid 16th century aimed to
gain the co-operation of the powerful Rajputs with the Mughal Empire‘s
projects), Jahangir, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb. During this period, the Sikh
religion took root, with the birth of Guru Nanak in 1469.
The Khiji Dynasty

From 1290 onward, the main dynasty in India was a Muslim dynasty known as
the Khiji Dynasty. This dynasty ended in 1320, but during that short period it
ruled a large part of South Asia. The two most important rulers of this dynasty
were Jalal-ud-din Firuz Khilji (who founded the dynasty) and Alauddin Khilji.
The Maratha Empire

In 1674, the Maratha Empire came to rule much of the Indian subcontinent.
This empire, which ran until 1818, is sometimes also called the Maratha
Confederacy. As is clear from the above, it overlapped with, and often clashed
with, the Mughal Empire. Key figures in this empire include Chhatrapati
Shivaji (who was also known as Shivaji Bhonsle or Shivaji
Maharaj), Chatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj, Chhatrapati Rajaram Maharaj, Shivaji
II, and Chatrapati Shahu. A notable feature of this Empire was the fact that it
involved figures known as Peshwas, who have been compared to prime
ministers in modern times. The first Peshwa was Moropant Pingle, who
served until 1683. He was succeeded by his son Nilopant Pingale, and
subsequent Peshwas included Ramachandra Pant Amatya, Parshuram
Trimbak Kulkarni, and various members of the Bhat family who were the last
Peshwas, serving until the mid 18th century.
The Third Battle of Panipat

This battle took place in 1761. It was a decisive moment in Indian history
because it marked the victory of the Afghan Durrani empire over the Maratha
Empire, which was led into battle by the Peshwa of the time.
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 History of Modern India

The History of Modern India is absolutely fascinating, and it is important to
have a good grasp of this history as it continues to affect our lives in the
present day.
Below, you can find a detailed overview of some of the main historical events
relating to India from the mid-eighteenth century until the late 20th century.
 Company Raj (East India Company ) from 1757 to 1858.
 Also known as the HEIC (Honourable East India Company) or British East
India Company, Company Raj was a trading company. Though originally
the aim of the company was to trade with the island nations of the East
Indies, it ultimately ended up doing most of its trade with China and India.
 Though the coat of arms of the company was developed in 1698, and it
was founded back in 1600, it only really traded substantially with India from
the mid-eighteenth century onward. It was dissolved in 1874.
 However, the East India Company was involved not just in

trade. The Battle of Plassey (1757) and the Battle of Buxar (1764) stand
out here: they were two examples of how the East India Company
consolidated its trade dominance in the Indian subcontinent by battling with
indigenous people and other traders.
In both battles British forces associated with the East India Company fought
the Nawab of Bengal and the Nawab‘s allies (in the case of the Battle of
Plassey these allies included French forces).
 The British East India Company also took part in wars that stretched over
three decades, known as the Anglo Mysore Wars. These are divided into
the First Anglo Mysore War (1767-1769), the Second Anglo Mysore War
(1780-84), the third Anglo Mysore War (1789-1792) and the Fourth Anglo
Mysore War (1799). Here, the British forces fought primarily against the
Kingdom of Mysore and their victories expanded and consolidated their
control over much of India.
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 These wars were followed by further wars, namely the Anglo Maratha
Wars of 1775-1818 (which are divided into the first Anglo Maratha War of
1775-1782, the second Anglo Maratha War of 1803-1805 and the third
Anglo Maratha War of 1817-1818) and then the Anglo Sikh Wars of 1845-
1849 (which in their turn are subdivided into the first Anglo-Sikh War of
1845-1846 and the Second Anglo-Sikh War of 1848-1849). In all these
wars, the British East India Company gained more and more control, both
administratively and in terms of trade, over the Indian subcontinent.
 The Great Indian Revolt (1857). The tide began to turn, however, with the
Great Indian Revolt of 1857. The East India Company had been recruiting
Indian sepoys to serve in their army, however in 1857 these sepoys
mutinied against their British commanders. The importance of Great Revolt
of 1857 should not be underestimated. Also known by various other
names, including the Sepoy Mutiny and the Indian Rebellion, it led directly
to the dissolution of the East India Company and concomitantly to a
significant financial and administrative restructuring in the country. Rather
than a small mutiny, then, this revolt should be (and often is) considered as
India‘s first war of independence against British rule.
The British Raj (1857 to 1947).

After the Great Indian Revolt, it was clear that the East India Company was no
longer fulfilling its function of governing India. As a result (and as the company
was being dissolved), the British Crown under Queen Victoria officially took
control of the governance of India for a period that lasted some 90 years.
 The Hindu Widows Remarriage Act, 1856: Before moving on to explain the
way in which history unfolded during the time of the British Raj, it is
important to note a key piece of legislation that came into force in 1856.
The Hindu Widows Remarriage Act made it legal for Hindu widows to
remarry.
 The Partition of Bengal (1905): A key event at the start of the twentieth
century was the Partition of Bengal. In 1905, Bengal was essentially
divided into two parts, separating the largely Hindu areas in the west from
the largely Muslim areas in the east. It was effected by Lord Curzon, who
was the Viceroy of India at the time.
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 Led by the famous Mahatma Gandhi from around 1919 onward, the Non
Co-operation Movementwas one of the greatest acts of non violent civil
disobedience that the world has yet seen. Indians from all walks of life
became part of this movement and it involved refusing to co-operate with
British officials (rather than opposing them by force), thus making life very
difficult for them and causing some parts of the British Raj to start to grind
to a halt or at least work inefficiently.
 In March-April 1930, Gandhi led a huge march in protest against British

rule in India. This was known as the Dandi March or Salt Satyagraha.
 Another important movement was the Khilafat Movement (1919-1924).

This movement was another movement aimed at promoting Indian
independence. It was a largely Muslim movement and it had strong ties to
other Indian nationalist movements.
 As a result of these protests and movements, round table

conferences were held (1930-1932) and the Government of India Act,
which was passed in 1935, became the final constitution of the British Raj.
 In 1939, the left wing political party known as the All India Forward Bloc led
by Subhash Chandra Bose began to agitate for its beliefs, and it was
followed in 1942 by the Quit India Movement.
 The Quit India Movement (8th August, 1942) was another movement led
by Gandhi, and again it took the form of civil disobedience. There was also
an associated Cabinet Mission. As a result of all of this, India gained its
independence in 1947.
 The Indian Independence Act, 1947: In 1947, India‘s independence from

British rule was declared. In the same year, the Partition of India into what
was once British India and Pakistan occurred.
 Post Independence - The post-independence period in India was marked

by several happenings. These included the India- Pakistan War of 1948,
the assassination of Mahatma Gandhi on 30th January 1948, the India-
China War (1962) and the second and third wars with Pakistan (in 1965
and 1971 respectively).
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In many ways this culminated with India testing a nuclear device for the first
time in 1974. Thereafter, several positive developments did take place, such
as the 1991 economic reforms.
 Conclusion - Historians have made an educated attempt to explore the

history of India. However, there is a slight variation between the British and
Indian historians. However, such variation, in most instances, does not end
or affect the outcomes of the study.
Studying the history of India helps scholars, students, and Indian citizens to
understand their origin and their past. Consequently, they will be able to use
this for the benefit of the present time and also lay a basis and foundation for
the future.
Freedom Movement in India
Sr. No Name of Movement Year

1 Government of India Act (1858)
2 Indian National Congress (1885)
3 Partition of Bengal (1905)
4 Muslim League (1906)
5 Swadeshi Movement (1905)
6 Morley-Minto Reforms (1909)
7 Lucknow Pact (1916)
8 Home Rule Movement (1916-1920)
9 The Gandhian Era (1917-1947)
10 Khilafat Movement (1920)
11 The Rowlatt Act (1919)
12 Jallianwalla Bagh Massacre (1919)
13 Non-Cooperation Movement (1920)
14 Chauri Chaura Incident (1922)
15 Swaraj Party (1923)
16 Simon Commission (1927)
17 Dandi March (1930)
18 Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931)
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19 The Government of India Act 1935

20 Quit India Movement (1942)
21 Cabinet Mission Plan (1946)
22 Interim Government (1946)
23 Formation of Constituent Assembly (1946)
24 Mountbatten Plan (1947)
25 The Indian Independence Act 1947
26 Partition of India (1947)
Elementary study of Indian Constitution and Administration

 The idea for a Constituent Assembly for drafting a constitution for India was
first provided by Bal Gangadhar Tilak in 1895.
 The elections for the first Constituent Assembly were held in July
1946. Initially it had 389 members, but later the reformed Assembly had
324 members.
 The State of Hyderabad did not participate in elections to the Constituent

Assembly.
 The first meeting of Constituent Assembly was held on December 9,

1946— its president was Dr. Sacchidanand Sinha.
 The Draft of Indian Constitution was presented in October 1947. President

of the Drafting Committee was Bhim Rao Ambedkar.
 The Indian Constitution was enacted on November 26, 1946 and put into
force on January 26, 1950.
 The Constitution today has 444 Articles and 12 schedules. Originally there
were 395 Articles and 8 schedules.
 SOCIALIST, SECULAR, INTEGRITY—these words were added to the

Preamble later, through the 42nd Amendment, 1976.
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 The Preamble contains aims and objectives of our Constitution.
 Fundament Rights are contained in Part III— called "Magna Carta" of the
Constitution. The idea was borrowed from the USA. Initially there were 7
fundamental rights, now there are only 6. (The Right to Property was
deleted by the 44th amendment in 1978. It is now a judicial right—it has
been moved to Article 300(A).)
Article 32: Right to Constitutional Remedies
This Article is also known as "Heart and Soul" of the Constitution
The Constitution provides that High Courts and the Supreme Court can issue
various writs (written orders) to safeguard freedom of an individual. There are
five types of writs -
 Habeas Corpus: "May I have the body" It orders to present reasons as

well as the physical presence of a body in court, within 24 hours of arrest.
 Mandamus: issued to a person, office or court to enforce duties also

called "Param Aadesh".
 Prohibition issued to inferior courts, by superior courts it prohibits (stops)

action of acts outside their jurisdiction.
 Quo Warranto: It asks how one has gained unauthorised office.
 Certiorari: Higher Court takes over a case from lower courts.
 Directive Principles of State Policy

The Directive Principles of State Policy constitute another important feature of
the Indian Constitution. It is an idealistic and philosophical chapter in the
Indian Constitution, which contains various aims and aspirations to be fulfilled
by the State in distant future. They provide the much-desired philosophy of the
Constitution and give "an Instrument of Instructions" to the Government to
follow the specific policies.
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The underlying idea behind the Directive Principles is that whichever party
may possess the rein of administration should implement these constitutional
ideals.
While incorporating the chapter on Directive Principles, the framers of the

Constitution were inspired by the Spanish and Irish constitutional practices.
While in the Spanish and Irish Constitutions there are brief references to a few
of the Directive Principles, the Indian Constitution contains an elaborate and
exhaustive list of Directive Principles.
These principles are, however, not enforceable in any Court nor the
Constitution imposes any duty to apply these principles in making laws. While
Fundamental Rights are negative in character, the Directive Principles set
forth a positive program for the State to be implemented at its own
convenience.
Elementary knowledge of Five Year Plans of India
The development plans are drawn by the Planning Commission to establish

India‘s economy on a socialistic pattern in successive phases of five year
Periods-called the Five Year Plans.
 Major Bodies Behind the Making of Five Year Plans

The organisation was set up to formulate basic economic policies, draft plans
and watch its progress and implementation. It consists of:
(I) Planning Commission of India
(ii) National Planning Council
(iii) National Development Council and State Planning Commissions
 FIVE YEAR PLANS
 FIRST FIVE YEAR PLAN (1951-56)

In July 1951, the Planning Commission issued the draft outline of the First
Five Year Plan for the period April 1951 to March 1956. It was presented to
the Parliament in December 1952. In the First Plan, agriculture received the
main thrust, for sustaining of growth and development of industries which
would not be possible without a significant rise in the yield of raw materials
and food.
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Objectives -
i. To increase food production.
ii. To fully utilise available raw materials.
iii. To check inflationary pressure.
Outlay - The total proposed outlay was Rs. 3,870 crore.
 SECOND FIVE YEAR PLAN (1956-61)

The main objective was to launch upon industrialisation and strengthen the
industrial base of the economy. It was in this light that the 1948 Industrial
Policy Resolution was revised and a new resolution of 1956 was adopted. The
Second Plan started with an emphasis on the expansion of the public sector
and aimed at the establishment of a socialistic pattern of society.
Objectives -
i. A sizeable increase in national income so as to raise the level of living.
ii. Rapid industrialisation of the country with particular emphasis on the
development of basic and key industries.
Outlay - The Second Plan proposed a total public sector outlay of Rs. 4,800
crores though actual outlay was only Rs. 4,672 crore.
 THIRD FIVE YEAR PLAN (1961-66)

In the third Plan, the emphasis was on long-term development. The Third Plan
report stated that during the five-year period concerned, the Indian economy
―must not only expand rapidly but, at the same time, become self-reliant and
self-generating.‖
Objectives -
i. An increase in national income of more than 5 per cent annually. The
investment pattern laid down must be capable of sustaining this growth rate in
the subsequent years.
ii. An increase in the agricultural produce and to achieve self sufficiency by
increasing food grain production.
iii. Greater equality of opportunities, more even distribution of economic power
and reducing wealth and income disparities.
 FOURTH FIVE YEAR PLAN (1969-74)

After the ‗Plan Holiday‘, the Fourth Plan was begun in 1969.
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Objectives -
i. To achieve stability and progress towards self-reliance.
ii. To achieve an overall rate of growth of 5.7 per cent annually.
iii. To raise exports at the rate of 7 per cent annually.
Outlay - The total proposed outlay was Rs. 24,880 crore, which included Rs.
15,900 crores as public sector outlay and Rs. 8,980 crore as private sector
outlay.
 FIFTH FIVE YEAR PLAN (1974-79)

The Plan was formulated against the background of sever inflationary
pressure.
Objectives - In addition to removal of poverty and attainment of self-reliance,

the Fifth Plan had the following major objectives.
i. 5.5 per cent overall rate of growth in Gross Domestic objectives.
ii. Expansion of productive employment and fuller utilisation of existing skills
and equipment.
iii. A national programme for minimum needs and extended programmes of
social welfare.
Outlay - A total outlay of Rs. 53,410 crore was proposed for the Fifth Plan.
 SIXTH FIVE YEAR PLAN (1980-85)

The draft of the Sixth Five Year Plan (1978-1983) was presented in 1978.
However, the plan was terminated with the change of Government in January
1980. The new Sixth Five Year Plan was implemented in April 1980.
Objectives -
i. To eliminate unemployment and underemployment.
ii. To raise the standard of living of the poorest of masses.
iii. To reduce disparities in income and wealth.
Outlay - The proposed outlay for the Sixth Plan totalled Rs.1, 58, 710 crore.
 SEVENTH FIVE YEAR PLAN (1985-90)

The draft of the Seventh Plan was approved on November 9, 1985 by the
National Development Council. The plan was part of the long-term plan for the
period of 15 years.
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Objectives -
i. Decentralisation of planning and full public participation in development.
ii. The maximum possible generation of productive employment.
iii. Removal of poverty and reduction in income disparities.
 EIGHTH FIVE YEAR PLAN (1992-97)

The Eighth Plan proposed a growth rate of 5.6 per cent per annum on an
average during the plan period. The Eighth Plan focused on (i) clear
prioritisation of sectors/projects for investment in order to facilitate
implementation of the policy initiatives taken in the areas of fiscal, trade and
industrial sectors and human development.
Objectives -
i. Generation of adequate employment of achieve near full employment level
by the turn of the century.
ii. Containment of population growth through people‘s active co-operation and
an effective scheme of incentives and disincentives.
iii. Universalisation of elementary education and complete eradication of
illiteracy among the people in the age group of 15 to 35 years.
 THE NINTH FIVE-YEAR PLAN (1997-2002)

It began on April 1, 1997. The Ninth Plan was the first concrete attempt to
translate the programme of economic reforms and the New Economic Policy
within the framework of an indicative Plan. The Approach Paper to the Ninth
Plan (1997-2002) was approved by the N.D.C. on 16th January, 1997.
Objectives -
i. Priority to agriculture and rural development
ii. Accelerating growth rate of economy
iii. Food and nutritional security for all
iv. Containing growth rate of population
v. Empowerment of women and socially disadvantaged groups such as
SC/ST, backward classes and minorities.
vi. Promoting and developing participatory institutions like ―Panchayati Raj‖
institutions, co-operatives and self-help groups.
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 TENTH FIVE YEAR PLAN (2002-07)

On December 21, 2002, the Tenth Five Year Plan was approved by the
National Development Council (NDC). The Plan has further developed the
NDC mandated objectives, of doubling per capita income in 10 years, and
achieving a growth rate of 8% of GDP per annum. An 8% growth rate is
considered necessary for achieving the social and economic targets of Tenth
Plan Keeping in mind decadal growth performance and the steady
acceleration that the country has recorded in growth over the past two
decades, it is a realisable target.
The plan has a number of new features, such as,
a. It recognises the rapid growth of labour force over the next decade
b. Addresses the issue of poverty and the unacceptably low levels of social
indicators
c. Adopted a ―differential development strategy‖ to equate national targets into

balanced regional development as there is vast difference in the potentials
and constraints of each state
d. Recognises that the governance is perhaps one of the most important

factors for ensuring realisation of the Plan
e. Identifies measures to improve efficiency, unleash entrepreneurial energy,

and promote rapid and sustainable growth
f. Proposes major reforms for agricultural sector making ‗agriculture‘ the core
element of the Plan.
Since economic growth is not the only objective, the Plan aims at harnessing
the benefits of growth to improve the quality of life of the people by setting the
following key targets -
1. All children to be in school by 2003 and all children to complete five years
of schooling by 2007
2. Reduction in poverty ratio from 26% to 21%
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3. Growth in gainful employment to, at least, keep pace with addition to the
labour force
4. Decadal population growth to reduce from 21.3% in 1991-2001 to 16.2% by

2001-11
5. Reducing gender gaps in literacy and wage rates by 50%
6. Literacy rate to increase from 65% in 1999-2000 to 75% in 2001
7. Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) to be reduced from 72 in 1999-2000, to 45 in

2007
8. .Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR) to be reduced from 4 per 1000 in 1999-

2000 to 2 per 1000 in 2007
9. Providing portable drinking water in all villages
10. Cleaning of major polluted river stretches
11. Increase in forest/tree cover from 19% in 1999-2000 to 25% in 2007
 ELEVENTH PLAN (2007-2012)

The United Progressive Alliance government issued a paper in the eleventh
plan titled ―Towards faster and more inclusive growth.‖ According to the
approach paper, the monitorable targets of five-year plan are -
1. GDP growth rate to be increased to 10% by the end of the plan;
2. Farm sector growth to be increased to 4%;
3. Creation of seven crore job opportunities;
4. Reduce educated unemployed youth to below 5 percent
5. Infant mortality rates to be reduced to 28 per 1000 births;
6. Maternal death rates to be reduced to 1 per 1000 births;
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7. Clean drinking water to all by 2009;
8. Improve sex ratio to 935 by 2011-12 and to 950 by 2016-17;
9. Ensure electricity connection to all villages and broadband over power lines
(BPL) households by 2009
10. Roads to all villages that have a population of 1000 and above by 2009;
11. Increase forest and tree cover by 5%;
12. Achieve the World Health Organization standard air quality in major cities
by 2011-12;
13. Treat all urban wastewater by 2011-12 to clean river waters;
14. Increase energy efficiency by 20 percent by 2016-17
Panchayati Raj, Co-operatives and Community Development
 Panchayati Raj
In India, the Panchayati Raj generally refers to the system of local self-
government in India introduced by a constitutional amendment in 1992,
although it is based upon the traditional panchayat system of South Asia. This
Panchayati Raj system was formalized in 1992, following a study conducted
by a number of Indian committees on various ways of implementing more
decentralized administration. The modern Panchayati Raj and its Gram
Panchayats are not to be confused with the extra constitutional Khap
Panchayats (or Caste Panchayats) found in northern India.
In India, the Panchayati Raj now functions as a system of governance in

which gram panchayats are the basic units of local administration. The system
has three levels: Gram Panchayat (village level), Mandal Parishad or Block
Samiti or Panchayat Samiti (block level), and Zila Parishad (district level). It
was formalized in 1992 by the 73rd amendment to the Indian Constitution.
Currently, the Panchayati Raj system exists in all states except Nagaland,
Meghalaya, and Mizoram, and in all Union Territories except Delhi.
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The Panchayats receive funds from three sources:

 Local body grants, as recommended by the Central Finance Commission
 Funds for implementation of centrally sponsored schemes
 Funds released by the state governments on the recommendations of the
State Finance Clommissions
 Co-operatives
A cooperative (also known as co-operative, co-op, or coop) is
"an autonomous association of persons united voluntarily to meet their
common economic, social, and cultural needs and aspirations through a
jointly-owned and democratically-controlled enterprise". Cooperatives may
include:
 businesses owned and managed by the people who use their services
(a consumer cooperative)
 organizations managed by the people who work there (worker
cooperatives)
 multi-stakeholder or hybrid cooperatives that share ownership between
different stakeholder groups. For example, care cooperatives where
ownership is shared between both care-givers and receivers. Stakeholders
might also include non-profits or investors.
 second- and third-tier cooperatives whose members are other cooperatives
 platform cooperatives that use a cooperatively owned and governed
website, mobile app or a protocol to facilitate the sale of goods and
services.
Research published by the Worldwatch Institute found that in 2012

approximately one billion people in 96 countries had become members of at
least one cooperative. The turnover of the largest three hundred cooperatives
in the world reached $2.2 trillion.
Cooperative businesses are typically more economically resilient than many

other forms of enterprise, with twice the number of co-operatives (80%)
surviving their first five years compared with other business ownership models
(41%). Cooperatives frequently have social goals which they aim to
accomplish by investing a proportion of trading profits back into their
communities.
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As an example of this, in 2013, retail co-operatives in the UK invested 6.9% of

their pre-tax profits in the communities in which they trade as compared with
2.4% for other rival supermarkets.
Since 2002 cooperatives and credit unions could be distinguished on the

