CEE+3346b WZ PartI 2016

CEE 3346b
Steel Design
Course Notes Part I
Wenxing Zhou, PhD, PEng

CEE 3346b, Steel Design WZ, 2016
Acknowledgement:
The preparation of the present course notes would not be possible without the generous help
from Prof. F. M. Bartlett, who taught CEE3346b for more than 20 years at Western. The
guidance and assistance of Prof. Bartlett are gratefully acknowledged.
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Contents
1. STRUCTURAL STEEL ....................................................................................................................................... 5
What are Steel Structures?..................................................................................................................................... 5
Steel as A Material ................................................................................................................................................ 6
Manufacturing Process of Steel ............................................................................................................................. 6
Commonly Used Steel Sections ............................................................................................................................ 9
Standard Designations for Steel Shapes .............................................................................................................. 11
Built-up Sections ................................................................................................................................................. 12
Mechanical Properties of Steel ............................................................................................................................ 15
Types of Structural Steel ..................................................................................................................................... 18
Canadian Steel Grades ......................................................................................................................................... 18
Difference between the Specified Strength and Actual Strength ........................................................................ 23
2. STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN METHODS ................................................................................ 25
Review of Structural Analysis ............................................................................................................................. 25
Limit States Design ............................................................................................................................................. 29
Limit States Design of Steel Structures in Canada.............................................................................................. 31
Determination of Loads on Structures Based on NBCC ..................................................................................... 36
Tributary Area ..................................................................................................................................................... 39
Example ............................................................................................................................................................... 44
Lateral Load Paths in Buildings .......................................................................................................................... 45
Typical Configurations of Shear Walls and Diaphragm ..................................................................................... 50
3. TENSION MEMBERS ....................................................................................................................................... 51
Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................... 51
Behaviour ............................................................................................................................................................ 52
Connection for Tension Members ....................................................................................................................... 52
Resistance of Tension Members for ULS per S16-14 ......................................................................................... 58
SLS for Tension Members per S16-14 ................................................................................................................ 60
Example ............................................................................................................................................................... 61
4. COMPRESSION MEMBERS – SIMPLE COLUMNS ..................................................................................... 62
Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................... 62
Global Behavior of Simple Columns .................................................................................................................. 64
Resistance Equation for Simple Columns in S16-14 (Cl. 13.3.1) ....................................................................... 71
Local Buckling .................................................................................................................................................... 73
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Use of CISC Handbook for Compression Member Selection ............................................................................. 75

Design Examples ................................................................................................................................................. 77
5. LATERALLY SUPPORTED BEAMS .............................................................................................................. 79
Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................... 79
Moment-curvature Relationship for Beams ........................................................................................................ 81
Local Buckling .................................................................................................................................................... 84
Bending Resistance of Laterally Supported Beams per S16-14 .......................................................................... 85
SLS Checking for Beams .................................................................................................................................... 86
Use of CISC Handbook for Beam Design........................................................................................................... 87
Example ............................................................................................................................................................... 89
6. LATERALLY UNSUPPORTED BEAMS ......................................................................................................... 90
Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................... 90
Behavior of Laterally Unsupported Beams ......................................................................................................... 91
Torsional Stiffness of Cross Section ................................................................................................................... 93
Elastic Solution for LTB Capacity ...................................................................................................................... 95
Bending Resistance for Laterally Unsupported Beams per S16-14 (Cl. 13.6).................................................... 99
Brace Points for Laterally Unsupported Beams ................................................................................................ 100
Use of CISC Handbook for Design and Analysis of Laterally Unsupported Beams ........................................ 103
Examples ........................................................................................................................................................... 103
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1. STRUCTURAL STEEL
What are Steel Structures?
• Steel structures are constructed of prefabricated components that are assembled or erected
on site
• The designer’s task is to determine the location, orientation and size of the members with
due considerations of the required performance of the structure, life-cycle cost, as well as
supply, transportation and construction of the members.
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Steel as A Material
• Composed almost entirely of iron (>95%)
• The other main ingredients are carbon and manganese
o Increase carbon content → increase in strength and hardness but decrease in
ductility and toughness
 Carbon content typically limited to 0.15 – 0.3%
o Manganese: limit the content of impurities such as sulphur and phosphorus
 Manganese content typically between 0.5 and 1.75%
• Silicon (Si), copper (Cu), vanadium (V), nickel (Ni), chromium (Cr), niobium (Nb,
formerly columbium), molybdenum (Mo) and aluminum (Al) may be added to give steel
desirable qualities
Manufacturing Process of Steel
• Historical methods
o Blast furnace to produce pig iron: high carbon content → brittle
o Remove excessive carbon content from pig iron
 Bessemer Process invented by British metallurgist Henry Bessemer in 1856:
fast, inexpensive, but poor quality control
 Open Hearth Process invented by German engineer Karl Wihelm Siemens in
the 1860s: slow, large quantity and good quality control
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• Modern methods
o Basic oxygen furnaces: 2/3 of global steel production
 Deoxidation important for achieving good quality
• Killed steel: highest degree of deoxidation
• Semi-killed steel: intermediate degree of deoxidation
• Rimmed steel: lowest degree of deoxidation, NOT for structures
o Electric arc furnace (EAF): 1/3 of global steel production: can produce steel from
100% scrap steel, less energy per unit of production
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Electric arc furnace
• Turn molten steel into shapes
o Molten steel poured directly in the continuous casting process → cast into semi-
finished products such as slabs, billets and blooms
o Rolling process to produce finished products such as bars, plates and shapes
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Commonly Used Steel Sections
W = Wide flange S = Standard (a.k.a. “I-beam”)
Thickness constant Thickness varies
WWF = Welded wide flange L = Angle (equal or unequal legs)
C = Channel WT/WWT = Structural tees (cut from W/WWF shape)
HSS = Hollow structural sections
– Class C (cold formed) or

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– Class H (cold formed with stress-relieved or hot formed)
Also:
HP = H-pile; WRF = Welded reduced-flange; M = Micellaneous; MT = Tees cut from M-
shapes; MC = micellaneous channel; CFC = cold-formed channel, and SLB = super-light beams
Notes:
1. The major produer for WWF and WRF sections discontinued production in 2010. As a
results, the latest (11th) edition of the CISC Handbook (2016) no longer provides data for these
sections.
2. HP-shapes are square (equal flange width and overall depth) with parallel flange surfaces, and
with flanges and web of equal thickness.
3. M and MC-shapes are shapes that cannot be classified as W, HP, S or C-shapes. They are not
rolled in Canada and usually only produced by a single mill. Always check their availability
before spcifying their use.
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Standard Designations for Steel Shapes
• W-Shapes: W nominal depth in mm × mass in kg/m
o e.g. W250 × 73 = W shape with a nominal depth of 250 mm and a mass of 73 kg/m
(self weight = 73 × 9.81 N/kg = 716.1 N/m = 0.716 kN/m)
• Standard: S nominal depth in mm × mass in kg/m, e.g. S250 × 52
• Welded wide flange: WWF nominal depth in mm × mass in kg/m, e.g. WWF900 × 169
• Channel: C nominal depth in mm × mass in kg/m, e.g. C230 × 30
• Structural tees: WT (WWT) nominal depth in mm × mass in kg/m
o e.g. WT305 × 56.5
o e.g. WWT250 × 138
• Angles: L leg dimensions in mm × thickness in mm
o e.g. L64 × 64 × 7.9
o e.g. L127 × 89 × 13
• Hollow structural sections: HSS outside dimensions in mm × thickness in mm Class C
(H)
o e.g. HSS102 × 102 × 4.8 Class C
o e.g. HSS203 × 102 × 4.8 Class H
o e.g. HSS60 × 3.2 Class H
• Properties and dimensions of each shape are tabulated in Chapter 6 of the CISC Handbook
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Example: W 610 × 82: d×(b×t)×w =
A= Ix = Iy =
Built-up Sections
• Compound sections consisting of a number of shapes welded or bolted together
• Common in riveted construction
• Use the Parallel Axis Theorem to compute elastic section properties of built-up shapes
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I’ = I0 + Ar2
I0 = moment of inertia about the neutral axis (NA)

