arts

Article
Italian Rationalist Design: Modernity between
Tradition and Innovation
Federica Dal Falco
Department of Planning Design Architecture Technology, Sapienza University of Rome, 00196 Rome, Italy;
federica.dalfalco@uniroma1.it




Received: 7 January 2019; Accepted: 15 February 2019; Published: 22 February 2019


Abstract: This article is devoted to the Italian modern project of the 1930s, which involved architecture
and design. The main theme is the influence that the autarchic economic policy of the Fascist regime
had in the choice of materials and technologies, and, above all, the manner in which this choice led
to innovative practices and figurative research. Through significant examples, the essay provides
some insight into the style of Italian rationalism, whose contradictory aspects—conditioned by
the regime’s policy—shaped urban planning, architecture, and design in the 1930s. I show that
the Italian rationalist culture is a field of investigation that is of considerable scientific interest
because it represents the idea of an integral project comprised of all the elements associated to a
building, including those that are still used today. In particular, I present a case study centered on
the Physics Institute of Rome’s Sapienza University (1933–1935) designed by the architect Giuseppe
Pagano Pogatschnig, analyzing its materials, technologies, and architectural features, as well as its
furnishings. Along these lines, the objective of this investigation is the transmission of a specific
knowledge, looking at objects as essential parts of the aesthetics of Rationalism in order to protect
and enhance the cultural heritage of modernity.

Keywords: rationalism; modern architecture and design; autarchic materials and technologies

1. Introduction
The essay outlines the frame of a particular period in the modern history of Italian architecture
and design, highlighting the modalities whereby technologies and new materials conditioned the
figurative and constructive research of that period.
The question is naturally linked to the Italian political, economic, and social events that, from the
early twenties of the twentieth century to the end of the Second World War, have influenced all aspects
of any project—architectures, furnishings, objects, and even fashion (Finessi 2014). The knowledge of
the autarchic production is necessary because, in addition to being fundamental in the maintenance
choices, the restoration of buildings, and the redevelopment of sites, it concerns an important
and conspicuous system of objects and furnishings that, as testimonies of the value of civilization,
participate in the enhancement of the Italian cultural heritage (Dal Falco 2014, pp. 7–13). Stone cladding,
aluminum alloys, reconstituted wood, and glasses manufactured by strictly national enterprises were
utilized to build public and private buildings and to make interior and exterior furniture.
Therefore, this article focuses on the modalities whereby the autarchic phenomenon manifested
itself in architecture and design, analyzing the most relevant production of traditional and innovative
materials obtained by exploiting local resources (Poretti and Vittorini 1996).
The knowledge and the arguments that this article is based on refer to a number of scientific
publications undertaken since the end of the seventies by academicians and scholars (Danesi and
Patetta 1976; Mantero 1984; Poretti 1990; Poretti 2013) and to research and activities promoted by
international associations such as Docomomo International and Docomomo Italia. In the space of

Arts 2019, 8, 27; doi:10.3390/arts8010027 www.mdpi.com/journal/arts

Arts 2019, 8, 27 2 of 40

approximately thirty years, research aimed at improving the knowledge and the preservation of Italian
architecture of the interwar period produced many scientific publications with disciplinary insights on
the “restoration of the modern” and some exemplary interventions that have become international
benchmarks (Poretti 2005).
In the field of design, there were some excellent contributions to the study of Italian design of the
period (De Fusco 2010; Finessi 2014; Gregotti 1982; Tonelli-Michail 1987; Polin and Selvafolta 1988).
Moreover, relevant research has been conducted on the interior design of modernity (Sparke 2008) and
on the Italian design from the postwar period to the postmodernist movement, emphasizing a craft
approach (Rossi 2015).
Sparke’s book is exemplary for its reconstruction of modern society through interiors. The interior
design of modernity is not outlined by focusing on objects, but “by its relationship with the everyday
experiences of modernity during those years, which were as profound in the office, the factory, the
department store and the café—as well as in the modern hospital and church—as they were in the
home” (Sparke 2008, p. 7).
Catharine Rossi examines the multiple ways whereby craft shaped Italian design from 1945 to
1981 in the context of the socio-economic, cultural, and political changes of the period. Rossi’s book is
a paradigm for the use of craft-based approaches and for the study of design and craft’s relationship in
other periods, cultures, and contexts.
My article builds on these methodologies and significant scientific contributions by reconstructing
the historical scenario in which the Italian rationalism developed and by analyzing some important
examples of architecture and design with special attention given to the influence of autarchy on them.
Hence, its peculiar contribution lies in the recognition of the values and meanings of the materials
and elements of design. In the Italian interwar context, this analysis is particularly useful for a better
understanding of three related issues—the extent to which autarchic policy and production conditioned
Italian architecture and design, the search for an Italian specific modernity that finds, in the design, a
space of experimentation freer, lighter, and more linked to contemporary international experiences,
and the role of the integral architect, who was fully involved in the design of objects reproducible
in series.
As mentioned above, in the field of architecture, the “restoration of the modern” is a discipline
recognized internationally. It was only recently that some studies dealt with the preservation of
furnishings and objects in their entirety (Abram 2014). In general, research activities on architecture
and design have been undertaken separately, while my article is based on the idea that research on
buildings and furnishings of Rationalism, consistent with the integrated method underlying their
conception and realization, should be conducted according to a unitary approach in order to reconstruct
their original framework at any scale.
Hence, the value this article adds relative to the existing literature on the matter is two-fold—it
analyzes the influence of the autarchic economic policy on production in the construction sector and
in the design components, and it shows that, relative to the productive context and the professional
profile of the Italian architects of those years, the furnishings and the objects of rationalist buildings
were parts of an integrated conception. Thus, theories and best practices concerning the regeneration
and the restoration of rationalist architecture should approach the architectural organism in its entirety,
assigning the same value to the objects as to the buildings.
In Section 2, I briefly outline the politico-economic context with a synthesis of the production
of autarchic materials and technologies and an overview of the ideological influence of the regime
on Italian rationalism. Through some examples, I demonstrate how the response of young Italian
architects was open to the principles of contemporary international architecture. Section 2.3 is devoted
to analyzing main architectural themes that emerge from the comparison of buildings, such as the use
of marbles and stones for exterior and interior cladding, the relationship between the structure and
the façade, the new flat roofs (often walkable) used as a solarium or as skylights, and the design of
window frames in iron or aluminum alloys that are results of innovative patents. Section 2.4 is focused
Arts 2019, 8, 27 3 of 40

on design, with some examples of Italian furnishings designed by the architects of rationalism for the
interiors of their buildings and manufactured by Italian companies. In particular, I describe the tubular
metal types that were inspired by the Bauhaus models and in general by the German production of the
period (Pansera 1998).
In Section 3, I present a case of global rationalist project, the campus of the Sapienza University of
Rome (1933–1936), with an in-depth analysis of the Institute of Physics designed in all its elements by
the architect Giuseppe Pagano Pogatschnig (1896–1945).
In the Conclusions, consistently with the viewpoint developed in the previous sections, I make
some points regarding the protection and enhancement of the cultural heritage of Modernity in its
entirety, considering architectures and furnishings as intrinsically interconnected.

2. The Political Economic Context and Its Influence on the Rationalism between Tradition
and Innovation

2.1. The Political Economic Context and the Autarkic Production for Architecture and Design
In order to understand the Italian context of those years and the evolution of the autarchic
economic policy, it is important to remember that the autarchic phenomenon began in the early 1920s
and developed gradually (Giardina et al. 1988).
The year that marked the seriousness of the economic crisis that had broken out two years earlier
was 1931. The theme of the relaunch of the internal market took a leading role, and the development of
scientific research on advanced technologies became a primary importance. In Italy, for this purpose,
the CNR (National Research Council) was founded under the direction of the inventor Guglielmo
Marconi (1).
Afterwards, with the worsening of the economic crisis, international trade weakened. Beginning
in 1933, the nationalist perspective strengthened and the autarchic process was subject to a strong
acceleration (Maiocchi 2013). Benito Mussolini assumed de facto dictatorial powers in January
1925 and, in view of the war, traced the definitive stance of the economic policy providing the
maximum exploitation of the national resources and a strict corporatist organization (Mussolini 1957).
The construction of the Italian Empire began to take place with the war of Ethiopia (1935–1936) and
became the dominant element of Italian politics. In October 1935, the League of Nations deliberated
economic sanctions against Italy, which were implemented in November. The embargo concerned
arms and ammunition, the system of loans and credits, and the import and export of goods necessary
for the war industry in Italy. These limitations forced Italy to concretely realize autarky, and the
construction sector was one of the most involved production areas. In 1937, autarky assumed the
characteristics of a concrete plan, consisting of a set of coordinated measures whose development was
expected to unfold over a long period (Anselmi et al. 1938). First of all, the scheme contemplated a
set of synergic actions focused on production applied to key industries (metallic minerals, textiles,
solid and liquid fuels) and on consumption associated with the fight against waste. These actions were
integrated by exploiting all the possibilities of replacing products whose raw materials were scarce or
not present on Italian soil (Maiocchi 2013; Dal Falco 2013, pp. 68–77).
The collapse of the scrap iron import, fundamental for the steel industries, posed the problem
of replacing metal materials with the consequent abrupt arrest of the construction sector. In order
to relaunch the construction industry, autarchic methods were studied, which included lightening
the weight of buildings by replacing traditional masonry with insulating materials. Naturally, these
products were linked to the spread of reinforced concrete and iron structures—a great technical
innovation that marked the architectural research of the modern and of the Italian architecture of the
period (Ascione 2017, p. 330).
Insulating materials were cheap products characterized by high performance. Italian products
referred to German, French, and American patents, and were distinguished by their constituent
elements, production techniques, and uses. The Eraclit, the Populit, and the Carpilite were made of
wool and vegetable residue conglomerates impregnated with magnesite and hardened with concrete.
Arts 2019, 8, 27 4 of 40