Internet by use of a .coop domain. Since 2014, following International
Cooperative Alliance's introduction of the Cooperative
Marque, ICA cooperatives and WOCCU credit unions can also be identified by
a coop ethical consumerism label.
 Community Development
Community development is a process where community members come
together to take collective action and generate solutions to common problems.
Community wellbeing (economic, social, environmental and cultural) often
evolves from this type of collective action being taken at a grassroots level.
Community development ranges from small initiatives within a small group to
large initiatives that involve the broader community.
Effective community development should be -

 a long-term endeavour
 well-planned
 inclusive and equitable
 holistic and integrated into the bigger picture
 initiated and supported by community members
 of benefit to the community
 grounded in experience that leads to best practices
Community development is a grassroots process by which communities -

 become more responsible
 organize and plan together
 develop healthy lifestyle options
 empower themselves
 reduce poverty and suffering
 create employment and economic opportunities
 achieve social, economic, cultural and environmental goals
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Community development seeks to improve quality of life. Effective community

development results in mutual benefit and shared responsibility among
community members. Such development recognizes -
 the connection between social, cultural, environmental and economic
matters
 the diversity of interests within a community
 its relationship to building capacity
Community development helps to build community capacity in order to

address issues and take advantage of opportunities, find common ground and
balance competing interests. It doesn‘t just happen – capacity building
requires both a conscious and a conscientious effort to do something (or
many things) to improve the community.
Bhoodan
The Bhoodan Movement or Land Gift Movement, was a voluntary land

reform movement in India, started by Acharya Vinoba Bhave in 1951 at
Pochampally village which is now in Telangana, India and known as Bhoodan
Pochampally.
The mission of the movement was to persuade wealthy landowners to
voluntarily give a percentage of their land to the landless people. However,
this land could not be sold. In effect, landless laborers were being given a
small plot of land on which they can settle, as well as grow some of their own
food, so as to give them an incentive to remain in the village as a captive
labour pool for the richer farmers and landlords.
Sarvodaya
Sarvodaya is a term meaning 'Universal Uplift' or 'Progress of All'. The term

was first coined by Mohandas Gandhi as the title of his 1908 translation of
John Ruskin's tract on political economy, "Unto This Last", and Gandhi came
to use the term for the ideal of his own political philosophy. Later Gandhian,
like the Indian nonviolence activist Vinoba Bhave, embraced the term as a
name for the social movement in post-independence India which strove to
ensure that self-determination and equality reached all strata of India society.
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Gandhi's ideals have lasted well beyond the achievement of one of his chief
projects, Indian independence (Swaraj). His followers in India (notably, Vinoba
Bhave) continued working to promote the kind of society that he envisioned,
and their efforts have come to be known as the Sarvodaya Movement. Anima
Bose has referred to the movement's philosophy as "a fuller and richer
concept of people's democracy than any we have yet known." Sarvodaya
workers associated with Vinoba, J. P. Narayan, Dada Dharmadhikari,
Dhirendra Mazumdaar, Shankarrao Deo, K. G. Mashruwala undertook various
projects aimed at encouraging popular self-organization during the 1950s and
1960s, including Bhoodan and Gramdan movements. Many groups
descended from these networks continue to function locally in India today
The Sarvodaya Movement has as its target the establishment of a whole

network of such self-supporting village communities. The family relationships
which are confined at present to the blood group will be extended to cover the
whole village where distinctions based on race, creed, caste, language and so
forth will completely be eliminated. Agriculture will be so planned that all the
people will have enough to consume. Industry will be conducted on a cottage
basis till all the people in the village are gainfully employed. The needs of the
village will be determined by the people of the village themselves, through
Village Council, representative of the whole village.
 Principles of the Sarvodaya -
 There is no centralized authority, and there is political and economic

atmosphere in the villages.
 Politics will not be the instrument of power but an agency of service
and Rajnity will yield place to Loknity.
 All people will be imbued with the spirit of love, fraternity, truth, non-
violence and self-sacrifices. Society will function on the basis on the non-
violence.
 There will be no party system and majority rule and society will be free
from the evil of the tyranny of the majority.
 The sarvodaya society is socialist in the true sense of the term. All calling
will be the same moral, social and economical values. The individual
personality has the fullest scope for development.
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 The sarvodaya society is based on equality and liberty. There is no room in

it for unwholesome some competition, exploitation and class-hatred.
 Sarvodaya stands for the progress of the all. All individual should do
individual labour and follow the ideal of non possession. Then it will be
possible to realize the goal of: from each according to his work and to each
according to his needs.
 There will be no private property, the instrument of exploitation and the
source of social distinctions and hatred. Similarly, the profit motive will
disappear, rent and interest to will go.
 The Sarvodaya Movement is based on Truth, Non-violence and Self-
denial.
 The Sarvodaya Movement makes a sincere and bold attempt to create the
necessary atmosphere to bring together such individuals with an
unwavering faith in the Welfare of All
 The gain to the individual would be small. The development of each quality
depends upon every other. If all the qualities are improved a little, then the
individual would gain more.
National Integration and Welfare State

 National Integration
Integration does not mean that there are no differences on any issue. Despite
the differences, all accept what is in the larger interest of the nation. This
national integration makes all citizens imbued with patriotism. They first
consider themselves citizens of India, and next Hindus, Muslim or others.
Notwithstanding differences in opinions and beliefs, all the people of a nation
are full of mutual love, integration and brotherhood. National integration, thus,
is a sentiment which reflects solidarity or patriotism among the people
belonging to a nation. It fosters a common identity amongst the citizens of a
country making them feel that they are all one.
National integration makes the nation strong and organized. It holds the
people of various religions, sects, races, dress, civilization and culture
together. Despite several differences, all the people remain in mutual harmony
with each other.
India is a shining example of national integration. Very few countries have the
kind of diversity that we have in our country.
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Here people of various castes and communities, whose lifestyle, cultures,

languages and customs are completely different, live together. All are bound
by the thread of national integration.
National integration is essential for any nation. In a heterogeneous country

like India, it acts as a cementing factor. Over the years, Pakistan has been
trying to weaken national integration by creating Hindu-Muslim differences
and inciting anti-India feeling and insurgency in Kashmir. By these divisive
politics, the British ruled India for hundreds of years. But when the people of
India displayed ―Indianness‖ by forgetting all their differences, the British had
to go back from India.
National unity and integration is absolutely necessary for the stability of

democracy, defence of freedom and all-round development of the nation. Until
the whole nation is bound in a spirit of unity, there would not be any
development or economic progress in the country. Therefore, it is the duty of
every citizen to promote nationalism to reinforce national integration. We
require a strong nation to protect national integration. So, we should suppress
disruptive elements by staying away from petty thinking centering on caste,
regionalism, religion, etc.
 Welfare State
The welfare state refers to a type of governing in which the national
government plays a key role in the protection and promotion of the economic
and social well-being of its citizens. A welfare state is based on the principles
of equality of opportunity, equitable distribution of wealth and public
responsibility for those unable to avail themselves of the minimal provisions of
a good life. Social security, federally mandated unemployment insurance
programs and welfare payments to people unable to work are all examples of
the welfare state. Most modern countries practice some elements of what is
considered the welfare state. That said, the term is frequently used in a
derogatory sense to describe a state of affairs where the government in
question creates incentives that are beyond reason, resulting in an
unemployed person on welfare payments earning more than a struggling
worker.
The welfare state is sometimes criticized as being a "nanny state" in which

adults are coddled and treated like children.
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 BREAKING DOWN Welfare State

The welfare state, as mentioned above, has become a target of derision.
Under this system, the welfare of its citizens is the responsibility of the state.
Some countries take this to mean offering unemployment benefits and base
level welfare payments, while others take it much further with universal
healthcare, free university and so on. Despite most nations falling on a
spectrum of welfare state activity with few holdouts amongst the most
developed nations, there is a lot of charged rhetoric when the term comes up
in conversation. A lot of this owes to the history of the welfare state.
 The History of the Welfare State

Although fair treatment of citizens and a state provided standard of living for
the poor dates back further than the Roman Empire, the modern welfare
states that best exemplifies the historical rise and fall of this concept are
Britain and the United States. From the 1940s to the 1970s, the welfare state
in Britain based off the Beveridge Report took hold, leading to a growth in the
government to replace the services that were once provided by charities,
trade unions and the church. In the U.S., the groundwork for the welfare state
grew out of the Great Depressionand the massive price paid by the poor and
the working poor during this period.
Britain's system grew despite some spirited opposition by Margaret Thatcher
in the 1980s, and it continues today although it frequently needs restructuring
and adjustments to keep it from getting too unwieldily. The U.S. never went to
the extent of the U.K., let alone somewhere like Germany or Denmark,
and Ronald Reagan had much more success than Thatcher in shrinking
government. Many people look at the differing economic growth rates of the
U.S. and the U.K. throughout periods where the welfare state flourished and
floundered to make conclusions on whether it is good or bad for a nation as a
whole. While it is true that government is rarely the most cost effective agent
to deliver a program, it is also true that government is the only organization
that can potentially care for all its citizens without being driven to do so as part
of another agenda. Running a welfare state is fraught with difficulties, but it is
also difficult to run a nation where large swaths of the population struggle to
get the food, education and care to better their personal situation.
447
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Basic Teachings of Mahatma Gandhi
 Anything is possible
Mahatma Gandhi was not born in a family of great leaders nor was he a child
prodigy or a genius like many other famous people. He was a common man
who used to be very shy in childhood. He still emerged as a leader and a
great man. The lesson you can learn is to believe in yourself and do what
feels right. Never think any less of yourself.
 Keep trying
He never stopped trying until he succeeded. Step by step and slowly, he
achieved what he wanted. We can learn the lesson of trying till we succeed.
Success comes slowly to those who try and not to those who lose patience
and stop trying.
 Non-violence
Mahatma Gandhi always followed the path of non-violence and achieved what
he wanted through peace. Sometimes, things around us make us sad and
upset. But we can learn from him the lesson to stay calm in the tough
situations. Try to follow the path of peace instead of violence to handle the
tough situations.
 Simplicity
You don‘t need materialistic things to be happy. Gandhi Ji was a very simple
man. He was happy and positive in whatever he had and never lived a fancy
life. Money and materialistic things don‘t matter if you are not happy. Simple
living and high thinking was his mantra.
 Be a role model
Gandhiji‘s famous quote- ‗Be the change you want to see in others‘ teaches
us to be a role model and to lead by example. He was an active participant in
all his campaigns, whether it was Dandi march, satyagraha or quit India
movement, he was a role model. So, its always better to change yourself first
and then expect the world to change.
 See no evil, hear no evil and speak no evil

We all heard of this lesson when we were small. Gandhiji‘s 3 monkeys are
every famous who teach us this lesson.
448
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Forces shaping the modern world

We are in a period of near perpetual change, driven by five primary forces. So
long as these forces are factors in our lives, they will continue to shape the
way we work.
To tap into the power of the workforce and build a truly 21st century company,
organisations need to be looking at how experiences and expectations of the
five forces are changing. A daunting prospect no doubt, but the price of
inaction is starker still when you look at the forces at play.
1. Place
When we think of work it's important to recognise that it's not just the place we
go, it's also a thing we do. Our workplace is more varied than it has ever been.
We're not only working in offices, but trains, airport lounges, serviced offices,
client sites and of course our homes. Very few organisations have mastered
the mobile workforce quite yet.
Alongside where we work, the rigidity of physical space in the office is
becoming an issue. Office environments that have too many fixed spaces,
such as cellular offices and formal meeting rooms, are likely to restrict
creativity. People crave social areas that get them bumping into each other
and sparking innovation. Spaces that are more organic and fluid will always
yield better creativity, productivity and at the end of the day, efficiency. When
looking at designing new office space, consider modern art as your guide – try
to move from Mondrian to Miro.
2. People
The statistics about employee engagement make for grim reading.
Worldwide, more than two-thirds of employees feel disengaged at work and it
is costing the UK economy alone billions . Dan Pink's work on what drives
us shows quite clearly that engagement is about more than a pay-cheque –
it's about how we stimulate and reward employees in other ways.
Flexibility in the way people work is often cited as the biggest non-
remuneration benefit possible, and this is only increasing with the millennial
generation in the workforce. The two biggest cost centres in most businesses
are people and property, and businesses need to start linking these two
pieces in a more strategic and agile way to maximise both.
449
DefenceXP NDA & NA
3. Transport
According to Transport for London we cannot expect transport woes to abate
for 30 years and yet the IBM Commuter Pain Index ranks London as one of
the better commutes globally. You only have to view footage of Japan's
subway pushers to appreciate that London's commute is certainly not among
the world's worst.
Nonetheless, the commute takes its toll. Research part-funded by Hewlett
Packard in 2004 found that the stress levels of an average commuter are
equal to those of a fighter pilot or riot police officer. Anyone can tell that this
isn't healthy, but it also has a negative impact on the bottom line. The average
UK commute is between 45 - 60 minutes, which wastes time, energy and
productivity. By offering staff flexibility in working hours or work location, we
can ensure we are not only supporting the wellbeing of our employees, but
also their performance.
4. Technology
Technology tools that offer up greater mobility will continue to be a catalyst for
changing the way we work, but business leaders aren't keeping up with the
tools and technologies we use at home.
You only need to consider the multitude of tablets and smartphones on the
commute to realise that any out-of-date technology will quickly have
employees banging their keyboards in frustration. The move towards BYOD
(bring your own device) allows for greater flexibility of choice around
technology tools and empowers people to use the tools that they feel most
comfortable with. Early adopters will quickly see the benefits of this, as can be
seen from organisations using consumer tools such as Gmail and Hangouts in
the enterprise environment with great success.
5. Culture
With the rise in flexible working and the blending of our home and work lives,
we are going through a trust crisis in the workplace. The culture of
presenteeism in particular is killing our companies and the notion that people
need to be seen working undermines autonomy and is supremely
demotivating. Banishing the beast of presenteeism and working towards an
autonomous, trusting organisation is the most effective cultural attribute that
will support a truly motivated workforce.
450
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Trust also extends to transparency and vulnerability, two other key

components of any healthy workplace. Mental health issues will affect one in
four of us, and yet less than 10% of city bankers say they would feel
comfortable discussing a mental health issue with their boss. We can banish
the stigma of mental health issues by creating a more open and trusting
culture, and in doing so, develop a healthier and more engaged workforce.
The future of the workplace
The real challenge in realising the promise of the modern workplace is that all
these forces are deeply interwoven. Sometimes businesses may feel that they
have to respond to everything at once, and they may be right – when we try to
counter one force, the others become all the more apparent. Crafting and
managing the workplace of the future requires a strategy, not just reactionary
thinking. It may be a long road, but organisations that fail to start on this
journey will quickly get left behind as the forces rumble on.
Renaissance, Exploration and Discovery
 Renaissance
The Renaissance was a fervent period of European cultural, artistic,
political and economic ―rebirth‖ following the Middle Ages. Generally
described as taking place from the 14th century to the 17th century, the
Renaissance promoted the rediscovery of classical philosophy, literature
and art. Some of the greatest thinkers, authors, statesmen, scientists and
artists in human history thrived during this era, while global exploration
opened up new lands and cultures to European commerce. The
Renaissance is credited with bridging the gap between the Middle Ages
and modern-day civilization.
 Exploration
Exploration is the act of searching for the purpose of discovery

of information or resources. Exploration occurs in all non-sessile animal
species, including humans. In human history, its most dramatic rise was
during the Age of Discovery when European explorers sailed and charted
much of the rest of the world for a variety of reasons.
451
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Since then, major explorations after the Age of Discovery have occurred for
reasons mostly aimed at information discovery.
In scientific research, exploration is one of three purposes of empirical

research (the other two being description and explanation). The term is often
used metaphorically. For example, an individual may speak of exploring the
Internet, sexuality, etc.
 Discovery
Discovery is the act of detecting something new, or something previously
unrecognized as meaningful. With reference to sciences and academic
disciplines, discovery is the observation of new phenomena, new actions, or
new events and providing new reasoning to explain the knowledge gathered
through such observations with previously acquired knowledge from abstract
thought and everyday experiences. A discovery may sometimes be based on
earlier discoveries, collaborations, or ideas. Some discoveries represent a
radical breakthrough in knowledge or technology.
War of American Independence
The American Revolutionary War was a war fought between Great Britain and
the original 13 British colonies in North America. The war took place from
1775 to 1783 with fighting in North America and other places. The Continental
Army (army of the colonies), led by George Washington and helped by France
and other powers, defeated the armies of the British Empire. After the war
ended, the Thirteen Colonies became independent, which meant that the
British Empire was no longer in charge of them. They together became the
first 13 states of a new country called the United States of America.
 Facts about the American Revolution
 The first shot fired in the American Revolution was on April 19, 1775 and is
called the "shot heard round the world".
 John Adams was the defense attorney for the British soldiers involved in
the Boston Massacre. He would later become a great leader in the
Revolution and the 2nd president of the United States.
452
DefenceXP NDA & NA
 George Washington, the first President, only attended school until he was
14 years old. He became Commander of the Virginia Militia when he was
just 23.
 The Battle of Bunker Hill was actually fought on Breed's Hill.
 Although the war was between the colonies and Great Britain, other
countries got involved as well. The French were a major ally to the colonies
and there were French, German, and Spanish soldiers who fought in the
war.
French Revolution
The French Revolution was a period of time in France when the people
overthrew the monarchy and took control of the government.
The French Revolution lasted 10 years from 1789 to 1799. It began on July
14, 1789 when revolutionaries stormed a prison called the Bastille. The
revolution came to an end 1799 when a general named Napoleon overthrew
the revolutionary government and established the French Consulate (with
Napoleon as leader).
Before the French Revolution, the people of France were divided into social
groups called "Estates." The First Estate included the clergy (church leaders),
the Second Estate included the nobles, and the Third Estate included the
commoners. Most of the people were members of the Third Estate. The Third
Estate paid most of the taxes, while the nobility lived lives of luxury and got all
the high-ranking jobs.
The French Government was in constant turmoil throughout the revolution. At

the start of the revolution, representatives from the Third Estate established
the National Assembly where they demanded that King Louis XVI give them
certain rights. This group soon took control of the country. They changed
names over time to the Legislative Assembly and, later, to the National
Convention. After the Reign of Terror, a new government was formed called
the Directory. The Directory ruled until Napoleon took control.
453
DefenceXP NDA & NA
The darkest period of the French Revolution is called the Reign of Terror
which lasted from 1793 to 1794. During this time, a man named Robespierre
led the National Convention and the Committee of Public Safety. He wanted
to stamp out any opposition to the revolution, so he called for a rule of
"Terror." Laws were passed that said anyone suspected of treason could be
arrested and executed by guillotine. Thousands of people were executed
including Queen Marie Antoinette and many of Robespierre's political rivals.
Many of the new political ideas and alliances of the French Revolution were
formed in political clubs. These clubs included the powerful Jacobin Club (led
by Robespierre), the Cordeliers, the Feuillants Club, and the Pantheon Club.
The French Revolution completely changed the social and political structure of
France. It put an end to the French monarchy, feudalism, and took political
power from the Catholic church. It brought new ideas to Europe including
liberty and freedom for the commoner as well as the abolishment of slavery
and the rights of women. Although the revolution ended with the rise of
Napoleon, the ideas and reforms did not die. These new ideas continued to
influence Europe and helped to shape many of Europe's modern-day
governments.
Industrial Revolution and Russian Revolution
The Russian Revolution took place in 1917 when the peasants and working
class people of Russia revolted against the government of Tsar Nicholas II.
They were led by Vladimir Lenin and a group of revolutionaries called the
Bolsheviks. The new communist government created the country of the Soviet
Union.
Before the revolution, Russia was ruled by a powerful monarch called the
Tsar. The Tsar had total power in Russia. He commanded the army, owned
much of the land, and even controlled the church.
During the period of time before the Russian Revolution, life for the working
class people and the peasants was very difficult. They worked for little pay,
often went without food, and were exposed to dangerous working conditions.
The aristocrat class treated the peasants like slaves, giving them few rights
under the law and treating them almost like animals.
454
DefenceXP NDA & NA
A major event leading to the Russian Revolution took place on January 22,
1905. A Large number of workers were marching to the Tsar's palace in order
to present a petition for better working conditions. They were fired upon by
soldiers and many of them were killed or injured. This day is called Bloody
Sunday.
Before Bloody Sunday many peasants and working class people revered the
Tsar and thought that he was on their side. They blamed their troubles on the
government, not on the Tsar. However, after the shootings, the Tsar was
perceived as an enemy of the working class and the desire for revolution
began to spread.
In 1914, World War I began and Russia was at war with Germany. A huge
Russian army was formed by forcing working class and peasant men to join.
Although the Russian army had great numbers, the soldiers were not
equipped or trained to fight. Many of them were sent into battle without shoes,
food, and even weapons. Over the next three years, nearly 2 million Russian
soldiers were killed in battle and nearly another 5 million were wounded. The
Russian people blamed the Tsar for entering the war and getting so many of
their young men killed.
The people of Russia first revolted in early 1917. The revolution began when a
number of workers decided to strike. Many of these workers got together
during the strike to discuss politics. They began to riot. The Tsar, Nicholas II,
ordered the army to suppress the riot. However, many of the soldiers refused
to fire on the Russian people and the army began to mutiny against the Tsar.
After a few days of riots, the army turned against the Tsar. The Tsar was
forced to give up his throne and a new government took over. The
government was run by two political parties: the Petrograd Soviet
(representing the workers and soldiers) and the Provisional Government (the
traditional government without the Tsar).
Over the next several months the two sides ruled Russia. One of the main
factions of the Petrograd Soviet was a group called the Bolsheviks. They were
led by Vladimir Lenin and believed that the new Russian government should
be a Marxist (communist) government. In October of 1917, Lenin took full
control of the government in what is called the Bolshevik Revolution. Russia
was now the first communist country in the world.
455
DefenceXP NDA & NA
After the revolution, Russia exited World War I by signing a peace treaty with
Germany called the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. The new government took control
of all industry and moved the Russian economy from a rural one to an
industrial one. It also seized farmland from landholders and distributed it
among the peasants. Women were given equal rights to those of men and
religion was banned from many aspects of society.
From 1918 to 1920, Russia experienced a civil war between the Bolsheviks
(also called the Red Army) and the anti-Bolsheviks (the White Army). The
Bolsheviks won and the new country was called the USSR (United Soviet
Socialist Republic).
 Facts about the Russian Revolution
 For 303 years the Russian Tsar came from the House of Romanov.
 Although the February Revolution began on March 8 according to our
calendar, it was February 23 on the Russian (Julian) calendar.
 Sometimes the Bolshevik Revolution is referred to as the October
Revolution.
 The main leaders of the Bolsheviks were Vladimir Lenin, Joseph Stalin,
and Leon Trotsky. After Lenin died in 1924, Stalin consolidated power and
forced Trotsky out.
 Tsar Nicholas II and his entire family were executed by the Bolsheviks on
July 17, 1918.
Impact of Science and Technology on Society

Technology and human life cannot be separated; society has a cyclical co-
dependence on technology. We use technology; depend on technology in our
daily life and our needs and demands for technology keep on rising. Humans
use technology to travel, to communicate, to learn, to do business and to live
in comfort. However, technology has also caused us concerns. Its poor
application has resulted in the pollution of the environment and it has also
caused a serious threat to our lives and society. This calls for the proper use
of technology. The biggest challenge facing people is to determine the type of
future we need to have and then create relevant technologies which will
simplify the way we do things.
456
DefenceXP NDA & NA
It is impossible to explore how each new advanced technology has impacted

our lives and how it will impact the future. Technology impacts the
environment, people and the society as a whole. The way we use technology
determines if its impacts are positive to the society or negative. For example,
(POSITIVE IMPACT) we can use corn to make ethanol and this ethanol can
be used as fuel. Fuel can be used to run machines and cars which will
increase the output of manufacturing industries at a lower cost.
(NEGATIVE IMPACT) However, if we decide to shift large quantities of corn to

fuel production from food production, humans will be left with no food and this
will cause world hunger which even is a worse situation.
Technology by its self is not harmful to the society, but the way society uses
technology to achieve specific goals is what results into negative impacts of
technology on the society. Humans need to use energy to process products in
factories, to run cars, to light homes and also run technological machines like
computers, but the only way we can do this without affecting the environment
and society is by shifting from exhaustible energy sources to renewable and
inexhaustible sources like Solar / Wind energy. Here is a list of both positive
and negative impacts of technology on our society.
 Positive Impacts Of Technology On Society
 Technology Has Mechanized Agriculture