NA
r A = cross-sectional area
x’-x’
I’ = moment of inertia about an axis x’-x’ that is
parallel to and a distance r away from NA
1. Find an arbitrary datum axis
2. Transform properties of section of individual shapes to the datum: Ii’ = I0i + Airi2
3. Locate NA of the built-up section: 𝑟𝑟̅ = ∑ 𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖 𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖 / ∑ 𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖
4. Compute section properties of the built-up section with respect to NA:
𝐼𝐼𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 = ∑ 𝐼𝐼𝑖𝑖′ − 𝑟𝑟̅ 2 ∑ 𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖
Example: A built-up section consists of two W 610 × 82, one placed on top of another as
shown below. Determine A, Ix, Sx, Iy and Sy.
NA
x
𝑦𝑦�
Arbitrary datum
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Section Ai yi Aiyi Aiyi2 I0i
(103 mm2) (mm) (103 mm3) (106 mm4) (106 mm4)
∑ 𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖 𝑦𝑦𝑖𝑖
𝑦𝑦� = ∑ 𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖
=
𝐼𝐼𝑥𝑥 = ∑ 𝐼𝐼𝑖𝑖′ − 𝑦𝑦� 2 ∑ 𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖 = ∑ 𝐼𝐼0 + ∑ 𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖 𝑦𝑦𝑖𝑖2 − 𝑦𝑦� 2 ∑ 𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖 =
Section moduli at top and bottom of the cross section:
Sbx = Ix/yb =
Stx = Ix/yt =
Iy: Cross section is symmetric about the y axis, and NA for the built-up section is the same as
those for individual sections; therefore,
𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦 = ∑ 𝐼𝐼0𝑖𝑖 =
Syt = Syb =
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Mechanical Properties of Steel
• Three most important mechanical properties of steel: Strength, Ductility and Toughness
o Ductility: ability to undergo large (plastic) deformations without breaking
o Toughness: ability to absorb large amount of energy, important for resisting brittle
fracture
• Strength and ductility typically measured from the stress-strain curve obtained by carrying
out a standard tensile test, e.g. based on CAN/CSA G40.20-M or ASTM A370
σ = Load/Area
σu
σy Fracture
yield plateau strain hardening necking and
fracture
E
elastic range
εy εsh εu ε = Elongation/Gauge length
o σy = yield strength
 Some steels such as high-strength quenched and tempered steels do not have a
distinct yield plateau in their stress-strain curves as shown below
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 In this case, σy is defined as the stress corresponding to a plastic strain (or offset
strain) of 0.2% (σ0.2%) or the stress corresponding to a total strain of 0.5% (σ0.5%)
σu
σ0.5%
σ0.2%
0.2% plastic strain
0.5% total strain
εu ε
o σu = tensile strength, stress at peak point of the stress-strain curve
o εy = yield strain, strain at σy
o εsh = strain at onset of strain hardening
o εu = strain at σu, a.k.a. “uniform elongation”
o Ductility = εsh/εy or εu/εy (typical values of εu/εy are 10 – 20)
• Toughness
o Usually measured through the Charpy V-notch (CVN) impact test
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Heavy pendulum
Face facing away from

∆h
pendulum
10 mm
10 mm 2 mm
55 mm
CVN specimen
Energy
20 Joules Ductile (upper shelf) region
Transition region
Ductile-brittle transition Temperature

temperature (DBTT)
Brittle (lower shelf) region
• Other commonly used properties
o E = Young’s modulus, typically 200,000 or 206,000 MPa
o v = Poisson’s ratio, 0.3
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o α = coefficient of thermal expansion, 11.7 × 10-6 m/m/°C
Types of Structural Steel
• Carbon steel – contains carbon and manganese; yield strength ranges from 245 to 300
MPa
• High strength carbon steel – increased carbon content to achieve higher strength but
decreased ductility, toughness and weldability
• High strength low-alloy steel – achieves high strength by adding alloys
• Atmospheric corrosion resistance steel – low-alloy steel with alloying elements chosen to
achieve long-term atmospheric corrosion resistance
• High strength quenched and tempered steel – heat-treated steels for developing high
strength
Canadian Steel Grades
• Canadian structural steels are covered by two standards, CSA G40.20 and CSA G40.21,
prepared by the Canadian Standards Association (CSA) Technical Committee on
Structural Steel, G40.
o CSA G40.20 “General Requirements for Rolled or Welded Structural Steel” sets out
the general requirements governing the delivery of structural quality steels such as
definitions, chemical composition, variations in dimensions, methods of testing,
frequency of testing, heat treatment, repairs of defects and marking
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o CSA G40.21 “Structural Quality Steel” governs the chemical and mechanical
properties of 7 types and 8 strength levels of structural steels for general
construction and engineering purposes
o 7 types of structural steels covered in CSA G40.21
 Type W – weldable steel, meet specified strength requirement, typically for
buildings, compression members of bridges, etc.
 Type WT – weldable notch-tough steel, meet specified strength and CVN
impact requirements, typically for tension members in bridges and similar
members
 Type R – Atmospheric corrosion-resistant steel, a.k.a. “weathering steel”,
typically for unpainted siding and unpainted light structural members, etc.
 Type A – Atmospheric corrosion-resistant weldable steel, typical applications
similar to those of type W steel
 Type AT - Atmospheric corrosion-resistant weldable notch-tough steel,
typically for primary tension members in bridges and similar members
 Type Q – quenched and tempered low-alloy steel plate, typically for bridges
and similar structures
 Type QT – quenched and tempered low-alloy notch-tough steel plate,
typically for bridges and similar structures
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Minato Bridge (Osaka, Japan) constructed using 800 MPa-yield strength steel in 1974
o Table 6.1 of CISC Handbook 11th edition (page 6-8) summarizes steel types and
strength levels (i.e. steel grades)
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Notes to the table:
1) Designer needs to clearly specify the steel on structural drawings, e.g. “The steel to be
used shall be CSA G40.21 350W”
2) Not all grades are available for each type of steel
3) Since 1999, rolled W- and HP-shapes no longer produced in Canada
a. Most common grades available for W-shapes is ASTM A572 grade 50 and
A992 (a more restrictive version of A572 grade 50), with yield strength = 50 ksi
or 345 MPa
b. Some larger shapes may be ASTM A36, with yield strength = 36 ksi or 248
MPa
4) Weldable steels: semi-killed; notch-tough steels: killed
5) Atmospheric corrosion-resistant steels have corrosion resistance at least four times that
of conventional steels, but must have good drainage to perform well
o Yield strength decreases as steel thickness increases
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Difference between the Specified Strength and Actual Strength
• The yield strength specified in CSA G40.21 for a given steel grade (e.g. 350 and 400) is
the specified minimum yield strengths (SMYS) or nominal yield strength for the particular
steel grade
• Similarly, the tensile strength specified in CSA G40.21 for a given steel grade is the
specified minimum tensile strength (SMTS) or nominal tensile strength for the particular
steel grade
• For quality control purposes, steel suppliers test finished steel products and determine their
actual yield and tensile strengths at the mill and report the results on a “mill certificate”
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• The actual yield strength is typically higher than SMYS; similarly the actual tensile
strength is typically higher than SMTS.
• Designers must use SMYS and SMTS in the design; the actual yield and tensile
strengths reported on the mill certificate shall NOT be used as a basis for the design
for primarily the following reasons
o The fact that the actual yield (tensile) strength is in general higher than SMYS
(SMTS) has already been accounted for in the design code
o Mill tests are a quality control measure intended to certify that the produced steel
meets the minimum specification of a standard. They do not indicate precisely the
strengths of all individual steel members produced in the mill. That the actual yield
(tensile) strengths are in general higher than the corresponding specified values does
NOT mean that the former are always higher than the latter.
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2. STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN METHODS Y
Review of Structural Analysis

X
• Three pillars of structural analysis

Z
o Equilibrium condition: ∑ 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 = 0; ∑ 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 = 0; ∑ 𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧 = 0; ∑ 𝑀𝑀𝑥𝑥 = 0; ∑ 𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦 = 0,
and ∑ 𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧 = 0
 External forces and moments, including reactions, must be in equilibrium
 External and internal forces must be in equilibrium
 Many structures can be simplified as plane (i.e. 2D) structures: ∑ 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 =
0; ∑ 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 = 0, and ∑ 𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧 = 0
o Compatibility condition
 Deformation of the structure must be compatible with the constraints on the
structure
o Constitutive condition (stress-strain relationship)
 Allow the determination of stress and strain from force and moment, e.g.
σ = My/I
• Reactions and internal forces for statically determinate structures can be determined
based on the equilibrium conditions only
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• Determination of reactions and internal forces for statically indeterminate structures must
consider all three sets of conditions
o Implications: the design of indeterminate structures is typically an iterative process
• Free-body diagrams for equilibrium
o Method of joints – trusses, connections at suspension bridges, etc.
o Method of sections – trusses, beams, frames, etc.
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• Beam analysis
o Sign convention for internal forces
+
Sagging moment
Hogging moment
-
o Shear force and bending moment diagrams and deflections for common cases
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w P
EI
EI ∆c ∆c
l l/2 l/2
SFD
BMD
w
M
EI
∆c EI ∆t
l l
SFD
BMD
28 | 105
o Pages 5-146 to 5-164 of the CISC Handbook includes SFD, BMD and deflections
for a variety of loadings and support conditions for beams (follow their sign
conventions when using the formulae)
• Principle of superposition: under the linear-elastic condition, the load effects (reactions,
internal forces and deflections) due to multiple loads are the sum of the load effects due
to each load applied individually
Limit States Design
• What is a limit state? – a limiting condition beyond which a structure can no longer fulfill
its intended functions
• Limit states design: a design method in which the performance of a structure is checked
against various limiting conditions at appropriate load levels
o Known as the Load and Resistance Factors Design (LRFD) in the US
• Classification of limit states
o Ultimate limit states (ULS): limiting conditions beyond which all or part of a
structure will collapse, leading to safety-related consequences, e.g.
 Rupture
 Global buckling, local buckling and lateral-torsional buckling of beam-
columns
 Connection tear out
 Formation of a collapse mechanism

