1. Explain Physical Design of Internet of Things (IOT) ?

Physical Design of IoT :

The physical design of an IoT system is referred to as the Things/Devices and

protocols that are used to build an IoT system. all these things/Devices are called
Node Devices and every device has a unique identity that performs remote sensing,
actuating and monitoring work. and the protocols that are used to establish
communication between the Node devices and servers over the internet.

Things/Devices :

Things/Devices are used to build a connection, process data, provide interfaces, provide
storage, and provide graphics interfaces in an IoT system. all these generate data in a form
that can be analyzed by an analytical system and program to perform operations and used to
improve the system.

Connectivity :
Devices like USB hosts and ETHERNET are used for connectivity between the devices and
the server.

Processor:

A processor like a CPU and other units are used to process the data. these data are further
used to improve the decision quality of an IoT system
Audio/Video Interfaces :

An interface like HDMI and RCA devices is used to record audio and videos in a system.
Input/Output interface :

To give input and output signals to sensors, and actuators we use things like UART, SPI,
CAN, etc.
Storage Interfaces :

Things like SD, MMC, and SDIO are used to store the data generated from an IoT device.
Other things like DDR and GPU are used to control the activity of an IoT system.

IoT Protocols :

These protocols are used to establish communication between a node device and a server over
the internet. it helps to send commands to an IoT device and receive data from an IOT device
over the internet. we use different types of protocols that are present on both the server and
client-side and these protocols are managed by network layers like application, transport,
network, and link layer.

Application Layer protocol :

In this layer, protocols define how the data can be sent over the network with the lower layer
protocols using the application interface. these protocols include HTTP, WebSocket, XMPP,
MQTT, DDS, and AMQP protocols.
HTTP

Hypertext transfer protocol is a protocol that presents in an application layer for transmitting
media documents. it is used to communicate between web browsers and servers. it makes a
request to a server and then waits till it receives a response and in between the request server
does not keep any data between two requests. 
WebSocket

This protocol enables two-way communication between a client and a host that can be run on
an untrusted code in a controlled environment. this protocol is commonly used by web
browsers.
Transport Layer :

This layer is used to control the flow of data segments and handle the error control. also,
these layer protocols provide end-to-end message transfer capability independent of the
underlying network.
TCP

The transmission control protocol is a protocol that defines how to establish and maintain a
network that can exchange data in a proper manner using the internet protocol.
UDP

A user datagram protocol is a part of an internet protocol called the connectionless protocol.
this protocol is not required to establish the connection to transfer data .

Network Layer :

This layer is used to send datagrams from the source network to the destination network. we
use IPv4 and IPv6 protocols as host identification that transfers data in packets.
IPv4

This is a protocol address that is a unique and numerical label assigned to each device
connected to the network. an IP address performs two main functions host and location
addressing. IPv4 is an IP address that is 32-bit long.

IPv6

It is a successor of IPv4 that uses 128 bits for an IP address. it is developed by the IETF task
force to deal with long-anticipated problems.
Link Layer :
Link-layer protocols are used to send data over the network's physical layer. it also
determines how the packets are coded and signaled by the devices.
Ethernet

It is a set of technologies and protocols that are used primarily in LANs. it defines the
physical layer and the medium access control for wired ethernet networks.
WiFi
It is a set of LAN protocols and specifies the set of media access control and physical layer
protocols for implementing wireless local area networks.
2. Explain IOT enabled smart cities ?
Smart City Definition :

There are a number of definitions of what makes a city ‘smart,’ the interconnected
information available today to better understand and control its operations and optimise the
use of limited resources.”

A smart city uses a framework of information and communication technologies to create,

deploy and promote development practices to address urban challenges and create a joined-up
technologically-enabled and sustainable infrastructure.