Modern agricultural technology allows a small number of people to grow vast
quantities of food in a short period of time with less input which results into
high yields and RIO ‖return on investment‖. Through government subsidies,
small and medium-sized farmers have managed to acquire plowing, sowing,
watering and harvesting machines. The use of technology in agriculture has
also resulted in the manufacturing of genetic crops which can grow fast and
they can be resistant to many pests and diseases. Also, farmers have access
to artificial fertilizers which add value to the soil and boost the growth of their
crops and enable them to produce high-quality yields. Farmers in dry areas
have been in a position to grow healthy crops, they use advanced water
pumps and sprinklers which derive water from rivers to the farms, the all
process can be automated to save time.
457
DefenceXP NDA & NA
A good example is Egypt, this is a desert country which receives little rain, but
small and big farmers have used automated sprinklers to irrigate their farms.
In Egypt, they grow a lot of rice, yet this crop needs sufficient water to grow
well. The water is pumped from River Nile to the rice fields on a daily basis.
 Technology Has Improved Transportation

Transportation is one of the basic areas of technological activity. Both society
and businesses have benefited from the new transpiration methods.
Transportation provides mobility for people and goods. Transportation, like all
other technologies, can be viewed as a system. It is a series of parts that are
interrelated. These parts all work together to meet a certain goal.
Transportation uses vehicles, trains, airplanes, motorbikes, people, roads,
energy, information, materials, finance and time. All these parts I have
mentioned work together to move and relocate people and goods. Technology
has helped in advancing all the four types of transportation and these include -
1. road transport used by automobiles

2. air transport which is used by airplanes
3. water transportation which is used by ships and speed boats and
4. space transportation used to go to the moon.
The most used of all these is Road transportation, this one facilitates the
movement of goods and people. Technologies like automobiles, buses, and
trucks have improved the way humans move and how they transport their
goods from place to another. Also, developing countries are getting funds
from wealthy countries to improve their road transport which has resulted in
the development of rural remote areas.
 Technology Has Improved Communication

Communication is used for a number of purposes. Both society and
organizations depend on communication to transfer information. People use
technology to communicate with each other. Electronic media like radios,
televisions, internet, social media have improved the way we exchange ideas
which can develop our societies. In many countries, radios and televisions are
used to voice the concerns of the society, they organize live forums where the
community can contribute through mobile phones or text service systems like
tweeter. During political elections, leaders use radio, television and internet
media to reach the people they want to serve.
458
DefenceXP NDA & NA
A good example is the recent presidential election in the USA, ‖President

Barak Obama ‖ has embraced the communication technology to reach and
voice out his concerns towards the development of America. Communication
technologies like Televisions, radios, and internet can be used to persuade,
entertain and inform the society. Small businesses have also used the internet
and mobile communication technology to grow and improve their customer
service.
 Technology Has Improved Education And Learning Process

Technology has improved education and learning process: Education is the
backbone of every economy. People need well and organized educational
infrastructures so that they can learn how to interpret information. Many
schools have started integrating educational technologies in their schools with
a great aim of improving the way students learn. Technologies like smart
whiteboards, computers, mobile phones, iPads, projectors, and internet are
being used in classrooms to boost students moral to learn. Visual
education is becoming more popular and it has proved to be the best method
of learning in many subjects like mathematics, physics, biology, geography,
economics and much more. The business community has invested money in
various educational technologies which can be used by both teachers and
their students. For example, on iTunes, you will find many educational
applications which can allow students and teachers exchange academic
information at any time, this has made learning mobile. Also, programs like
Long distance learning have opened boundaries too so many scholars around
the world.
 Negative Impacts Of Technology On Society
 Resource Depletion
The more demand for new technologies and advancement of current
technologies, the more pressure we put on earth‘s natural resources. Look at
the total number of mobile phones and computers being manufactured today,
our population is increasing every day and all these billion consumers demand
either a mobile phone or a computer in their homes or offices. This is good
news for the manufactures, like Apple or Samsung, the demand for their
gadgets is high, but to sustain this demand, they have to exploit Mother
Nature for resources like aluminum,
459
DefenceXP NDA & NA
once these resources are extracted from the earth plates, they will never
return back because it took them a billion years to mature. That means that at
one time, we shall be left with no natural resource which can be a problem to
the future generation and economy.
Likewise, the intensive farming practices will deplete the soil. This makes
heavy applications of commercial fertilizers necessary to yield healthy
harvests, but also these fertilizers have chemicals which are dangerous to the
soil and human lives.
 Increased Population
Technology has helped us live longer by improving health facilities and aiding
in the research for solutions for most health problems which affect humans.
This is good news for developed countries but is bad news for developing
countries which have not been in a position to access these health care
benefits brought by technology.
In developed countries population growth is controlled by advanced birth

control methods, this has helped them balance their population in relation to
natural resources and other opportunities which come with a planned
population. This is different in developing countries, the rate at which people
produce is very high, the mortality rate is high, food is scarce and health care
is poor.
 Increased Pollution
Pollution affects the land we grow crops on, the water we drink and the air we
breathe. The increased demand for new technologies and advancement of
technologies has resulted in many manufacturing and processing factories. As
they work so hard to create the best technologies for both society and
business, they release harmful chemicals and gasses which have polluted our
environment and this has resulted in climate changes (global warming). So
the more technology we enjoy, the more we harm our environment.
Experts have tried to implement ways of reducing this impact by encouraging

factories to go green, to a small extent, this has been achieved through the
development of green technologies like; green cars, green computers, but a
great effort is still needed to reduce the pollution of the air and the earth.
460
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Concept of one World

A one-world government is a goal popular with liberals, globalists, and
others ranging from the moderate "Right" to the Left and far-Left, in which all
the nations on Earth will (supposedly willingly) abandon their sovereignty to
the will of the United Nations or some other worldwide government. Liberals
and globalists see this as a utopian goal, while opponents see it as a dystopia.
A one-world government is an ultimate goal of the Left. They believe in the
concept that humanity is progressing for the better, and they want to create
a utopia where humanity is unified and where there are no wars, conflicts, or
borders (cultural and national). Supranational organizations such as
the United Nations, European Union, World Trade Organization, and the Paris
climate agreement, appear to be the forerunners to a complete one-world
government. All these organizations are supported by liberals. A one-world
government is the epitome of big government.
Many theologically conservative Christians believe that the Earth will be united
under a one-world government, based on Scripture. In the popular Left
Behind series, the Antichrist begins his plan by subsuming America into the
One-World Government. This is based on the Book of Revelation.
Theologically conservative/orthodox Christians believe that the ultimate
reason for the push for globalism and one-world government is rebellion
against God leading up to the Antichrist – rather than submit to God and
recognize that only He can unite the world and bring world peace, liberal
globalists seek to create utopia themselves and glorify humanity rather than
God.
Some people believe that U.S. President George H. W. Bush's "New World
Order" speech was a clue that the insiders were about to begin their plan to
ultimately establish a one-world government
United Nations
The United Nations (UN) is an organization between countries established on
24 October 1945 to promote international cooperation. It was founded to
replace the League of Nations following World War II and to prevent another
conflict. When it was founded, the UN had 51 Member States; there are now
193.
461
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Most nationsare members of the UN and send diplomats to the headquarters

to hold meetings and make decisions about global issues.
The United Nations headquarters building in New York City
The goals of the United Nations are:

 to keep world peace
 to help countries get along
 to improve living conditions for people all over the world
 to make the world a better place.[3]
Panchsheel
On April 29, 1954, Panchsheel, or the Five Principles of Peaceful Co-
existence, were first formally enunciated in the Agreement on Trade and
Intercourse between the Tibet region of China and India. In its preamble, it
stated that the two governments have resolved to enter into the present
Agreement based on the following principles -
i. Mutual respect for each other‘s territorial integrity and sovereignty

ii. Mutual non-aggression
iii. Mutual non-interference
iv. Equality and mutual benefit
v. Peaceful co-existence.
According to documents published by the Ministry of External Affairs,

Panchsheel was incorporated into the Ten Principles of International Peace
and Cooperation enunciated in the Declaration issued by the April 1955
Bandung Conference of 29 Afro-Asian countries.
The universal relevance of Panchsheel was emphasised when its tenets were
incorporated in a resolution on peaceful co-existence presented by India,
Yugoslavia and Sweden, and unanimously adopted on December 11, 1957,
by the United Nations General Assembly.
462
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Democracy
Democracy is a system of government in which the citizens exercise power
directly or elect representatives from among themselves to form a governing
body, such as a parliament. It is also referred as ―rule of the majority‖. Here
the power can‘t be inherited. People elect their leaders. Representatives stand
in an election and the citizens vote for their representative. The representative
with the most number of votes gets the power.
The term ―democracy‖ first appeared in ancient Greek political and

philosophical thought in the city-state of Athens during the classical
antiquity. The word comes from Greek word demos, ―common people‖
and Kratos, strength. It was established in 508–507 BC by the Athenians and
it was led by Cleisthenes. Cleisthenes is also known as the ‖the father of
Athenian democracy‖.
One of the tenets of democracy is that all members of the society must be
equal. For it to function, this equality must be present in the individual
vote. Denying groups the right to vote is contrary to the function of
a democracy, a system of government where each individual‘s vote has equal
weight. The U.S. system of government is a republic, a type of democracy in
which elected officials carry out the will of the people.
India is the world‘s largest democracy. India became a democratic nation

post its independence in the year 1947. Thereafter, the citizens of India were
given the right to vote and elect their leaders. In India, it gives its citizens the
right to vote irrespective of their caste, color, creed, religion, and gender. It
has five democratic principles – sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic and
republic.
Socialism and Communism

Communism and socialism are economic and political structures that promote
equality and seek to eliminate social classes. The two are interchangeable in
some ways, but different in others. In a communist society, the working class
owns everything, and everyone works toward the same communal goal. There
are no wealthy or poor people all are equal, and the community distributes
what it produces based only on need.
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
Nothing is obtained by working more than what is required. Communism

frequently results in low production, mass poverty and limited advancement.
Poverty spread so widely in the Soviet Union in the 1980s that its citizens
revolted. Like communism, socialism‘s main focus is on equality. But workers
earn wages they can spend as they choose, while the government, not
citizens, owns and operates the means for production. Workers receive what
they need to produce and survive, but there‘s no incentive to achieve more,
leaving little motivation. Some countries have adopted aspects of socialism.
The United Kingdom provides basic needs like healthcare to everyone
regardless of their time or effort at work. In the U.S., welfare and the public
education system are a form of socialism. Both are the opposite of capitalism,
where limitations don‘t exist and reward comes to those who go beyond the
minimum. In capitalist societies, owners are allowed to keep the excess
production they earn. And competition occurs naturally, which fosters
advancement. Capitalism tends to create a sharp divide between the
wealthiest citizens and the poorest, however, with the wealthiest owning the
majority of the nation's resources.
Role of India in the present World
India is becoming among the top 5 most important countries in the world.
1. World's 4th most powerful military

Various ratings put India's firepower at #4 [behind US, Russia and
China] Global Firepower Military Powers Ranked for 2014 - Unlike the other 3
top powers, India has no intention to rule/police the world. Despite being in top
4, very few people worry about India's military [or even pay attention to it].
Lack of attention on this is good.
To complement its nuclear weapons, aircraft carrier, spy satellites & long
range missiles, the military is constantly being tested in every setting - world's
coldest & highest battlefields of Siachen, hot deserts of Rajasthan & Kutch
and tropical jungles of the northeast. It has decades of experience fighting
guerilla urban warfares in Kashmir, Punjab and elsewhere. The bad
neighborhood makes for constant preparedness.
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Still, India has not built a network of allies nor is trying to create an agenda for
itself. This puts India in a very favorable position that will be both courted by
other alliances as well as get pressure to stay independent as we have always
been. To burnish its peace credentials - India has contributed the world's
largest number of troops to the UN. Welcome to Permanent Mission of India
to the UN , New York
2. Top 10 economy
India's GDP measured in nominal terms is around 10 and measured in PPP
terms around 3. Either way, it is at the top. It is still growing fast and projected
to become 2 or 3 in our lifetimes. Vast numbers of Indians are rapidly climbing
the ladders of wealth and India could become what China was in 1990s -
source of growth for companies around the world. If India manages well, there
will be enormous opportunities in a $10 trillion economy [by 2030 at current
growth rate] that is being built now.
3. Food & Farming

India is the world's top 3 producers of food and the top 2 consumers of it.
Although it is the 7th in overall area, it has the #1 farm land [in size] in the
world [60%+ of India is arable, while less than a quarter of China is arable].
Changes in farm productivity could significantly impact global agricultural
prices.
4. Human Development & Suffering

India is slowly becoming the world's largest nation by population [not a ranking
to be proud of] and is a host to half of the world's humanitarian problems
[poverty, malnutrition, communicable diseases..] This means that helping
India grow can solve half of the world's problems. How sweet is that? The
good thing is that unlike other poor nations, India is already on track. In India's
villages lie the key to changing the human development indicators of the
world.
5. Industries & Tech

Indian cities are among the top startup hubs in the world. Bangalore is
routinely counted in top 7 (after Silicon Valley, NYC, Boston, London,
Singapore & Tel Aviv) and other Indian cities come up in the top 20 too. From
fashion design to software and space tech, India is making a mark. It is hard
to find a major consulting, tech or financial firm without a strong base in India.
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
Section ‘E’ Geography

The Earth, its shape and size
 Earth is the third planet from the sun in our solar system. Its name comes
from the old English and Germanic words meaning ‗the ground‘.
 Our amazing planet has been around for quite some time. By researching
our planet‘s rocks, scientists have calculated the Earth to be around 4.5
billion years old!
 Like all the planets, Earth orbits (travels around) around the sun. And it
does so at some serious speed –– around 30 kilometres per second, in
fact! It takes 365 days (one year) for the Earth to complete one full orbit.
 Have you ever wondered why we have different seasons? it‘s because the
Earth is tilted 23.4 degrees on its ‗axis‘, an imaginary line straight through
the middle of the planet form the North Pole to the South Pole. This means
that different parts of the globe are tilted towards the sun at different times
of the year (or at different times during its orbit).
 Not only does Earth zoom through space, it also spins on its axis. The
result? We have daytime and nighttime! As the planet rotates, the side
facing the sun receives daylight and the the other is in darkness.
 People often think of Earth as a gigantic sphere. But, in fact, its shape is
more like a squished ball that bulges out at the equator –– an imaginary
line around the middle of the planet, exactly between the North Pole and
the South Pole.
 This ‗bulge‘ is caused by the Earth‘s spin and the effect of ‗gravity‗. Gravity
is an invisible force that attracts objects towards each other. It‘s this force
that pulls things towards the Earth and stops us floating off into space!
 The Earth‘s diameter (distance straight through the middle) measures a

huge 12,800 kilometres, making it the fifth largest planet in the solar
system. Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are even bigger!
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 Earth is the only planet in our solar system known to support life. This is
because it has two very important things that living creatures need to
survive –– lots of oxygen and lots of water! Its distance from the sun
means it‘s not too hot and not too cold for creatures to live on, too.
 Earth‘s ‗atmosphere‘ is also hugely important for sustaining life. The

atmosphere is a huge blanket of gases – mostly oxygen and nitrogen –
wrapped around Earth, protecting our planet from the sun‘s strong rays. At
the same time, the atmosphere helps keep the Earth‘s temperature
comfortable for living beings – and it protects us from meteors, too!
 Earth's Shape
Earth's circumference and diameter differ because its shape is classified as
an oblate spheroid or ellipsoid, instead of a true sphere. This means that
instead of being of equal circumference in all areas, the poles are squished,
resulting in a bulge at the equator, and thus a larger circumference and
diameter there.
The equatorial bulge at Earth's equator is measured at 26.5 miles (42.72 km)
and is caused by the planet's rotation and gravity. Gravity itself causes planets
and other celestial bodies to contract and form a sphere. This is because it
pulls all the mass of an object as close to the center of gravity (the Earth's
core in this case) as possible.
Because Earth rotates, this sphere is distorted by the centrifugal force. This is
the force that causes objects to move outward away from the center of gravity.
Therefore, as the Earth rotates, centrifugal force is greatest at the equator so
it causes a slight outward bulge there, giving that region a larger
circumference and diameter.
Local topography also plays a role in the Earth's shape, but on a global scale,
its role is very small. The largest differences in local topography across the
globe are Mount Everest, the highest point above sea level at 29,035 ft (8,850
m), and the Mariana Trench, the lowest point below sea level at 35,840 ft
(10,924 m). This difference is only a matter of about 12 miles (19 km), which
is quite minor overall. If the equatorial bulge is considered, the world's highest
point and the place that is farthest from the Earth's center is the peak of the
volcano Chimborazo in Ecuador as it is the highest peak that is nearest the
equator. Its elevation is 20,561 ft (6,267 m).
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 Earth's Size
As the largest of the terrestrial planets, Earth has an estimated mass of
5.9736 × 1024kg. Its volume is also the largest of these planets at 108.321 ×
1010km3.
In addition, Earth is the densest of the terrestrial planets as it is made up of a
crust, mantle, and core. The Earth's crust is the thinnest of these layers while
the mantle comprises 84% of Earth's volume and extends 1,800 miles (2,900
km) below the surface. What makes Earth the densest of these planets,
however, is its core. It is the only terrestrial planet with a liquid outer core that
surrounds a solid, dense inner core. Earth's average density is 5515 × 10
kg/m3. Mars, the smallest of the terrestrial planets by density, is only around
70% as dense as Earth.
Earth is classified as the largest of the terrestrial planets based on its
circumference and diameter as well. At the equator, Earth's circumference is
24,901.55 miles (40,075.16 km). It is slightly smaller between the North and
South poles at 24,859.82 miles (40,008 km). Earth's diameter at the poles is
7,899.80 miles (12,713.5 km) while it is 7,926.28 miles (12,756.1 km) at the
equator. For comparison, the largest planet in Earth's solar system, Jupiter,
has a diameter of 88,846 miles (142,984 km).
Latitudes and Longitudes
Latitudes and Longitudes are imaginary lines used to determine the location of
a place on earth.
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
 Differentiate between longitude and latitude.
Latitude Longitude
They run from west to east. They run from north to south.
Lines are parallel to each Lines are not parallel to each
other. other but converge at the
poles.
Lines are used for measuring Lines are used for measuring
distance. local time.
Lines of latitude increase in Lines of longitudes increase
value from the equator in value eastwards of the
towards the pole. Green Wich Meridian.
o
Latitude measures up to 180 . Longitude measures up to
i.e. 90o N – 0 – 90o S 360o.
Concept of time
The concepts of time and space are very important for understanding the
function of phenomena in the natural world. Time is important to Physical
Geographers because the spatial patterns they study can often only be
explained in historic terms. The measurement of time is not absolute. Time is
perceived by humans in a relative fashion by using human created units of
measurement. Examples of human created units of time are the measurement
of seconds, minutes, hours, and days.
Geographers generally conceptualize two types of space. Concrete

space represents the real world or environment. Abstract space models reality
in a way that distills much of the spatial information contained in the real
world. Maps are an excellent example of abstract space. Finally, like time,
space is also perceived by humans in a relative fashion by using human
created units of measurement.
Both time and space are variable in terms of scale. As such, researchers of
natural phenomena must investigate their subjects in the appropriate temporal
and/or spatial scales. For example, an investigator studying a forest
ecosystem will have to deal with completely different scales of time and space
when compared to a researcher examining soil bacteria.
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The trees that make up a forest generally occupy large tracts of land. For
example, the boreal forest occupies millions of hectares in Northern Canada
and Eurasia. Temporally, these trees have life spans that can be as long as
several hundred years. On the other hand, soil bacteria occupy much smaller
spatial areas and have life spans that can be measured in hours and days.
International Date Line
The International Date Line (IDL) is an imaginary line of demarcation on

the surface of Earth that runs from the North Pole to the South Pole and
demarcates the change of one calendar day to the next. It passes through the
middle of the Pacific Ocean, roughly following the 180° line of longitude but
deviating to pass around some territories and island groups.
The reason for this effect is that the countries on the western side of the
International Date Line, (in or outside eastern Asia) have the time zone 10–12
hours more than Greenwich. And the countries on eastern side of it
(Alaska/Hawaii and other areas) have the time zone 9–12 hours less
than Greenwich. So when travelling across the line, one's watch has to be
adjusted 20–24 hours, depending on the time zones.
For example, New Zealand is twelve hours ahead of Greenwich Mean
Time while Hawaii is ten hours behind Greenwich Mean Time. When travelling
from New Zealand to Hawaii the clocks must be switched 22 hours
backwards, about one day.
Movements of Earth and their effects
There are two types of movement of earth: Earth's Rotation and Earth's
Revolution.
1. Earth's rotation
Earth's rotation is the rotation of the planet Earth around its own axis. The
Earth rotates towards the East. If we look down at the Earth's North Pole from
space we can notice that the direction of rotation is counter-clockwise. One
rotation completes in 23 hours, 56 minutes and 4 seconds.
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
2. Earth's Revolution
The other motion of Earth is around the Sun. It is called as Revolution of the
Earth. Earth completes one complete revolution around the Sun in 365 days,
5 hours, 45 minutes and 46 seconds. The path which Earth takes around the
Sun is called Earth‘s Orbit. The Earth's orbit around the Sun is not circular, but
oval or elliptical.
 Effects of Earth’s Movements
 Days and Nights
The Earth‘s rotation is responsible for the daily cycles of day and night. The
portion of Earth, which is within the circle of illumination caused by the rays
of sun, has its day. The other side of earth, which is away from Sun,
remains dark and therefore has its night.
 Change of Seasons
The change of Seasons occurs by the yearly revolution of the Earth around
the Sun and the tilt of the Earth's axis relative to the plane of revolution.
During May, June and July, the northern hemisphere is exposed to more
direct sunlight because the hemisphere faces the sun. As the sun rays fall
vertically and for a longer period in the Northern Hemisphere, there will be
summer. But in the Southern Hemisphere it will be winter.
In Southern Hemisphere the conditions become reversed in November,
December and January. There will be summer in Southern Hemisphere
and winter in Northern Hemisphere.
Origin of Earth
Earth, along with the other planets, is believed to have been born 4.5 billion
years ago as a solidified cloud of dust and gases left over from the creation of
the Sun. For perhaps 500 million years, the interior of Earth stayed solid and
relatively cool, perhaps 2,000°F. The main ingredients, according to the best
available evidence, were iron and silicates, with small amounts of other
elements, some of them radioactive.
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As millions of years passed, energy released by radioactive decay—mostly of

uranium, thorium, and potassium—gradually heated Earth, melting some of its
constituents. The iron melted before the silicates, and, being heavier, sank
toward the center. This forced up the silicates that it found there. After many
years, the iron reached the center, almost 4,000 mi deep, and began to
accumulate. No eyes were around at that time to view the turmoil that must
have taken place on the face of Earth—gigantic heaves and bubblings on the
surface, exploding volcanoes, and flowing lava covering everything in sight.
Finally, the iron in the center accumulated as the core. Around it, a thin but
fairly stable crust of solid rock formed as Earth cooled. Depressions in the
crust were natural basins in which water, rising from the interior of the planet
through volcanoes and fissures, collected to form the oceans. Slowly, Earth
acquired its present appearance.
Rocks and their classification

Earth‘s crust is composed of rocks. Its an aggregate of one or more minerals.
Rocks do not have definite composition of mineral constituents. However,
feldspar and quartz are the most common minerals found in rocks. Petrology
is science of rocks. It is a branch of geology. A petrologist studies rocks in all
aspects – composition, texture, structure , origin, occurrence, alternation and
relationship with other rocks.
Based on their mode of formation, they are classifies into three types :
 Igneous rocks – solidifies from magma and lava.