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 Overturning
o Serviceability limit state (SLS): conditions beyond which the behavior of a
structure under normal operating circumstances is unsatisfactory but not life
threatening, e.g.
 Excessive deflection and/or vibration
 Cracking
 Excessive permanent deflection
• Basic checking equation for ULS
φRn ≥ αSn (2.1)
(factored resistance ≥ factored load effects)
where φ = resistance factor (< 1.0);
Rn = nominal resistance (e.g. bending, shear, axial tension or compression, etc.) of a
structural member, calculated using the specified material properties, nominal dimensions and
applicable resistance equations
α = load factor (> 1.0), and
Sn = load effects due to the specified load
• The basic checking equation for ULS takes into account the fact that the actual resistance
(R) of a structural member and actual load effects (S) in the member are both random
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quantities that cannot be known for certain; the resistance and load factors (φ and α) are
used to ensure that the failure probability (i.e. the probability of R ≤ S) is acceptably
small.
Frequency Probability density

function (PDF) of S PDF of R
Sn Rn
R, S
Smaller (larger) overlapping area means

lower (higher) failure probability
Limit States Design of Steel Structures in Canada
• National Building Code of Canada (NBCC) includes minimum requirements for
buildings for the purpose of protecting the public
o Specifies wind loads, snow loads and earthquake loads for a given locality,
provides recommended design floor loads for buildings and stipulates fire
protection requirements for buildings
o Applies to all jurisdictions in Canada
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o Refers to various standards for detailed design requirements for specific materials
such as concrete, steel, wood, masonry, etc.
o Reviewed, revised and updated on a 5-year cycle (latest edition: NBCC 2015)
• Canadian Standards Association (CSA) standards govern the design and construction of
most Canadian steel structures
o Buildings: CSA-S16-14, “Design of Steel Structures” (2014 edition)
o Bridges: CSA-S6-14, “Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code”
o Welded structures: CSA-W59-13, “Welded Steel Construction (Metal-Arc
Welding)”
o Code-formed steel members: CSA-S136-12, “Cold Formed Steel Structural
Members”
o Non-CSA standards are also used to certain extent, e.g. ASTM A325 for bolts
• Companion action-based ULS checking equations in NBCC2015
φRn ≥ 1.4D (2.2a)
φRn ≥ 1.25D (or 0.9D) + 1.5L + [0.51.0S or 0.4W] (2.2b)
φRn ≥ 1.25D (or 0.9D) + 1.5S + [0.51.0L or 0.4W] (2.2c)
φRn ≥ 1.25D (or 0.9D) + 1.4W + [0.5L or 0.5S] (2.2d)
φRn ≥ 1.0D + 1.0E + [0.5L + 0.25S] (2.2e)
32 | 105
where
D = load effects due to specified dead load; a load factor of 0.9 shall be used if the
dead load counters the effects of other applied loads, e.g. sliding, overturning,
uplifts, etc.
L = load effects due to specified live load
S = load effects due to specified snow load
W = load effects due to specified wind load
E = load effects due to specified earthquake load
Underscored term on the right hand side of the equation = principle load
Bracketed [] term on the RHS of the equation = companion load
Notes:
1. φRn is a generic notation; factored resistance is typically denoted as Tr, Mr, Vr, etc.
in the design
2. The total factored load effects are typically denoted as Tf, Mf, Vf, etc.
3. A load factor < 1.0 for the companion actions accounts for the fact that the
companion load is unlikely to be at its maximum value when the principle load is
at its maximum value.
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4. The companion action load factor involving live and snow loads was increased
from 0.5 to 1.0 in 2015.
• Importance factor for buildings in NBCC
o Depending on the use and occupancy of a building, the importance of the building
is categorized as low, normal, high or post-disaster
o Depending on the importance of the building, its specified snow, wind and
earthquake loads (S, W and E) are multiplied by respective importance factors

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Importance Importance factor for
category Snow, Is Wind, Iw Earthquake, IE
Low 0.8 0.8 0.8
Normal 1.0 1.0 1.0
High 1.15 1.15 1.3
Post-disaster 1.25 1.25 1.3
• Serviceability limit states (SLS) checking equations
o Load factors in SLS checks are 1.0; that is, unfactored loads are used
o Specified snow load (S) is multiplied by 0.9 in SLS checks
o Specified wind load (W) is multiplied by 0.75 in SLS checks
o Common SLS checks
 Deflection: ∆ < ∆allowable
• Typical ∆allowable = span/180 to span/800, or height/200 to height/500
• ∆ depends on specific structures, e.g. ∆ = ∆D or ∆ = ∆D+L
 Shear applied to bolt: V < Vs
• For bolts in “slip critical” connections, shear due to specified loads
must be less than the allowable limit Vs
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Determination of Loads on Structures Based on NBCC
• Dead load (NBCC 4.1.4)
o Self-weight of the structural member
o Weight of all materials and equipment supported permanently by the member
 Lighting, signage, floor finish, mechanical, ceiling tile, etc.
o Forces due to prestressing
o Partitions
 Minimum specified load = 1 kPa (1 kPa = 1 kN/m2)
 Place in any probable position
• Live Load (NBCC 4.1.5)
o Minimum specified live loads for different occupancies specified in NBCC
 Uniformly distributed loads (UDL), Table 4.1.5.3, OR
 Concentrated loads in Table 4.1.5.10
o Live load reduction factor (LLRF)
 If a member supports a tributary area > 80 m2 used for assembly
occupancies with a specified live load ≥ 4.8 kPa OR for storage,
manufacturing, retail stores, garages or footbridges, then the specified live
can be multiplied by a LLRF, LLRF = 0.5+�20/𝐴𝐴, where A is the tributary
area (m2)
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 If a member supports a tributary area used for assembly occupancies with a
specified live load < 4.8 kPa (e.g. churches, courtrooms, classrooms, etc.),
NO LLRF is applied.
 If a member supports a tributary area > 20 m2 that is NOT for assembly
occupancies, then the specified live load can be multiplied by LLRF =
(0.3+�9.8/𝐵𝐵), where B is the tributary area (m2)
• Snow, wind and earthquake loads – not discussed in this course
o Specified snow and wind load depends on the locality and corresponds to a 50-
year return period
o Snow loads are NOT reduced by LLRF
o Wind loads covered in detail in CEE 4480b
37 | 105
38 | 105
Tributary Area
• Definition: the tributary area of a member is the area that, when loaded, changes the force
effects in the member
• The tributary area for a member may be determined by applying a uniformly distributed
load to a large area. The perimeter of the tributary area is defined by the points of zero
shear in the elements supported by the member.
• Computing the tributary area requires understanding of the load path
For the simple structure shown below, determine the tributary areas for beams AB and CD,
girder ACEG and column A.
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Simply
supported planks B N
D W
E
S
F
H
A
C
a
E
a
G
a
Girder Beam
Column b
A real-life example
similar to the above
structure
40 | 105
Apply a UDL to the floor

B D F H
Beams AB & CD support planks

Plank
b
• Planks span in the E-W
direction A E
C G
• Zero-shear point for the plank

SFD for planks
located at the centre; therefore
a/2 a
For beam AB, tributary area = ab/2
Framing Plan for the Floor
For beam CD, tributary area = ab
B D F H
Girder ACEG supports beams CD &
EF, which support the planks
b/2
• Beams span in the N-S
A E
C G
direction SFD for beams
2a
• Zero-shear point for the beam
located at the centre; therefore,
For girder ACEG, tributary area = 2a(b/2) = ab
If the UDL on the floor is q kPa, what are the types (i.e. UDL, concentrated load, or other) and
magnitudes of the loads applied on beams AB, CD and girder ACEG?