Other groups were those of wood fiber derivatives such as Masonite and Cel-bes, of cork such as
Absorbite and Asphalted Cork, or products that used wheat or rice straw stalks compressed and bound
with iron wire such as Solomit, licorice roots (Maftex), or sugar cane fibers (Celotex) (Cupelloni 2017,
pp. 328–29). The pumice stone—present on Lipari island—was used in concrete conglomerates. Then,
instead of the reinforcing steel used for pillars and beams, bamboo elements or aluminum bars were
tested (Maiocchi 2013).
The buildings’ external cladding played an important role in the construction industry autarky.
The use of stone materials, widely present on Italian soil, was strongly supported by autarchic
propaganda (Dal Falco 2017, pp. 86–87). Marbles, stones, and granites were especially recommended
for public works in order to reinforce the solidity and monumentality of buildings (Poretti 1990).
The use of reinforced concrete and steel skeletons resulted in a drastic reduction of the load-bearing
walls. Stones and bricks continued to be utilized to build structures, although the autarchic limitations
forbade the reinforced concrete for buildings over five floors (Cupelloni 2017, p. 28).
In the pillar-pillar plugging, solid bricks were replaced by perforated bricks, and the construction
of brick walls with interposed inner tube became a common practice. The Litoceramica, which
simulates the size and the appearance of the brick, is a new material for exterior cladding, and it has a
color palette ranging from dark red to yellow-grey. Hard and compact, the Litoceramica was produced
by the company S.A. Ceramica Piccinelli from Bergamo and was widely used in public works, as for
the Città Universitaria (1933–1935) in Rome (Bernardini 2017, pp. 146–50) (Figure 1).
The import restrictions, the national resources exploitation, and the fight against waste favored
the use of wood processing derivatives with the aim of producing practical and cheap coatings (Faesite,
Masonite, Insulite, Buxus) as replacements for traditional materials. In fact, this product category
presented all the characteristics of the regime propaganda that combined the autarchic appeals with
an emphasis for the new. The Faesite was obtained by recycling the sawmill residues and was
produced in five types from extra-porous to extra-hard. An interesting Faesite application was the
realization of removable and interchangeable partition walls that divided office rooms (Dal Falco
2002, pp. 257–89) in the office buildings of Montecatini (Milan, 1936–1938) by Gio Ponti (1891–1979).
Similarly, the Masonite was a reconstituted wood obtained from the manufacturing of waste wood
materials. This product was used to make some elements of the Rent House in Cernobbio (1938–1939)
by Cesare Cattaneo (1912–1943) (Figure 2). It is a small and complex building characterized by a
concept of poly-dimensionality evident in the façade design where the ground floor, the overhangs
of the balconies, and the last floor are balanced. The natural Masonite was used to cover the internal
doors and the external windows doors set back from the perspective line (Dal Falco 2002, pp. 365–81).
In the context of a modernity global design and in respect of autarchic indications, Buxus and
linoleum exemplify the trait d’union between architecture, interior, and furniture design.
The Buxus was produced by Giacomo Bosso paper mills in three types—the “concia molle” type
used to coat boxes and suitcases, the “semi-rigid” type for furniture veneering, and the “thin” type to
cover walls replacing the upholstery. For its flexibility, solidity, chromatic qualities, and the surface
marble veins, the Buxus was considered a product between craftsmanship and industry (Garda 2017,
pp. 346–47; Pagano Pogatschnig 1934, p. 48).
The architects Gino Levi Montalcini and Giuseppe Pagano Pogatschnig, pursuing a global
approach, designed the Palazzo Gualino office buildings, the interiors, and the furniture (Turin,
1928–1930) (Figure 3). The 67 kinds of furniture (tables, chairs, small armchairs, shelves, drawers)
were simple and squared, and they were all made using a fir structure and a plywood layer on which
the Buxus veneer was applied and then finished with a nitrocellulose spray paint (Chessa 1930, p. 21;
Capitanucci 2017, pp. 350–51).
The Buxus was well suited to the modernity compositional principles—the absence of decorative
elements, right angles, smooth surfaces, pure volume—and to the space’s geometric design where
the furniture was an integral part. The furnishings were manufactured by the F.I.P. (Fabbrica Italiana
Pianoforti) specialized in the pianos realization and active in Turin since 1917. In 1927, the company
Arts 2019, 8, 27 5 of 40

was acquired by Riccardo Gualino, who expanded the production to the office furniture sector in
conjunction with the Palazzo Gualino construction (Castagno 1994, p. 54) (Figure 4).
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Figure
Figure 1.
1. Litoceramica
Litoceramica Piccinelli
Piccinelli advertising.
advertising. Photo
Photo from
from (Baliviera
(Baliviera et
et al.
al. 1935).
1935).

Figure
Figure 2.
2. Rent
Rent House in
House in Cernobbio
in Cernobbio of
Cernobbio of Cesare
of Cesare Cattaneo
Cesare Cattaneo (1938–1939).
Cattaneo(1938–1939). Photo
(1938–1939).Photo from
Photofrom (Sartoris
from(Sartoris 1957,
1957,p.p.
(Sartoris1957, p.272).
Figure 2. Rent House
272).
272).
The linoleum was mainly composed of linseed oil, which was subsequently transformed into a
The
The linoleum
linoleum
thin coating and thenwas mainly
mainly composed
waslaminated composed of
of linseed
on jute sheets.linseed oil,
oil, which
Patented which was
was subsequently
by Frederick subsequently transformed
transformed
Walton in 1863, linoleum into
into
wasaa
thin
thin coating
coating
produced in and
and then
Italythen laminated
laminated
by the on jute
jute sheets.
on Linoleum
Società del sheets.ofPatented
Milan. Itby
Patented by
was Frederick
Frederick
proposed Walton
Walton in
in 1863,
1863,
in different linoleum
linoleum
models was
was
for color
produced
produced
and pattern in Italy
in among by the
Italy bywhich Società
the Società del
weredel Linoleum
Linoleum
stone, wood,of of Milan.
Milan.
and marbleIt was
It was proposed in different
proposedLinoleum
imitations. in different
wasmodels
models for color
for color
supported by
and
and pattern
pattern
articles among which
among1937),
(Marescotti were
were stone,
whichadvertising, wood,
stone,andwood, and marble
marble imitations.
andpublications
project from theLinoleum
imitations. quarterly was
Linoleum was supported
supported
magazine by
Modernby
articles
articles (Marescotti
(Marescotti 1937),
1937), advertising,
advertising,
Building-Linoleum Magazine, founded in 1929. and
and project
project publications
publications from
from the
the quarterly
quarterly magazine
magazine Modern
Modern
Building-Linoleum
Building-Linoleum Magazine,
Magazine,
Due to its aesthetic, founded
founded
chromatic, in
in 1929.
1929. qualities, it has been one of the most appreciated and
and hygienic
Due
Due to
to its
its aesthetic,
aesthetic, chromatic,
chromatic, and
and hygienic
hygienic
used materials for both domestic and public environments. qualities,
qualities, it it has
has been
been one
one of
of the
the most
most appreciated
appreciated
and
and used
used materials
materials forfor both
both domestic
domestic and
and public
public environments.
environments.
The
The floorings
floorings in in homes,
homes, offices,
offices, hospitals,
hospitals, schools,
schools, universities,
universities, marine
marine and
and mountain
mountain colonies,
colonies,
and
and representative buildings were in linoleum; they were classic with stone imitation design
representative buildings were in linoleum; they were classic with stone imitation design and
and
“modern” with geometric surfaces and solid colors (Bosia 2017,
“modern” with geometric surfaces and solid colors (Bosia 2017, pp. 368–69). pp. 368–69).
Arts 2019, 8, 27 6 of 40

The floorings in homes, offices, hospitals, schools, universities, marine and mountain colonies,
and representative buildings were in linoleum; they were classic with stone imitation design and
“modern” with geometric surfaces and solid colors (Bosia 2017, pp. 368–69).
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Figure 3.
Figure 3. Palazzo
Palazzo Gualino
Gualino offices
offices of
of Giuseppe
Giuseppe Pagano
Pagano Pogatschnig
Pogatschnig and
and Gino
Gino Levi
Levi Montalcini.
Montalcini. Turin
Turin
(1928–1930). Photo from (Danesi and Patetta 1976).
(1928–1930). Photo from (Danesi and Patetta 1976).

Figure
Figure 4. 4.
4.
Figure Palazzo
Palazzo Gualino
Gualino
Palazzo offices.
offices.
Gualino Meeting
Meeting
offices. room.
room.
Meeting Furnishings
Furnishings
room. inin
in
Furnishings Buxus.
Buxus. Photo
Photo
Buxus. from
from
Photo (Ponti
(Ponti
from 1930).
1930).
(Ponti 1930).

The linoleum
The linoleum allowed
allowed forfor continuous
continuous floorings,
floorings, which
which enhanced
enhanced the the linearity
linearity and
and the
the geometries
geometries
of rational environments
of rational environments
environments and and the furniture
and the furniture surfaces
furniture surfaces and
surfaces and interiors
and interiors (Dal
interiors (Dal Falco
(Dal Falco 2014,
Falco 2014, p.
2014, p. 25)
p. 25) (Figure
25) (Figure
(Figure 5). 5).
5).
Finally, there
Finally, there are
are white
white metals
white metals and
and glass
glass products,
products, which
which played
played aa major
major role
role in
in the
the most
most advanced
advanced
figurative and
figurative and constructive
constructive experimentation
experimentationof ofarchitecture
architectureand
architecture andrationalist
and rationalistdesign.
rationalist design.
design.
Initially, aluminum had a fundamental importance in aeronautics
Initially, aluminum had a fundamental importance in aeronautics but also but also became
became essential
essential in in
other productive
other productive sectors
sectors including
including window
window frames,
frames, handles
handles andand balustrades,
and balustrades, household
balustrades, household objects
household objects (pots,
objects (pots,
(pots,
cutlery), and furniture structures
cutlery), and furniture structures (Figure (Figure 6).
(Figure 6).
6).
This material
This material was
was obtained
obtained fromfrom the
the Bauxite
Bauxite mines
mines ofof the
the Apennines,
Apennines, Istria
Istria and
and Abbruzzo
Abbruzzo (with (with
the Bayer
the Bayer method
method using
using caustic
caustic soda)
soda) and
and from
from Leucite
Leucite rocks
rocks (Blanc
(Blanc process),
process), and—together
and—together with with
alloys and other products that exploited national resources—became an autarchic
alloys and other products that exploited national resources—became an autarchic material par for material par for
excellence (Bernardini
excellence (Bernardini and
and Falco
Dal Falco
Dal Falco 1992,
1992,1992, pp. 105–34).
pp. 105–34).
pp. 105–34).
The cold
The coldqualities
cold qualities
qualities of stainless
of of stainless
stainless steel
steelsteel and aluminum
and
and aluminumaluminum alloys
alloys alloys
well well interpreted
well
interpretedinterpreted
the desirethethe desire
fordesire for
for
simplicity
simplicity
simplicity
and “comfort” and “comfort”
and “comfort” that distinguished
that distinguished
that distinguished modernity. modernity.
modernity. The application
The application
The application field
field of field of
light of light alloys
light extended
alloys extended
alloys extendedto the
to the
to the furniture
furniture design
design in
in series
series characterized
characterized by by the
the use
use of
of the
the metal
metal tubular,
tubular, which,
which, starting
starting in in the
the
second half of the twenties, developed according to the contemporary
second half of the twenties, developed according to the contemporary foreign examples. foreign examples.
The large-scale
The large-scale use
use of
of glass
glass waswas made
made possible
possible byby the
the development
development of of new
new transformation
transformation
processes. With
processes. With the
the Fourcault
Fourcault andand Libbey
Libbey Owens
Owens machine
machine systems,
systems, thethe mass
mass production
production of of slabs
slabs and
and
heat treatments developed and contributed to widening the field of possible applications
heat treatments developed and contributed to widening the field of possible applications (Figure 7). (Figure 7).
 Arts 2019, 8, 27 7 of 40

furniture design in series characterized by the use of the metal tubular, which, starting in the second
half of the twenties, developed according to the contemporary foreign examples.
The large-scale use of glass was made possible by the development of new transformation
processes. WithREVIEW
Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER the Fourcault and Libbey Owens machine systems, the mass production of slabs and 7 of 40
heat treatments developed and contributed to widening the field of possible applications (Figure 7). 7 of 40
Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW
The qualities of safety crystals, translucent diffusers for glass-block structures, glass fibers, Termolux,
and colored dye coatings were thus associated with the rational conception of space and a new
and and colored
colored dye coatings
dye coatings werethus
were thus associated
associatedwithwith
the rational
the conception
rational of space andof
conception a new general
space and a new
general orientation
orientation of taste (Bernardini and Falco 1992, pp. 105–34). In the rationalism works, safety glass works,
of taste (Bernardini and Dal Falco 1992, pp. 105–34). In the rationalism
general orientation
safety glass became of
realtaste (Bernardini
design materials. and Dal Falco are
Testimonies 1992, pp. 105–34). In the rationalism
Ponti works,
became real design materials. Testimonies are the solutionsthe solutions
studied by Giostudied
Ponti forby
theGio
entrance for the
safety glass became real design materials. Testimonies are the solutions studied
entrance shelter and the balcony doors of the central body in the Palazzo for Offices Montecatini
shelter and the balcony doors of the central body in the Palazzo for Offices Montecatiniby Gio Ponti
(1936–1938) for the
entrance
(1936–1938) shelter
(Diotallevi and the balcony
and Marescotti
(Diotallevi and 1939,doors
Marescotti of the
pp. 21–133).
1939, pp.central
21–133). body in the Palazzo for Offices Montecatini
(1936–1938) (Diotallevi and Marescotti 1939, pp. 21–133).