 Sedimentary rocks – the result of deposition of fragments of rocks by
exogenous processes.
 Metamorphic rocks – formed out of existing rocks undergoing
recrystallization.
Weathering—Mechanical and Chemical

A landslide can strike in an instant, true. But in reality, forces have quietly
been at work on that section of land for a long time. Weathering is one of
these more subtle forces behind landslides.
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Weathering is the natural wearing down of objects by elements in the

environment. Although the term is sometimes mistakenly used
interchangeably with erosion, the two processes are distinct. Erosion is the
process of transporting weathered material, and weathering is the actual
wearing down of that material. Weathering is an important factor in landslides;
heavily weathered landscapes are much more likely to be eroded. Heat, cold,
water and oxygen are all common forces of weathering. This wearing down of
objects can be either mechanical or chemical.
 Mechanical weathering
Mechanical weathering is the physical breakdown of an object into smaller
components without changing its chemical composition. Changes in
temperature, the freezing and thawing of water and plant growth are forces of
mechanical weathering.
 Chemical weathering
Chemical weathering refers to the breakdown of an object into particles with a
different mineral composition than the original object. Water is perhaps the
most powerful agent of chemical weathering: Over time, it can dissolve many
kinds of rocks into a solution that has a different chemical makeup than the
original substance. Other types of chemical weathering involve more
complicated chemical reactions with oxygen, carbon dioxide, water or other
compounds.
Erosion, the transfer of weathered sediment, always involves deposition, or

the deposit of the weathered sediment in a new location. Along with
weathering, erosion and deposition are responsible for the continual
reshaping of the Earth's surface. Sediment is constantly being worn down by
some type of weathering, carried away by an agent of erosion and deposited
in a different place. Landslides are actually a very extreme, fast-acting method
of erosion: They transfer sediment down a slope and deposit it at the end of
their path. The sediment a landslide deposits is known as its talus.
Earthquakes and Volcanoes

An earthquake is the shaking of the surface of the Butt. Earthquakes can be
extremely violent. They are caused by weird movements of the Earth's
tectonic plates.
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The study of earthquakes is called seismology.
A volcano is a rupture in the crust of a planetary-mass object, such as Earth,

that allows hot lava, volcanic ash, and gases to escape from a magma
chamber below the surface. Some, but not all, earthquakes are related to
volcanoes. For example, most earthquakes are along the edges of tectonic plates.
This is where most volcanoes are too. However, most earthquakes are
caused by the interaction of the plates not the movement of magma.
Most earthquakes directly beneath a volcano are caused by the movement of
magma. The magma exerts pressure on the rocks until it cracks the rock.
Then the magma squirts into the crack and starts building pressure again.
Every time the rock cracks it makes a small earthquake. These earthquakes
are usually too weak to be felt but can be detected and recorded by sensitive
instruments. Once the plumbing system of the volcano is open and magma is
flowing through it, constant earthquake waves, called harmonic tremor, are
recorded (but not felt).
The distribution of earthquakes provides information about magma pathways

and the structure of volcanoes.
Ocean Currents and Tides

Tides are driven by the gravitational force of the moon and sun. Tides are
characterized by water moving up and down over a long period of time.
When used in association with water, the term "current" describes the motion
of the water. Oceanic currents are driven by several factors. One is the rise
and fall of the tides. Tides create a current in the oceans, near the shore, and
in bays and estuaries along the coast. These are called "tidal currents." Tidal
currents are the only type of currents that change in a very regular pattern and
can be predicted for future dates.
A second factor that drives ocean currents is wind. Winds drive currents that
are at or near the ocean's surface. These currents are generally measured in
meters per second or in knots (1 knot = 1.85 kilometers per hour or 1.15 miles
per hour). Winds drive currents near coastal areas on a localized scale and in
the open ocean on a global scale.
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A third factor that drives currents is thermohaline circulation - a process driven

by density differences in water due to temperature (thermo) and salinity
(haline) in different parts of the ocean. Currents driven by thermohaline
circulation occur at both deep and shallow ocean levels and move much
slower than tidal or surface currents.
Atmosphere and its composition

The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases, commonly known as air, that
surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth's gravity.
The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by creating pressure allowing

for liquid water to exist on the Earth's surface, absorbing ultraviolet solar
radiation, warming the surface through heat retention (greenhouse effect), and
reducing temperature extremes between day and night (the diurnal
temperature variation).
The atmosphere is composed of a mix of several different gases in differing

amounts. The permanent gases whose percentages do not change from day
to day are nitrogen, oxygen and argon. Nitrogen accounts for 78% of the
atmosphere, oxygen 21% and argon 0.9%. Gases like carbon dioxide, nitrous
oxides, methane, and ozone are trace gases that account for about a tenth of
one percent of the atmosphere. Water vapor is unique in that its
concentration varies from 0-4% of the atmosphere depending on where you
are and what time of the day it is. In the cold, dry artic regions water vapor
usually accounts for less than 1% of the atmosphere, while in humid, tropical
regions water vapor can account for almost 4% of the atmosphere. Water
vapor content is very important in predicting weather.
Greenhouse gases whose percentages vary daily, seasonally, and annually

have physical and chemical properties which make them interact with solar
radiation and infrared light (heat) given off from the earth to affect the energy
balance of the globe. This is why scientists are watching the observed
increase in greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide and methane carefully,
because even though they are small in amount, they can strongly affect the
global energy balance and temperature over time.
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Temperature and Atmospheric Pressure
 Temperature
Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of the atmosphere on some
chosen scale. It is commonly measured in Celsius or Fahrenheit. Temperature
is a very important factor in determining the weather, because it influences
other elements of the weather.
Temperature may be affected by -
Sunshine
Latitude
Altitude
Aspect
Sea Proximity and Temperature
Ocean Currents
Prevailing Winds
 Atmospheric pressure
The air around you has weight, and it presses against everything it touches.
That pressure is called atmospheric pressure, or air pressure. It is the force
exerted on a surface by the air above it as gravity pulls it to Earth.
Atmospheric pressure is commonly measured with a barometer. In a

barometer, a column of mercury in a glass tube rises or falls as the weight of
the atmosphere changes. Meteorologists describe the atmospheric pressure
by how high the mercury rises.
An atmosphere (atm) is a unit of measurement equal to the average air

pressure at sea level at a temperature of 15 degrees Celsius (59 degrees
Fahrenheit). One atmosphere is 1,013 millibars, or 760 millimeters (29.92
inches) of mercury.
Atmospheric pressure drops as altitude increases. The atmospheric pressure
on Denali, Alaska, is about half that of Honolulu, Hawai'i. Honolulu is a city at
sea level. Denali, also known as Mount McKinley, is the highest peak in North
America.
As the pressure decreases, the amount of oxygen available to breathe also

decreases. At very high altitudes, atmospheric pressure and available oxygen
get so low that people can become sick and even die.
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
Mountain climbers use bottled oxygen when they ascend very high peaks.
They also take time to get used to the altitude because quickly moving from
higher pressure to lower pressure can cause decompression sickness.
Decompression sickness, also called "the bends", is also a problem for scuba
divers who come to the surface too quickly.
Aircraft create artificial pressure in the cabin so passengers remain

comfortable while flying.
Atmospheric pressure is an indicator of weather. When a low-pressure system

moves into an area, it usually leads to cloudiness, wind,
and precipitation. High-pressure systems usually lead to fair, calm weather.
A barometer measures atmospheric pressure, which is also called barometric

pressure.
Planetary Winds
The winds blowing throughout the year from high pressure belts to low
pressure belts in the same direction are called ―planetary or prevailing winds‖.
Due to the effect of the rotation of the earth, the direction of the winds tends to
deflect, instead of blowing directly from one pressure belt to another. These
winds blow throughout the year and are controlled by the latitudinal pressure
belts. They blow over vast area of continents and oceans.
The main planetary winds are -
1. Trade winds
2. Westerlies
3. Polar Easterlies
1. Trade winds - Trade winds are named ―trade‖ after a Latin word called
‗trado‗ which means – to blow in a constant direction. Trade winds blow from
sub-tropical high-pressure areas towards the equatorial low-pressure belt.
They are steady winds lying between 5°N-30°N in the northern hemisphere
and 5°S-30°S in the southern hemisphere. The trade winds in the Northern-
Hemisphere blow from the north-east direction due to the deflection of the
wind caused by the rotation of the Earth and so are called North-East Trades.
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
Similarly, the trade winds in the Southern-Hemisphere blow from the South-
East direction and thus called South-East Trades. The deflection of the wind is
a result of the rotation of the Earth or the Coriolis effect. As the trade winds
tend to blow mainly from the east, they are also known as the tropical
easterlies. These winds are also noted for their consistency, both in force and
direction.
2. Westerlies - The Westerlies blow from sub tropical high pressure belts
towards sub-polar low pressure belts. The Westerlies of Southern Hemisphere
blow with great strength and constant in direction than Northern Hemisphere.
Under the Coriolis Force effect, the Westerlies become the South-Westerlies
in the northern hemisphere and the North-Westerlies in the southern
hemisphere. These winds blow through a wind zone between 40° and 65°S
latitudes. These latitudes are known as ―Roaring Forties‖.
3. Polar easterlies - The Polar easterlies are dry, cold prevailing winds that
blow from the Polar high pressure belts to the Temperature low pressure
belts. They are extremely cold winds as they blow from the Tundra and Icecap
regions. The Polar Easterlies are more regular in the southern hemisphere
than in the northern hemisphere. Unlike the westerlies, the polar easterlies are
often weak and irregular.
Cyclones and Anticyclones

 Cyclones
Cyclones are areas of low pressure. Cyclones usually exhibit nearly circular
isobars. If isobars are oblong or elongate with the lowest pressure near the
center we call them troughs. As air enters an area of low pressure from all
directions, the Coriolis effect bends the direction of the wind to the right of its
path. This creates a counterclockwise rotation around the low
and convergence near the center of the system. As the air collides near the
center it is forced aloft where divergence takes air away from the center of the
system. The upper-level divergence is necessary for the system to be
maintained as an area of low pressure. Without the divergence, the system
would fill with air and the horizontal pressure differences would be equalized
causing the system to dissipate.
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
 Anticyclones
Anticyclones are areas of high pressure that exhibit nearly circular isobars. If
isobars are oblong or elongate with the highest pressure near the center we
call them ridges. For high pressure areas, air descends toward the surface
due to convergence aloft. As the air nears the surface it is forced outward
(divergence) from the center. The Coriolis effect bends the air to the right of its
path creating a clockwise rotation around the high.
Humidity
Humidity is the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere. Water vapor is the
invisible presence of water in its gaseous state. Humidity is a significant
aspect of the atmosphere because it affects the weather and the climate.
There are three main types of humidity -

 Absolute humidity is the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere at a
given temperature.
 Relative humidity is a measure of the current humidity in relation to a given
temperature.
 Specific humidity is the ratio of the water vapor in the atmosphere to the air
content on a mass basis.
Water vapor in the atmosphere is produced by many sources, including plants

during transpiration, moisture from animals breathing, direct evaporation from
snow, rain, and soil, and from bodies of water such as lakes and streams.
This water then evaporates into the atmosphere as an important part of the
water cycle on the planet. Without the water cycle there would not be any rain.
Water vapor is a naturally occurring greenhouse gas (along with carbon

dioxide and methane) and accounts for the biggest portion of the greenhouse
effect. Under normal atmospheric conditions, humidity is produced by
evaporation and becomes visible as clouds or fog through a process known
as condensation. The atmospheric air is heavier than water vapor, and as a
result, currents can be generated that can lead to clouds and consequently
rain. The most humid regions on the earth are normally located close to the
coastal regions and near the equator.
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
Condensation and Precipitation

 Condensation
Condensation is a process by which a gas such as water vapor is changed
into liquid water. When moisture cools and reaches saturation point, the tiny
particles of water condenses into larger drops of water.
 Forms of Condensation
Dew - Tiny drops of water formed when condensation of water vapor occur at
or near the surface of the earth.
Frost - It is a frozen condensation that occurs when air at ground level is

super cooled below the freezing point.
Fog - A mass of tiny drops of water that form when water vapor condenses on
a nuclei near the earth's surface.
Clouds - A cloud is a mass of tiny drops of water that results from

condensation which takes place high up in the atmosphere.
Adiabatic Cooling - When air rises, it moves from a zone of dense air on the
surface to areas of less dense air in the atmosphere. The rising air thus has
less weight above it and the lower pressure allows the air to expand and cool
down. The decrease in air temperature that result from expansion of rising air
is called Adiabatic Cooling.
Adiabatic Warming - It is the warming of air that results from the

compression of the air as it falls from the sky to the earth's surface. When air
falls from higher up in the atmosphere it moves into a region of denser air on
the earth's surface. The air is compressed in the process resulting in it being
warmed.
 PRECIPITATION
Precipitation occurs when tiny droplets of water, ice, or frozen water vapor join
together into masses too big to be held above the earth. They then fall to the
ground as precipitation.
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 Forms of Precipitation
Snow - When water vapor is frozen directly into a solid without first forming a
liquid, it forms tiny ice crystals called snow
Sleet - is a frozen rain that forms when rain droplets encounter a cold air and
freezes into ice before falling from the sky.
Hail - Rounded lumps of ice that falls from the sky.
Rain - Consists of droplets of liquid water that falls from the sky.
Types of Climate
Climate is the average weather conditions in a place over a long period of

time—30 years or more. And as you probably already know, there are lots of
different types of climates on Earth.
Climate scientists split the Earth into approximately five main types of
climates. They are
A. Tropical - In this hot and humid zone, the average temperatures are
greater than 64°F (18°C) year-round and there is more than 59 inches of
precipitation each year.
B. Dry - These climate zones are so dry because moisture is rapidly

evaporated from the air and there is very little precipitation.
C. Temperate - In this zone, there are typically warm and humid summers
with thunderstorms and mild winters.
D. Continental - These regions have warm to cool summers and very cold
winters. In the winter, this zone can experience snowstorms, strong winds,
and very cold temperatures—sometimes falling below -22°F (-30°C)
E. Polar - In the polar climate zones, it‘s extremely cold. Even in summer, the
temperatures here never go higher than 50°F (10°C)
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This is roughly where those climate zones appear on a globe -
Major Natural regions of the World
 13 Major Natural Regions of the World are
1. Equatorial Region
Natural Environment
The equatorial belt extends roughly between 5°N and 5°S of the Equator. It
has uniformly hot and wet climatic conditions throughout the year. The annual
range of temperature is low, and seasonal contrasts are at a minimum. The
combination of high temperature and high humidity makes the climate
unfavourable for sustained human effort, but very favourable for the growth of
vegetation.
Economic Base
The region has red and yellow soils of low fertility as they get leached by
heavy rainfall. The natural vegetation comprises of dense, lofty equatorial
forests (also known as ―selvas‖) containing variety of species.
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The economic importance lies in their wealth of valuable hardwoods. The tall
hardwood forms a continuous cover at high level. There are small plants
forming a second layer and thick undergrowth of bushes.
The Amazon Basin of South America and Congo in Zaire are inhabited by
primitive tribes. They sustain their livelihood through food gathering, fishing
and shifting cultivation.
Human Adaptation
It remains mostly in a natural state except in some accessible tracts. Malaria,
yellow fever and other tropical diseases are widespread. Dense forests have
remained inaccessible except along navigable rivers and few major roads.
Human settlements are small and scattered. The Island of Java is inhabited
by farmers for centuries for fertile volcanic soils. Intensive subsistence
agriculture is common in lowlands and terraced hill slopes. Density of
population exceeds 1000 persons per sq. km. Development of plantation
agriculture represents another response to same environment.
2. Tropical Grassland (Savanna) Region
Characteristics
This region lies in the interior of the continents extending up to the sea in the
west in the tropical belt. It comes under the influence of equatorial belt of
calms during summer and receives convectional rainfall and it is under the
influence of trade winds during winter which are dry winds and the region
experiences drought. It generally lies between 5°N and 20°S latitudes. This
region has moderate rainfall and greater annual range of temperature. It
occurs extensively in Africa, parts of Brazilian Plateau and Orinoco basin in
South America.
Economic Base
Due to deficiency in water, natural vegetation consists of savanna or tropical
grasslands known as Lianos in Venezuela and Campos in Southern Brazil.
Coarse tall grass grows to a height of about 3 metres is the typical vegetation.
These tropical grasslands are known as the big game country as carnivorous
animals like lion, leopard, tiger abound in the region. These animals feed on
deer, zebra and other herbivores. An extensive national park in East Africa
attracts many tourists.
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Human Adaptation
In East Africa, the primitive Masai people practise animal rearing. They
migrate from place to place. Meat, milk and other animal products are used for
local consumption. There is a scope for development of pastoral industry on a
commercial basis as has been done in a similar region in Queensland State in
Australia. The Mausa tribesmen in savanna region of Nigeria are mainly
agriculturalists (dry crops) but also keep cattle and goats for providing milk
and meat.
3. Tropical Deciduous Forest Region
Characteristics
This region includes eastern margins of the continents between 10°N to 30°N
and 10°S to 30°S. Rainfall is moderate except in coastal regions and
mountainous tracts. The summers are hot and rainy while winters are warm
and dry.
Parts of region such as India, south East Asia, West Africa and Northern
Australia experience a typical monsoon climate having seasonal reversal of
winds. Trade winds prevail in winter and monsoon winds blowing in opposite
direction prevail during summer. Winds are onshore during summer.
Economic Base
The combination of heat and good rainfall in summer favours growth of plants.
Agriculture is the dominant occupation. Laterite soil occurs in these regions,
except in river valleys where the alluvial soils are found. Natural vegetation
consists of tropical forests which are less dense than equatorial forests. Teak,
Rosewood, Mahogany are valuable trees.
Human Adaptation
The lowlands and river valleys have fertile soil and abundant water supply.
They are intensively cultivated with some tracts producing more than one crop
during the year. Besides rice, wheat, commercial crops like jute, cotton are
also cultivated. The river valleys and delta are densely populated.
Mountainous tracts are forested and yield hardwood timber, bamboo. Some
forests have been cleared for plantations of tea, coffee, and rubber. Primitive
tribes inhabit the inaccessible forests.
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4. Tropical Deserts
Characteristics
Tropical deserts are located on the western margins of continents in the Trade
Wind belt roughly between 20° and 30°N and S latitudes and are known as
hot or trade wind deserts. Annual precipitation is generally less than 25 cm. In
most of the region clear skies favour fired passage of insolation during day
time and outgoing radiation from the earth during night. Therefore, the diurnal
range of temperature is high.
Economic Base
On account of aridity, these regions are almost destitute of vegetation. Either
there is no vegetation, or it consists of those species of plants which are
physiologically adopted to stand droughts called Xerophytes. Palm is the most
important and characteristic tree found in these regions.
The characteristic animal is camel which lives on thorny scrubs. Soils are
sandy with saline deposits on the surface caused by evaporation. Thorny
scrub and bushes which are drought resistant occur in patches. The deserts
are desolate and agriculturally unproductive. The unproductively is due to
dearth of water. Discovery of petroleum and their mining in recent decades
have led to rapid economic development in Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Iraq.
Human Adaptation
The primitive Bushmen of Kalahari desert in South Africa and Aborigines of
Australia practice food gathering and hunting. The Bedouins of Arabia are
nomadic herdsmen rearing camels, horses, goats. They live in tents and
migrate from place to place in search of pastures for their animals.
In river valleys of desert regions are scattered oasis, where agriculture has
developed. There are permanent rural settlements in Nile Valley. Modern
irrigation method have ensured water supply, e.g. settled agriculture: Indus in
Pakistan and Imperial Valley in California. Communication is very difficult and
is carried on by camels which cross deserts by well known routes from oasis
to oasis.
5. Mediterranean Region
Characteristics
This region lies poleward of the tropical deserts on the western margin of the
continents, roughly between 30° and 40° N and S latitudes.
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The summers are hot and dry while winters are mild and rainy. In summer,
trade winds blow from land to sea giving practically no rain. In winters, this
region comes under the influence of moist westerlies blowing on-shore and
bringing cyclonic rain.
The annual rainfall is moderate and dry season is long and the annual range
of temperature is 10°C to 17°C.
Economic Base
The natural vegetation consists of short evergreen trees, bushes and shrubs.
The chief trees are oaks, olives and figs. The cultivation of grains and fruits
are the most important occupations. Large scale production of grapes has led
to production of different varieties of wine. The absence of frost encourages
the production of delicate citrus fruits. The main crops are wheat, olive, vine
etc.
Spain is rich in minerals other than coal. Lack of energy is due to lack of coal
which is partly overcome by the development of water power. Italy is important
for mercury and North Africa is noted for phosphate deposits. Textile are main
industrial products of Spain and Italy. Chile has copper bearing areas like EL
Tenietc and south of Santiago.
Human Adaptation
The typical area is the coastal region around the Mediterranean Sea in
southern Europe, South Western Asia, North Africa and other areas are
coastal lowlands in California, Central Chile, Cape Coasts in South Africa,
south-west coast of Australia. While the coastal plains cultivate wheat, barley
and other crops, the hill slopes are covered with fruit trees.
Though crops are cultivated for local consumption, a variety of citrus fruits are
processed and exported in large quantities. Hence with fine climate and
fertility of soil, shores of Mediterranean have long been suited for human
occupation and have attained cultural development. It has been the home of
the great civilisations of the world.
6. East Margin Region (China Type)
Characteristics
It lies on the eastern margins of the continents in subtropical belt between 20°
and 48° latitude in both hemispheres.
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The main characteristics of this region are summers are warm and moist and
winters are cold, and during summer, trade winds blow from adjoining ocean
and moderate rainfall occurs which decreases towards the equator and in
winter, westerly winds blow from the interior towards the oceans. These land
winds do not give rainfall and so winters are dry.
Economic Base
Natural vegetation consists of a mixture of both deciduous and evergreen
trees in the lowlands and coniferous trees in highlands. The forests are not
dense as there is no undergrowth. Valuable trees like oak, pipe, eucalyptus
are common. Corn is used as a feed crop for fattening cattle and pigs.
Cotton and tobacco are exported. Sugarcane is an important crop in the east
coast of South Africa. This region is among the most intensively cultivated
parts of the world. China is well known for its coal fields such as Shansi
coalfields and U.S.A. is among the leading producers of oil and coal in the
world.
Human Adaptation
Some of the portions of this region are the most populous parts of the world,
e.g., China. The major contrast is between oriental agriculture in China and
occidental agriculture in the United States. Oriental is mainly of subsistence
type based on intensive use of human labour, farmyard manure and traditional
methods of irrigation and drainage. Rice is the most important crop and
double cropping is common in irrigated tracts, and occidental is of extensive
type based on tractors and other machinery for agricultural operations.
7. Mid-Latitude Deserts (Steppe Lands)
Characteristics
These deserts are located in the interior plateau and basins in Asia and North
America. They are surrounded by high mountain regions. Tibet and Gobi are
typical examples. The main characteristic of this region is that it receives
scanty rainfall as the interior location is surrounded by high mountains which
prevent the inflow of moist air. Interior location results in greater extreme of
temperature between summer and winter.
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Human Adaptation
This region is inhabited by pastoral nomads who migrate in search of
pastures. Most parts of Tibet and Gobi deserts have low population density. In
lowlands of central Asia, agricultural developments, mining and industrial
development has also taken place. These are the regions where tran-
shumance is practised. Patagonia plateau in Argentina lying east of Andes is
an example of mild latitude desert. This region is inhabited by ―pastoral no-
mads‖.
8. Eastern Margins or St Lawrence type
Characteristics
This region lies poleward of the Warm East Margin Region. The region has
warm wet summer and cold dry winters. North Eastern United States and
adjoining parts of Canada, North China, Manchuria, Korea, and Northern
Japan are the main areas included in this Region.
Economic Base
Natural vegetation consists of mixed deciduous and coniferous forests.
Deciduous trees shed their leaves during cold winter season and coniferous
trees occur beyond 50°N. Besides forestry and agriculture, fruit farming are
also carried on. Fishing has developed on a commercial scale along the coast
of North-Eastern United States and Japan. There are rich fishing grounds as
planktons grow in abundance in the area of convergence of warm and cold
currents. Fish is a staple item in the diet of Japanese people. Japan is a major
exporter of fish. Industrialization has developed in North-Eastern United
States, and Japan on a large scale based on local and imported raw
materials.
Human Adaptation
Agriculture is not possible during winter. Summer which is warm and moist
favours cultivation. Barley, oats, and potatoes are the main crops in North
American region while soya beans, mulberry and oil seeds are cultivated in
Asian region. Dairy farming is widespread near urban centres. Softwood trees
favour lumbering on modern lines using machinery. Logs are utilised for
manufacturing wood pulp and paper. Clear areas are replanted systematically
so as to give a sustainable yield. United States (north-east) and Japan are
highly urbanised, resulting in high density of population.
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9. Mid-latitude Grassland Region
Characteristics
This region lies in the interior of the continents and therefore receives low
rainfall. The annual range of temperature is high between warm summer and
cold winter. Rainfall occurs as a result of convectional ascent of air during
summer. Owing to low rainfall and cold winter, trees are generally absent.
Economic Base
The natural vegetation is predominantly short grasses. These grasslands are
known by different local names such as the Steppes of Eastern Europe,
Prairies of North America, Pampas of Argentina, and Downs of Australia. The
region has fertile black soils which are rich in organic matter.
Wheat is the most widespread crop cultivated in these grasslands. USA,
Canada, Argentina, and Australia are major exporters of wheat. Maize is also
cultivated in the warmer parts of the region. Large-scale export of meat and
dairy products from Australia, New Zealand and Argentina has become
possible by the use of refrigerated holds in ships.
Human Adaptation
The Red Indians of North America who inhabited their region were nomadic
hunters. In Central Asia, nomadic herding is the main occupation. Such
nomadic way of life prevails only in isolated areas. In the United States,
Ukraine and Russia, extensive mechanised agriculture has developed.
Extensive level plains, large size of farm houses and shortage of farm labour
have led to the use of machinery of all types on the farms. Pastoral Industry
has also developed on a commercial scale. Machines are used for
slaughtering of animals, packing of meat, and dairy products.
10. Cool (Mid Latitude) West European Type
Characteristics
Regions of this type are found on the western margins of the continents in the
permanent zone of westerlies. It includes Western Europe from Northern
Norway to British Isles, North-West United States, and Southern Chile in
South America and Tasmania Island of New Zealand in Australia.
This region is under the influence of westerly winds throughout the year.
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
The winters are warmer and annual rainfall is higher than in cool East Margin
Region. Rainfall is of cyclonic origin and occurs throughout the year with a
maximum in winter. The mean annual range of temperature is below 15°C in
European and North American Regions.
Economic Base
The natural vegetation consists of deciduous forest. Coniferous forests are
found on hill slopes. Intensive agriculture is common. Wheat, Barley,
Potatoes, Sugar Beet are important crops cultivated. Mixed farming (Both
agriculture and animal rearing) is common. Mineral resources have been
utilised extensively to provide power and raw materials for industries. Fishing
has developed on a commercial scale as the shallow continental shelf is ex-
tensive in this area.
Human Adaptation
North-West Europe has been inhabited by man for several centuries and the
resources have been developed fully. The area is highly urbanised. Market
gardening is widespread to satisfy the demand for vegetables. Industries have
also been set up utilising imported raw materials like cotton.
Unlike North-West Europe, other areas remain sparsely populated and