41 | 105
Column A supports beam AB and girder B D F H

3a/2
ACEG, which support the planks, therefore
For column A, tributary area = 3a/2(b/2) = b/2
3ab/4 A E
C G
If it is a multi-story building, and column A
supports 10 such floors, then the tributary

SFD for girder
area for column A = ______________ ACEG
the corresponding LLRF = ________________ (assuming LLRF = 0.5+�20/𝐴𝐴)
If the planks in the previous example are replaced by a reinforced concrete slab, which is capable
of spanning in both N-S and E-W directions, i.e. the so-called two-way action, the lines of zero
shear for the slab are assumed to bisect the angle between the lines of the supporting members.
42 | 105
• Beam AB, tributary area =

B 45° D F H
2
a/2(b – a/2×2) = (ab-a )/2
45°
• Beam CD, tributary area = ab- b
a2 a/2
A E
C G
• Girder ACEG, tributary area a/2
= 2a(b/2)+2(a/2)2(1/2)
B D F H
= ab + a2/4
• Column A, tributary area =

b
3ab/4 (the same as that for
a/2
A E
planks) C G
a/2 2a a/2
Notes:
• If b >> a, then the tributary area for beam AB can be simplified as ab/2 (because ab >>
a2 and ab-a2 ≈ ab); the tributary area for beam CD can be simplified as ab, and the
tributary area for girder ACEG can be simplified as ab (because ab + a2/4 ≈ ab). In this
case, the tributary areas are the same as those for the case of planks, i.e. as if the
reinforced concrete slab spans in the E-W direction only (one-way action).
• In practice, a two-way action with b/a ≥ 2 is typically simplified as a one-way action,
which spans along the short dimension only.
43 | 105
Example
The framing plan for an office floor is shown below. The specified dead loads are
• Floor finish 0.10 kPa
• Concrete slab + steel deck 2.65 kPa
• Mechanical, ceiling 0.45 kPa
• Partition 1.20 kPa
The masses of beams BM2 and girders G3 are assumed to be 114 kg/m and 228 kg/m,
respectively. All beams and girders are simply supported. The allowable deflection due to
specified live load only is span/360.
Determine the required factored shear resistance (Vr), factored moment resistance (Mr) and
moments of inertia for BM2 and G3 to satisfy the limit states design criteria.
6 7
G3
C
5000
BM1
BM2
BM2
BM2
BM1
G3
D
4@2000 = 8000
44 | 105
Lateral Load Paths in Buildings
The previous section discusses the gravity load paths. This section discusses the wind load
paths for single-story and multi-story buildings; understanding of such load paths is essential to
properly designing the structural members that resist wind loads.
Consider the single-story building shown below.
Wind direction
Diaphragm spans as a thin deep

beam between shear walls
Roof
diaphragm
h
Shear Wall
l 1 Wall spans vertically from

foundation to diaphragm
45 | 105
• Key concepts in the above figure
o Shear wall – a structural member with high in-plane stiffness for resisting the
lateral load; a shear wall can be a masonry wall, a reinforced concrete wall (either
cast-in-place or precast), or a braced steel frame.
o Roof diaphragm – the roof is acting as a thin deep beam (i.e. diaphragm) to
transfer the wind pressures on the windward and leeward faces to the shear walls at
the two ends of the building.
• Assume that the pressures on the windward and leeward walls are both uniform with
magnitudes pW and pL (kPa), respectively. Let’s look at the loads on different members
o Windward and leeward walls
Windward and leeward walls

with a unit width (1 m)
Simply-supported at
the roof diaphragm
pWh/2 (kN/m) pLh/2 (kN/m)
pW pL h
pWh/2 pLh/2
Simply-supported at the
foundation (grade beam)
o Roof diaphragm
46 | 105
Simply-supported at
the shear walls
(pW+pL)lh/4 (kN) (pW+pL)lh/4 (kN)
(pW+pL)h/2 (kN/m)
Plan view
o Shear walls
w w
(pW+pL)lh/4 (pW+pL)lh/4
h h
(pW+pL)lh/8 (pW+pL)lh/8
R = (pW+pL)lh/4
Anchor to
resist uplift (pW+pL)lh2/(4w) (pW+pL)lh2/(4w)
2
M = (pW+pL)lh /4
Masonry (or concrete) X-bracing as the shear wall –

shear wall acts as a NOT good for resisting
vertical cantilever seismic loads
47 | 105
Commonly used bracing configurations
K-bracing – Excellent for resisting seismic loads
The compressive diagonal is

w assumed to buckle and neglected
in the analysis
V = (pW+pL)lh/4
h ℎ2
T = V�1 + 𝑤𝑤2
V
V
Vh/w
2 2
Vh/w = (pW+pL)lh /(4w) (pW+pL)lh /(4w)
Tension bracing – a common variant of the X-bracing

and much simpler to analyze than the X-bracing
Note: If the use of a braced frame is not feasible, e.g. due to clearance requirements,
then the diaphragm reaction can be carried to the ground through a moment-resisting
48 | 105
frame. However, this is not a preferred solution because moment-resisting
connections are expensive to make.
Moment-resisting frames
Moment-resisting
w connection
Vh/w Vh/w
V/2 Vh/2 V/2
V
Vh/2 Vh/w
Vh/w
h
V/2
Vh/2 Vh/2 V/2
V/2 V/2
V/2 V/2
Vh/w Vh/w Vh/w Vh/w

May also be fixed to the
foundation, but not commonly
used due to higher cost
V(h1+ h2)/w
Tension bracing to V(1+h2/h1)

w transfer moment
V V V[1+h2/(2h1)]
h1
V(1+h2/h1)/2
h2
V/2 V/2 V/2 V/2
V(h1+ h2)/w V(h1+ h2)/w

V(h1+h2)/w V(h1+h2)/w
49 | 105
Typical Configurations of Shear Walls and Diaphragm
2-span diaphragm, shear walls Multi-span diaphragm with Highrise building with
on exterior and interior faces multiple interior shear walls elevator core as shear walls
and floor as diaphragm
Multi-story buildings
• Lump lateral loads at each floor level
• Usually consolidate lateral stiffness in one
bay for buildings with low to moderate
height
Designed to resist
gravity and lateral loads
Designed to resist
gravity loads only
50 | 105
3. TENSION MEMBERS
Introduction
• Members that are subjected to axial loads resulting in elongation of the member
• Design of tension members is one of the simplest problems faced by structural
engineers
• Examples
Truss
Bracing
Eyebar
Suspension Bridge Cable-stayed Bridge
51 | 105
Behaviour
• Similar to that of tensile coupon, but usually with the yield point not well defined due to
inevitable eccentricity of the load and presence of residual stresses
σu
Coupon
σy Fracture
general yielding strain hardening necking and
Member fracture
contained
plastic flow
elastic
Connection for Tension Members
• All structural members are connected to other structural members or foundation or both
• The resistance of tension members is largely dependent on how they are connected
• Common types of connection
o Welding (not covered in this course)
o Bolts
• Hole size for bolt connection
o Hole dia = bolt dia + 2 mm (to facilitate construction)

52 | 105
o If hole is punched, assume hole dia = bolt dia + 4 mm (S16-14 Cl. 12.3.2) to
account for damage of the material around the hole due to punching
o If hole is drilled, then hole dia = bolt dia + 2 mm
o Always assume hole to be punched
• Behaviour of tension members with holes and failure conditions
1. Elastic response: stress concentration at the edge of hole
2. Elastic-plastic response: yielding occurs but is highly localized
at the edge of hole
3. Full yield: the entire net cross section yields; this is NOT Load
increases
considered a failure condition because the regions of yield are
confined to the connection, whose length is typically small
compared with the overall length of the member
4. Fracture: the net cross section fractures leading to failure; this is
a brittle failure preceded by little warning
• Between Full yield and Fracture, the gross cross section may yield; this is a failure
condition, but is a ductile failure as it is typically preceded by large deformations
• Determination of net cross-sectional area, An
o Potential fracture planes
53 | 105
T T
w g1
w
g2
(a) Fracture plane perpendicular to (b) Fracture plane inclined to

the tensile force the tensile force
o If the potential fracture plane is perpendicular to the tensile force,
An = wnt (3.1)
where
wn = w - ∑𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖=1 𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 = net width of the member;
w = member gross width;
n = number of holes included in the fracture plane
di = diameter of the ith hole
t = member thickness
For (a) in the above figure, An = wnt = (w – 2d)t
o If the potential fracture plane is inclined to the tensile force (bolts are staggered),
54 | 105
𝑠𝑠 2
An = wnt + ∑ 𝑡𝑡 (3.2)
4𝑔𝑔
where
wn = w - ∑𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖=1 𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 , wn always calculated as perpendicular to the force
n = number of holes included in the inclined fracture plane
𝑠𝑠 2
∑ 𝑡𝑡 = empirical correction term to account for the fact that the inclined
4𝑔𝑔
fracture plane has a higher capacity than if the fracture plane is
perpendicular to the force
s = pitch, longitudinal (relative to the tensile force) centre-to-centre spacing
between holes
g = gauge, transverse centre-to-centre spacing between holes
𝑠𝑠 2 𝑠𝑠 2
For (b) in the above figure, An = (w – 3d)t + � + � 𝑡𝑡
4𝑔𝑔1 4𝑔𝑔2
o If the holes are not in the same plane, then flatten out one of the planes first
L1+ L2-t
L1
L2
t
55 | 105
o A given connection may have several potential fracture planes. The structural
engineer’s task is to identify the most critical fracture plane that has the smallest An
and governs the design.
• Shear lag
o Shear lag occurs when the transfer of load at a connection is not uniformly
distributed across the section of the connected element, for example, the following
figure shows a W-shape connected to the gusset plates through the flanges only,
which is common in practice
o Use the effective net area Ane to account for the shear lag effect
 Empirical relationship
Ane = (1 – e/L)An (3.3)

