Content

• Laplace Transform
• Transfer Function
• Block Diagrams
• Signal Flow Graphs
LAPLACE TRANSFORM

Laplace transform is defined as:

∞
ℒ[𝑓(𝑡)] = 𝐹(𝑠) = ∫0− 𝑓(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Inverse Laplace transform is defined as:

𝜎+𝑗∞
1
ℒ −1
𝐹 𝑠 = න 𝐹 𝑠 𝑒 𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑓 𝑡 𝑢 𝑡
2𝜋𝑗 𝜎−𝑗∞
𝑢 𝑡 = 1𝑡 >0
= 0𝑡 <0 => Use P.F.E
 Inverse Laplace Transform by Partial Fraction
Expansion
Consider the general form for the rational function
F(s) consisting of the ratio of two polynomials:

𝑏1 𝑠 𝑚 + 𝑏2 𝑠 𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑚+1
𝐹 𝑠 =
𝑠 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑠 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛
By factoring the polynomials, this same function could also be
expressed in terms of the product of factors as
Zero
𝑚
Π𝑖=1 𝑠 − 𝑧𝑖
𝐹 𝑠 =𝐾 𝑛
Π𝑖=1 𝑠 − 𝑝𝑖
Pole

Assuming for now the poles {pi} are real or complex but distinct, we
rewrite F(s) as the partial fraction

𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶𝑛
𝐹(𝑠) = + +⋯+
𝑠 − 𝑝1 𝑠 − 𝑝2 𝑠 − 𝑝𝑛
Coverup method

𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶𝑛
𝐹(𝑠) = + +⋯+
𝑠 − 𝑝1 𝑠 − 𝑝2 𝑠 − 𝑝𝑛

𝑠 − 𝑝1 𝑠 − 𝑝1
𝑠 − 𝑝1 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + ⋯ + 𝐶 .
𝑠 − 𝑝2 𝑠 − 𝑝𝑛 𝑛
If we let s = p1 on both sides of Eq. , then all the Ci terms will
equal zero except for the first one.

𝐶1 = 𝑠 − 𝑝1 𝐹(𝑠)ቚ
𝑠=𝑝1
The other coefficients can be expressed in a similar form:

𝐶𝑖 = 𝑠 − 𝑝𝑖 𝐹(𝑠)ቚ
𝑠=𝑝𝑖
Example

𝑠+4 𝑠+3
𝑌 𝑠 =
𝑠 𝑠+9 𝑠+2
Case III: Roots are complex or imaginary
Example
3
𝐹 𝑠 =
𝑠 𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 5

𝑥3
Content
• Laplace Transform
• Transfer Function
• Block Diagrams
• Signal Flow Graphs
Example
Content
• Laplace Transform
• Transfer Function
• Block Diagrams
• Signal Flow Graphs
Three examples of elementary block diagrams

(a) Series (b) parallel (c) feedback

Content
• Laplace Transform
• Transfer Function
• Block Diagrams
• Signal Flow Graphs
Mason’s Rule

Definitions

Loop gain. The product of branch gains found by

traversing a path that starts at a node and ends at the
same node, following the direction of the signal flow,
without passing through any other node more than
once.
Forward-path gain. The product of gains found by
traversing a path from the input node to the output
node of the signal-flow graph in the direction of signal
flow.

Nontouching loops. Loops that do not have any nodes in common. In Figure, loop G2(s)H1(s) does not touch loops
G4(s)H2(s), G4(s)G5(s)H3(s), and G4(s)G6(s)H3(s).

Nontouching-loop gain. The product of loop gains from nontouching loops taken two, three,
four, or more at a time. In Figure, the product of loop gain G2(s)H1(s) and loop gain G4(s)H2(s) is a nontouching-loop
gain taken two at a time. In summary, all three of the nontouching-loop gains taken two at a time are

The product of loop gains G4(s)G5(s)H3(s), and G4(s)G6(s)H3(s) is not a

nontouching-loop gain since these two loops have nodes in common. In
our example there are no nontouching loop gains taken three at a time
since three nontouching loops do not exist in the example.
Backup Slides