Figure 5. Advertising
Figure ofofLinoleum.
5. Advertising Imagefrom
Linoleum. Image from Casabella
Casabella (1937).
(1937).
Figure 5. Advertising of Linoleum. Image from Casabella (1937).

Figure 6. Advertising of L.L.L. (Lavorazione Leghe Leggere) company. Anticorodal. Image from
Figure 6.Figure
Casabella Advertising
(1936). of L.L.L.
6. Advertising (Lavorazione
of L.L.L. Leghe
(Lavorazione Leggere)
Leghe Leggere) company. Anticorodal.
company. Anticorodal. Image
Image from
from
Casabella
Casabella (1936). (1936).
ArtsFigure
2019, 8,6.
27Advertising of L.L.L. (Lavorazione Leghe Leggere) company. Anticorodal. Image from 8 of 40
Casabella (1936).

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In the middle of the 1930s, while the use of glass in architecture was well established, its multiple
application possibilities in furniture and object design had not yet been fully tested. The creation of
“unbreakable” objects developed over a few years with pieces that have since become design icons.
Some examples are the “Veliero” bookcase, a tensile structure in ash, tempered glass, brass, and
steel, designed by Franco Albini in 1938 for his house in Via de Togni (Figure 8) and the radio cabinet
where the mechanical parts are exposed between two slabs of Securit, that Albini always designed
for the Wohnbedarf competition in Zurich (1940) (Figure 9).
Therefore, innovative technologies allowed the experimentation of new types. Employed
individually or with other autarkic products, they participated in all fields of the project to define
new forms. Autarky extended to every productive sector, triggering synergies between science and
exploitation of national resources and important research on synthetic rubber that announced the
excellent results achieved in the field of polymerization by Giulio Natta in the post-war period.
However, the scientific and technical efforts did not correspond to the ambition of the fascist
autarchic plan, and the shortage of raw materials and production technologies brought Italy to face
the Second World War with a notable lack of means and resources, a reality that was stubbornly
denied by theFigure
Figure7.7.
regime Advertising
Advertising
(Maiocchi of
ofFabbrica
Fabbrica Pisana
2013). St-Gobain.Image
Pisana St-Gobain. Imagefrom
fromCiviltà
Civiltà (1940).
(1940).
Obviously, almost all countries involved in the Second World War had to face the problems
In the middle of the 1930s, while the use of glass in architecture was well established, its multiple
arising from the scarcity of raw materials with the consequent production of surrogates and the
application possibilities in furniture and object design had not yet been fully tested. The creation of
necessity of recycling products and materials. It was a total mobilization that steamrolled any
“unbreakable” objects developed over a few years with pieces that have since become design icons.
productive sector. In this theme, the historian of architecture Jean-Louis Cohen (2011) curated the
Some examples are the “Veliero” bookcase, a tensile structure in ash, tempered glass, brass, and
important exhibition, “Architecture en uniforme. Projeter et construire dans la seconde guerre
steel, designed by Franco Albini in 1938 for his house in Via de Togni (Figure 8) and the radio cabinet
mondiale”, which took place at the Centre Canadien d’Architecture of Montreal in 2011, emphasizing
where the mechanical parts are exposed between two slabs of Securit, that Albini always designed for
the research aimed at developing innovative products and processes with relevant implications for
the Wohnbedarf competition in Zurich (1940) (Figure 9).
everyday life.

Figure 8.
Figure Thebookcase
8. The bookcase “Veliero”
“Veliero” in
in the
the living
living room
room of
of Albini’s
Albini’s flat
flat(1938).
(1938). Photo
Photofrom
from(Romano
(Romano1941).
1941).
Arts 2019, 8, 27 9 of 40
Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 40

Figure 9.9.Franco
Figure Franco Albini.
Albini. TheThe radio
radio cabinet
cabinet (1938–1940).
(1938–1940). The
The final finalwas
project project was for
presented presented for the
the Wohnbedarf
Wohnbedarfincompetition
competition in Zurich
Zurich (1940). (1940).
Image from Image
Domus from Domus (1941).
(1941).

2.2. The Ideological

Therefore, Influence oftechnologies
innovative the Regime onallowed
the Rationalism: The Design Research
the experimentation of newfor types.
Modernity of Young
Employed
Italian Architects
individually or with other autarkic products, they participated in all fields of the project to define
new forms. Autarky extended
In the autarchic to everyon
context, research productive
the greatest sector, triggering
Italian synergies
rationalism between
architects was science and
undertaken
exploitation of national resources and important research on synthetic rubber
under the sign of a complex and contradictory relationship with the regime. This relationship was that announced the
excellent
recently results
revisedachieved in the fieldEmilio
by the historian of polymerization
Gentile (Gentileby Giulio
2002,Natta
2007),in the
whopost-war
clearly period.
outlines the
However, the scientific and technical
prominent mark left by Mussolini on Italian soil. efforts did not correspond to the ambition of the fascist
autarchic plan,the
Between andtwo
theworld
shortage
wars,of raw materials
in Italian and
cities, production
a political technologies
conception brought Italy
materialized; to face the
it proposed the
Second
model of World
a new War
and with a notable
universal lack ofcivilization
imperial means and similarresources, a reality
to the Roman that was stubbornly
model denied
of the ancient by
world.
the regime (Maiocchi 2013).
The fundamental ideological elements were the concept of universality over time, considered by
Obviously,
Mussolini to bealmost all countries
the essence involved
of Romanity and in the
the core
Second of World War had
Italianism, and to face
the the problems
legacy arising
of the past was
from the scarcity of raw materials with the consequent production
manipulated according to the fascist political ideology to create the future. of surrogates and the necessity of
recycling products and materials. It was a total mobilization that steamrolled
Cities, architecture, and even objects of this period can be understood through the any productive sector.
In this theme, theofhistorian
reinterpretation Romanism of architecture
according toJean-Louis
fascism, whoseCohen (2011) curated
primary objectivethe important
was exhibition,
the regeneration of
“Architecture en uniforme. Projeter et construire dans la seconde guerre mondiale”,
the myth of Rome and its Empire—a regeneration that, in 1938 and with racial laws, was extended which took place at
to
the Centre Canadien d’Architecture of Montreal in 2011, emphasizing the research
the grim project of the regeneration of the Italian “race” (Gentile 2007). On 9 May 1936, Mussolini aimed at developing
innovative
announcedproducts
from theand processes
balcony with relevant
of Palazzo Veneziaimplications
the reappearance for everyday life. on the fatal hills of
of the empire
Rome, an empire that, with three overseas colonies, lasted only five years (Rodogno 2006).
2.2. The Ideological Influence of the Regime on the Rationalism: The Design Research for Modernity of Young
ItalianRome had been profoundly transformed under the first fourteen years of dictatorship through
Architects
a sort of ideological petrification that developed from the Foro Italico to Via della Conciliazione.
In the autarchic
It expanded from context,
Piazzaresearch
Augustoon the greatest
Imperatore Italian
to Via deirationalism
Fori Imperiali architects was undertaken
(the archaeological area
under the sign of a complex and contradictory relationship with the regime.
between Piazza Venezia and Colosseum), and it branched out into the new campus of Sapienza This relationship was
recently revised by the historian Emilio Gentile (Gentile 2002, 2007), who clearly outlines
University and the Garbatella district. From there, it was extended to the metaphysic architecture of the prominent
mark
the E42 leftarea,
by Mussolini on Italian
which began soil.
construction when the regime was about to collapse (Cederna 1979;
Between
Insolera 1962).the two world wars, in Italian cities, a political conception materialized; it proposed
the model
Between of athe
newtwoand universal
world wars,imperial civilization
the urban, similar
architectural, andto even
the Roman model
the Italian of theplayed
design ancienta
world.
decisiveThe fundamental
game. The way of ideological
conceiving elements were changed,
urban space the concept andofthe
universality over
architecture time, established
became considered
by Mussolini to be the essence of Romanity and the core of Italianism, and the legacy
as a public language. This historical turning point that saw the passage of Rome to international of the past was
manipulated according to the fascist political ideology to create the future.
capital found its own set of issues in the relationship between the design culture renewal and the
Cities,
fascist architecture,
ideology (Muntoni and evenp.objects
2010, IX). of this period can be understood through the reinterpretation
of Romanism according to fascism,
The new urban planning of Rome whose was
primary objective
stratified was the
between regeneration
the Roman ruins of the
andmyth
the of Rome
baroque
churches in the infrastructures, the buildings, the streets, and with the projects of the main young
Italian architects and artists of the time—Enrico Del Debbio, Mario De Renzi, Adalberto Libera,
Arts 2019, 8, 27 10 of 40

and its Empire—a regeneration that, in 1938 and with racial laws, was extended to the grim project of
the regeneration of the Italian “race” (Gentile 2007). On 9 May 1936, Mussolini announced from the
balcony of Palazzo Venezia the reappearance of the empire on the fatal hills of Rome, an empire that,
with three overseas colonies, lasted only five years (Rodogno 2006).
Rome had been profoundly transformed under the first fourteen years of dictatorship through a
sort of ideological petrification that developed from the Foro Italico to Via della Conciliazione.
It expanded from Piazza Augusto Imperatore to Via dei Fori Imperiali (the archaeological area
between Piazza Venezia and Colosseum), and it branched out into the new campus of Sapienza University
and the Garbatella district. From there, it was extended to the metaphysic architecture of the E42 area,
which began construction when the regime was about to collapse (Cederna 1979; Insolera 1962).
Between the two world wars, the urban, architectural, and even the Italian design played a
decisive game. The way of conceiving urban space changed, and the architecture became established
as a public language. This historical turning point that saw the passage of Rome to international capital
found its own set of issues in the relationship between the design culture renewal and the fascist
ideology (Muntoni 2010, p. IX).
The new urban planning of Rome was stratified between the Roman ruins and the baroque churches
in the infrastructures, the buildings, the streets, and with the projects of the main young Italian architects
and artists of the time—Enrico Del Debbio, Mario De Renzi, Adalberto Libera, Gaetano Minnucci, Luigi
Moretti, Giuseppe Pagano, Mario Ridolfi, Mario Sironi, and Marcello Piacentini (Ciucci 2002). The young
architects tried to move the previous generation approach, linked to a rhetorical and monumental style,
towards the European modernity. In a context in which fascism gave ample job opportunities to all
professionals, the new architects’ education played a central role (Muntoni 2010, p. XII).
In fact, the search for a modern Italian style was associated with the evolution of the architect’s
profile, a professional who had to exercise skills related to general culture, techniques, and arts.
This profile was named “the integral architect” and was defined by the training programs of the “Regia
Scuola di Architettura di Roma” in 1919 by Gustavo Giovannoni and Manfredo Manfredi, and later on
by the Engineers and Architects Register in 1923 and 1925 (Ciucci 2002; Dal Falco 2017, pp. 28–35).
The specificity of the idea of integral architect is therefore linked to the foundation of the Schools
of Architecture achieved by integrating the Schools of Engineering with the Academies of Fine Arts.
Most of the credit for this initiative is due to Gustavo Giovannoni (1873–1947), historian, critic of
architecture, engineer, architect, and urban planner who concluded a process that started at the end
of the nineteenth century in Italy and in Europe. Giovannoni’s training project was original and
ambitious because it integrated the technical scientific culture with the humanities and the arts, the
latter cultivated only in the Institutes of Fine Arts. The teaching of design was based on this synthesis,
and an operative study of the history of architecture was considered the basis for the profession
of architecture.
Giovannoni’s project had a precise cultural identity, especially if we compare it with other
European schools of the period, for example, with the Bauhaus born in the same year of the School of
Rome (1919). One of the main differences lies in the fact that the Bauhaus theorized the exclusion of
historical studies from its curriculum. On the contrary, for the School of Architecture of Rome, the
knowledge of the past was the indispensable condition of architectural education.
According to the Giovannoni theory, all the disciplines had to converge to the “architectural
project”, which corresponded to the organic profile of the integral architect, the synthesis of technical,
artistic, and classical culture skills. The new didactic program—and consequently the integral
architect—led to the rebirth of an authentic style of modern Italian architecture.
The new figurative and technical constructive language, although it considered the international
scenarios, had to be cohesive with the climate and customs of national life and had to reinterpret the
forms of the past in a modern way. Therefore, the renewal of Italian architecture could not ignore
tradition, and the integral architect had to know the millennial stratifications that characterize the
Italian cities and Rome in particular.
Arts 2019, 8, 27 11 of 40