resources are not fully developed. Fishing and lumbering are practiced in
British Columbia in Canada. The resources of Chile has remain unutilised due
to remote location. In South Island of New Zealand, rearing of sheep has
developed on a commercial scale. Wool and mutton are exported.
11. The Taiga (coniferous) Region
Characteristics
This region occurs as a broad belt in Europe, Asia and North America
between the mid latitude of grassland region in South and Polar Tundra in the
North. The climate is cold and moist. The region has short warm summer and
long cold winter. Rivers remain frozen and snow covers the ground for many
months.
Annual precipitation is moderate in amount with maximum during summer.

Coniferous forests occur and contain softwood trees like oak, birch and
maple.
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Economic Base
Lumbering is the main occupation of people in areas which are easily
accessible. Hunting of fur bearing animals like musk-rat, ermine and silver fox
and fishing are other economic activities. While lumbering is common during
winter, fishing is practiced in the short summer season, when the snow cover
melts. Short growing season does not favour agriculture on large scale.
Human Adaptation
The population is sparse and consists mostly of native tribes. Life is primitive
and hard. Fish is the chief food and clothing is made from fur. The simple log
hut is one of the most typical forest dwellings. A small number of Russian
colonists are settled in few towns and along river valleys. The development of
this region has been retarded by inaccessibility of large areas and lack of
adequate means of communication. Cultivation of barley, oats is limited to the
southern margins of the region. In Siberia and parts of Canada, forest
resources have not been utilised. In Scandinavia, parts of Russia and
Canada, forests are utilised systematically.
12. Polar Lowlands (Tundra)
Characteristics
The vast lowlands, lying along the shores of Arctic Ocean, where ground is
frozen for the greater part of the year are known as Tundra‘s. They are low-
lying cold deserts between the regions of eternal snow and ice in north and
coniferous in the south. They are found in north of Asia as well as in Canada
and Europe where they are known as Barren lands. The region has long
severe cold winter and a short cool summer.
Economic Base
People are nomadic, and hunting and fishing are their chief occupations. Furs
and skins are the chief products and articles of trade in this region.
Economically, these areas do not have a great value.
Human Adaptation
The population is extremely sparse. There are scattered tribes of Lepps,
Finns. Life for them is a constant struggle against nature. Animals are fairly
redundant. They provide food, covering, clothing and are valuable for furs and
feathers.
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
13. Polar Highlands (Ice cap type)
Characteristics
Antarctica and Greenland are examples of large land masses in polar regions
having permanent ice caps. During summer temperature does not exceed
10°C. Precipitation is low and occurs as snowfall during winter.
Economic Base
Hunting and fishing are their main occupation. They use boats and modern
equipment for fishing. Mining of oil and gold in Alaska, iron ore in Labrador,
nickel in Siberia has resulted in the establishment of mining settlements with
adequate transport facilities by land, sea and air.
Human Response
The harsh environment does not encourage permanent settlement. The
Eskimos of, Canada and Alaska, the Yakuts of Siberia lead a nomadic life.
They live in igloos in winter and tents in summer. External contacts have
changed the lives of nomads. Some of them live in permanent wooden
houses with all basic amenities. Reindeer farms have been established in the
Soviet Union. Glass houses have been set up for cultivation of vegetables to
meet the needs of local population.
Regional Geography of India

India is a geographically rich and diverse country. Our country has all the
features that one expects from a country. It has deserts, coastal areas,
mountains and plateaus. So yes, these are the physical geography features of
our country. Here a look at physical map of India and the other primary
physical geography of India.
 Indian Physical Geography

Based on physical features, India physical geography is broadly divided into
following sections-
 The great mountain of North
 Northern Plain
 Peninsular Plateau
 Coastal Plains
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
 Thar Desert
 Islands
 The Great Mountain of North

The key mountain of the North is the Himalaya. Spread over 2400KM, it covers
Kashmir to Arunachal Pradesh. The Himalaya comprises of three parallel
ranges in its longitudinal extent. These include Himadri or Inner Himalaya or
Greater Himalaya, Himachal or lesser Himalaya and Siwaliks or Outer
Himalaya.
Himadri - It is the Northern most range. The average height of this range is
6000 Metre. The average width of this range is 120 KM. It comprises of most
of the highest peaks such as – Mount Everest, Nanga Parbat, Kanchenjunga.
Also, Ganga and Yamuna is originated from this range
Himachal - It lies between the Himadri and Siwalik range. The average height
of this range is 4000 Metre. The average width of this range is 60-80 KM.
Important ranges in this are – Dhaula Dhar, Pir Panjal, Mahabharata. Famous
hill stations such as Shimla, Mussoorie, Nainital etc, are located in this range.
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
Siwaliks - It is the outermost range. The average height of this range is as

much as 1000 Metre. The average width of this range is almost 10-50 KM.
Valleys which lies between the Himachal and Siwalik are called Duns
 Northern Plain
Northern plain lies between the great northern mountain and peninsular plateau.
It is formed by the three major rivers – Ganges, Indus, Brahmaputra and their
tributary rivers. This plain covers the area of Indian states Punjab, Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar, Haryana, West Bengal, Assam. The plain is very fertile as it is
formed by deposition of rivers. It is the source of major food grains in India.
Northern Plain is divided into three sections- Punjab Plains, Ganges Plains and
Brahmaputra Plains.
Punjab Plains - It is formed by the river Indus and its five tributaries – Jhelum,
Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej and Beas. Punjab and Haryana come under this plain. A
larger part of this plain is in Pakistan.
Ganges Plains - The plain is formed by the river Ganges and its tributaries.
Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, Bihar, Haryana and West Bengal lies in this plain. It is the
largest part of Great Indian Plain.
Brahmaputra Plains - It is built by the Brahmaputra and its tributaries. The

plain is known as Assam Plain as most of its part is in Assam.
Division on the basis of Physical Features

Northern Plain is also divided based on the physical geography features. From
North to South it is divided into – Bhabar Region, Terai Region, Bangar Region,
Kadar Region.
Bhabar Region - It lies in the foothills of Himalaya and is almost 8-16 km wide.
The region mostly contains stones and pebbles. Here the flow of the rivers is
fast.
Terai - Terai lies south of Bhabar and is 15-30 km wide. It is covered by thick
forest and the area is good for cultivation. Here, the river speed is fast.
Bangar Region - It lies south of Terai and is less fertile in nature.
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
Kadar Region - Kadar lies south of Bangar and is fertile land that is prone to
floods.
 Peninsular Plateau
Peninsular Plateau lies south of northern plain. The shape of this plateau is
similar to a triangle whose base lies on the southern edge of the northern plain
and Kanyakumari is the apex. Its average height is as much as 600-900 Metre.
The Anamudi (2695 Metre) of Kerala is the highest peak of peninsular India.
Rounded hills and shallow valleys are found in this region. Formed from the
Gondwana land, it is one of the oldest lands of the earth. Peninsular Plateau
can be divided into two sections
Central Highland - It is situated to the north of Narmada river. The plateau

consists of Malwa Plateau, Chotanagpur Plateau, Meghalaya Plateau, Vidhya
Range, Satpura Range and the Aravali Range. The highest peak here is Guru
Shikhar (1722 M).
Deccan Plateau - It is bounded by the Satpura Range in the north, the

Eastern Ghats in the east and the Western Ghats in the west. Rivers of
Deccan Plateau (Kaveri, Godavari, Krishna) flows from West to East. Deccan
Plateau consists of Andhra Plateau, Karnataka Plateau and Maharashtra
Plateau.
 The Coastal Plains

Coastal plains are situated along the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea. It is
divided into – Eastern Coastal plain and Western Coastal Plain.
Eastern Coastal Plain: It lies along the Bay of Bengal and is 1100 KM long.
The plain covers West Bengal, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
Here, the main rivers are Mahanadi, Godavari, Kaveri and Krishna.
Western Coastal Plain: It lies along the Arabian sea and is 1400 Km long.
The plain covers Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Goa and Kerala. Main
rivers here are Tapi, Narmada and Mandavi.
 Thar Desert
The only desert of India is the Thar Desert. A major part of this desert lies in
Rajasthan but a portion of it is spread in Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab and Pakistan.
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Luni is the only river which flows from this land. The desert receives only
150mm rainfall in a year. It is also known as the Great Indian Desert or
Marusthali. Also, the Great Rann of Kuchchh falls into this desert.
 Islands
India has two groups of islands:
Andaman and Nicobar: It is located in the Bay of Bengal and lies 1255 Km of
south from Kolkata. The groups of islands are divided into Andaman islands in
the North and Nicobar Islands in the South.
Lakshadweep: Lakshadweep lies in the Arabian Sea and is about 200-300

Km from the coast of Kerala. It consists of 36 islands.
Natural vegetation
Natural vegetation refers to a plant community which has grown naturally without
human aid. They have been left undisturbed by humans for a long time. We call
this virgin vegetation. Thus, cultivated crops and fruits, orchards form part of
vegetation but not natural vegetation. Now, we will look at some of the factors
that impact the vegetation in our country.
 The Climate of the Region

Temperature and humidity determine the character and extent of vegetation.
The precipitation and soil also play a major role in determining the degree of
vegetation. Therefore, various places in India have various vegetation patterns.
Photoperiod also affects the vegetation of a place. It is the variation in duration
of sunlight at different places due to differences in latitude, altitude, season and
duration of the day.
Hence, depending on the photoperiod, you get different kinds of vegetation at

different places. Now, we will look at the various types of vegetation.
 Types of vegetation
We have the following major types of vegetation in our country
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 Tropical Rain Forests

These forests are restricted to heavy rainfall areas of the Western Ghats and
the island groups of Lakshadweep, Andaman and Nicobar, upper parts of
Assam and Tamil Nadu coast. They are at their best in areas having more
than 200 cm of rainfall with a short dry season. The trees reach great heights
up to 60 meters or even above. Some of the commercially important trees of
this forest are ebony, mahogany, rosewood, rubber and cinchona.
 Tropical Deciduous Forests

These are the most widespread forests of India. They are the monsoon
forests and spread over the region receiving rainfall between 200 cm and 70
cm. Trees of this forest-type shed their leaves for about six to eight weeks in
dry summer.
These forests exist, therefore, mostly in the eastern part of the country –
northeastern states, along with the foothills of the Himalayas, Jharkhand,
West Orissa and Chhattisgarh, and on the eastern slopes of the Western
Ghats. Teak is the most dominant species of this forest. Bamboos, sal,
shisham, sandalwood, khair, Kusum, Arjun, mulberry are other commercially
important species.
 The Thorn Forests and Scrubs

In regions with less than 70 cm of rainfall, the natural vegetation of India
consists of thorny trees and bushes. This type of vegetation is found in the
north-western part of the country including semi-arid areas of Gujarat,
Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Uttar Pradesh and Haryana.
Acacias, palms, euphorbias and cacti are the main plant species. Trees are
scattered and have long roots penetrating deep into the soil in order to get
moisture.
 Montane Forests
In mountainous areas, the decrease in temperature with increasing altitude
leads to the corresponding change in natural vegetation of India. You can find
the wet temperate type of forests between a height of 1000 and 2000 metres.
Evergreen broad-leaf trees such as oaks and chestnuts predominate.
Between 1500 and 3000 meters, you can find the temperate forests
containing coniferous trees like pine, deodar, silver fir, spruce, and cedar.
Mangrove Forests
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You can find the mangrove tidal forests in the areas of coasts influenced by
tides. Mud and silt get accumulated on such coasts. Dense mangroves are
the common varieties with roots of the plants submerged under water. You
can find these in the deltas of the Ganga, the Mahanadi, the Krishna, the
Godavari and the Kaveri.
Mineral and Power resources
 Minerals
Minerals are naturally occurring substances. They have a definite chemical
composition. Minerals are formed in different types of geological
environments, under varying conditions. You can identify and classify minerals
on the basis of their physical properties such as colour, density,
hardness. You can also identify them on the basis of their chemical properties
like solubility.
 Types of Minerals
On the basis of composition, we can classify minerals metallic and non-metallic
types. This is because the minerals may or may not contain iron.
 Metallic minerals
They contain metals in raw form. Metals are hard substances and are good
conductors of heat and electricity. Therefore, they conduct heat and electricity
and have lustre or shine. For example, iron ore and bauxite. Metallic minerals
are of two types -
Ferrous minerals contain iron ore, manganese, and chromites.
Non-ferrous minerals do not contain iron. However, they could contain some
other metals like gold, silver, copper or lead. Because they do not contain iron,
they are non-ferrous.
 Non-metallic minerals
They do not contain metals. Therefore, they are not good conductors of
electricity and heat. For example, limestone, mica, gypsum, coal, and
petroleum. So, how do we extract minerals from their ores? There are some
processes that are used to extract minerals.
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 Extraction Of Minerals
Without proper extraction, minerals are of no use. Therefore, we must
concentrate on proper methods for their extraction. The three extraction
methods of minerals are mining, drilling, and quarrying.
 Mining - It is the process of taking out minerals from rocks buried under the
earth‘s surface. The process of mining includes two methods: (a)Open cast
mining, (b)Shaft mining
 Drilling - Deep wells are bored to take minerals out. This process is
called drilling.
 Quarrying - In the process of quarrying, you simply dig out the minerals
that lie near the surface. Therefore, you need to be careful while digging
them as you could destroy their essential parts.
 Distribution of Minerals
 Minerals are found in igneous rock, metamorphic rocks,

and sedimentary rocks.
 Iron ore, nickel, copper minerals are found in igneous
and metamorphic rocks. Limestone is found in sedimentary rocks.
 Uses of Minerals
 Some hard minerals are used as gems for making jewellery.
 We use copper in almost everything from coins to pipes.
 We use silicon in almost everything from coins to pipes.
 Silicon is used in the computer industry which is obtained from quartz.
 Aluminium is used in automobile, aeroplanes, bottling industry, building and

in kitchen cookware.
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Location and distribution of agricultural and Industrial

activities
Agriculture is the primary source of livelihood for about 58 per cent of India‘s
population. Gross Value Added by agriculture, forestry and fishing is
estimated at Rs 17.67 trillion (US$ 274.23 billion) in FY18.
The Indian food industry is poised for huge growth, increasing its contribution
to world food trade every year due to its immense potential for value addition,
particularly within the food processing industry. The Indian food and grocery
market is the world‘s sixth largest, with retail contributing 70 per cent of the
sales. The Indian food processing industry accounts for 32 per cent of the
country‘s total food market, one of the largest industries in India and is ranked
fifth in terms of production, consumption, export and expected growth. It
contributes around 8.80 and 8.39 per cent of Gross Value Added (GVA) in
Manufacturing and Agriculture respectively, 13 per cent of India‘s exports and
six per cent of total industrial investment.
 Market Size
During 2017-18* crop year, food grain production is estimated at record
284.83 million tonnes. In 2018-19, Government of India is targeting foodgrain
production of 285.2 million tonnes. Milk production was estimated at 165.4
million tonnes during FY17, while meat production was 7.4 million tonnes. As
of September 2018, total area sown with kharif crops in India reached 105.78
million hectares.
India is the second largest fruit producer in the world. Production of

horticulture crops is estimated at record 306.82 million tonnes (mt) in 2017-18
as per third advance estimates.
Total agricultural exports from India grew at a CAGR of 16.45 per cent over
FY10-18 to reach US$ 38.21 billion in FY18. Between Apr-Oct 2018
agriculture exports were US$ 21.61 billion. India is also the largest producer,
consumer and exporter of spices and spice products. Spice exports from India
reached US$ 3.1 billion in 2017-18. Tea exports from India reached a 36 year
high of 240.68 million kgs in CY 2017 while coffee exports reached record
395,000 tonnes in 2017-18.
Food & Grocery retail market in India was worth US$ 380 billion in 2017.
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 Investments
According to the Department of Industrial Policy and Promotion (DIPP), the
Indian food processing industry has cumulatively attracted Foreign Direct
Investment (FDI) equity inflow of about US$ 8.57 billion between April 2000
and June 2018.
Some major investments and developments in agriculture are as follows-

 By early 2019, India will start exporting sugar to China.
 The first mega food park in Rajasthan was inaugurated in March 2018.
 Agrifood start-ups in India received funding of US$ 1,66 billion between
2013-17 in 558 deals.
 In 2017, agriculture sector in India witnessed 18 M&A deals worth US$ 251
million.
 Government Initiatives
Some of the recent major government initiatives in the sector are as follows -
 The Agriculture Export Policy, 2018 was approved by Government of India

in December 2018. The new policy aims to increase India‘s agricultural
exports to US$ 60 billion by 2022 and US$ 100 billion in the next few years
with a stable trade policy regime.
 In September 2018, the Government of India announced Rs 15,053 crore
(US$ 2.25 billion) procurement policy named ‗Pradhan Mantri Annadata
Aay SanraksHan Abhiyan' (PM-AASHA), under which states can decide
the compensation scheme and can also partner with private agencies to
ensure fair prices for farmers in the country.
 In September 2018, the Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs (CCEA)
approved a Rs 5,500 crore (US$ 820.41 million) assistance package for
the sugar industry in India.
 The Government of India is going to provide Rs 2,000 crore (US$ 306.29
million) for computerisation of Primary Agricultural Credit Society (PACS)
to ensure cooperatives are benefitted through digital technology.
 With an aim to boost innovation and entrepreneurship in agriculture, the
Government of India is introducing a new AGRI-UDAAN programme to
mentor start-ups and to enable them to connect with potential investors.
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 The Government of India has launched the Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai
Yojana (PMKSY) with an investment of Rs 50,000 crore (US$ 7.7 billion)
aimed at development of irrigation sources for providing a permanent
solution from drought.
 The Government of India plans to triple the capacity of food processing
sector in India from the current 10 per cent of agriculture produce and has
also committed Rs 6,000 crore (US$ 936.38 billion) as investments for
mega food parks in the country, as a part of the Scheme for Agro-Marine
Processing and Development of Agro-Processing Clusters (SAMPADA).
 The Government of India has allowed 100 per cent FDI in marketing of
food products and in food product e-commerce under the automatic route.
Achievements in the sector
 The Electronic National Agriculture Market (eNAM) was launched in April