56 | 105
where L = length of connection, and e = eccentricity from the face of the
gusset plate to the centroid of the area that carries the load from the
gusset plate – not amenable to practical application
 Simplified formulae recommended by S16-14 (Cl. 12.3.3.2)
Connection type Ane
WWF, W, M, S and WT shapes, flanges connected 0.90An
with 3 or more lines of fasteners
Angles connected by only one leg with
≥ 4 lines of fasteners 0.80An
< 4 lines of fasteners 0.60An
All other shapes connected with
≥ 3 lines of fasteners 0.85An
2 or one lines of fasteners 0.75An
• Block shear failure
o A potential failure mode in some connections includes a combined tension and
shear failures (see the figure below)
 Tension failure on the portion of the critical section perpendicular to the
tensile force – governed by net cross-sectional area and tensile strength
57 | 105
 Shear failure on the portion of the critical section parallel to the tensile force
– governed by the gross cross-sectional area and yield strength in shear (τy)
 τy = Fy/√3 (von Mises yield criterion) ≈ 0.60Fy
Resistance of Tension Members for ULS per S16-14
• Yield of gross cross section (S16-14 Cl. 13.2)
Tr = φAgFy (3.4)
where
φ = 0.90, resistance factor
Ag = gross cross-sectional area (mm2)

58 | 105
Fy = nominal yield strength, i.e. steel grade (MPa)
• Fracture of net cross section (S16-14 Cl. 13.2)
o Without shear lag
Tr = φuAnFu (3.5)
o With shear lag
Tr = φuAneFu (3.6)
where
φu= 0.75, resistance factor (φu = 0.75 < φ = 0.9 accounts for the fact that the net cross
section fracture is a brittle failure with little warning; therefore, a lower resistance
factor is used to reduce the probability of failure by this mode)
An = net cross-sectional area (mm2)
Ane = effective net cross-sectional area (mm2) in the presence of shear lag effects
Fu = nominal tensile strength (MPa)
• Block shear failure (S16-14 Cl. 13.11)
Tr = φu[UtAnFu + 0.6Agv(Fy+Fu)/2] (3.7)
where
59 | 105
Ut = factor to account for the symmetry of the block of material under examination
(see table on the next page)
Agv = gross cross-sectional area of the critical shear failure plane
(Fy+Fu)/2 = so-called flow stress, i.e. the average of yield and tensile strengths, which
has been found by research to be a better strength parameter for the shear
planes
Connection type Ut
Flange connected tees 1.0
Angles connected by one leg and stem connected tees 0.6
Coped beam with one line of bolts 0.9
Coped beam with two lines of bolts 0.3
• The smallest Tr computed from the above equations must satisfy Tr ≥ Tf (factored tensile
load)
SLS for Tension Members per S16-14
• Slenderness ratio, L/r (ratio of unsupported length and least radius of gyration) shall be
less than 300 to prevent flutter vibration unless means of controlling behavior at SLS
are provided (S16-14, Cl. 10.4.2.2). No slenderness limit for cables.
60 | 105
Example
The long leg of an L200x100x20 is attached to a gusset plate using 2 lines of 20 mm diameter
bolts as shown. What is the factored tensile resistance of this member, assuming the bolts are
sufficient to develop the full member strength? Steel is CSA G40.21M-300W.
61 | 105
4. COMPRESSION MEMBERS – SIMPLE COLUMNS
Introduction
• Compression members are those structural elements that are subjected to axial loads
resulting in contraction of their lengths
• Simple columns are those compression members that are subjected to axial forces only,
i.e. no bending moment or shear force in the column
o Columns that are subjected to axial forces and bending moment (and shear
forces) simultaneously are called beam-columns, which will be discussed later in
the notes
• Examples
62 | 105
“Leaners” – simple columns that

“lean” on the braced bay that provides
the lateral stiffness of the building
Simple beam-column
connection using end plate
Simple beam-column
connection using clip angles
• Unlike tension members, compression members are assumed to resist the load with their
gross cross-sectional areas
o If bolt connections are present in the compression members, it can be assumed
that the bolts will replace the material removed for the holes
63 | 105
• Failure modes of simple columns
o Global failure – entire column fails globally by yielding or buckling
o Local failure – flange or web of the column fails by local buckling
• Simple columns can be categorized as short, intermediate, and long columns based on
their global behaviors and capacities under axial loads
Global Behavior of Simple Columns
• Short columns – capacity equals the yield load, σyA, i.e. the product of the yield stress
and (gross) cross-sectional area
• Long columns – capacity governed by the Euler buckling load
𝜋𝜋2 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 P P
𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = (4.1)
(𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾)2
where
Pcr = critical (Euler buckling) load
E = Young’s modulus
I = moment of inertia
KL = effective length (K is the effective length factor), which depends on the boundary
conditions of the column (see figure below)
Note:
64 | 105
1. The Euler buckling theory is an elastic theory, i.e. column must be elastic at the onset
of buckling for the theory to be applicable
2. Pcr is independent of the material strength and completely governed by the column
geometry (including boundary conditions) and bending stiffness (EI).
Effective length of columns (Appendix F of S16-14)
Note that I = Ar2, where r is the radius of gyration; therefore,
𝜋𝜋2 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝑟𝑟 2 𝜋𝜋2 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = = (4.2)
(𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾)2 (𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾/𝑟𝑟)2
𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜋𝜋2 𝐸𝐸
𝜎𝜎𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = = (4.3)
𝐴𝐴 (𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾/𝑟𝑟)2
where KL/r is the “slenderness ratio”, and σcr is the stress at the buckling load.
Introduce an alternative non-dimensional slenderness ratio, λ
65 | 105
𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 𝜎𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜎𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜎𝜎𝑦𝑦

𝜆𝜆 = �𝜋𝜋2𝐸𝐸 = � 2 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 2 = �𝜎𝜎 (4.4)
𝑟𝑟 (𝜋𝜋 𝐸𝐸)/( ) 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑟𝑟
We can then express Pcr as
1
𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝐴𝐴𝜎𝜎𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝐴𝐴𝜎𝜎𝑦𝑦 (4.5)
𝜆𝜆2
Equation (4.5) does NOT mean that Pcr is proportional to σy. Since λ2 is proportional to
σy, Pcr is in fact independent of σy.
o Buckling can occur about the x-x or y-y axis,
depending on the values of (KxLx/rx) and
(KyLy/ry).
o ry << rx for most W-shapes: the weak axis of
the section is often braced to reduce KyLy and KxL x
therefore prevent the weak axis buckling. KyL y
• Intermediate column – most common in practice
o Failure is known as inelastic buckling, characterized by large lateral deformations
preceded by yielding of the certain portion of the column cross section
o Capacity depends on
66 | 105
 Yield stress
 Bending stiffness
 Initial imperfection (out-of-straightness) of the column
 Residual stresses
Pcr/(σyA)
Short column capacity –
cross section yielding
Intermediate column capacity

– experimental data
Long column capacity –
Euler buckling load
Normalized capacities for short, long and intermediate columns as a function of λ
o Initial out-of-straightness is the deflection caused by the rolling process
 Camber: deflection measured along the depth of a section
 Sweep: deflection measured along the width of a section
 For W-shapes, the maximum permissible camber and sweep are L/1000,
see pg. 6-16 of CISC Handbook for limits on other sections
67 | 105
o Effects of initial out-of-straightness: causing bending and reducing the buckling
load (see figure below)
P P
Straight column
Buckled
shape Pcr
δ0 Pcr’
Initially crooked column
P δ
δ0
o Effects of residual stresses
 Residual stresses are self-balanced stresses typically caused by
68 | 105
• Uneven cooling of hot-rolled sections or of built-up sections after
welding
• Cold bending
• Local plastic deformation such as punching of holes
 For hot-rolled sections such as W-shapes, the flange tips and middle
portion of the web cool after rolling faster than the flange-web junctions.
The material that cools last tries to contract but is prevented by the rest of
the section that has already cooled and solidified, therefore resulting in
residual stresses in the cross section (see figure below)
 The magnitude and shape of residual stresses depend on
• Shape of the cross section, e.g. relative thickness of flanges and web
• Rolling or welding procedures
• Cooling conditions
• Material properties
69 | 105
 As a uniform compressive stress is applied to the column cross section
containing residual stresses, some parts of the cross section will yield
before the others and become ineffective in contributing to the bending
stiffness of the section, i.e. I → Ie (Ie < I); r → re; kL/re > kL/r, and the
buckling load thus decreases due to the presence of residual stresses
 Initially straight columns are more sensitive to the residual stress
distribution on the column cross section than initially crooked columns
o Effects of initial out-of-straightness and residual stresses on the capacity of
intermediate columns are studied using numerical analyses
70 | 105
Resistance Equation for Simple Columns in S16-14 (Cl. 13.3.1)
𝜙𝜙𝜙𝜙𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦
𝐶𝐶𝑟𝑟 = 1 ≥ Cf (4.6)
(1+𝜆𝜆2𝑛𝑛 )𝑛𝑛
𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦

𝜆𝜆 = � =� 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 =� (4.7)
𝑟𝑟 𝜋𝜋2 𝐸𝐸 (𝜋𝜋2 𝐸𝐸)/( )2 𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒
𝑟𝑟
where
Cr = factored compressive resistance
Cf = factored compressive load (obtained from structural analyses)
φ = 0.90, resistance factor
A = cross-sectional area (mm2)
Fy = nominal yield strength (MPa)
Fe = Euler buckling stress (MPa)

71 | 105
n = 1.34 for hot-rolled, fabricated structural sections and HSS manufactured in
accordance with CSA G40.20, Class C (cold-formed non-stress-relieved),
ASTM A500, or ASTM A1085
= 2.24 for doubly symmetric welded three-plate members with flange edge
oxy-flame-cut and HSS manufactured in accordance with CSA G40.20,
Class H (hot-formed or cold-formed stress-relieved)
Notes:
• As λ → 0, Cr → φAFy, i.e. short column capacity
1 1 1
• As λ → ∞, 1 → 1 → and therefore Cr → φAFy/λ2, i.e. Euler buckling load
𝜆𝜆2
(1+𝜆𝜆2𝑛𝑛 )𝑛𝑛 (𝜆𝜆2𝑛𝑛 )𝑛𝑛
for long columns
• KL/r should be the largest slenderness ratio, i.e. max{KxLx/rx, KyLy/ry}
• S16-14 limits maximum KL/r for compression members to 200 (Cl. 10.4.2.1)
o KL/r = 200 corresponds to λ = 2.7 for Fy = 350 MPa
• Criteria for determining the resistance of W-shapes and Class C HSS (i.e. n = 1.34) are
more stringent than those for WWF and Class H HSS (i.e. n = 2.24)
72 | 105
Local Buckling
• The column resistance equation, Eq. (4.6), assumes that the simple column will fail by
global buckling. For this assumption to be valid, the local buckling must not occur
before the global buckling
Local buckle in
flange
Local buckle in
web
73 | 105
• To ensure that local buckling does not occur before global buckling, S16-14 limits the
width-to-thickness ratios of the plate elements that are in compression, see Cl. 11 and
Table 1 of S16-14.
74 | 105
Use of CISC Handbook for Compression Member Selection
• Part 4 of CISC Handbook
• Table 4-3 (pg. 4-7 to 4-10): Cr/A (i.e. unit factored resistance in MPa) for n = 1.34 (W-
sections, Class C HSS, etc.), 1 ≤ KL/r ≤ 200 and Fy varying from 250 to 700 MPa
• Table 4-4 (pg. 4-11): Cr/A for n = 2.24 (WWF and Class H HSS), 1 ≤ KL/r ≤ 200 and Fy
= 350 MPa
• Pg. 4-17 to 4-147 (green pages): Cr for different sections with different effective
lengths, Fy = 345 MPa, with respect to the smallest r.
• Examples
1. Find Cr for a W250x131 column of ASTM A992 steel (Fy = 345 MPa) for a KL/r
= 89
Solutions:
- From Part 6 of CISC Handbook, for W250x131, A = 16700 mm2
- From Table 4-3, with KL/r = 89 and Fy = 345 MPa, Cr/A = 155 MPa
- Therefore, Cr = 155 MPa x 16700 mm2/1000 = 2590 kN.
2. Find Cr for an HSS 245x152x13 CSA G40.21 Grade 350W (Fy = 345 MPa) Class
H with KL/r = 89
Solution:
75 | 105
- From Part 6 of the Handbook, for HSS 245x152x13, A = 9260 mm2
- From Table 4-4, with KL/r = 89 and Fy = 350 MPa, Cr/A = 189 MPa
- Therefore, Cr = 189 MPa x 9260 mm2/1000 = 1750 kN.
3. Select the appropriate W310 column to carry Cf = 3600 kN, KxLx = 9500 mm,
KyLy = 4500 mm. Use ASTM A992 steel.
Solution:
- Use pg. 4-23, resistance with respect to KyLy (since ry < rx), for KyLy = 4500 mm,
the lightest ASTM A992 W310 section to resist Cf = 3600 kN is W310x129 with
Cr = 3820 kN.
- However, KxLx = 9500 mm > KyLy. Is the resistance about the x-x axis OK?
- From the Properties and Design Data on pg. 4-23, for W310x129, rx/ry = 1.76.
KxLx = 9500 mm is equivalent to KyLy = KxLx/(rx/ry) = 9500/1.76 = 5400 mm >
4500 mm.
- Therefore, KxLx governs. For W310x129 with equivalent KyLy = 5400 mm, Cr ≈
3270 kN (the closest KyLy in the table is 5500 mm) < Cf = 3600 kN, no good and
a heavier W310 section is required!
- Try W310x143, rx/ry = 1.76, equivalent KyLy = 5400 mm, Cr = 3630 kN (for
KyLy = 5500 mm) > Cf = 3600 kN. OK!
- Use W310x143.
76 | 105
Design Examples
• Example 1: A W310 × 283 section of G40.21 350A steel (Fy = 350 MPa) is used as a
main member. The column configuration is shown in the figure below. The cross
section is built up by welding two plates also of G40.21 350A steel to the outside faces
of the flanges. The column is braced at the mid-height to reduce the effective length
with respect to the weak axis only. Determine Cr.
77 | 105
• Example 2: Select a steel column to carry a factored axial load of 1800 kN, pin-ended,
effective length = 7400 mm, use ASTM A992 steel.
78 | 105
5. LATERALLY SUPPORTED BEAMS
Introduction
• Beams are members in a structure that resist loads primarily through flexure
• Examples
• Failure modes of steel beams
79 | 105
Bending failure
Lateral torsional buckling
Shear failure
Bearing failure (web crippling)
Local buckling of
compression flange
Lateral torsional buckling

of compression flange
Local web buckling
• Laterally supported beams are ones that while under load deflect vertically only and are
laterally supported at the compression flange such that lateral torsional buckling cannot
occur
80 | 105
o Laterally unsupported beams are ones that are not prevented from deflecting
laterally under vertical load and therefore may fail by lateral torsional buckling,
characterized by twisting and bending about the weak axis (i.e. a sideway kick)
o Analysis and design of laterally unsupported beams will be discussed in the next
section
Moment-curvature Relationship for Beams
• Curvature κ
𝜀𝜀 𝜀𝜀𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝜅𝜅 = = (5.1)
𝑦𝑦 𝑐𝑐
ε εmax
M M Neutral axis
c κ y
Plane section assumption: a plane section before

deformation remains plane after deformation
• Curvature of linear-elastic beams (Euler-Bernoulli beam theory)
𝑀𝑀
𝜅𝜅 = (5.2)
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
• Moment-curvature relationship
81 | 105
o Idealize the stress-strain σ
relationship of steel as σy
elastic-perfectly plastic
ε
εy
M M Neutral axis
c
εmax > εy σmax = σy

εmax = ∞ σy
M εy κ=∞
Mp
If residual stresses present
My
εmax = εy σmax = σy
εmax < εy σmax < σy
𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦 = 𝜎𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝑆𝑆 (5.3)
where My is the yield moment, and S = I/c is the elastic section modulus
82 | 105
𝑀𝑀𝑝𝑝 = 𝜎𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝑍𝑍 (5.4)
where Mp is the plastic moment, and Z is the plastic section modulus
o Plastic section modulus Z is the sum of the first moments of area of the tension
and compression zones taken about the plastic neutral axis
 Plastic neutral axis must equally divide the cross-sectional area such that
resultants of tensile and compression stresses are in equilibrium
 Plastic neutral axis ≠ elastic neutral axis, if the cross section is NOT
symmetric
o Shape factor = Mp/My = Z/S
o Theoretically, Mp can only be achieved with κ equal to infinity; in reality, about
98% of Mp can be reached with κ = 2εy/c
o If residual stresses are present in the cross section, they will lower My but do not
change Mp
o Examples for computing Z and the shape factor
 Rectangular cross section