Giovannoni left the direction of the School of Architecture in Rome to Marcello Piacentini (1881–1960),
academic of Italy as well as an architect and urbanist. Piacentini’s interest (Piacentini 1930) in international
experiences did not influence his cultural project; a return to the principles of classicism that should have
substantiated the spirit of modern Italian architecture in a national and autarchic sense manifested. His
proposal for an updated and polished monumentality devoid of decorative excesses without abolishing
arches and columns was repeatedly disputed by Giuseppe Pagano Pogatschnig (Pagano Pogatschnig
1938) and Edoardo Persico (Persico 1933, 1934). This passage is fundamental for understanding the
characteristics of Italian modernity, which was conditioned by the policies of the regime and autarky but
also by the peculiar training guidelines established for architects (D’Amato 2017, pp. 33–46).
The integral approach of Italian architecture and design emphasized—on the one hand—the
ability to design at all scales “from the spoon to the town” according to the principles of the modern
movement, and—on the other hand—the knowledge and reinterpretation of historical heritage.
This approach was used from urban planning to the design of interiors and furniture so as to
create houses, schools, and hospitals with morphological and constructive features that balanced
modernity and traditions in old cities, newly founded cities, and colonized territories. The integral
architect had to be able to design the planning scales and be informed about historical, technical, and
artistic issues.
University educated young people who joined the regime asked for new criteria in the design of
public works. At the beginning, the most retrospective academics prevailed, proposing a monumental
style close to the “cult of the lictorian”. Later, thanks to competitions (1925–1940) for public works
(public housing, student houses, postal buildings, auditoriums, ministerial offices, stations, bridges),
the best and youngest architects—among which were Libera, Mazzoni, Michelucci, Moretti, Pagano,
Ponti, Ridolfi, Terragni, Banfi, Belgiojoso, Peressutti, and Rogers—completed important works linked
to everyday life needs. Some of them changed their political opinions, moving from adherence to
fascism, to the frond, and finally to the opposition (Melograni 2008).
The architect’s talent responded to the “Zeitgeist” according to experimental figurative languages
consistent with international modernity despite the insistent calls for a monumental conception.
The Northern Italy architecture, particularly the Lombard one, has always been considered lighter
and closer to the modern movement compared to what prevailed in Rome (Melograni 2008). Franco
Purini pointed out that in Rome’s architecture of the thirties, there were strong three-dimensional
and volumetric values with a widespread use of the rounded corner that was different from the sharp
corners of the Milanese buildings.
In public and private residential buildings, the inspiration from Mendelsohn’s architecture is
constant. Naturally, the realization is carried out through typological, structural, and formal criteria
based on a classic taste more or less accentuated at the discretion of each architect (Spesso 2017). Other
elements that allow us to understand the importance of the relationship between architects of this
period and ancient Rome are the vaulted structure, the curved space, and the sinuosity that can be
seen in certain projects (Muntoni 2010, p. XV).
In Italian modernity, these complex and sometimes contradictory elements coexist with references
to both classicism and the modern movement. The relationships developed by the Italian architects
with international modernist currents constitute a historical-critical crux.
Going deeper into this issue would require reference to a vast body of literature, and its complexity
makes it impossible to treat herein as exhaustive as it goes far beyond the scope of this article.
What should be clear, however, is that Italy was not isolated, and European and North American
architectural experiences were known through magazines such as Casabella, Architettura, and Domus
and through important books such as Architettura d’oggi by Marcello Piacentini (1930) and Gli Elementi
dell’architettura funzionale by Alberto Sartoris (1932, 1941), in which the most important modern
architectural accomplishments of other countries were illustrated and discussed.
The complexity mentioned above is reflected in the constructive characteristics of the buildings. In
fact, in Italian modern architecture and design, autarkic materials were used according to a conception
Arts 2019, 8, 27 12 of 40

of modernity in balance with tradition. The rational forms were made with new industrial types
combined with the traditional vertical and horizontal coatings, such as marble and stone slabs (Poretti
1992). With a technological mix of traditional and innovative materials, the architecture and furnishings
were influenced by the autarky that ranged from the early twenties to the early forties of the twentieth
century, when it turned into a war economy. The search for a balance between tradition and innovation
is evident both in compositional and constructive aspects. In Section 2.3, we see how the different
architectures are linked by common themes.
Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 40
Among the first buildings built in Rome that can be considered modern are the Post Office
buildings
porphyry (1933–1935). These are
flanks the building, four veryit different
connecting representative
to the street by a stairway. buildings
On the of the fronts,
short new metropolis
two large
(Muntoni
openings illuminate the back stairs with a unique game of diagonally woven grids. The back isRidolfi
2010, p. 270). The buildings by Adalberto Libera and Mario De Renzi and by Mario a plate
and Giuseppe Samonà
of “stone-concrete” haveby
pierced a non-rhetorical and unconventional
small square openings (Dal Falco 2002,character. The relationship
pp. 129–48, Poretti 1990,withpp.
the historical
39–84) (Figures pre-existences
10 and 11). and the compositional inspiration of Roman and Baroque architecture
(stairways,
Also, the drums,
Postconcave-convex
Office buildingrhythmic
by Mario alternation) is subtended
Ridolfi presents by a skillful
a symmetrical buttechnological
curvilinear mixand
made of reinforced
continuous structure concrete structuresinand
with a concavity thestone cladding.
central part, andThethe Viale Mazzini
ends are building
resolved with twodesigned
rounded by
Armando Titta, a Turin architect, retains the stereotypical trait of the regime’s public
corners. A shelter is detached from the roof, which underlines the sinuous structure of the building. building (Poretti
1990, pp. 5–9).plastic qualities are enhanced by a continuous travertine cladding on which there are
The building
The
rectangular Post Office building
windows by intervals
at regular Libera and DeFalco
(Dal Renzi2002,
is a symmetrical and massive
pp. 149–81; Poretti C-shaped
1990, pp. 85–123)volume
(Figure
in which
12). an elliptical skylight is fitted with opaline glass and metal profiles. A portico clad in dark
porphyry
The Postflanks the building,
Office building by connecting
GiuseppeitSamonà
to the street by a stairway.
is composed of two On the short
V-wings that fronts,
close intwo large
a convex
openings illuminate the back stairs with a unique game of diagonally
corner and a parallelepiped placed on the secondary front. The base is characterized by large woven grids. The back is a
plate
windowsof “stone-concrete”
placed betweenpierced by smallconcrete
the reinforced square openings (Dal Falco
pillars covered with2002, pp. 129–48,
Samolaco gneissPoretti 1990,
slabs while
pp. 39–84) (Figures 10 and 11).
the upper facades are covered with travertino (Dal Falco 2002, pp. 185–201; Poretti 1990, pp. 125–62)
Also,
(Figure 13).the Post Office building by Mario Ridolfi presents a symmetrical but curvilinear and
continuous structure
These three with a concavity
architectures, in thebeen
which have central
thepart, andofthe
subject ends are studies,
important resolvedarewith two rounded
examples of the
corners. A shelter is detached from the roof, which underlines the sinuous
particular tradition and innovation mix that characterized the Italian production between structure of the building.
the two
The
world building plastic qualities
wars. Moreover, they are are enhancedtoby
significant a continuoushow,
understanding travertine
despitecladding on which of
the conditionings there
the
are rectangular windows at regular intervals (Dal Falco 2002, pp. 149–81;
regime and autarky, the young Italian architects succeeded in pursuing the Italian modernity way Poretti 1990, pp. 85–123)
(Figure
with the12).aim of changing lifestyles in the habitat, both private and public.

Figure 10.
Figure 10. Post
Post Office
Office building
building by
by Adalberto
AdalbertoLibera
Liberaand
andMario
MarioDe
DeRenzi.
Renzi.Rome
Rome(1933–1935).
(1933–1935).Photo
Photo
from (Pica 1936, p. 301).
from (Pica 1936, p. 301).
2.3. Architectural Themes: A Unique Technological Mix
The Italian architecture of the period is therefore unique compared to modern architecture. Even
if there are analogies between the Italian and the European experience, the Italian rationalist
architectures
Arts 2019, 8, x FOR are
PEERcharacterized
REVIEW by a strong innovation without precluding ties with history 13 of or
40
Arts Figure
2019, 8, 2710. Post Office building by Adalberto Libera and Mario De Renzi. Rome (1933–1935).
references to Romanity and the typical figures of Italian architecture, such as the Renaissance loggia, Photo 13 of 40
2.3. Architectural
fromtower,
the bell (Pica 1936,Themes:
andp.the A Unique Technological Mix
301).internal court. Even the constructive elements were characterized by a
particular material
The Italian and technological
architecture of the period mixis consisting of traditional
therefore unique compared materials,
to moderninnovative products,
architecture. Even
and technologies. Starting from this assumption, it is possible to define architectural
if there are analogies between the Italian and the European experience, the Italian rationalist themes that unite
important
architectures buildings of the period:
are characterized by structure
a strong and closing diaphragms,
innovation coverings
without precluding tiesin with
stonehistory
materials or
and Klinker,
references to flat roofs, and
Romanity andiron frames.figures of Italian architecture, such as the Renaissance loggia,
the typical
The tower,
the bell structural andtheme was exemplified
the internal court. Even in the
thefacades that, with
constructive their order
elements wereand their materiality,
characterized by a
represented meanings and communicated messages related to the historical
particular material and technological mix consisting of traditional materials, innovative products, context.
This theme isStarting
and technologies. linked from
to thethis
useassumption,
of isolatingitmaterials,
is possiblewhich, as architectural
to define mentioned in paragraph
themes 2.1.,
that unite
constituted an important productive sector responding to the autarchic
important buildings of the period: structure and closing diaphragms, coverings in stone materials principles. The reinforced
concrete
and allowed
Klinker, the rationalization
flat roofs, and iron frames. and reorganization of the interior spaces and the design of
facades free from the structure.
The structural theme was exemplified In some exemplary cases, as
in the facades in the
that, withLoggia del Casa
their order anddel Fascio
their (Como,
materiality,
1933–1935) by Giuseppe Terragni (Marcianò 1987; Saggio 1995)
represented meanings and communicated messages related to the historical context. and in the elevations of the Palazzo
delleFigure
Postetheme
This
Figure (E42,
11.
11. Post
Post 1939–1941)
is Office
Office to by
linkedbuildingtheBanfi,
building by
by ofBelgiojoso,
useAdalberto Libera
isolating
Adalberto Peressutti,
and Mario
materials,
Libera and andRenzi.
Mariowhich,
De
De Rogers
Renzi. (Danesi
Rome
as Rome and
(1933–1935).
mentioned
(1933–1935). Patetta 1976),
The hall.
in paragraph
The 2.1.,
the reinforced
hall.
constituted Photo
Photo from concrete
from (Pica
an important skeletons
1936, p. covered
301).
(Pica 1936, p.productive
301). in marble slabs are on an advanced plane in
sector responding to the autarchic principles. The reinforcedrespect to the
perimeter walls (4).
concrete allowed the rationalization and reorganization of the interior spaces and the design of
facades free from the structure. In some exemplary cases, as in the Loggia del Casa del Fascio (Como,
1933–1935) by Giuseppe Terragni (Marcianò 1987; Saggio 1995) and in the elevations of the Palazzo
delle Poste (E42, 1939–1941) by Banfi, Belgiojoso, Peressutti, and Rogers (Danesi and Patetta 1976),
the reinforced concrete skeletons covered in marble slabs are on an advanced plane in respect to the
perimeter walls (4).