2016 to create a unified national market for agricultural commodities by
networking existing APMCs. Up to May 2018, 9.87 million farmers, 109,725
traders were registered on the e-NAM platform. 585 mandis in India have
been linked while 415 additional mandis will be linked in 2018-19 and
2019-20.
 Agriculture storage capacity in India increased at 4 per cent CAGR
between 2014-17 to reach 131.8 million metric tonnes.
 Coffee exports reached record 395,000 tonnes in 2017-18.
 Between 2014-18, 10,000 clusters were approved under the Paramparagat
Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY).
 Between 2014-15 and 2017-18 (up to December 2017), capacity of 2.3
million metric tonnes was added in godowns while steel silos with a
capacity of 625,000 were also created during the same period.
 Around 100 million Soil Health Cards (SHCs) have been distributed in the
country during 2015-17 and a soil health mobile app has been launched to
help Indian farmers.
 Road Ahead
India is expected to achieve the ambitious goal of doubling farm income by
2022. The agriculture sector in India is expected to generate better
momentum in the next few years due to increased investments in agricultural
infrastructure such as irrigation facilities, warehousing and cold storage.
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Furthermore, the growing use of genetically modified crops will likely improve
the yield for Indian farmers. India is expected to be self-sufficient in pulses in
the coming few years due to concerted efforts of scientists to get early-
maturing varieties of pulses and the increase in minimum support price.
The government of India targets to increase the average income of a farmer
household at current prices to Rs 219,724 (US$ 3,420.21) by 2022-23 from
Rs 96,703 (US$ 1,505.27) in 2015-16.
Going forward, the adoption of food safety and quality assurance mechanisms
such as Total Quality Management (TQM) including ISO 9000, ISO 22000,
Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP), Good Manufacturing
Practices (GMP) and Good Hygienic Practices (GHP) by the food processing
industry will offer several benefits.
Important Sea ports and main sea

A port is a location on a coast or a shore that contains one or more harbours
where ships can dock. They are also used to transfer people and material to
and from land. The locations of the ports are selected to optimise access to
land and navigable water that can be used for commercial purposes and for
shelter from waves and winds. Wadi al-Jarf on the Red Sea is one of the
oldest known artificial harbours in the world. Like other countries, India also
houses many sea ports.
With a coastline of more than 7,500 km, India forms one of the biggest
peninsulas in the world. The country has 13 major sea ports and about 200
non-major sea ports and intermediate ports. All the sea ports are located in
the following states - Maharashtra, Gujarat, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, Daman and
Diu, Andhra Pradesh, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Kerala, Karnataka, West
Bengal, Lakshadweep, Puducherry and Goa.
The major ports are administered by the Shipping Ministry of the Central
Government, while the minor ports are taken care off by the Ministry of the
respective States where they are located.
Some of the major sea ports in India are mentioned as below -
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 Mumbai Port - Locate at the mainland of west Mumbai, it is the largest

port in India. About one-fifth of the foreign trade of India predominantly in
mineral oil and dry cargo is handled by Mumbai Port alone. Kandla Port:
Located in the Gulf of Kutch, it is one of the prominent ports on the West
Coast of the country. The port was developed to decongest Mumbai Port.
 Chennai Port - The second largest port in India, Chennai Port (or Madras
Port) primarily handles fertilisers, general cargo, iron-ore and petroleum
products.
 Jawaharlal Nehru Port (or Nhava Sheva Port) - Situated in the Konkan
region, it is a major port of the Arabian Sea and handles large volume of
domestic cargo traffic and international container traffic.
 Haldia Port - A major seaport located near the Hooghly River in West
Bengal, it is the most important centre of jute industries. It is also known as
the 'Gateway of Eastern India'.
 Ennore Port - Located at the north of Chennai, this port was established to
reduce congestion on Chennai Port. It is also India's first corporate port.
 Kochi Port (or Cochin Port) - Kochi Port is located on the sea route of the
Arabian Sea and the Indian Ocean. Export of tea and coffee and import of
chemical fertilisers and mineral oil are handled by the port.
 Paradip Port - The artificial deep-water port located in Odisha is an

important port on the eastern shore. Coal, iron-ore and other dry cargoes
are handled at the port. It has a cold handling plant, a railway system and a
national highway that connects it to the road networks of the rest of the
country.
 Tuticorin Port - Tuticorin Port is one of the major ports in Tamil Nadu and
one of the largest container terminals in India. The port handles the trade
of coal, food grains, salt, sugar, petroleum products and edible oils and
carries out major trade with the neighbouring country of Sri Lanka.
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 New Mangalore Port - Located at the southern tip of the Karnataka coast,
it is also an important port in India. The port exports commodities such as
granite stones, cashew, manganese and coffee and imports products like
LPG, timber, cargo container and others.
Land and Air routes of India
 Rail transport in India
 Indian railways are the important and almost reliable means of passenger
and goods transport. Indian Railway is the largest railway network in Asia.
It connects people and places from different parts of the country. Industries
and agriculture have speedily developed due to railway transport. In India,
the first railway was laid down from Mumbai to Thane in 1853. The length
of the track was only 34 kilometres. The approximate length of the railways
in India is 114000 km which connects about 75500 stations. There are
more than 11000 trains run daily. To facilitate smooth functioning and easy
management of the railways, Indian railways are divided into 16 zones.
Besides, Konkan railway is a special zone.
 The distribution of Railway network is dense in the North Indian plains from
Howrah to Amritsar. The railway network is less in Jammu and Kashmir,
Rajasthan, Uttarakhand, Assam etc due to various hilly or desert regions. It
is economical and more convenient to transport heavy and bulky
commodities over longer distances by rail. As a part of transport
developments, metropolitan cities of Kolkata and Delhi have "metro"
railways. Due to it, strain on other public transport has been reduced and
transport has become smooth and speedy.
 Important rail routes found in India
Mumbai – Delhi route - There are two rail routes to travel from Mumbai to
Delhi. The Central Railway route passes through stations like Nasik,
Bhusaval, Itarsi, Jhansi, Agra, etc. If we travel by Western Zone route we pass
through Surat, Vadodra, Ratlam, Mathura, etc.
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Mumbai - Kolkata route - While travelling from Mumbai to Kolkata, there are
two routes: one passes through Nagpur and the other through Allahabad.
While going via Nagpur, the major stations we come across are Manmad,
Bhusaval, Wardha, Nagpur, Raipur, Tatanagar, etc. are some of the important
stations.
Mumbai – Chennai route - The important major stations on this route are
Pune, Solapur, Raichur and Guntkal.
Pune – Bangalore route - Miraj, Belgaum, Hubli, Arsekri, are the main
stations on this route.
Chennai – Delhi route - Vijaywada, Kazipeth, Wardha, Nagpur, Itarsi, Jhansi

are the important stations of this route.
Gorakhpur – Tinsukia route - This route is important in view of defence of

the country. It is the only route connecting the north – east frontier area with
the rest of the country. Some of the major stations on this route are Rangia,
Tezpur, Lakhimpur, etc.
Konkan Railway - The railway project has been established with the co-
operation of states of Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka and Kerala and the
railway ministry. The length of this railway line from Roha to Mangalore is 760
kilometres. Main stations on this route are Ratnagiri, Margao and Karwar.
 Road routes in India
In India, many villages and cities are situated at long distance from each
other. It is possible to connect them by roads. Roads play an important role in
transporting perishable goods from one place to another. Out of the total
length of transport routes in the country 85% consists of roads. India has more
than 35lakhs kilometres length of roads. Density of roads is high in the states
of Kerala, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Goa, etc while it is low in the states of
Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Sikkim, Uttarakhand, etc. Generally,
mountainous or desert regions have low density of roads. As per the basis of
functions, roads are broadly classified into Village roads, State Highways and
Major District roads and National highways and Express ways.
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Village roads - The roads which connect villages and districts are called as
village roads. The quality of these roads is not good as compared to other
roads. These roads are important for transporting agricultural and forest
goods from villages to markets. These roads are useful in providing various
services to rural areas. Village roads are controlled and managed by Zilla
Parishad.
State Highways and Major District roads - The roads which connect the
state head quarters and district places are known as State Highways. The
roads which join the taluka places and market towns are known as Major
District roads. Most of the State Highways are also connected to the National
Highways whereas Major District roads are connected to the State Highways.
State Highways and Major District roads are under the control of State
government.
National Highways and Express ways - National Highways connect state

capitals, important cities, big industrial and commercial centres, major ports
and military sites. These roads pass through various states of the country. A
private body looks after their development and maintenance. Out of the total
length of roads of the country, length of national highways is only 2%.
However, about 40% of the total road transportation takes place on the
national highways. Length of national highways in the country is about more
than 65,600 kilometres.
India has about 219 National highways. Huge transportation of goods takes
place on the national highways. National highways have helped easy
transportation of goods to distant markets in the country.
Express ways are used for safe and rapid transport. The express way
between Mumbai and Pune has been developed by the National Highway
Authority of India. On the lines of the express way, there is an ambitious
scheme known as the Golden Quadrilateral Highway Project. It connects the
four metropolitan cities of Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata.
The East-West Corridor highway connects Silchar to Porbandar and the

North-South Corridor highway connects Srinagar to Kanniyakumari. These
highways have four to six lanes.
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Following are some highways having more than 1000 kilometres length -
 Delhi to Kolkata
 Delhi to Mumbai
 Agra to Mumbai
 Chennai to Thane
 Chennai to Baharagora
 Kolkata to Hazira
 Varanasi to Kanniyakumarai
 Panvel to Idapalli
 Pathankot to Samkhiyali
 Pindwara to Allahabad
 Barhi to Guwahati
 Airways in India
 India being a nation of vast land, air places joining the various places within
the country are developed on large scale. India has established special
relationship at world level due to its industrial and cultural progress. Due to
globalization, in order to communicate with different countries in the world,
airways have been developed.
 The management of air routes is done by an autonomous government

organisation. Management of internal airways is being done by ―Indian
Airlines‖. This service is useful of transportation of passengers, goods and
also offers postal services. Besides, this services area also provided to the
neighbouring countries by Indian Air Lines. ―Air India‖ is another
organisation being used for transportation of international passengers and
cargo services.
 On the basis of new National Policy, an agreement of air services has been
done with about one hundred countries. Therefore, communication with air
ways with U.K., China, Australia, Germany, France, Gulf Countries and
U.S.A has increased. Due to the newly changed policy of the Central
Government, private air organisations are also providing air transport
services. ―Pawanhans‖ is a government organisation which provides
helicopter services.
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In India, Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Ahmedabad, Hyderabad, Bangalore,

Srinagar, etc have international airports.
Main items of Imports and Exports of India
 India's top 8 imports
1. Oil
Import cost - 177.5 billion USD
Like most of other countries, India too gets its crude oil from the Middle-East,
especially Saudi Arabia and Iraq. In the last decade, India's oil import has
risen from around 65 million tonnes to almost 180 million tonnes! India is one
of the most oil import dependent countries in the world
2. Precious stones
Import cost - 60 billion dollars
India is a unique country. Why? Because the No. 2 item in both the lists of top
imports and exports of India is precious stones, gold in particular. Though the
import rate has reduced by 9 per cent recently, India spends more than 60
billion dollars to buy jewels
3. Electronics
Import cost - 32 billion USD
Half of the total import of electronic equipment to India comes from China.
This is not news to us. Almost every other electronic device sold in India - big
or small - are labelled as 'Made in China'. However, the country has
progressed extensively in the sector and the import rate is going down.
However, there still a long way to go!
4. Heavy machinery
Import cost - 31 billion dollars
Industrial machines, engines, pumps are imported mainly from Japan and
China. To have rapid industrial growth in India as per the vision of PM Modi,
the country needs to be self-sufficient in the field of heavy machines
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5. Organic chemicals
Ancient India was famous for its advancement in organic chemistry and use of
herbal science. However, at present, the country depends on imported bio-
chemicals. This also increases the cost of agricultural expenditure and thus
affects the price of essential food items
6. Plastics
Import cost - 11.8 billion USD
How often do we come across a billboard or a signage saying "Say No To

Plastic Items"? Pretty often, right? But then again, the country's sixth most
imported item is plastic. Now, every plastic item may not be unnecessary, but
the use of the ones that can be stopped, should be! This will not save the
environment but also strengthen the country's economy
7. Animal and vegetable oil

When it comes imports, India loves oil in all its forms. Oil is India's top priority,
be it crude or edible. The amount of edible oil we import from other parts of
the world has increased by almost 25 per cent in recent years.
8. Iron and Steel

Though our country has a rich source of iron ore, it still depends upon
imported iron and steel. However, the import rate of iron and steel and such
metal products have reduced drastically in past few years.
 Top 10 export products from India
1. Petroleum products
Value - 61.2 billion dollars
Oil-based products and crude oil giants such as Hindustan Petroleum

Corporation Limited, Bharat Petroleum, Reliance Petroleum, ONGC and et al
have contributed largely to the export sector of India.
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Although the country is hugely dependent on oil imports, export of oil-based

products has supported the economy to a large extent.
2. Jewellery
The term 'jewellery' here includes gold, gemstones and similar materials. India
consumes around 20 per cent of the global gold production and 75 per cent of
that amount goes into making jewellery. The jewellery sector is also supported
by banks and government policies so that the industry does not fall drastically.
Around 30 per cent of Indian jewellery gets exported to the United States
alone. Other such countries include Hong Kong, UAE, Singapore and
Belgium.
3. Automobile
From 2008 to 2013, the Indian automobile export sector has seen a rise 17
per cent, one of the fastest economic growths that has ever taken place in the
sector. Being one of the leading steel producers in the world, India invests
largely on the automobile sector and its export.
4. Machinery
There has been a 10.5 per cent increase in the export of heavy machinery
from India. These include cars, pumps, heavy machines, building construction
tools, agricultural equipment and so on.
5. Bio-chemicals
Value - 12 billion dollars
Manufacturing bio-chemicals is a nationwide business in India. The sector

contributes hugely to the national economy and is an essential part of it.
Manufacturers and exporters are spread all over the country. Research
facilities have also supported this sector to a large extent.
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6. Pharmaceuticals
Being a research-based industry, the pharmaceuticals sector in India has

seen a huge growth over the past few decades. Major pharma industries such
as J. B. Chemicals and Pharmaceuticals Limited, Suven Life Sciences
Limited, Dr. Reddy's Laboratories, Aurobindo Pharma, Luipin, Ranbaxy, Sun
Pharma, Zydus Cadila, Glowchem and Calyx play a huge role in promoting
the sector to the world market.
7Cereals
India is one the leading exporters of cereals and the second largest producer
of rice. Being an agriculture-driven country, India depends largely on its
produce of cereals and so does the importer countries such as Iran, Saudi
Arabia, Indonesia, UAE and Bangladesh.
8Iron and steel

Before Independence, India used to depend on its import of iron and steel. But
now, the country has gone through such an industrial growth that it has
become the fourth largest steel producer in the world. Steel tycoons such as
TISCO, IISCO, Bhilai Iron and Steel Centre, and Visweswaraya Iron And Steel
Limited play a major role in the iron and steel export from India.
9Textile
Textile is India's trump card when it comes to exports. India tops the chart in
jute production and also holds 63 per cent of the global market share in
textiles and garments.
10Electronics
When it comes to manufacturing electronic equipment, India is still seen as an

importing country.
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However, the export part of this sector thrives silently yet largely. India has the
third largest pool of electronic scientists and engineers and the domestic
demand of electronic goods propels the industry to grow faster and stronger,
making export all the more important.
Section ‘F’ Current Events
 Important national summits/ conferences
 First Global Aviation Summit to be held in Mumbai

Supported by ICAO, IATA, ACI and CANSO, the 1st Global Aviation Summit
will be held on January 15 and 16, 2019 at The Grand Hyatt in Mumbai. It
aims to focus on the celebration of 'Flying for All' and to provide a platform to
the aviation fraternity to highlight the challenges of the sector in the newly-
developing growth spots.
 Twenty Seventh International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) Fusion

Energy Conference held in Gandhinagar , Gujarat
It is organized by IAEA) It is hosted by the Department of Atomic Energy and
Gandhinagar-based Institute of Plasma Research. It aims to provide a
platform for discussion of major physics and technology issues and innovative
concepts related to the use of nuclear fusion as a source of energy.
International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) Organisation,
European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom), research institutes involved
in developing smaller plasma devices are participating in the conference.
 First 2-day India Idea Summit held in Mumbai by USIBC
The theme of the conference is „US and India connecting our future‟ . This is
the first time that US India Business Council (USIBC) is holding its annual
general body meeting in IndiA) About USIBC: The U.S.-India Business
Council (USIBC) was formed in 1975. USIBC currently has twelve Executive
Committees, covering every major business sector, namely Aerospace &
Defense Digital Economy/IT Energy, Environment & Enterprise Financial
Services Food & Agriculture Infrastructure Legal/Professional Services Media
& Entertainment Life Sciences Real Estate Retail Trade Tax.
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 Prime Minister Narendra Modi to inaugurate India's first ever Global

Mobility Summit
The main focus of the two-day summit, being organized by the NITI Aayog, is
to make Indian cities pollution free. The summit will deliberate on 5 themes
electrification & alternative fuels, reinventing public transport, goods transport
& logistics, and data analytics and mobility.
 India Banking Conclave 2018 held in New Delhi

Centre for Economic Policy Research (CEPR) and the government Think
Tank NITI Aayog organised two-day 'India Banking Conclave' (IBC) in New
Delhi between August 23 and August 24, 2018. Focus:- On reform in the
banking sector. About Centre for Economic Policy Research (CEPR) :
♦ CEPR is network of over 1100 researchers who are based mainly in
universities throughout Europe and collaborate in research and its
dissemination. ♦ It aims to enhance quality of economic policy-making within
Europe and beyond
 President Ram Nath Kovind inaugurated 'One District One Product'

Summit in UP
One District One Product (ODOP) scheme will help each district of Uttar
Pradesh to manufacture one product. Under this ODOP scheme, the state
government has set a goal of providing employment to 25 lakh people in five
years through the financial assistance of Rs. 25,000 crores. During the
summit, with a tagline of 'Nayi Udaan, Nayi Pehchan', the President
distributed loan sanction papers amounting to Rs 1,006.94 crore to 4,085
artisans from 75 districts. Uttar Pradesh is uniquely famous for product-
specific traditional industrial hubs across 75 districts, including
♦ Varanasi (Banarasi silk sari)
♦ Bhadohi (carpet)
♦ Lucknow (chikan)
♦ Kanpur (leather goods)
♦ Agra (leather footwear)
♦ Aligarh (locks)
♦ Moradabad (brassware)
♦ Meerut (sports goods)
♦ Saharanpur (wooden products)
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 International Conference on 'Data for New India' held in New Delhi

The Round Table Conference was inaugurated by D)V. Sadananda Gowda
(Union Minister of Statistics & Programme) and was organised by Ministry of
Statistics & Programme Implementation (MoSPI). Objective:- To discover
innovative ideas for improving the statistical system in India, taking cue from
the best practices followed in advanced countries like Canada, UK and
Australia)
 NITI Aayog to conduct India's first 'Global Mobility Summit' in

September
NITI Aayog is organising "MOVE: Global Mobility Summit" in New Delhi on
7th and 8th September, 2018. This summit will be inaugurated by PM
Narendra Modi. The six tracks or themes for the Summit will focus on:
(i) Asset Utilization and Services;
(ii) Comprehensive Electrification ;
(iii) Alternative Energy;
(iv) Reinventing Public Transit;
(v) Logistics and Goods Transport;
(vi) Data Analytics and Mobility.
♦ Full form of NITI- National Institution for Transforming India
 Prime Minister Narendra Modi to inaugurate Delhi End TB Summit and

to launch Tuberculosis Free India Campaign
Prime Minister Narendra Modi will inaugurate the Delhi End TB Summit in
New Delhi. The summit is being co-hosted by the Health Ministry, WHO South
East Asia Regional Office and Stop TB Partnership. He will also launch
Tuberculosis Free India Campaign. The campaign will take the activities of
National Strategic Plan (NSP) for TB elimination forward in a mission
mode. The NSP is backed by a funding of over 12,000 crore rupees over the
next three years to ensure that every TB patient has access to quality
diagnosis, treatment, and support. The new NSP adopts a multi-pronged
approach which aims to Detect all TB patients, with an emphasis on reaching
TB patients seeking care from private providers and undiagnosed TB in high-
risk populations.
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 Russia India-China Foreign Ministers Meet Begins in Delhi

Foreign Ministers of Russia, India and China (RIC) are holding a trilateral
meeting in New Delhi. The meeting is expected to review global and regional
issues of mutual interest as well as discuss trilateral exchanges and activities.
The External Affairs Minister will have separate bilateral meetings with her
Russian and Chinese counterparts. Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov
and Minister of Foreign Affairs of China Wang Yi have arrived in New Delhi.
 India to host 2017 Global Conference on Cyber Space

India will host Global Conference on Cyber Space (GCCS), the world‘s largest
conference on cyber space and related issues in New Delhi in November
2017. The theme for the GCCS 2017 is 'Cyber4All: An Inclusive, Sustainable,
Developmental, Safe and Secure Cyberspace'. This is for the first time GCCS
is taking place outside Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development (OECD) nations. It is a prestigious International Conference that
aims at encouraging dialogue among stakeholders of cyberspace. It was
incepted in 2011 in London.
 Prime Minister Narendra Modi to inaugurate HT Leadership Summit in

New Delhi
Prime Minister Narendra Modi will inaugurate the Hindustan Times Leadership
Summit in New Delhi. Former US President Barack Obama, Afghanistan Chief
Executive Abdullah Abdullah, Union Ministers Arun Jaitley, Ravi Shankar
Prasad, Uttar Pradesh Chief Minister Yogi Adityanath, Chattishgarh Chief
Minister Dr Raman Singh will also address different sessions during the two-
day event.
 Vice President inaugurates the third International Conference on

‘Yoga for Wellness’
The Vice President of India, Shri M. Venkaiah Naidu inaugurated the 3rd
International Conference on Yoga in New Delhi. The theme of this year‘s
conference is ―Yoga for Wellness‖. About 500 delegates, including 69 from
overseas countries attended the conference. This conference has been
organized with the technical and logistic support of Central Council for
Research in Yoga & Naturopathy and Moraji Desai National Institute of YogA)
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 India to conduct the First 'BIMSTEC Disaster Management Exercise-

2017' from October 10-13
The First ‗BIMSTEC Disaster Management Exercise- 2017‘ (BIMSTEC DMEx-
2017) are conducted by the National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) as the
lead agency from October 10-13, 2017 in Delhi and the National Capital
Region (NCR). It is a platform for sharing Best Practices on all aspects of
Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR), strengthening regional response and
coordination for Disaster Management among the BIMSTEC member
countries.
 Shared Value Summit Held in New Delhi

The Minister of Industry and Commerce, Suresh Prabhu was the chief guest
for the Shared Value Summit 2017. The summit was held in New Delhi. The
theme for this summit was ―Equity and Empowerment‖. Mr Prabhu will unveil
the Inclusive Business List and Emerging Social Enterprise List for the year
2017
 First ever National Conference on 'Mission Mode to address Under-