Elastic and plastic
3
I = bh /12 neutral axis
h/2
S = I/(h/2) = bh2/6 h
b
Z = bh/2(h/4)×2 = bh2/4
83 | 105
Shape factor = Z/S = 1.5; therefore, Mp = 1.5My
 A T-section built up from two 20 ×
100 plates
Local Buckling
• The bending capacity of beams may be limited by local buckling of flanges and/or web
• Based on the slenderness ratios of flanges and web, S16-14 categorizes cross sections
into four different classes, i.e. Classes 1 through 4
84 | 105
• The moment-deflection curves corresponding to four different classes are illustrated in
the figure below
Bending Resistance of Laterally Supported Beams per S16-14
• Class 1 and Class 2 sections (Cl. 13.5.a)
𝑀𝑀𝑟𝑟 = 𝜙𝜙𝑀𝑀𝑝𝑝 = 𝜙𝜙𝜙𝜙𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 ≥ 𝑀𝑀𝑓𝑓 (5.5)
• Class 3 sections (Cl. 13.5.b)
𝑀𝑀𝑟𝑟 = 𝜙𝜙𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦 = 𝜙𝜙𝜙𝜙𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 ≥ 𝑀𝑀𝑓𝑓 (5.6)
• Class 4 sections – Mr is less than φMy,
o Use CSA S136-12 “Cold Formed Structural Steel Members” to compute Mr
o See Cl. 13.5.c for more details
where Mr is the factored bending resistance; Mf is the factored bending moment and φ = 0.9
is the resistance factor
85 | 105
• Width-to-thickness limits for different classes
Class Application Flange Web
Class 1 • Very stocky plate sections bel/t ≤ 145/�𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 h/w ≤ 1100/�𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦

• Achieves Mp and significant
plastic deformation
• Suitable for plastic design and
moment-resisting frames in
seismic zones
Class 2 • Stocky plate sections bel/t ≤ 170/�𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 h/w ≤ 1700/�𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦
• Achieves Mp but with no (or
limited) plastic deformation
Class 3 • Fairly thin plate sections bel/t ≤ 200/�𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 h/w ≤ 1900/�𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦
• Achieves My
Class 4 • Very thin plate sections
• Does not achieve My
Notes: 1. See Table 2 of S16-14 for a more general form of the above table
2. The h/w limits specified in Table 2 of S16-14 for the web depend on Cf (factored
compressive force). For h/w limits in the table are obtained by setting Cf = 0, which is
typical for beams.
SLS Checking for Beams
• Deflection limits –Appendix D of S16-14 “Recommended maximum values for
deflections for specified live, snow and wind loads”
• Vibration – Appendix E of S16-14 “Floor vibrations”
• To improve serviceability, increase the beam stiffness by
o using composite construction, concrete slab on steel girder

86 | 105
o using continuous construction, but at a price
Use of CISC Handbook for Beam Design
• Table 5.1, pg 5-6 to 5-8, classes of sections in bending for ASTM A992 and A572
Grade 50 steel (Fy = 345 MPa)
• Beam selection tables, pg. 5-14 to 5-29 (blue pages)
o For W-shapes, S-shapes and C-shapes

87 | 105
 W-shapes and S-shapes are corresponding to ASTM A992 and A572
Grade 50 steels (Fy = 345 MPa)
 C-shapes are corresponding to CSA G40.21 350W steel (Fy = 350 MPa)
o Values listed in the table
 Mr, Vr, b, Lu, Ix and Mr’
o Bolded shapes are the lightest and most economical
o Shapes highlighted in yellow are commonly used sizes and readily available in
general
88 | 105
• Beam load tables, pg. 5-30 to 5-50, uniformly distributed loads for simply supported W-
shape beams with the full lateral support condition
o ASTM A992 and A572 Grade 50 steels
Example
A simply supported beam has a span of 10 m. The compression flange of the beam is fully
supported laterally. The load cases on the beam include 1) a specified dead load of 11 kN/m
and a specified live load of 28 kN/m, and 2) a specified dead load of 24 kN/m and a specified
live load of 20 kN/m. The deflection due to the specified live load shall not exceed span/360.
Design the beam for the above two load cases. Use ASTM A572 Grade 50 steel.
89 | 105
6. LATERALLY UNSUPPORTED BEAMS
Introduction
• If the compression flange of a steel beam under vertical load is not braced laterally, the
beam may fail by lateral torsional buckling (LTB), characterized by the cross section
twisting and bending about its weak axis
o LTB is a 3D phenomenon as indicated in the figure below
• LTB involves the bending and twisting about the weak axis while the primary bending
action is about the strong axis
o No LTB if the primary bending action is about the weak axis (e.g. weak axis
bending of W-shapes and channels)
• LTB can occur at any stage of the loading history
90 | 105
Behavior of Laterally Unsupported Beams
• LTB of a beam is analogous to buckling of a simple column
o Beams can be classified as stocky, intermediate and slender beams just as
columns are classified as short, intermediate and long columns
o Stocky beams – short unbraced lengths
 Reach full cross-sectional strength, i.e. Mp for Classes 1&2 sections and My
for Class 3 sections
 Fail by local buckling
o Slender beams – long unbraced lengths
 Fail by LTB before any part of the member has yielded
 LTB capacity can be determined from elastic analysis
o Intermediate beams – intermediate unbraced lengths
 Fail by LTB after part of the member has yielded
91 | 105
 Inelastic LTB
• The lateral torsional buckling capacity of beams depends on
o Unbraced length
o Bending moment distribution along the length of the member
o Location of the applied load on the cross section
 Analysis of LTB typically assumes loads applied at the shear centre
 Loads applied below the shear centre tend to stabilize the member
 Loads applied above the shear centre tend to destabilize the member
• For doubly symmetric sections, the shear centre is at the intersection
of the two symmetric axes
• For singly symmetric sections, the shear centre is located on the
symmetric axis
92 | 105
o Restraint conditions at the supports
o Weak-axis bending stiffness EIy – resistance to the bending motion of LTB
o Torsional stiffness – resistance to the twisting motion of LTB
o Initial imperfection
o Residual stresses
Torsional Stiffness of Cross Section
• The torsional stiffness of the cross section consists of two components
o St. Venant stiffness = GJ
 G = E/(2(1+v)), shear modulus (v is Poisson’s ratio, equal to 0.3 for steel)
 J = St. Venant torsional constant for the cross section
• Closed hollow sections have much higher J than open sections
93 | 105
r b
Circular cross section Rectangular cross section

J = πr4/2 J = kbt3 (b > t)
(Polar moment of inertia)
b/t = 1 k = 0.141
5 0.290
10 0.313
∞ 0.333
bf
ri
tf
ro
w
h
tf
Circular hollow cross section
J = π/2(ro4 - ri4) I-shaped cross section
1 2 1
J = 3 ∑ 𝑏𝑏𝑡𝑡 3 = 3 𝑏𝑏𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑡𝑓𝑓3 + 3 ℎ𝑤𝑤 3
o Warping stiffness = ECw, bending of the top and bottom flanges to resist torsion
 Cw = warping constant
 For closed sections such as HSS, Cw = 0
94 | 105
Elastic Solution for LTB Capacity
• For a doubly-symmetric I-shaped beam subjected to end moments and having simply
supported boundary conditions, the moment at which LTB occurs, Mu, is given by
95 | 105
𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 2 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋𝐸𝐸 2
𝑀𝑀𝑢𝑢 = �𝐸𝐸𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 + 2 𝐸𝐸𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦 𝐸𝐸𝐶𝐶𝑤𝑤 = �𝐸𝐸𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 + � � 𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦 𝐶𝐶𝑤𝑤
𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿
(6.1)
St. Venant torsional Warping torsional

stiffness stiffness
EIy in both torsional stiffness terms

as a result of the coupling between
twisting and weak-axis bending
where L = unbraced length of the beam
Notes:
1. Eq. (6.1) is an elastic solution applicable to slender beams only just as the Euler buckling
load is an elastic solution applicable to long columns only
2. Eq. (6.1) is for uniform bending moment over the entire length of the beam, which is the
most severe condition for the moment distribution
• The Mu equation for a doubly-symmetric I-shaped beam given in S16-14 (Cl. 13.6) is
𝜔𝜔2 𝜋𝜋 2
𝑀𝑀𝑢𝑢 = �𝐸𝐸𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 + �𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 � 𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦 𝐶𝐶𝑤𝑤 (6.2)
𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿
where ω2 is the equivalent moment factor to account for the fact that not all members are
subjected to the uniform moment distribution, the most severe condition.
4𝑀𝑀𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝜔𝜔2 = ≤ 2.5 (6.3)
2
�𝑀𝑀𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 +4𝑀𝑀𝑎𝑎2 +7𝑀𝑀𝑏𝑏2 +4𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐2
96 | 105
Mmax = maximum factored bending moment within unbraced length
Ma = factored bending moment at one quarter point of unbraced length
Mb = factored bending moment at midpoint of unbraced length
Mc = factored bending moment at three-quarter point of unbraced length
o If the moment distribution between brace points is linear, then OK to use
𝜔𝜔2 = 1.75 + 1.05𝜅𝜅 + 0.3𝜅𝜅 2 ≤ 2.5 (6.4)
where κ = Mf1/Mf2, κ is positive for double curvature bending and negative for
single curvature bending
Mf1 = smaller factored bending moment at the two brace points
Mf2 = larger factored bending moment at the two brace points
o Eq. (6.3) is applicable to both linear and nonlinear moment distributions, and
therefore more general than Eq. (6.4); use Eq. (6.3) if unsure about the
applicability of Eq. (6.4)
o Examples for computing κ and ω2
97 | 105
Bending moment diagram κ ω2
κ = - Mf/Mf = -1 1.75+1.05(-1)+0.3(-1)2 = 1.0