Figure 12.
Figure 12. Post
Post Office
Office building
building by
by Mario
MarioRidolfi.
Ridolfi.Rome
Rome(1933–1935).
(1933–1935).Photo
Photofrom
from(Poretti
(Poretti1990,
1990,p.p.
88.88.
Source: Museo storico delle poste e telecomunicazioni).

The Post Office building by Giuseppe Samonà is composed of two V-wings that close in a convex
corner and a parallelepiped placed on the secondary front. The base is characterized by large windows
placed between the reinforced concrete pillars covered with Samolaco gneiss slabs while the upper
Figure 12. Post Office building by Mario Ridolfi. Rome (1933–1935). Photo from (Poretti 1990, p. 88.
facades are covered with travertino (Dal Falco 2002, pp. 185–201; Poretti 1990, pp. 125–62) (Figure 13).
Source: Museo storico delle poste e telecomunicazioni).

Figure 13. Post Office building by Giuseppe Samonà. Rome (1933–1935). Photo from (Minnucci 1933,
p. 607).

Figure
Figure 13. Post
13. Post Office
Office building
building by Giuseppe
by Giuseppe Samonà.
Samonà. RomeRome (1933–1935).
(1933–1935). Photo
Photo fromfrom (Minnucci
(Minnucci 1933,
1933, p. 607).
p. 607).
Arts 2019, 8, 27 14 of 40

These three architectures, which have been the subject of important studies, are examples of the
particular tradition and innovation mix that characterized the Italian production between the two
world wars. Moreover, they are significant to understanding how, despite the conditionings of the
regime and autarky, the young Italian architects succeeded in pursuing the Italian modernity way with
the aim of changing lifestyles in the habitat, both private and public.
Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 40

2.3. Architectural Themes: A Unique Technological Mix

This motif was used to build porticoes and bases whose large windows were divided
horizontally
The by black-painted
Italian architecture of theiron frames.
period is therefore unique compared to modern architecture. Even if
In the Casa del Fascio, the search
there are analogies between the Italian and the for a new spatiality
European correlates the
experience, to a Italian
poetic interpretation of the
rationalist architectures
are characterized by a strong innovation without precluding ties with history or references to walls
light. The Terragni building is a pure prism made of four different fronts, alternating smooth Romanity
and pillar and beams grids that create light and dark effects (Arrigotti et al. 1936) (Figure 14).
and the typical figures of Italian architecture, such as the Renaissance loggia, the bell tower, and
The practicable flat roof is partly covered by a glass-block skylight that illuminates the double
the internal court. Even the constructive elements were characterized by a particular material and
height of the internal courtyard. The opalescent light matches the Botticino light stone cladding.
technological
In themixCasaconsisting
del Fascio,ofthetraditional
search for materials, innovative
a new spatiality products,
correlates andinterpretation
to a poetic technologies. of Starting
the
from light.
this assumption,
As in French and German architectures (5), Terragni experimented with new glass curtain wallsof the
it is possible to define architectural themes that unite important buildings
period:
andstructure
glass blocks. andForclosing diaphragms,
this reason, the Casa coverings
del Fascio isinconsidered
stone materials and Klinker,
the manifesto of the use flatofroofs,
glass and
iron frames.
products (Artioli 1989), an emblem of modernity that simultaneously illustrates transparency and
fascist
The ideas—the
structural control
theme from
was the outside in
exemplified to the
theinside
facades andthat,
vice with
versa their
(Ciucci 2002)and
order (Figure
their15).materiality,
The structure coincided with the facade plan. In the
represented meanings and communicated messages related to the historical context.Montecatini office building (Milan, 1936–
1938) by Gio Ponti, the skeleton is a perforated box of reinforced concrete on which
This theme is linked to the use of isolating materials, which, as mentioned in Section 2.1, constituted the Cipollino
Apuano marble cladding was applied (Diotallevi and Marescotti 1939, pp. 21–133). The frames in
an important productive sector responding to the autarchic principles. The reinforced concrete allowed
light aluminum alloy (Anticorodal) were placed on the edge of the cladding, generating a great
the rationalization and reorganization of the interior spaces and the design of facades free from the
structural image (Irace 1977).
structure. The
In some
stoneexemplary
cladding iscases, as intheme
a central the Loggia
in thedel Casa del Fascio
architecture (Como,
of Italian 1933–1935)
rationalism by Giuseppe
and strongly
Terragni (Marcianò
identifies 1987;
its style. TheSaggio 1995) and
pure volumes of in
thethe
newelevations of the Palazzo
modern aesthetic delle Poste
necessitated (E42, 1939–1941)
clear surfaces and
by Banfi, Belgiojoso, Peressutti, and Rogers (Danesi and Patetta 1976), the reinforced
symbolic materials consistent with autarkic needs. Marbles, stones and granites were extracted from concrete skeletons
covered in marble
ancient quarries slabs
like are onofanthe
those advanced
Apuan Alps plane in respect
in Tuscany to were
and the perimeter
used in thin walls
slabs.(4).
This The
motifconstruction
was used toprocedures were and
build porticoes experimental
bases whose and large
worked with innovative
windows were divided techniques.
horizontally
Marbles and granites
by black-painted were used to cover the exteriors, usually white, while for the interiors, colored
iron frames.
stones
In the were
Casapreferred
del Fascio, (Poretti 1992, 2013).
the search for aStone
new materials
spatialitywere coupledtowith
correlates petrifying
a poetic plasters andof the
interpretation
ceramic and glass mosaics whose industrialized production allowed the creation of durable and
light. The Terragni building is a pure prism made of four different fronts, alternating smooth walls
economic decorative surfaces that recalled ancient Byzantine mosaic arts (Bernardini 2017, pp. 159–
and pillar and beams grids that create light and dark effects (Arrigotti et al. 1936) (Figure 14).
72).

Figure 14. Casa del fascio by Giuseppe Terragni. Como (1932–1936). Photo from (Sartoris 1941, p.
Figure 14. Casa del fascio by Giuseppe Terragni. Como (1932–1936). Photo from (Sartoris 1941, p. 387).
387).
Arts 2019, 8, 27 15 of 40

The practicable flat roof is partly covered by a glass-block skylight that illuminates the double
height of the internal courtyard. The opalescent light matches the Botticino light stone cladding.
In the Casa del Fascio, the search for a new spatiality correlates to a poetic interpretation of the
light. As in French and German architectures (5), Terragni experimented with new glass curtain walls
and glass blocks. For this reason, the Casa del Fascio is considered the manifesto of the use of glass
products (Artioli 1989), an emblem of modernity that simultaneously illustrates transparency and
fascist ideas—the control from the outside to the inside and vice versa (Ciucci 2002) (Figure 15).
Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 40

Figure 15.
Figure 15. Casa
Casa del
del fascio
fascio by
by Giuseppe
Giuseppe Terragni.
Terragni. Como
Como (1932–1936).
(1932–1936). The
The entrance
entrance with
with the
the Securit
Securit
glass doors. Photo from (Sartoris 1941, p. 395).
glass doors. Photo from (Sartoris 1941, p. 395).

Moreover,
The structurethe Carrarawith
coincided or Travertino marble
the facade plan. blocks
In the were used
Montecatini officeforbuilding
paving(Milan,
or for 1936–1938)
architectural by
details—frames,
Gio Ponti, the skeletonjambs,is athresholds,
perforated and box ofsleeves thickconcrete
reinforced up to 8oncm withthe
which rounded
Cipollinoedges,
Apuanoassembled
marble
protruding
cladding was from the edge
applied of the and
(Diotallevi facade and worked
Marescotti 1939,with slight slopes
pp. 21–133). to dispose
The frames of rainwater.
in light aluminum alloy
It is to bewere
(Anticorodal) noticed
placedthat
onthe
theuse
edge ofof
stones in the foreground
the cladding, generating entailed the careful
a great structural imagestudy of textures
(Irace 1977).
and details—colors,
The stone cladding dimensions, arrangement
is a central theme inofthe elements, joints,of
architecture surface
Italiantreatments,
rationalism and installation
and strongly
systems adopted
identifies its style.areTheall pure
elements that generate
volumes of the newperceptual
modern values.
aesthetic necessitated clear surfaces and
Beside
symbolic the coverings
materials consistentof the
withmentioned buildings,
autarkic needs. the stones
Marbles, coveringsand of two architectures
granites were extracted thatfrom
are
beaconsquarries
ancient of the Italian rationalism
like those are emblematic,
of the Apuan namely
Alps in Tuscany andthewerecoverings
used inof theslabs.
thin House of the G.I.L.
(Gioventù Italiana Littoria)
The construction (1932–1937)
procedures and the House
were experimental andofworked
Arms (1933–1936)
with innovative by Luigi Moretti.Marbles
techniques.
The House
and granites wereofusedthe toG.I.L.
cover is the
articulated
exteriors,into distinct
usually white,volumes
while for characterized
the interiors, bycolored
a complex of
stones
linguistic
were elements
preferred that1992,
(Poretti are wisely
2013). intertwined.
Stone materials were coupled with petrifying plasters and ceramic
The tower,
and glass mosaics anwhose
emblematic referenceproduction
industrialized to a bell tower, has the
allowed a tapered
creation front coated with
of durable travertine
and economic
slabs on thesurfaces
decorative square. that
A fixed and continuous
recalled glazed surface
ancient Byzantine wraps
mosaic arts the corner2017,
(Bernardini between Via Induno and
pp. 159–72).
Largo Ascianghithe
Moreover, from the base
Carrara up to the top.
or Travertino The blocks
marble motif of horizontal
were used for partitions
paving or created by the iron
for architectural
frames is typical of
details—frames, the architecture
jambs, thresholds,ofand thissleeves
period thick
and ofupMoretti
to 8 cm in with
particular.
rounded edges, assembled
The reinforced
protruding from the concrete
edge of the structure
facade is andvisible on the
worked withglazed
slightside facades
slopes and on
to dispose ofthe block of gyms
rainwater.
devoid of any cladding.
It is to be noticed that the use of stones in the foreground entailed the careful study of textures
From the construction
and details—colors, drawings,
dimensions, one can of
arrangement grasp the care
elements, devoted
joints, surfaceby treatments,
Moretti to the anddesign of the
installation
tower’s covering.
systems adopted are Theall370 rectangular
elements slabs of variable
that generate perceptualsizevalues.
were divided into 19 types. Moretti drew
a filing cabinet
Beside theconsisting
coveringsof of171
thepieces numbered
mentioned in alphabetical
buildings, the coveringsorder of specifying size and thickness
two architectures that are
(Figure 16).
beacons of theThis attention
Italian to the construction
rationalism are emblematic,detailnamely
and thethe technical
coverings drawing
of theisHouse
typicalofoftheRome’s
G.I.L.
School of Rationalism,
(Gioventù and it(1932–1937)
Italiana Littoria) is particularlyandpresent
the Housein Moretti’s
of Arms projectual
(1933–1936) research
by Luigi (Architettura
Moretti. 1941,
Marconi 1941, pp. 361–73).
 Arts 2019, 8, 27 16 of 40