Nutrition' held in New Delhi
The Ministry of Women and Child Development holds the first ever National
Conference in New Delhi on Mission Mode to address Under-Nutrition in the
country. This conference is being organized keeping in mind the goal of
―Malnutrition Free India-2022‖. The Ministry of Women and Child
Development is the first-ever National Conference in New Delhi on Mission
Mode to address Under-Nutrition in the country.
 Japan PM Shinzo Abe in Ahmedabad for India-Japan Annual Summit

Prime Minister Narendra Modi received his Japanese counterpart Shinzo Abe
at Ahmedabad in Gujarat. The 12th edition of the India and Japan summit will
be held in Gandhinagar, Gujarat. The two leaders will review the recent
progress in the multifaceted cooperation between India and Japan under the
framework of their ‗Special Strategic and Global Partnership. They will also
attend a function to mark the commencement of work of India‘s first high-
speed rail project between Ahmedabad and Mumbai.
517
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 Belarus President on Two-Day Visit in India

India and Belarus are signed agreements on their bilateral cooperation,
including in defence and security, as the Eastern European country's
President Alexander Lukashenko is on a two-day visit to New Delhi. Belarus
and India are celebrating the 25th anniversary of the establishment of
diplomatic relations. Bilateral trade between India and Belarus stands at $200
million, with pharmaceutical products being India's main exports to the East
European nation.
 Fourth Session of the India-Tanzania Joint Trade Committee

The Fourth Session of the India-Tanzania Joint Trade Committee (JTC)
meeting was held in New Delhi. The Indian delegation was led by Minister of
State for Commerce and Industry Ms. Nirmala Sitharaman and Tanzanian
delegation was led by the Minister of Industry, Trade, and Investment Mr.
Charles John Mwijage. With an investment of US $ 2.2 billion, Tanzania is
among the top 5 investment destinations for IndiA)
 17th meeting of FSDC held in New Delhi

The seventeenth Meeting of the Financial Stability and Development Council
(FSDC) held in New Delhi under the Chairmanship of the Union Minister Arun
Jaitley. The meeting was attended by RBI Governor Dr. Urjit R. Patel, SEBI
chairman, IRDA Chairman along with heads and other senior officers of the
Government. FSDC is a super regulatory body for regulating financial sector
which is a vital for bringing healthy and efficient financial system in the
economy.
 PM Modi attend the Combined Commanders Conference in

Uttarakhand
Prime Minister Narendra Modi has arrived in Dehradun to inaugurate the
Combined Commanders Conference. The Prime Minister reached the Indian
Military Academy (IMA) campus from the Jolly Grant airport in a special Indian
Air Force (IAF) chopper. The military conference is being attended by the
defence minister Manohar Parrikar, the chiefs of Indian Army, Indian Air Force
and Indian Navy , besides the national security advisor and other experts in
the field of security and defence.
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 Important international summits/ conferences
 G20 Summit 2018 begins in Argentina

The 2018 G20 Summit began on November 28, 2018 in the city of Buenos
Aires, ArgentinA) It is the 13th meeting of Group of Twenty (G20) and the first
G20 summit to be hosted in South AmericA) Prime Minister Narendra Modi
will be representing India at the Summit and is scheduled to meet US
President Donald Trump, Chinese President Xi Jinping, UN Secretary-General
Antonio Guterres, Argentina President Mauricio Macri, Chilean President
Sebastian Pinera and German Chancellor Angela Merkel, on the sidelines of
the summit. Member Countries: The members of the G20 consist of 19
individual countries plus the European Union (EU). The 19 member countries
of the forum are Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, France,
Germany, India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Russia, Saudi Arabia, South
Africa, South Korea, Turkey, United Kingdom and the United States.
 First Global Conference on Air Pollution and Health held in Geneva

Theme of the conference was: "Improving Air Quality, Combating Climate
Change- Saving Lives". Air pollution exceeding recommended WHO (World
Health Organisation) Air Quality levels, causing 7 million deaths annually.
According to WHO, household air pollution is a leading killer in poor rural and
urban homes.
 First women-only foreign minister conference held in Canada

Women Foreign ministers from almost 20 countries have gathered in
Montreal, Canada and discussed topics including security and gender-based
violence. The meeting was co-chaired by Canada's top diplomat, Chrystia
Freeland, and the foreign affairs representative of the EU, Federica
Mogherini.
 G20 Trade And Investment Ministerial Meeting Held In Argentina

The main aim is to issues including increasing protectionism challenges to
promote global commerce and the new industrial revolution were discussed at
the meeting. The members of the G20 include Argentina, Australia, Brazil,
Canada, China, France, Germany, India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Republic of
Korea, Mexico, Russia, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, Turkey, the United
Kingdom, the United States and the European Union.
519
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 Sixth East Asia Summit And 15th India-ASEAN Economic Ministers

Meeting Held in Singapore
Commerce & Industry Minister Suresh Prabhu attended the 6th East Asia
Summit- Economic Ministers Meeting (EAS-EMM) and 15th India-ASEAN
Economic Ministers‘ Meeting (AEM) in Singapore.
 Tenth BRICS Summit 2018 Begins In Johannesburg

The 10th edition of BRICS Summit began in Johannesburg, South AfricA) It is
the 3-day long summit and will be attended by all the BRICS leaders. Indian
Prime Minister Narendra Modi‘s three-nation tour of Africa will culminate in
South AfricA) The theme for this summit is ‗BRICS in Africa: Collaboration for
inclusive growth and shared prosperity in the 4th Industrial Revolution'. He is
likely to meet Chinese President Xi Jinping on the sidelines of the summit.
About BRICS ♦ First BRIC Summit was held in June 2009 in Yekaterinburg,
RussiA) ♦ BRICS stands for Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South AfricA)
 HRD Minister inaugurated 17th World Sanskrit Conference in Canada

Human Resource Development Minister Prakash Javadekar inaugurated the
17th World Sanskrit Conference held at Vancouver, Canada, from July 9-13,
2018. There will be a special panel discussion on topics such as - History and
Education of Women in Vedic Literature, Sanskrit Buddhist Manus, Mimamsa
Beyond the Yagasala, the Yuktidipika forging a place for Sankhya, introducing
Bhagavata Purana Commentaries and research on the GargiyajyotisA) The
World Sanskrit Conference is being held in various countries across the globe
once in every three years and so far it has been held thrice in IndiA)
 Founding Ceremony of International Solar Alliance Held in Germany

A Curtain Raiser Event for the Founding Ceremony of the International Solar
Alliance (ISA) was held in Bonn, Germany. Shri Anand Kumar, Secretary,
Ministry of New and Renewable Energy was present at the event from the
Indian side. The ISA was jointly launched on 30 November 2015 by Prime
Minister of India, Narendra Modi, and then-President of France, H.E. Francois
Hollande, on the sidelines of the UNFCCC Conference of Parties 21 (CoP21)
at Paris, France.
520
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 9th BRICS summit held in Xiamen, China

The 9th Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa (BRICS) summit was held in
Xiamen, ChinA) The summit is hosted by China for the second time after the
2011 Summit. The theme of the 2017 BRICS Summit is ―BRICS: Stronger
Partnership for a Brighter Future‖. The four documents were signed in the
presence of BRICS Leaders and they are Strategic Framework of BRICS
Customs Cooperation BRICS Action Plan for Innovation Cooperation(2017-
2020) BRICS Action Agenda on Economic and Trade Cooperation.
Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) between BRICS Business Council and
New Development Bank on Strategic Cooperation.
 Prime minister Narendra Modi to Attend 9th BRICS Summit in China

Prime Minister Narendra Modi will attend the 9th Brazil, Russia, India, China
and South Africa (BRICS) Summit, Xiamen in China‘s Fujian province during
3rd to 5th of September. He will pay a State visit to Myanmar from September
5th to 7th. It is his first bilateral State visit to Myanmar.
 Two - day Indian Ocean Conference in Colombo

External Affairs Minister Sushma Swaraj will participate in the two-day Indian
Ocean Conference to be held in Colombo, SrilankA) The theme of the
conference is peace, progress, and prosperity. The conference will be held in
Temple Trees, the official residence of the Lankan Prime Minister. It is the
second ICO conference, the first was held in Singapore in 2016.
 12th G20 Summit hosted by Germany for the first time

12th G20 (Group of 20) summit has been hosted by Germany for the first
time, at the Hamburg Messe and Congress. Founded in 1999, G20 is an
international meeting between heads of states, finance ministers and central
bank governors from the world‘s 20 leading economies. The G20 group
makes up 85 per cent of the world‘s GDP and two-thirds of its population. G20
members are Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, France, Germany,
India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Russia, South Africa, Saudi Arabia,
South Korea, Turkey, United Kingdom, United States of America, The
European Union.
521
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 13th Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO) Summit Held in

Pakistan
The 13th Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO) Summit, an inter-
governmental regional group of 10 countries was held in Islamabad, Pakistan
on March 1, 2017 under the chairmanship of Prime Minister of Pakistan
Muhammad Nawaz Sharif. The theme of the summit was ―Connectivity for
Regional Prosperity‖. The summit aimed at increasing cooperation in areas
such as trade, energy, tourism and economic growth. The ECO was formed in
1985 by Pakistan, Iran and Turkey. It now also includes Kazakhstan,
Kyrgyzstan, Azerbaijan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Uzbekistan and
Turkmenistan. Highlights of the Summit : During the summit, the countries
discussed steps to be taken to augment cooperation in the areas of
connectivity, trade, energy, tourism, investment, industry, economic growth,
productivity, social welfare and environment. The Summit unanimously
adopted the Islamabad Declaration 2017 that represents the collective political
will of Member States to focus on connectivity of energy, infrastructure,
transport, and trade for regional prosperity. Besides, the Summit also adopted
the ECO Vision 2025 which provides guidelines to the Organization in all
spheres of ECO activity. iv. China was the special guest to address the
summit. The event highlighted the regional connectivity between Pakistan and
China based on the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) being
implemented to link up the two nations through a network of infrastructure
projects. The CPEC is part of the Chinese Belt and Road (B&R) project
through which China aims to link up the world for greater connectivity to
facilitate trade and commercial activities.
 Modi’s two-day flagship, ‘Start up India Summit’ begins in UAE

The two-day ‗Start up India Summit‘ began in Abu Dhabi, the capital of the
United Arab Emirates (UAE) on 23 May 2017.
The summit is the first of its kind to be held in the UAE. It is being organised
by the Consul General of India (CGI) in Dubai and the Embassy of India in
Abu Dhabi in partnership with iSPIRIT, a non-profit think tank and supported
by TiE, Dubai, a non-profit association dedicated to fostering
entrepreneurship.
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 Awards
 Kipchoge and Ibarguen won 'IAAF Athletes of the Year' awards

World marathon record holder Eliud Kipchoge of Kenya and 2018 triple and
long jump Diamond League champion Caterine Ibarguen of Colombia are the
2018 IAAF Male and Female Athletes of the Year. Both are first-time winners
of the award. Kipchoge is just the second Kenyan ever to win the award after
David Rudisha in 2010.
 S. Ramakrishnan won the Sahitya Akademi Award 2018 for

Sancharam
S.Ramakrishnan, a Tamil writer, traveller, essayist, and scriptwriter, has won
the Sahitya Akademi Award 2018 for his novel Sancharam. It poignantly
captures the lives of nagaswaram players in karisal bhoomi, the arid land, of
Tamil Nadu. The novel places their music and struggle for a livelihood in the
context of the decline of agriculture. Mr. Ramakrishnan has dropped his
doctoral thesis on William Faulkner to become a full-time writer. He said that
the prize comes as recognition for a person who opted for a career in writing,
it also sheds light on the lives of the nagaswaram players. Sancharam talks
about the shattered dreams of nagaswaram player Pakkiri, who wants to scale
the heights of music after learning about great musicians and their music from
his father.
 Croatia star Luka Modric wins Ballon d'Or to end Ronaldo, Messi era
Midfielder Luka Modrić, who led Croatia to their first-ever FIFA World Cup
final, won this year's Ballon d'Or. He was named 2018 FIFA World Cup's best
player and had also won this year's The Best FIFA Men's Player award. This
is the first time since 2007 that neither Cristiano Ronaldo nor Lionel Messi
won the Ballon d'Or. France World Cup winner Kylian Mbappe won the Kopa
Trophy - for the best player under the age of 21.
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 President Kovind presented the top IAF honour for Guwahati

helicopter unit
During his two day visit to Assam, President Ram Nath Kovind took part in
India Air Force's special programme held in Borjhar. He presented Standards
to 118 Helicopter Unit in Guwahati and Colours to Air Defence College,
Lucknow. The President in his speech said the world looks at India differently
today. India is seen as an eminent power, expected to play a prominent role in
shaping the global paradigm with regards to international security, trade and
commerce, and environmental protection. The Standards is the Indian Air
Force‘s topmost peacetime award for an operational or fighting unit. The
Colours is for a static unit.
 Azim Premji to be conferred highest French civilian award

Tech magnate and philanthropist Premji will receive the Knight of the Legion
of Honour or Chevalier de la Legion d'Honneur from Ambassador of France to
India, Alexandre Ziegler. The renowned entrepreneur will be bestowed with
this distinction for his contribution to developing the IT industry in India and his
economic outreach in France. Indian recipients who have received this
prestigious award include Shah Rukh Khan as well as Bengali actor Soumitra
Chatterjee.
 Fourteen Scientist awarded with Swarnajayanti Fellowships 2017-18

award: Dept. of Science and Technology (DST)
The awards were given in the areas of Chemical Sciences, Physical Sciences,
Life Sciences, Engineering Sciences, Earth & Atmospheric Sciences, and
Mathematical Sciences. The Following shows the list of awardees: Sripada S
V Ramasastry, Sebastian C Peter in Chemical Sciences KG Arun, GV Pavan
Kumar in Physical Science Girdhari Lal, Chandrima Das, Arun Kumar Shukla
in Life Sciences. Mayank Vatsa, Yogesh Singh Chauhan and Ashish Kumar
Sen in Engineering Sciences Saket Saurabh and Parthanil Roy in
Mathematical Sciences. Ramananda Chakrabarti in Earth and atmospheric
sciences.
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 Indian Wrestler Bajrang Punia becomes World No.1 in 65kg category

The 24-year-old, who won silver in World Championships recently, is on top of
the United World Wrestling rankings with 96 points, 30 points ahead of the
second-placed wrestler. He's the lone male Indian to figure in top-10 in any
category. Cuban Alejandro Enrique Vlades Tobier is a distant second with 66
points. Russia's Akhmed Chakaev (62) is in third place.
 Actor Anupam Kher honoured with 'Distinguished Fellow Award' in

Boston
He was awarded at the 3rd India Global Summit held at MIT Sloan School of
Management in Boston. The Summit discussed the growing importance of
relationship between India, USA and China. Anupam Kher holds the record for
winning the Filmfare Award for Best Comedian five times in total for: Ram
Lakhan (1989), Lamhe (1991), Khel (1992), Darr (1993) and Dilwale
Dulhaniya Le Jayenge (1995)
 Roopam Sharma Won World Health Summit Startup Award In Berlin

Roopam Sharma, a 23-year old Indian scientist, won the World Health Summit
Startup award, 2018 for his invention, Manovue – the world‘s first intelligent
personal assisting system for the visually impaired.
 M.S.Swaminathan receiving the first World Agriculture Prize

M.S.Swaminathan, an Agricultural scientist, will be receiving the first World
Agriculture Prize instituted by the Indian Council of Food and
Agriculture (ICFA) in New Delhi. The award carries a cash component of
$1,00,000. The prize will be presented by Vice-President Venkaiah Naidu at
Vigyan Bhawan at a special session, named Swaminathan Global Dialogue
on Climate Change and Food Security organised by the Indian Council of
Food and Agriculture. Prof.Swaminathan has been hailed by the United
Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) as ‗The Father of Economic
Ecology‘. He is Recognised worldwide for his basic and applied research in
genetics, cytogenetics, radiation and chemical mutagenesis, food and
biodiversity conservation. He is been awarded for his commitment towards the
ever-green revolution movement in agriculture.
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 Invest India Won UN Investment Promotion Award

The award was presented by Armenian President Armen Sarkissian to
Deepak Bagla, the CEO of Invest India, in Geneva, Switzerland. About
Investment Promotion Award The Investment Promotion Awards, organized
by UNCTAD, honors Investment Promotion Agencies and their governments
for their achievements. The Awards have been given annually since 2002 as
part of UNCTAD‘s investment promotion and facilitation programme.
 Arshdeep Singh won the Wildlife Photographer of the Year award

Arshdeep Singh, a 10-year-old boy from Punjab, won the Wildlife
Photographer of the Year award in 10 Years and Under category given by
UK's Natural History Museum. He won the award for the picture titled 'Pipe
Owls'. The picture was shot outside Kapurthala city with two owlets closely
sitting inside a pipe. His work was published in Lonely Planet UK, Germany
and India, and BBC Wildlife UK.
 Suheil F. Tandon won International Olympic committee IOC award

He is the Founder of Pro Sports Development (PSD) and Executive Director
of Martha Farrell Foundation. International Olympic Committee (IOC)
redistributes more than 90 % of its income to the wider sporting movement, to
help athletes and sports organizations throughout the world. They are
awarded to grassroots organizations conducting effective sport for all
programmes in various parts of the world.
 Sikkim Won FAO's Future Policy Award 2018

Sikkim won the UN Food and Agriculture Organisation's (FAO) Future Policy
Award 2018 for being the world's first 100% organic state. Sikkim defeated 51
nominated policies from 25 countries, winning the Gold Prize of the Future
Policy Award 2018, also known as ―Oscar for Best Policies‖. All the winners
received the awards in a ceremony at FAO headquarters during the
celebrations of the World Food Week in Rome.
 Winners of 2018 Nobel Peace Prize: Denis Mukwege and Nadia Murad
Dr Mukwege, a 63-year-old gynaecologist has been associated with the
treatment of various sexual assault victims in the Democratic Republic of
Congo. In 2008, he also won the UN Human Rights Prize.
526
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 Pankaj Kapoor gets 'Icons of Indian Cinema' Award at Jagran Film

Festival
Actor-director Pankaj Kapur is honoured with 'Icons of Indian Cinema' Award
at the closing ceremony of the ninth edition of Jagran Film Festival in Mumbai.
He is a three-time National Award winner. Pankaj Kapoor‘s most acclaimed
films were Raakh (1989), Ek Doctor Ki Maut (1991) Vishal Bhardwaj's
adaptation of Macbeth, Maqbool (2003), all three films for which he received
National Film Awards.
 Modi was awarded Champions of the Earth award

Prime Minister Narendra Modi has been awarded the United Nation‘s highest
environmental honour ‗Champions of the Earth‘ for his leadership of the band
pledge to eliminate single-use plastic by 2022. Six of the world's most
outstanding environmental changemakers were awarded the honour. The
award recognises the combination of bold, innovative and tireless efforts to
tackle some of the most urgent environmental issues of the times. Cochin
International Airport was honoured with the award for Entrepreneurial Vision,
for its leadership in the use of sustainable energy. Six Laureates Champions
of the Earth: 1.Narendra Modi, Prime Minister of India - Policy leadership
2.Cochin International Airport, World‘s first solar power airport -
Entrepreneurial vision 3.Emmanuel Macron, President of France - Policy
Leadership 4.Impossible Foods and Beyond Meat (together) - Science and
Innovation 5.Joan Carling, Environment and indigenous rights defender -
Lifetime achievement 6.Zhejiang, Zhejiang‘s Green Rural Revival Programme
- Inspiration and action
 Virat Kohli, Mirabai Chanu recommended for 2018 Khel Ratna Award
India cricket captain Virat Kohli and World champion weightlifter Mirabai
Chanu were jointly recommended for this year's Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna
award - the country‘s highest sporting honour. If approved by Sports Minister
Rajyavardhan Singh Rathore, Kohli will become the third cricketer to get the
Khel Ratna after the legendary Sachin Tendulkar (1997) and the double world
cup-winning captain skipper Mahendra Singh Dhoni (2007). Chanu was
recommended for the prestigious award following her gold medal in 48kg
category at the World Championships last year.
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 Two Indians, Bharat Vatwani and Sonam Wangchuk, received

Magsaysay Award
Bharat Vatwani and Sonam Wangchuk are among six individuals who
received this year's Ramon Magsaysay Award, popularly known as Asia's
Nobel Prize. The other recipients of the award are
♦ Youk Chhang,
♦ Filipino Howard Dee,
♦ Vietnam's Vo Thi Hoang Yen
♦ East Timore's Maria de Lourdes Martins Cruz.
 General Dalbir Singh Suhag awarded US Legion of Merit 2018

The award was given to Singh Suhag for exceptionally meritorious service as
Chief of Army Staff from August 2014 to December 2016. The Legion of Merit
is awarded in four degrees; Degree of Chief Commander, Degree of
commander, Degree of the officer, Degree of Legionnarie.
 President Ram Nath Kovind approved 131 Gallantry Awards including

one Kirti Chakra
On the occasion of 72nd Independence Day, President Ram Nath Kovind has
approved 131 Gallantry Awards to members of Armed Forces personnel and
Paramilitary Forces, which include one Kirti Chakra, three Bar to Sena Medals
(Gallantry), three Vayu Sena Medals (Gallantry), 11 Nao Sena Medals
(Gallantry), 20 Shaurya Chakras and 93 Sena Medals (Gallantry). Braveheart
hailing from Jammu and Kashmir, Sepoy Vrahma Pal Singh has been
shortlisted for the Kirti Chakra award posthumously. Rifleman Aurangzeb will
also be conferred with the third highest gallantry award.
 Kailash Satyarthi and ISRO Chief Gets 'Santokbaa Humanitarian'

Award
President Ram Nath Kovind presented the 'Santokbaa Humanitarian Award' to
Child rights activist and Noble Laureate Kailash Satyarthi and space scientist
A S Kiran Kumar, Chairman of Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) in
Surat, Gujarat. The award was instituted by Shree Ramkrishna Knowledge
Foundation (SRKKF) and led by diamond baron Govind Dholakia. The award
includes a trophy and a prize money of Rs 1 crore each to the awardees.
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 Sports
 India submits official interest to host 2032 Olympics

The Indian Olympic Association (IOA) has submitted a formal expression of
interest to bid for 2032 Olympics. Mumbai and Delhi are the top two options
under consideration by Indian Olympic Association (IOA), which has
approached the International Olympic Committee. India is holding on to its
dream of hosting the Olympic games for the first time. The bidding process is
expected to start in 2022 and a host city will be decided by 2025.
 Delhi Daredevils renamed as Delhi Capitals ahead of 2019 IPL season

The change in name comes close on the heels of JSW Sports picking up a 50
percent stake in the franchise. Ahead of the 2019 IPL auctions, the Delhi
Daredevils released former captain Gautam Gambhir and a host of
international stars which include Jason Roy, Glenn Maxwell and Liam
Plunkett, along with Indian paceman Mohammed Shami.
 Magnus Carlsen retains World Chess Championship 2018 title

World number one Norwegian Magnus Carlsen has retained his World Chess
Championship title, beating US opponent Fabiano Caruana in a tie-breaker
event. Carlsen's peak rating of 2882, achieved in 2014, is the highest in
history. Carlsen became World Champion in 2013 by defeating Viswanathan
Anand.
 BCCI announces two-year ban for age frauds