Mf Mf
Single curvature Linear bending moment distribution,
bending, κ negative use Eq. (6.4)
l
Mf κ=0 1.75+1.05(0)+0.3(0)2 = 1.75
Mf κ = Mf/Mf = 1 1.75+1.05(1)+0.3(1)2 = 3.1 > 2.5
Double curvature ω2 = 2.5

Mf bending, κ positive
ω2 cannot be greater than 2.5
Ν/Α Nonlinear moment distribution, use

Eq. (6.3) to calculate ω2
N/A Nonlinear (piecewise linear) moment

Mmax distribution, use Eq. (6.3) to
calculate ω2
Ma = Mc = 0.5Mmax, Mb = Mmax
ω2 = 4/(1+4(0.5)2+7(1)2+4(0.5)2)0.5 =
4/(10)0.5 = 1.27
98 | 105
Bending Resistance for Laterally Unsupported Beams per S16-14 (Cl. 13.6)
Moment
capacity Mxc = Mp or My
Mxc
Linear interpolation
0.67Mxc
Mu (Eq. (6.2))
0 L
Stocky Intermediate Slender
• For doubly symmetric Class 1 and 2 sections, except closed square or circular sections
𝜙𝜙𝑀𝑀𝑢𝑢 𝑀𝑀𝑢𝑢 ≤ 0.67𝑀𝑀𝑝𝑝

𝑀𝑀𝑟𝑟 = � 0.28𝑀𝑀𝑝𝑝 (6.5)
1.15𝜙𝜙𝑀𝑀𝑝𝑝 �1 − � ≤ 𝜙𝜙𝑀𝑀𝑝𝑝 𝑀𝑀𝑢𝑢 > 0.67𝑀𝑀𝑝𝑝
𝑀𝑀𝑢𝑢
• For doubly symmetric Class 3 sections, except closed square or circular sections, and
for channels
𝜙𝜙𝑀𝑀𝑢𝑢 𝑀𝑀𝑢𝑢 ≤ 0.67𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦

𝑀𝑀𝑟𝑟 = � 0.28𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦 (6.6)
1.15𝜙𝜙𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦 �1 − � ≤ 𝜙𝜙𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦 𝑀𝑀𝑢𝑢 > 0.67𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦
𝑀𝑀𝑢𝑢
• See Cl. 13.6 for Class 4 sections, singly symmetric cross sections and closed square and
circular sections.
99 | 105
where φ = 0.9 is the resistance factor; Mp = φZFy, and My = φSFy.
o A simplified approach to account for the destabilizing effect due to the load
applied above the shear centre: use ω2 = 1.0 to compute Mu and use an effective
unbraced length = 1.2L for pin-ended beams and 1.4L for all other cases.
Brace Points for Laterally Unsupported Beams
• The brace points must be properly designed to prevent the lateral deflection of the
compression flange and rotation of the cross section
100 | 105
o S16-14 Cl. 9.2.5 Simplified analysis: bracing system should be designed for a
force Pb that is perpendicular to the member and equals at least 2% of the
factored compressive force in the member or element being braced
o S16-14 Cl. 9.2.6.2 Detailed analysis – direction method
𝛽𝛽(∆0 +∆𝑏𝑏 )𝐶𝐶𝑓𝑓

𝑃𝑃𝑏𝑏 = (6.6)
𝐿𝐿𝑏𝑏
where
Pb = force used to design the bracing system (in alternate directions when two or
more brace points exist)
β = 2, 3, 3.41, 3.63 or 4 for 1, 2, 3, 4 or more equally spaced braces, respectively,
unless a lesser value can be justified by the analysis
∆0 = initial misalignment of the member at brace points, typically equal to
Lb/1000
∆b = displacement of the bracing system and can be assumed to equal ∆0 for the
initial calculation of Pb
Cf = maximum factored compression in the member or element bounded by the
brace points on either side of the brace points under consideration
Lb = length between braces
101 | 105
o For both simplified and detailed analyses, ∆b shall not exceed ∆0 unless justified
by analyses
o Both steel decking and concrete slab effectively brace the top flange of the beam
supporting them as long as the connections are sufficient
 S16-14 Cl. 9.2.7: design deck/slab and connection to resist 5% of the
maximum factored force in the compression flange; assume the force to be
uniformly distributed along the length of the flange
 Do NOT rely on friction between slab (or wooden formwork) and beam to
provide the necessary connection
102 | 105
Use of CISC Handbook for Design and Analysis of Laterally Unsupported Beams
• Beam selection tables, pg. 5-14 to 5-29 (blue pages)
o Lu = Maximum unbraced length for which the beam can be treated as a laterally
supported beam such that the cross-sectional capacity (Mr in the tables) governs
o Mr’ = factored bending moment resistance for various unbraced lengths, if the
unbraced length is greater than Lu
 Note: Mr’ is calculated assuming ω2 = 1.0, the most conservative condition.
o Sections in the beam selection table are ordered by their cross-sectional
capacities. The capacities at various unbraced lengths are not in descending order.
For example, CISC Handbook pg 5-18, Mr Mr’ (16000 mm)
W1000x222 3040 kNm 527
W920x223 2960 587
Examples
1. Determine the magnitude of Pf if the beam is W410x60, ASTM A572 Grade 50 and is
(a) laterally supported over the full span
(b) Braced at ends and at load point
103 | 105
(c) braced at ends only.

Pf
5500 5500
104 | 105
2. Select a member of G40.21 350W steel to span 7300 mm as a simply supported beam. The
beam is laterally supported only at the ends and must carry a factored uniformly distributed
load of 43 kN/m.
105 | 105

CEE+3346b WZ PartI 2016

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CEE 3346b

Wenxing Zhou, PhD, PEng

Use of CISC Handbook for Compression Member Selection ............................................................................. 75

What are Steel Structures?

supply, transportation and construction of the members.

• Composed almost entirely of iron (>95%)

• The other main ingredients are carbon and manganese

o Increase carbon content → increase in strength and hardness but decrease in

ductility and toughness

 Carbon content typically limited to 0.15 – 0.3%

o Manganese: limit the content of impurities such as sulphur and phosphorus

 Manganese content typically between 0.5 and 1.75%

Manufacturing Process of Steel

o Blast furnace to produce pig iron: high carbon content → brittle

o Remove excessive carbon content from pig iron

 Bessemer Process invented by British metallurgist Henry Bessemer in 1856:

fast, inexpensive, but poor quality control

 Open Hearth Process invented by German engineer Karl Wihelm Siemens in

the 1860s: slow, large quantity and good quality control

o Basic oxygen furnaces: 2/3 of global steel production

 Deoxidation important for achieving good quality

• Killed steel: highest degree of deoxidation

• Semi-killed steel: intermediate degree of deoxidation

• Rimmed steel: lowest degree of deoxidation, NOT for structures

100% scrap steel, less energy per unit of production

Electric arc furnace

• Turn molten steel into shapes

finished products such as slabs, billets and blooms

Commonly Used Steel Sections

W = Wide flange S = Standard (a.k.a. “I-beam”)

Thickness constant Thickness varies

WWF = Welded wide flange L = Angle (equal or unequal legs)

C = Channel WT/WWT = Structural tees (cut from W/WWF shape)

HSS = Hollow structural sections

– Class C (cold formed) or

– Class H (cold formed with stress-relieved or hot formed)

HP = H-pile; WRF = Welded reduced-flange; M = Micellaneous; MT = Tees cut from M-

with flanges and web of equal thickness.

before spcifying their use.

Standard Designations for Steel Shapes

• W-Shapes: W nominal depth in mm × mass in kg/m

(self weight = 73 × 9.81 N/kg = 716.1 N/m = 0.716 kN/m)

• Standard: S nominal depth in mm × mass in kg/m, e.g. S250 × 52

• Channel: C nominal depth in mm × mass in kg/m, e.g. C230 × 30

• Structural tees: WT (WWT) nominal depth in mm × mass in kg/m

o e.g. WT305 × 56.5

o e.g. WWT250 × 138

• Angles: L leg dimensions in mm × thickness in mm

o e.g. L64 × 64 × 7.9

• Hollow structural sections: HSS outside dimensions in mm × thickness in mm Class C

o e.g. HSS102 × 102 × 4.8 Class C

o e.g. HSS203 × 102 × 4.8 Class H

o e.g. HSS60 × 3.2 Class H

Example: W 610 × 82: d×(b×t)×w =

• Compound sections consisting of a number of shapes welded or bolted together

• Common in riveted construction

I0 = moment of inertia about the neutral axis (NA)

parallel to and a distance r away from NA

1. Find an arbitrary datum axis

3. Locate NA of the built-up section: 𝑟𝑟̅ = ∑ 𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖 𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖 / ∑ 𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖

4. Compute section properties of the built-up section with respect to NA:

𝐼𝐼𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 = ∑ 𝐼𝐼𝑖𝑖′ − 𝑟𝑟̅ 2 ∑ 𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