The House of the G.I.L. is articulated into distinct volumes characterized by a complex of linguistic
elements that are wisely intertwined.
The tower, an emblematic reference to a bell tower, has a tapered front coated with travertine
slabs on the square. A fixed and continuous glazed surface wraps the corner between Via Induno and
Largo Ascianghi from the base up to the top. The motif of horizontal partitions created by the iron
frames is typical of the architecture of this period and of Moretti in particular.
The reinforced concrete structure is visible on the glazed side facades and on the block of gyms
devoid of any cladding.
From the construction drawings, one can grasp the care devoted by Moretti to the design of the
tower’s covering. The 370 rectangular slabs of variable size were divided into 19 types. Moretti drew a
filing cabinet consisting of 171 pieces numbered in alphabetical order specifying size and thickness
(Figure 16). This attention to the construction detail and the technical drawing is typical of Rome’s
School of Rationalism, and it is particularly present in Moretti’s projectual research (Architettura 1941,
Marconi 1941, pp. 361–73).
In the Foro Italico’s House of Arms, the theme of cladding—made of Carrara’s statuary veined
marble—is developed in an exemplary way. The rationalist box is interpreted as a marble, modern,
and monumental organism. All facades are designed in detail, and any shaped block is numbered.
Special pieces are designed to obtain rounded corners. The marble plasticity of the building
is accentuated by the continuity among the base, the access flight steps, and the external flooring
(Marconi 1937, REVIEW
Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER pp. 437–54.) (Figure 17). 16 of 40

Figure 16. Luigi

Figure 16.Moretti. House
Luigi Moretti. of G.I.L.
House Rome
of G.I.L. Rome(1932–1937). The
(1932–1937). The tower
tower and and outdoor
outdoor gyms. gyms. Photo from
Photo from
(Marconi 1941,
(Marconi 1941, p. 361). p. 361).

In the Foro Italico’s House of Arms, the theme of cladding—made of Carrara’s statuary veined
marble—is developed in an exemplary way. The rationalist box is interpreted as a marble, modern,
and monumental organism. All facades are designed in detail, and any shaped block is numbered.
Special pieces are designed to obtain rounded corners. The marble plasticity of the building is
accentuated by the continuity among the base, the access flight steps, and the external flooring
(Marconi 1937, pp. 437–54.) (Figure 17).
 In the Foro Italico’s House of Arms, the theme of cladding—made of Carrara’s statuary veined
marble—is developed in an exemplary way. The rationalist box is interpreted as a marble, modern,
and monumental organism. All facades are designed in detail, and any shaped block is numbered.
Special pieces are designed to obtain rounded corners. The marble plasticity of the building is
accentuated
Arts 2019, 8, 27 by the continuity among the base, the access flight steps, and the external flooring
17 of 40
(Marconi 1937, pp. 437–54.) (Figure 17).

Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 40

The third theme is the flat roof. Flats roofs were associated with the concept of squared and clear
facades—practicable terraces, sometimes used as a solarium, or glass-block skylights (Figure 18).
In the Congress Palace (1937–1942, 1953) by Adalberto Libera built for the E42, the roof of the
congress hall is flat and practicable. The terrace is designed as an open-air theater and furnished with
210 fixed benches, covered with marble and carefully placed in relation to the flooring texture
(Palazzo delle Feste 1938) (Figure 19).
A fourth theme concerns the design of window frames in iron or aluminum alloys, such as
Anticorodal, based on the component standardization and experimentation with innovative
assembly methods for profiles (Figure 20). As mentioned, since the end of the 1920s, the production
of white metals was strongly boosted. Their use on a large scale responded to the combination of
economic factors and new technological design requirements—window frames, balustrades, handles,
Figure 17.
and furniture
Figure 17. in
House of
of Arms
curved
House steelof
Arms Luigi
ofor Moretti.
Moretti. Rome
aluminum
Luigi (1933–1936).
tubing
Rome The
The block
with plywood
(1933–1936). of
of the
the fencing
shelves,
block room.
sometimes
fencing Vertical
room.recovered
Vertical in
covering
covering
linoleum in statuary
in statuary
or Buxus veined
(Dalveined Carrara
Falco Carrara marble.
marble.
2017, pp. Photo
Photo
316–24). from
Infrom (Marconi
the (Marconi
late 1930s1937,
1937, pp. 440,
pp.
works, 440, 443).
443).
there was a greater use of
wooden frames than of metal profiles. On the other hand, the preparation for the war conflict limited
Thefor
the iron third theme use.
military is theInflat roof. time,
a short Flats roofs wereseason
the great associated with the
of design concept ofthat
experiments squared and clear
characterized
facades—practicable terraces, sometimes
rationalism in the mid-thirties ended. used as a solarium, or glass-block skylights (Figure 18).

Figure
Figure 18. Casa
18. Casa del fascio
del fascio by Giuseppe
by Giuseppe Terragni.
Terragni. Como Como (1932–1936).
(1932–1936). The terrace.
The terrace. Photo
Photo from from (Sartoris
(Sartoris 1941, p. 399).
1941, p. 399).
In the Congress Palace (1937–1942, 1953) by Adalberto Libera built for the E42, the roof of the
congress hall is flat and practicable. The terrace is designed as an open-air theater and furnished with
210 fixed benches, covered with marble and carefully placed in relation to the flooring texture (Palazzo
delle Feste 1938) (Figure 19).
Arts 2019, 8, 2718. Casa del fascio by Giuseppe Terragni. Como (1932–1936). The terrace. Photo from (Sartoris
Figure 18 of 40
1941, p. 399).

Figure 19.
Figure 19. Congress
Congress Palace
Palace by
by Adalberto
Adalberto Libera.
Libera. E42
E42 (1937–1942,
(1937–1942, 1953).
1953). Wiew of model.
Wiew of model. Photo
Photo from
from
1938, p.
(Palazzo delle Feste 1938, p. 785).
785).

A fourth theme concerns the design of window frames in iron or aluminum alloys, such as
Anticorodal, based on the component standardization and experimentation with innovative assembly
methods for profiles (Figure 20). As mentioned, since the end of the 1920s, the production of white
metals was strongly boosted. Their use on a large scale responded to the combination of economic
factors and new technological design requirements—window frames, balustrades, handles, and
furniture in curved steel or aluminum tubing with plywood shelves, sometimes recovered in linoleum
or Buxus (Dal Falco 2017, pp. 316–24). In the late 1930s works, there was a greater use of wooden
frames than of metal profiles. On the other hand, the preparation for the war conflict limited the iron
for military use. In a short time, the great season of design experiments that characterized rationalism
in
Artsthe mid-thirties
2019, ended.
8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 40

Figure 20.
Figure 20. Montecatini
Montecatini office
office building
building by
byGio
GioPonti.
Ponti.Milan
Milan(1936–1938).
(1936–1938).Side
Sideelevation.
elevation.Cladding
Cladding inin
cipollinoapuano
cipollino apuanomarble.
marble.Double
DoubleAnticorodal
Anticorodal frames.
frames. Photo
Photo form
form (Diotallevi
(Diotallevi andand Marescotti
Marescotti 1939,1939, p.
p. 113).
113).

2.4. Design Themes: Metal Furniture and Standard Production

As mentioned above, the autarkic plan outlined by Mussolini on 23 March 1936 at the National
Assembly of Corporations was mainly addressed to the restructuring of metallurgical, mechanical,
Arts 2019, 8, 27 19 of 40

2.4. Design Themes: Metal Furniture and Standard Production

As mentioned above, the autarkic plan outlined by Mussolini on 23 March 1936 at the National
Assembly of Corporations was mainly addressed to the restructuring of metallurgical, mechanical, and
chemical industries, but it was implemented in all productive sectors, from construction to design and
fashion. It was also supported by articles published in the main journals of the period (Architettura,
Casabella, Domus, Rassegna di Architettura, Lo Stile nella casa e nell’arredamento).
In addition, new specialized magazines were born whose main scope was the dissemination of
characteristics and applications of innovative materials (Alluminio, Il Vetro, Edilizia Moderna. La Rivista
del Linoleum, L’Industria nazionale, Rivista mensile dell’autarchia).
Since the end of the twenties, in his magazine Domus, Gio Ponti published numerous appeals for the
development of national production in the field of decorative and industrial arts (Ponti 1928, 1935, 1936)
to which architects, engineers, technicians, and professionals responded (Ardissone 1936; Panseri 1936).
The debate on autarchy intensified in 1938 when experts from all productive sectors wrote
articles (Pica 1937; Nunzi 1938), and there was a growing advertisement of national food, textiles, and
pharmaceuticals with technical columns dedicated to autarchic building production.
The new integral architect should design—or at least find solutions—for the interior and the
furnishings. Metal materials were the most innovative testing field with a strong interest in foreign
productions both by architects and specialized firms.
The Italian furnishings followed the fashion of the time and were inspired by the Bauhaus models
and in general by the German production that began in 1925 with the Wassily armchair by Marcel
Breuer. This new way of design found its formal and structural reasons in the culture of the curved
tubular profile (Marchis 1998).
As is known, the new European tendencies were shown in international exhibitions that some
Italian architects had visited or known through some magazine. In the design of Italian furniture,
one can find many compositional and constructive elements typical of the furnishings of 1927’s
“Ausstellung die Wohnung Stuttgart” coupled with the idea of human scale standards that was
accomplished by Le Corbusier’s “Pavillon de l’Esprit Nouveau” (1925).
The knowledge of foreign production in this field (in particular of furniture made in Switzerland
and German) is proven by the relationships established between the company Colombo, created in
Milan in 1919, and the Wohnbedarf of Zurich, founded by Sigfried Giedon, Werner M. Moser, and
Rodolf Graber in 1931. Wohnbedarf models were, among other authors coming from the Bauhaus,
designed by Breuer.
The Hungarian architect also designed for the companies Thonet and Embru, which in turn
were linked to Wohnbedarf by a contract between the parties (Tropeano 1998; Crachi 1997). In this
context, Colombus was one of the leading companies in the production of Präzisionsrohr and sold the
Wohnbedarf furniture in Italy (Figure 21).
This system of functional and linear objects initially corresponded more to the taste of elites than
to a demand for cheap furniture. It is only since the mid-thirties that metal furniture has been proposed
in the catalogue by Italian companies (Columbus, Beltrami di Capriolo, Parma di Saronno, Pino di
Parabiago) (Figure 22) and adopted in buildings and public spaces such as offices, schools, universities,
hospitals, shops, and restaurants (Bassi 1988). A significant collaboration relationship was established
between Giuseppe Pagano and the Columbus company, with whom the architect worked in 1934 for
the furnishings of the offices of the newspaper “Il Popolo d’Italia” in Milan. Pagano designed, for the
Columbus catalog, the hanger, the waste basket, and the umbrella stand (Bassi 1988).
(Bassi 1988).
was established between Giuseppe Pagano and the Columbus company, with whom the architect
In 1934, the Gommapiuma patent deposited by the Pirelli company developed a greater
worked in 1934 for the furnishings of the offices of the newspaper “Il Popolo d’Italia” in Milan.
simplification of designed,
Pagano the structural part combined
for the Columbus catalog, with the padding
the hanger, the wastecomfort (Pansera
basket, and 1998).
the umbrella stand
(Bassi 1988).
In 1934,
Arts 2019, the Gommapiuma patent deposited by the Pirelli company developed a greater
8, 27 20 of 40
simplification of the structural part combined with the padding comfort (Pansera 1998).