From the 2018-19 season, any cricketer who is found guilty of tampering
his/her date of birth will be disqualified and barred from participating in any
BCCI tournament for a period of 2 years i.e. 2018-19 and 2019-20 seasons.
Earlier, a cricketer faced a ban of one year. In September, the BCCI had
banned a Meghalya-bound Delhi player, Jaskirat Singh Sachdeva, for
producing a fake birth certificate to play in an Under-19 tournament.
 Shooter Esha Singh beats Bhaker, Heena to win 3 national golds

India's 13-year-old shooter Esha Singh beat the likes of Manu Bhaker and
Heena Sidhu to win three gold medals in women's air pistol events at the 62nd
National Shooting Championships. The 13-year-old won the Women's, Youth
Women's and Junior Women's 10m Air Pistol competitions at the event.
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 Saina Nehwal wins silver at Syed Modi International 2018, Sameer

Verma Retains Title
World number nine Saina Nehwal bagged silver at Syed Modi International
Badminton Championships 2018 after losing to world number 27 Han Yue.
India's Sameer Verma defeated Lu Guangzu of China in the men's singles
final to successfully defend and win the Syed Modi International
Championships in Lucknow.
 Mary Kom Won Sixth World Championship Title, Creates History

MC Mary Kom created history by becoming the first woman to win six boxing
world titles by clinching the 48 kg gold at the 2018 AIBA Women‟s World
Boxing Championships in New Delhi. The 35-year-old Indian legend got the
better of Ukrainian Hanna Okhota in the summit clash
 Asian Games gold medalist Hima Das appointed as UNICEF India

Youth Ambassador
Asian Games gold medalist Hima Das appointed as UNICEF India‘s Youth
Ambassador. She won a silver medal in the 400 meters sprint and also a gold
in the 4X400 meters relay at the Asian Games in Jakarta this year will work
towards supporting various initiatives by UNICEF.
 Harmanpreet Kaur becomes first Indian women to hit century in T20I

cricket
Captain Harmanpreet Kaur became the first ever Indian woman to smash a
hundred in T20I cricket, achieving the feat against New Zealand in the
Women's World T20 2018. The 29-year-old scored 103 runs off 51 balls,
which included eight sixes and seven fours. Further, Harmanpreet is only the
third cricketer to smash a century in Women's World T20.
 Lewis Hamilton Won Brazilian Grand Prix

Lewis defeated Red Bull‘s Max Verstappen in a collision with backmarker
Esteban Ocon (Force India). The incident dropped the Dutchman back to
second place and although he came back at Hamilton, he could not quite
catch him.
530
DefenceXP NDA & NA
 Indian Wrestler Bajrang Punia becomes World No.1 in 65kg category

The 24-year-old, who won silver in World Championships recently, is on top of
the United World Wrestling rankings with 96 points, 30 points ahead of the
second-placed wrestler. He's the lone male Indian to figure in top-10 in any
category. Cuban Alejandro Enrique Vlades Tobier is a distant second with 66
points. Russia's Akhmed Chakaev (62) is in third place.
 Rohit Sharma becomes first batsman to hit four T20I hundreds

He achieved this feat in 58 balls during the second T20I match against the
West Indies at the Bharat Ratna Shri Atal Bihari Vajpayee International
Cricket Stadium in Lucknow. He has surpassed the record of New Zealand‘s
Colin Munro who had scored three centuries.
 Indian Golfer Khalin Joshi Clinches Panasonic Open India Title

He became the seventh Indian to win the Panasonic Open India title in the last
eight editions of the tournament. He finished second best after finishing with a
par on the 18th.
 Roger Federer Won 99th Career Title In His Hometown

He won his 99th career title after winning the Basel Open for the ninth time in
his career. Federer, who was born in the Swiss city of Basel, won his fourth
title of the year in the form of the Basel Open.
 Virat Kohli Becomes Fastest To Reach 10,000 Runs In History Of ODI

Cricket
Virat Kohli scored his 37th ODI hundred, reaching the landmark in 116 fewer
innings than Sachin Tendulkar. He scored his 37th ODI hundred in his 205th
innings, while Sachin had reached the milestone in his 321st innings against
Pakistan in 2004.
 India won five more gold medals in Asian Para Games 2018
India won five gold medals in the sixth day of Asian Para Games 2018 in
Jakarta, Indonesia.
♦ K.Jennitha Anto clinched the gold in women‘s individual rapid P1 chess
event after beating Manurung Roslinda of Indonesia 1-0 in the final round.
♦ Neeraj Yadav and Amit Balyan clinched gold and silver medals respectively
in spear throwing event.
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
♦ Amit Kumar and Dharambir bagged gold and silver respectively in the men‘s
club throw F51 event.
♦ Kishan Gangolli, in the men‘s individual rapid VI-B2/B3 event, to claim the
top spot.
♦ In para-badminton, Parul Parmar won the women‘s singles SL3 event.
 India Won Silver In Asian Team Snooker Championship

India defeated Pakistan at the goal of 2-3 in the final of the Asian Team
Snooker Championship. Pankaj Advani and Malkeet Singh represented India
while Babar Masih and Mohammad Asif were from the Pakistani side. About
Asian Team Snooker Championship It is the premier non-professional
snooker tournament in Asia. The event series is sanctioned by the Asian
Confederation of Billiard Sports and started from 1984.
 Super Over introduced for the 1st time ever in Asia Cup
The 2018 edition of the Asia Cup will have a Super Over to decide tied
matches, for the first time ever in the history of the tournament. A Super Over
consists of six deliveries and two wickets for each side. The 14th edition of the
Asia Cup is currently being held in the United Arab Emirates in September
2018. 6 Teams participating in this tournament are: Afghanistan, Bangladesh,
India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Hong Kong.
 Indian women's hockey team enter Asiad final for 1st time in 20yrs
The Indian women's hockey team defeated three-time champions China 1-0 in
the semi-final to reach their first final at Asian Games since 1998. Indian
defender Gurjit Kaur scored the only goal of the match. India will face Japan in
the final match on Friday, August 31.
 Books and Authors
 Book On Mouth Cancer Arivu Released

November 7 is observed as National Cancer Awareness Day in India each
year. The day is marked out to teach people to combat the Cancer. Dr Murali
Mohan Chuntharu, a Dental Surgeon and also DK Home Guard Commandant
written a book named ―Arivu‖, which explains about Mouth Cancer and
prevention of the disease.
532
DefenceXP NDA & NA
 The Fire Burns Blue: A History of Womens Cricket in India, co-

authored by Karunya Keshav and Sidhanta Pathak
The book is co-authored by sports journalists Karunya Keshav and Sidhanta
Pathak. It is published by Westland Sport, a new imprint of Westland
Publications. It will provide a detailed narrative of cricket, from its origin to
present day.
 Rima Hooja authored Maharana Pratap: The Invincible Warrior

A new book on Maharana Pratap named ―Maharana Pratap: The Invincible
Warrior‖ authored by historian Rima Hooja released. The book narrates the
life of Maharana Pratap, the great Rajput warrior and also talks about the
famous battle of Haldighati.
 Anna Burns Wins 2018 Man Booker Prize For Her Novel Milkman
The book is about an 18-year-old girl, known as "middle sister", who is
sexually harassed by an older paramilitary figure, called the "milkman". About
Man Booker Prize The Man Booker Prize for Fiction (formerly known as the
Booker–McConnell Prize and commonly known simply as the Booker Prize) is
a literary prize awarded each year for the best original novel written in the
English language and published in the UK.
 Shashi Tharoor introduces his book The Paradoxical Prime Minister

and 29-letter word Floccinaucinihilipilification
Congress leader Shashi Tharoor introduced his new book ―The Paradoxical
Prime Minister‖ and a 29-letter word ―floccinaucinihilipilification‖. The cover of
the book shows Prime Minister Narendra Modi examining a wax figure of
himself at Madame Tussauds museum.
 Forbes Nominated author Preeti Shenoy Pens New Book, 'The Rule
Breakers'
The novel set in the '90s is the story of Veda who harbours big dreams but
finds herself trapped in an arranged marriage and realizes that her opinions in
real life don't matter.
533
DefenceXP NDA & NA
 VVS Laxman wrote down his autobiography titled '281 and Beyond'
The autobiography will be released by the Westland Publications on
November 20, 2018. Indian cricketer VVS Laxman who announced his
retirement from international cricket in 2012, played 134 Tests, scoring 8,781
runs at an average of 45.97. He also played in 86 ODIs for an aggregate of
2338 and average of 30.76 in the shorter format.
 Shane Warne autobiography No Spin to be released in October

Australian cricketer Shane Warne's autobiography ―No Spin‖ will have a global
release on October 4. The memoir is written with cricketer and TV presenter
Mark Nicholas. Warne played his first Test match in 1992, and took over
1,000 international wickets (in Tests and One-Day Internationals). He also
captained the Rajasthan Royals to victory in the IPL in 2008. He officially
retired from all cricket formats in 2013.
 Ramachandra Guha wrote a new book on Mahatma Gandhi

A book titled "Gandhi: The years that changed the world (1914-1948)" has
been written by Ramachandra Guha. This book will be released in September
2018 and narrates the story of Gandhi‘s life, from his departure from South
Africa to his assassination in 1948. This book will be will be published by
Penguin Random House India. The author has written several bestselling
books like ―India After Gandhi‖ and ―Gandhi Before India‖.
 Book titled 'Winning Like Sourav: Think & Succeed Like Ganguly'
released
This book is written by Abhirup Bhattacharya and has an interesting story
about Sourav Ganguly gambling on young players like Yuvraj Singh,
Mohammed Kaif, Zaheer Khan, Virender Sehwag, Harbhajan Singh to build
the concept of 'Team India' and 'Men in Blue'. The author has previously wrote
"Winning Like Virat: Think & Success Like Kohli"
 Vice President of India Venkaiah Naidu has received the book

Vedvigyan Alok
The Vice President of India, Shri M. Venkaiah Naidu has received the book
"Vedvigyan Alok" (Maharishi Aitareya Mahidas Praneet - Aitareya Brahmina ki
Vaigyanik Vyakhya) authored by Acharya Agnivarat Naishthik. The book is
divided into four broad volumes. The Book Vedvigyan Alok is the scriptural
verse in Vedas' prose.
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
 Book Release By Chief Of Army Staff

General Bipin Rawat, Chief of Army the Staff released the book 'Across the
Bench - Insight into the Indian Military Judicial System' by Lt Gen Gyan
Bhushan, former Army Commander, and Member 'A', Armed Forces Tribunal,
Lucknow Bench. The book deals with military judicial system vis-a-vis
command and management issues within the military establishments besides
the whole gamut of issues relating to veterans, their families, and dependents.
 'Exam Warriors'- A Book Penned Down By PM Narendra Modi

Released
The book penned down by PM Narendra Modi named 'Exam Warriors' was
launched to reach out to the students across the country ahead of their
exams. The book was released by External Affairs Minister Sushma Swaraj.
The book has been written to inspire youths to face the difficult moments of
examinations and life, with fresh and new energy. 'Exam Warriors' is
published by Penguin India, which runs into 208 pages.
 RK Singh Released book on Weather Information Portal for Indian

Power System
This reference document has been developed by Power System Operation
Corporation (POSOCO) in collaboration with IMD to facilitate enhanced
utilization of Weather Portal in all spheres of Power Sector.
 Atal Ji Ne Kaha A Book On AB Vajpayee launched by Brijendra Rehi

He is noted Doordarshan producer and senior journalist. The book published
by Darpan Publication.
 Shyam Saran's Book 'How India Sees the World' Launched

The book of Former Foreign Secretary Shyam Saran named ―How India Sees
the World: Kautilya to the 21st Century‖ launched by former Prime Minister Dr.
Manmohan Singh. The book records the crucial meeting of the CCS (Cabinet
Committee on Security) on the eve of India-Pakistan Defence Secretary-level
talks in May 2006.
535
DefenceXP NDA & NA
 Maharashtra CM Devendra Fadnavis released the book ‘Mann Ki Baat

A Social Revolution on Radio’ at Raj Bhavan
Governor of Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu (additional charge) C. Vidyasagar
Rao and Chief Minister of Maharashtra Devendra Fadnavis released the book
‗Mann Ki Baat – A Social Revolution on Radio‘ at Raj Bhavan. The book
includes transcripts of the first 23 episodes of Prime Minister‘s monthly
address on radio ‗Mann Ki Baat‘.This book will enable citizens to read and
understand Prime Minister Narendra Modi‘s vision and his ideas of
development. Union Minister Piyush Goyal was also present on the occasion.
‗Mann Ki Baat‘ is a new design of communication to reach people and it has
truly worked as a revolution. He chose All India Radio as the medium for
broadcasting his programme because it is the only medium which reaches
99% of the population of the country.
 Prime Minister Narendra Modi releases book Selected Speeches of

Pranab Mukherjee
Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi released the fourth volume of Selected
Speeches of Former President Pranab Mukherjee. The book titled- Selected
Speeches of President Pranab Mukherjee was released by Prime Minister
Narendra Modi in presence of President-elect Ramnath Kovind and other
dignitaries. Under Former President Pranab Mukherjee, Rashtrapati Bhavan
became a ‗Lok Bhavan.
 Amit Shah, Mohan Bhagwat releases coffee table book on PM

Narendra Modi’s life
BJP President Amit Shah and RSS Chief Mohan Bhagwat released a coffee
table book on Prime Minister Narendra Modi‘s life in New Delhi. The book –
Making of A Legend, composed by Sulabh International Founder Bindeshwar
Pathak. The book fully explains about the Life History of Narendra Modi.
 Venkaiah Naidu launches book titled ‘The Emergency-Indian

Democracy’s Darkest Hour
Union Minister Venkaiah Naidu launched the book which titled 'The
Emergency - Indian Democracy‘s Darkest Hour'. A book is written by Surya
Prakash who is a chairman of Prasar Bharati. The book was launched to
honor all those who fought for the restoration of democracy in the country in
the mid-1970s.
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
 President Pranab Mukkerjee launches 3 digital initiatives over e-

education
President Pranab Mukherjee launches digital initiatives Swayam, Swayam
Prabha, and National Academic Depository - in New Delhi to push e-
education in the country. The main aim of the initiatives is to raise the Gross
Enrollment Ratio in the higher education from 24.5 to 30 by 2020. Swayam
Prabha is the platform of 32 DTH channels devoted to telecasting high-quality
educational programs 24X7 using GSAT-15 satellite. National Academic
Depository will facilitate online verification of certificates.
 Michael Clarke’s launches his autobiography ‘My Story’

Former Australia captain Michael Clarke has launched his autobiography
named ‗My Story‘ in Kolkata in the presence of former Indian cricketer Saurav
Ganguly This book was triggered by how he was affected by Phil Hughes‘
death when India were touring Australia in 2014-15 Michael Clarke: Michael
John Clarke is a former international cricketer and captain of Australia. He
was retired from One Day cricket after the end of the 2015 Cricket World Cup
and retire from all forms of cricket after the final test of the Ashes Series from
August 2015.
537
DefenceXP NDA & NA
 Exercise
Q1. When did Joseph Stalin, Franklin D Roosevelt and Winston

Churchill met in Iran and agreed in Principle to form United Nations?
A) October 1943
B) August 1942
C) September 1944
D) November 1941
Q2. The United Nations General Assembly has designated, the year
2012 as the International Year of
A) Forests
B) Planet Earth
C) Reconciliation
D) Sustainable Energy for All
Q3. Which of the following sets of four countries is responsible for

forming the constitution of UNO in October 1944?
A) The United States. England. France and Soviet Union
B) United States, England, China and Soviet Union
C) United States, Germany, China and Soviet Union
D) United States, Canada, England and the Soviet Union
Q4. Which of the following attribute (s) are required to become a

member of the UN?
A) It must be a state, it must be peace loving
B) It must accept the obligations to the Charter; it must be willing to carry out
these obligations
C) It must be able to carry out these obligations
D) All the above
Q5. How many types of members are there in UN as per UN Charter?

A) 2
B) 4
C) 3
D) 1
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
Q6. What are the types of Category outline by the Charter of the UN?
A) Original members
B) States which may be admitted to the UN in accordance with the provision
of Article 4 of the Charter
C) A and B
Q7. Which of the following organ of UN who takes the decision whether
a state is peace loving and whether it is able and willing to carry out
obligations of the UN Charter?
A) UN General Assembly
B) Security Council
C) A and B
Q8. Which of the following article of the UN Charter envisages the

exclusion of the member from the UN?
A) Article 6
B) Article 8
C) Article 9
D) Article 10
Q9. Who recommends the UN General Assembly on the suspension of

UN membership?
A) Judicial Body
B) International Judicial Community
C) Security Council
D) All of the above
Q10. How many votes are required for the suspension of a state from
UN membership?
A) One-fourth majority
B) Two-third majority
C) Absolute majority
D) Two-fourth majority
539
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Q11. Deuterium, the oxide of which is also called Heavy Water, is an

Isotope of which of the following elements?
A) Carbon
B) Helium
C) Oxygen
D) Hydrogen
Q12. Why does the chips manufacturers fill nitrogen into the plastic
bags ?
A) To prevent chips from Oxidation
B) To prevent chips from Reduction
C) To increase the size
D) To increase the cost
Q13. When a substance loses oxygen during a reaction then it is said to

be ?
A) Oxidised
B) Deoxidised
C) Reduced
Q14. Which of the following non metal lies in liquid state at room
temperature?
A) Chlorine
B) Iodine
C) Astatine
D) Bromine
Q15. Which of the following Oxides are responsible for the Acid Rain?
A) Calcium Oxide and Silicon Dioxide
B) Iron Oxide and Zinc Oxide
C) Carbon dioxide and Aluminium Oxide
D) Sulphur Dioxide and Nitrogen Dioxide
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
Q16. Which of the following colour deviates the least when passing
through a Prism?
A) Violet
B) Green
C) Yellow
D) Red
Q17. On which of the following Principles does a Periscope work?

A) Diffraction
B) Dispersion
C) Total Internal Reflection
D) None of these
Q18. What is the Electronic Configuratin of Sodium in Shell one, two

and Three respectively?
A) 2,8
B) 2,8,2
C) 2,8,1
D) 2,8,3
Q19. Strong Permanent Magnets are used in?

A) Voltmeter
B) Loud Speakers
C) Fridges
D) Both b and c
Q20. Light Year calculations used by the Astronomers is a measure of

which of the following?
A) Temperature
B) Speed
C) Time
D) Distance
541
DefenceXP NDA & NA
Q21. Which of the following is the first Vitamin to be artificially

Synthesized in 1935?
A) Vitamin B6
B) Vitamin C
C) Vitamin A
D) Vitamin K
Q22. In which among the following organs of a Human Body Magnetic

Field is produced (a significant amount) ?
A) Heart and Brain
B) Lungs and Stomach
C) Lungs and Kidney
D) None of these
Q23. Gap between two neutrons is called?

A) Axon
B) Synapse
C) Impulse
D) Cytokinin
Q24. The main function of Xylem in a plant is?

A) Transport of amino acids
B) Transport of food
C) Transport of
D) Transport of Water
Q25. Which of the following is also called as the ―Suicidal ways‖ of the
cell ?
A) Lysosomes
B) Centrioles
C) Mitosis
D) Chromosomes
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DefenceXP NDA & NA
8. Answer. A
9. Answer. C
10. Answer. B
11. Answer. D
12. Answer. A
13. Answer. C
14. Answer. D
15. Answer. D
16. Answer. D
17. Answer. C
18. Answer. C
543
DefenceXP NDA & NA
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DefenceXP NDA & NA

S. No. Topic Page

NDA Exam Paper-I Mathematics Syllabus

2. Matrices and Determinants

4. Analytical Geometry of two and three dimensions

6. Integral Calculus and Differential equations

8. Statistics and Probability

Statistics: Classification of data, Frequency distribution, cumulative

Probability : Random experiment, outcomes and associated sample space,

NDA Exam Paper- II General Ability Test Syllabus

Section ‘A’ (Physics)

Rectilinear propagation of Light, Reflection and refraction. Spherical mirrors

Section ‘B’ (Chemistry)

Section ‘C’ (General Science)

Section ‘D’ (History, Freedom Movement etc.)

Renaissance, Exploration and Discovery; War of American Independence.

Section ‘E’ (Geography)

Section ‘F’ (Current Events)

NDA Exam Pattern for Mathematics and General Ability Test

Mathematics 1 120 2 ½ Hours 300

General 2 150 2 ½ Hours 600

Total -- 270 900 --

SSB Interview 4-5 days 900

NDA Interview. Details are as below:

NDA (Maths) Examination 2018 -1 Solved Paper

Q1. If n  N, then 121n – 25n + 1900n – (–4)n is divisible by which one of

Q2. If n = (2017)!, then what is 1/log2n + 1/log3n + 1/log4n + …. + log2017n

Q3. In the expansion of (1 + x)43, if the coefficients of (2r+1)th and (r+2)th

Q4. What is the principal argument of (–1 – i), where i = 1?

Q5. Let  and  be real numbers and z be a complex number. If z2 + z +

Q6. Let A and B be subsets of X and C = (A∩B)U(A∩B), where A and B

Q9. If the ratio of AM to GM of two positive numbers a and b is 5: 3, then

Q10. If the coefficients of am and an in the expansion of (1 + a)m + n are

Q11. If x + log15 (1 + 3x) = x log15 5 + log15 12, where x is an integer, then

Q12. How many four-digit numbers divisible by 10 can be formed using

Q16. The equation |1 – x| + x2 = 5 has

Q17. The binary number expression of the decimal number 31 is

Q18. What is i 1000 + i 1001 + i 1002 + i 1003 equal to (where i √ )?

Q19. What is 1/log2N + 1/log3N + 1/log4N + ………. + 1/log100 N equal to

Q20. The modulus-amplitude form of √ I, where i √ is

Q21. What is the number of non-zero terms in the expansion of

Q23. If x = 1 – y + y2 – y3 +.... up to infinite terms, where |y| < 1, then

Q24. What is the inverse of the matrix A = [ ] ?

Q25. If A is a 2 × 3 matrix and AB is a 2 × 5 matrix, then B must be a

26. If * + and A2 – kA – I2 = O, where I2 is the 2 × 2 identity matrix, then

Q27. What is the number of triangles that can be formed by choosing

Q28. What is n C r + 2 n C r-1 + n C r-2 equal to?

Q30. A survey of 850 students in a University yields that 680 students

Q32. If 0 < a < 1, the value of log10a is negative. This is justified by

Q35. What is the value of the sum ∑ where i √ ?

Q37. What is ⁄ equal to?

Q38. What is sin 105 + cos 105° equal to?

Q39. In a triangle ABC if a = 2, b = 3 and sin A 2/3, then what is angle B

Q40. What is the principal value of ?

Q41. If x, x – y and x + y are the angles of a triangle (not an equilateral

Q42. ABC is a triangle inscribed in a circle with centre O. Let  = 

Q43. If a flag-staff of 6 m height placed on the top of a tower throws a

Q44. What is ( ⁄ ) ( ⁄ )equal to?

Q45. A spherical balloon of radius r subtends an angle  at the eye of

Q46. If ⁄ = ⁄ then what is ⁄ equal to?

Q48. Suppose cos A is given. If only one value of ( ⁄ ) is possible,

Q49. If cos + cos + cos = 0, where 0  2, 0 2, 0 2,