Smart City Technologies :

Smart cities use a variety of software, user interfaces and communication networks
alongside the Internet of Things (IoT) to deliver connected solutions for the public. Of these,
the IoT is the most important. The IoT is a network of connected devices that communicate
and exchange data. This can include anything from vehicles to home appliances and on-street
sensors. Data collected from these devices is stored in the cloud or on servers to allow for
improvements to be made to both public and private sector efficiencies and deliver economic
benefits and improvements to the lives of citizens.

Many of the IoT devices use edge computing, which ensures that only the most relevant and
important data is delivered over the communication network. In addition, a security system is
implemented to protect, monitor and control the transmission of data from the smart city
network and prevent unauthorised access to the IoT network of city’s data platform.

Alongside the IoT solutions, smart cities also use technologies including:

 Application Programming Interfaces (APIs)

 Artificial Intelligence (AI)
 Cloud Computing Services
 Dashboards
 Machine Learning
 Machine-to-Machine Communications
 Mesh Networks

Smart City Features :

Combining automation, machine learning and the IoT is allowing for the adoption of smart
city technologies for a variety of applications. For example, smart parking can help drivers
find a parking space and also allow for digital payment.

 Another example would be smart traffic management to monitor traffic flows and
optimise traffic lights to reduce congestion, while ride-sharing services can also be
managed by a smart city infrastructure.
  Smart city features can also include energy conservation and environmental
efficiencies. Such smart grid technologies can improve everything from operations to
maintenance and planning to power supplies.
 Smart city initiatives can also be used to combat climate change and air pollution as
well as waste management and sanitation via internet-enabled rubbish collection, bins
and fleet management systems.
 Aside from services, smart cities allow for the provision of safety measures such as
monitoring areas of high crime or using sensors to enable an early warning for
incidents like floods, landslides, hurricanes or droughts.
 Smart buildings can also offer real-time space management or structural health
monitoring and feedback to determine when repairs are necessary.
 In addition, smart city technology can improve the efficiency of manufacturing, urban
farming, energy use, and more.

How Smart Cities Work

Smart cities follow four steps to improve the quality of life and enable economic growth
through a network of connected IoT devices and other technologies. These steps are as
follows:

1. Collection – Smart sensors gather real-time data

2. Analysis – The data is analysed to gain insights into the operation of city services and
operations

3. Communication – The results of the data analysis are communicated to decision makers

4. Action – Action is taken to improve operations, manage assets and improve the quality of
city life for the residents.

 Citizens are able to engage and interact with smart city ecosystems through mobile
devices and connected vehicles and buildings.

 By pairing devices with data and the infrastructure of the city, it is possible to cut
costs, improve sustainability and streamline factors such as energy distribution and
refuse collection, as well as offering reduced traffic congestion, and improve air
quality.

SECURITY ISSUES OF SMART CITIES :

In order to manage the security of smart cities there is a need to implement measures such as
physical data ,authentication management and ID solutions.The security of smart cities which
means government, private sector enterprise, software developers, device manufacturers and
network service managers need to work together to deliver integrated solutions with core
security objectives. 

These core security objectives can be broken down as follows:

 1. Availability – Data needs to be available in real time with reliable access in order to
make sure it performs its function in monitoring the various parts of the smart city
infrastructure
2. Inegrity – The data must not only be readily available, but it must also be accurate.
This also means safeguarding against manipulation from outside
3. Confidentiality – Sensitive data needs to be kept confidential and safe from
unauthorised access. This may mean the use of firewalls or the anonymising of data
4. Accountability – System users need to be accountable for their actions and
interaction with sensitive data systems. Users logs should record who is accessing the
information to ensure accountability should there be any problems

Examples :

Cities across the world are in different stages of smart technology development and
implementation.These include:

Barcelona, Spain, USA,Dubai, United Arab Emirates,Hong Kong, China,Kansas City,

Missouri, London, England,Melbourne, Australia,New York,Reykjavik, Iceland
California, Singapore,Tokyo, ,Japan, Canada,Vienna, Austria etc.