Figure
Figure 21.
21. Advertising
Advertising Columbus
Columbus company.
company.
Figure 21. Advertising Columbus company.

Figure 22. Advertising Pino Parabiago company.

Figure 22. Advertising

Figure 22. Advertising Pino Parabiago
Pino Parabiago company.
company.

In 1934, the Gommapiuma patent deposited by the Pirelli company developed a greater
simplification of the structural part combined with the padding comfort (Pansera 1998).
The first Italian experimentations of steel, iron, and aluminum furniture began in 1930.
The protagonists of this pioneering phase were Luigi Chessa and Umberto Cuzzi with the Bar Fiorina
of Turin (1931–1932). Bar Fiorina’s furnishings were considered in the pages of La Casa Bella (1932) as
fully participating in the new European tendencies. Materials such as chromaluminum, bakelite, and
crystal were utilized with an experimental approach so as to explore the potentialities of innovative
technologies and promote the renewal of the city, even if at a small scale (Selvafolta 1980, p. 34)
(Figure 23).
The research conducted by Gabriele Mucchi, maker of a radical renewal in this field, was very
original. Between 1934 and 1935, Mucchi collaborated with the Pino company on a series of models.
He designed them in a factory in direct contact with productive and economic issues following the
prototyping phase (Figure 24).
 wood (Selvafolta
wood (Selvafolta 1980,
1980, p.
p. 50).
50). Milan’s
Milan’s Triennials
Triennials (1933,
(1933, 1936)
1936) were
were the
the most
most important
important showcase
showcase for
for
the design
the design of of metal
metal furniture.
furniture. AtAt the
the 5th
5th Triennial
Triennial (1933),
(1933), “Villa-Studio
“Villa-Studio per
per un
un artista”
artista” by
by Luigi
Luigi Figini
Figini
and Gino
and Gino Pollini
Pollini was
was the
the manifesto
manifesto of of aa vision
vision of
of modern
modern architecture
architecture founded
founded onon the
the Mediterranean
Mediterranean
tradition, aa vision
tradition, vision that
that wanted
wanted to to distinguish
distinguish itself
itself from
from the
the standpoints
standpoints ofof Mies
Mies van
van der
der Rohe
Rohe and
and Le Le
Corbusier
2019, 8, in
27 the name of rationalist solutions consistent with a different historical
Corbusier in the name of rationalist solutions consistent with a different historical and natural
Arts and natural
21 of 40
background.
background.

Figure 23.
Figure 23. Chromium
Chromium aluminum,
Chromium aluminum, crystal,
aluminum, crystal, and
crystal, and wood
and wood table
wood table and
table and chairs
and chairs by
chairs by Gigi
Gigi Chessa
Chessa and
and Umberto
Umberto
Cuzzi (1931–1932).
Cuzzi (1931–1932). Photo
Photo from
from (Selvafolta
(Selvafolta 1980,
1980, p.
p. 33).
33).

Figure 24.
Figure
Figure 24. A
24. A stack
A stack chair,
stack chair, Model
chair, Model S5
Model S5 by
S5 by Gabriele
by Gabriele Mucchi
Gabriele Mucchi (1934–1935).
Mucchi (1934–1935). Chromium
(1934–1935). Chromium plated
Chromium plated steel
plated steel structure
steel structure
structure
and
and sheet
sheet steel
steel seat.
seat. Photo
Photo from
from (Selvafolta
(Selvafolta 1980,
1980, p.
p. 46).
46).
and sheet steel seat. Photo from (Selvafolta 1980, p. 46).

Even if inspired by models coming from the north of the Alps, Mucchi’s furniture was original in
the rigorous use of the metallic tubular and in the sharp separation between load-bearing elements
and parts that are borne. Among the types of stackable chairs, S5 (1936) stands out.
It is composed of two frames of chromed steel and a seat made out of sheet metal, raffia, cord, wood
(Selvafolta 1980, p. 50). Milan’s Triennials (1933, 1936) were the most important showcase for the design of
metal furniture. At the 5th Triennial (1933), “Villa-Studio per un artista” by Luigi Figini and Gino Pollini
was the manifesto of a vision of modern architecture founded on the Mediterranean tradition, a vision
that wanted to distinguish itself from the standpoints of Mies van der Rohe and Le Corbusier in the name
of rationalist solutions consistent with a different historical and natural background.
In “Villa-Studio”, geometrical spaces are treated with delicate chromatic nuances, and the
furniture consisted of few elements with steel frames and planes of colored glass paste for the tables.
This synthetic overview cannot neglect Terragni as a designer.
The monographic issue of the journal Quadrante (1936) devoted to the “Casa del Fascio” praised
Giuseppe Terragni for having taken integral care of the building, from its foundations to the making of
its handles. The “Casa del Fascio” was defined—for the architecture and the interior—as the paradigm
of a global approach aimed at achieving models of functionality and aesthetics and also of work
methods and behavior (Selvafolta 1980, p. 52).
The furniture had to be consistent with the transparent—even ideological—image of the
architecture containing them. Terragni designed light and non-bulky objects, entrusting their
posture.
The chair “Lariana” was composed of a seat with the back in bent plywood and a unique metallic
frame, while the seat “Benita” was equipped with armrests and coated with a light padding. “Benita”
was adopted for the Directory Room of “Casa del fascio” (1932–1936) (Figure 25) and for the offices
of the
Arts day
2019, care “Sant’Elia” (1936–1937) (Figure 26), both in Como. For “Sant’Elia”, Terragni engaged
8, 27 22 of 40
himself in the construction of furniture for children with a marked orientation towards a more
classically familiar appearance.
implementation to the firm Columbus; in this way, he created armchairs and elastic chairs that
Even the new lighting equipment, mostly produced in series, were comparable with foreign
were very innovative relative to the guidelines of that time, which imposed rigidity and poise to the
production. The ceiling lamps, the table lamps, the appliqués, and the floor lamps were characterized
sitting posture.
by bases in aluminum or bronze alloys and by engraved or satinized opal glass diffusers, and they
The chair “Lariana” was composed of a seat with the back in bent plywood and a unique
were widely used in factories and public and private buildings.
metallic frame, while the seat “Benita” was equipped with armrests and coated with a light padding.
These innovative typologies introduced a different concept in interior lighting, contributing to
“Benita” was adopted for the Directory Room of “Casa del fascio” (1932–1936) (Figure 25) and for the
the definition of the aesthetic of modernity, which, in design, finds a free space for experimentation
offices of the day care “Sant’Elia” (1936–1937) (Figure 26), both in Como. For “Sant’Elia”, Terragni
(Padoan et al. 2018). Pietro Chiesa was among the most important designers of modern lamps. His
engaged himself in the construction of furniture for children with a marked orientation towards a
activity dates back to 1921, when in Milan, he opened a workshop specialized in processing crystals
more classically familiar appearance.
and glasses with a production of very high quality objects.

Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 22 of 40

In 1933, Chiesa joined the firm Fontana Arte as art director. The results of this fruitful
collaboration were simple and elegant lamps but also more complex objects connected to his
relationship
Figure 25.
Figure with
25. Casathe
deldecorative
fascio by and applied
by Giuseppe
Giuseppe artsComo
Terragni.
Terragni. (Selvafolta 1980,Directory
(1932–1936). pp. 57–58; Ponti
room, 1949).
table in chromed
This
alpacarelationship
stiffened withbetween
with craftsmanship
anticorodal
anticorodal tubular. Topand
tubular. Top industry
protected
protected by is asheet
byglass
glass peculiar
sheet140
140cmtrait
cm× × of
700 Italian
cm,
700 design.
thickness
cm, 10 It is
thickness
worth noticing
mm. Fresco that,
by in
Marioparallel
Radice.with the
Armchairs metal
modelfurniture
“Benita”.and especially
Table and in Lombardy,
armchairs
10 mm. Fresco by Mario Radice. Armchairs model “Benita”. Table and armchairs produced produced artisans
by the and
smallcompany
firms were continuing
Columbus.
Columbus. Phototheir
fromproduction of p.
(Sartoris 1941,
(Sartoris 1941, furnishings
p. 398).
398). and wooden objects.

Figure 26. Day

Figure 26. Day care
care “Sant’Elia”
“Sant’Elia” by
by Giuseppe
Giuseppe Terragni.
Terragni. Como
Como (1936–1937).
(1936–1937). Director’s
Director's office
office with the
with the
“Benita” model
“Benita” model armchair.
armchair. Photo
Photo from
from (Crespi
(Crespi1987).
1987).

From the beginning of the 1930s, a close collaboration between designers and manufacturers
began when substitutes for wood were launched into the market.
The research aimed at functionality and the recovery of anonymous design of foldable tables
made of strips and straw-bottomed chairs so as to modernize traditional objects by redesigning their
shapes (Tonelli-Michail 1987, p. 89). Although it amounted to a minor production, it is not less
Arts 2019, 8, 27 23 of 40

Even the new lighting equipment, mostly produced in series, were comparable with foreign
production. The ceiling lamps, the table lamps, the appliqués, and the floor lamps were characterized
by bases in aluminum or bronze alloys and by engraved or satinized opal glass diffusers, and they
were widely used in factories and public and private buildings.
These innovative typologies introduced a different concept in interior lighting, contributing to
the definition of the aesthetic of modernity, which, in design, finds a free space for experimentation
(Padoan et al. 2018). Pietro Chiesa was among the most important designers of modern lamps. His
activity dates back to 1921, when in Milan, he opened a workshop specialized in processing crystals
and glasses with a production of very high quality objects.
In 1933, Chiesa joined the firm Fontana Arte as art director. The results of this fruitful collaboration
were simple and elegant lamps but also more complex objects connected to his relationship with the
decorative and applied arts (Selvafolta 1980, pp. 57–58; Ponti 1949).
This relationship between craftsmanship and industry is a peculiar trait of Italian design. It is
worth noticing that, in parallel with the metal furniture and especially in Lombardy, artisans and small
firms were continuing their production of furnishings and wooden objects.
From the beginning of the 1930s, a close collaboration between designers and manufacturers
began when substitutes for wood were launched into the market.
The research aimed at functionality and the recovery of anonymous design of foldable tables made
of strips and straw-bottomed chairs so as to modernize traditional objects by redesigning their shapes
(Tonelli-Michail 1987, p. 89). Although it amounted to a minor production, it is not less interesting
because it concerns the complex issue of the relationship between craftsmanship and industry typical
of the Italian design culture.

3. Architecture and Design in the Campus of the Sapienza University of Rome: The Institute of
Physics by Giuseppe Pagano Pogatschnig, A Case Study

3.1. The Campus of Sapienza University of Rome

An emblematic case of integral planning is the Campus of the Sapienza University of Rome built
between 1933 and 1936 in record time (Figure 27).
The Campus, despite the interventions it has undergone in eighty years, still retains a clear
architectural historicity and now is considered a heritage of architecture, arts, and design.
The urban plan of the campus, which in the intentions of the fascist regime was to become the
main center of studies in the Mediterranean, was dated 1930 when the state assigned the University
the building plot located in the east of Rome in one of the city expansion areas. Mussolini himself
indicated the characteristics of the urban complex, specifying that the construction techniques must be
Italian and innovative (Piacentini 1935; Guidi 1935).
The assignment was dated 1932, the project was defined in 1933, and the inauguration took place
on 31 October 1935 in the presence of King Vittorio Emanuele III and Mussolini.
In 1932, Mussolini appointed Marcello Piacentini Chief Executive Officer and Chief Architect,
who formed the team of young architects and organized a technical office dedicated to studies on
university campuses and innovative technologies used abroad.
The role of Piacentini was fundamental in the Italian architecture of the 1930s.
He was recognized by Mussolini as an organized and cultural leader of the renewal of the architect
profession. The choice of young architects who had to design the various university buildings did not
include some of the best talents of rationalist architecture, such as Terragni and the Group BBPR.
Piacentini engaged only two protagonists of Milan’s architectural culture, Giuseppe Pagano—the
undisputed leader of the magazine Casabella—and the older Gio Ponti, coming from a modernist background.
Piacentini had to decide fast, and he selected architects that he had encountered in his decennial
experience—Rome’s professionals Pietro Aschieri and Giuseppe Capponi, together with Gaetano
Minnucci and Eugenio Montuori, recently graduated from the Royal Architectural School of Rome,
the students of Rome’s School Francesco Fariello, Saverio Muratori, and Giorgio Calza Bini, the
Arts 2019, 8, 27 24 of 40

trusted Gaetano Rapisardi, a colleague in his professional firm, and Arnaldo Foschini, the closest to
the monumental style sponsored by the regime. The Tuscan Giovanni Michelucci was also invited.
Michelucci, together with the Toscano Group (Pier Niccolò Berardi, Nello Baroni, Italo Gamberini,
Sarre Guarnieri, Leonardo Lusanna) had just won the competition for the new station of Florence Santa
Maria Novella (1933–1935).
The project, which was built in parallel with Sapienza Campus, was the first example in Italy of a
station conceived according to logic of modern functionality.
Sapienza Campus is the representation of a particular architectural climate in which this team
of architects of different cultures and generations worked together. An urban complex linked to the
Roman architectural tradition emerged from the collaboration of the architects’ team. At the same time,
the architectures were conceived according to the canons of modernity (Caniggia 1959).
First of all, the Campus is exemplary because it presents itself “as a closed element of a city by
parts” (Muntoni 2010, p. 95). It is a singular set-up inspired by medieval walled cities and deeply
rooted in Piacentini’s urbanistic repertoire.
The general plan, indeed, was drawn up by Piacentini as a composition of differentiated buildings
located around a central square of the same size as Navona Square.
The layout is reminiscent of a basilica with an ample space devoted to the transept, whose major
side is occupied by the Rector’s House designed by Piacentini himself and by the institutes of Letters
and Law assigned to Rapisardi. The citadel is encircled by walls with the intention to isolate it and make
it independent from the nearby neighborhood of San Lorenzo and the Verano Cemetery. The second
relevant aspect is the requirement of architectural unity that Piacentini imposed in accordance with
Mussolini. The directions concerned some compositional aspects—floor heights, window shapes, flat
Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 23 of 40
covers—together with materials and technologies obviously linked to the autarchic policies.
However, Piacentini’s
He was recognized byguidelines
Mussolini left some
as an freedomand
organized to the various
cultural architects
leader of theinrenewal
the design of
of the
the single buildings. Therefore, the architectural theme was developed as a compromise
architect profession. The choice of young architects who had to design the various university between
monumentalism,
buildings did notrational
includedesign,
some ofand
theexperimentation with newarchitecture,
best talents of rationalist materials (Azzaro 2012),
such as and different
Terragni and the
styles
GroupofBBPR.
Italian modernity coexist in relation to autarchic conditions.

Figure
Figure 27. 27.
TheThe campus
campus of Sapienza
of Sapienza University
University of Rome
of Rome (1993–1935).
(1993–1935). Photo
Photo from
from (Baliviera
(Baliviera et al.
et al. 1935,
1935, p. 5).
p. 5).
The extremes of this delicate balance are represented on one side by the Rectorate of Piacentini
Piacentini
and on the otherengaged only twoCapponi
by the Giuseppe protagonists of Milan’s
Institute architectural
of Botany (Figures 28culture,
and 29).Giuseppe Pagano—
The plastic play of
undisputed
the blocks leader
and the largeofangular
the magazine
windowsCasabella—and
of the CapponitheInstitute
older Gio Ponti, coming
contrast with thefrom a modernist
rhetorical facade
background.
of the Rectorate and its monumental portico. Another important building is the Gio Ponti School of
Piacentini had to decide fast, and he selected architects that he had encountered in his decennial
experience—Rome’s professionals Pietro Aschieri and Giuseppe Capponi, together with Gaetano
Minnucci and Eugenio Montuori, recently graduated from the Royal Architectural School of Rome,
the students of Rome’s School Francesco Fariello, Saverio Muratori, and Giorgio Calza Bini, the
trusted Gaetano Rapisardi, a colleague in his professional firm, and Arnaldo Foschini, the closest to
single buildings. Therefore, the architectural theme was developed as a compromise between
monumentalism, rational design, and experimentation with new materials (Azzaro 2012), and
different styles of Italian modernity coexist in relation to autarchic conditions.
The extremes of this delicate balance are represented on one side by the Rectorate of Piacentini
and2019,
Arts on the
8, 27other by the Giuseppe Capponi Institute of Botany (Figures 28 and 29). The plastic play 25 of of
40
the blocks and the large angular windows of the Capponi Institute contrast with the rhetorical facade
of the Rectorate and its monumental portico. Another important building is the Gio Ponti School of
Mathematics. Composed of three volumes—a parellalepid, two curved wings, and the amphitheater
Mathematics. Composed of three volumes—a parellalepid, two curved wings, and the amphitheater
tower—it presents on the main front a large rectangular window, a modernist interpretation of a
tower—it presents on the main front a large rectangular window, a modernist interpretation of a
triumphal
triumphal archarch (Figures
(Figures 30
30and
and31).
31).The
Thecompromise
compromisebetween
betweentradition
tradition and
and innovation
innovation is reflected
is reflected in
in
the repertoire of materials and techniques used in balance between craftsmanship and industrial
the repertoire of materials and techniques used in balance between craftsmanship and industrial
culture. The plan
culture. The plan involved
involved common
common construction
construction design—plasters, cladding in
design—plasters, cladding in Travertine,
Travertine, regional
regional
stones
stones or
or Litoceramica, various types
Litoceramica, various types ofof rectangular
rectangular windows,
windows, innovative
innovative glasses
glasses such
such as
as Termolux,
Termolux,
frames,
frames, jambs,
jambs, andand thresholds
thresholds in
in stone
stone blocks,
blocks, rational
rational interiors,
interiors, and
and aa system
system of
of furnishings
furnishings still
still in
in
use today (desks, chairs, armchairs, lighting equipment, cabinets, coat hangers, handles).
use today (desks, chairs, armchairs, lighting equipment, cabinets, coat hangers, handles). All of the All of the
buildings,
buildings, from
from the
the foundations
foundations toto the
the interiors
interiors of each office,
of each office, hall, and classroom,
hall, and classroom, were
were furnished
furnished by by
specialized Italian companies, from iron frames to scientific instruments and so on
specialized Italian companies, from iron frames to scientific instruments and so on (Dal Falco 2017, (Dal Falco 2017,
pp.
pp. 28–35).
28–35). Compared
Compared to to the architecture, the
the architecture, the modernity
modernity of of the
the furnishings
furnishings appears
appears more
more linear,
linear, and
and
the typologies incorporate functional models with tubular steel
the typologies incorporate functional models with tubular steel structures. structures.

Figure
Arts 2019, 8, xFigure 28. The
28.
FOR PEER The Rectorate by Marcello
Rectorate by
REVIEW Marcello Piacentini.
Piacentini. Photo
Photo from
from (Baliviera
(Baliviera et
et al.
al. 1935,
1935, p.
p. 9).
9). 25 of 40

Figure 29.
Figure 29. The
The Institute
Institute of
of Botany
Botany by
by Giuseppe
Giuseppe Capponi.
Capponi. Photo
Photo from
from (Baliviera
(Baliviera et
et al.
al. 1935,
1935, p.
p. 65).
65).
Arts 2019, 8, 27 29. The Institute of Botany by Giuseppe Capponi. Photo from (Baliviera et al. 1935, p. 65). 26 of 40
Figure
Figure 29. The Institute of Botany by Giuseppe Capponi. Photo from (Baliviera et al. 1935, p. 65).

Figure 30. School of Matematics by Gio Ponti (1933–1935). Photo from (Baliviera et al. 1935, p. 45–
Figure 30.
46).
Figure 30. School
School of
of Matematics
Matematics by
by Gio
Gio Ponti
Ponti (1933–1935).
(1933–1935). Photo
Photo from
from (Baliviera
(Balivieraet
etal.
al.1935,
1935,p.
p.45–46).
45–
46).

Figure
Figure 31.
31. School
School of
of Matematics
Matematics by byGio
GioPonti
Ponti(1933–1935).
(1933–1935).The
Thelibrary.
library.The
Thefloor
floorisisof
ofgreen
greenlinoleum.
linoleum.
Figure
The
The 31. School
shelving
shelving and of Matematics
and stairs
stairs are
are in redby
in red Gio Ponti
painted
painted iron.(1933–1935).
iron. Photo fromThe
Photo from library.et
(Baliviera
(Baliviera etThe floor p.
al. 1935,
al. 1935, is of
p. green linoleum.
47).
47).
The shelving and stairs are in red painted iron. Photo from (Baliviera et al. 1935, p. 47).
3.2. The
3.2. The Institute
Institute of
of Physics
Physics by
by Giuseppe
Giuseppe Pagano
Pagano Pogatschnig:
Pogatschnig: Architecture
Architecture and
and Design
Design
3.2. The Institute of Physics by Giuseppe Pagano Pogatschnig: Architecture and Design
One of
One of the
the most
most interesting
interesting buildings
buildings of
of Rome’s
Rome’s University
University campus
campus isis the
the Institute
Institute of
of Physics
Physics
One by
designed
designed of Giuseppe
by the most interesting
Giuseppe Pagano buildings (1896–1945).
Pagano Pogatschnig
Pogatschnig of Rome’s University
(1896–1945). Pagano was
Pagano campus
was ofisthe
one of
one themain
the Institute
main of Physics
protagonists
protagonists of
of
designed
the modern by Giuseppe
renewal of Pagano Pogatschnig
architecture and (1896–1945).
design in
the modern renewal of architecture and design in the 1930s.the Pagano
1930s. was one of the main protagonists of
the modern renewal of architecture and design in the 1930s.
In opposition to the monumentalism and the academic rhetoric of the fascist regime, this architect
viewed architecture as socially engaged, open to the new needs brought about by the industrialization
process (Bassi and Castagno 1994; Bassi 2014; Melograni 1955; De Seta 1976; Saggio 1984).
Pagano distanced himself from the regime and went underground in the 1940s. In the memory
of the art critic Carlo Ludovico Ragghianti, who met him at the beginning of October 1943, Pagano
was the soul of Carrara’s armed patriots and led the partisan fight in Tuscany. Shortly after, he was
captured and deported. Pagano died in Mauthausen, assassinated by the Nazis.
Thus, beside being an architect, he had a critical spirit and was a man of action motivated by
generous sentiments and deep social concerns.
Also in the 1930s, his cultural standpoint was such that he always aimed at contrasting reactionary
academicism, an attitude that is reflected in his entire critical and projectual work. The project
principles followed by Pagano were inspired in simplicity, clarity, functionality, and experimentation
of products and innovative technologies, taking for granted the relationship with classicism.
Arts 2019, 8, 27 27 of 40

To the latter, indeed, he traced back the standardization, comparing it to the rhythm in architecture,
a very ancient principle of repetition in the space of ordered forms or decorative elements (Pagano
Pogatschnig 1933).
According to Argan (1946), Pagano’s concept of standard was based on a unique principle—the
adherence of architecture and design to man’s needs must be such that the designer can think of forms
only as they are directly thought by the community.
Beside his project activities, Pagano was co-director of the journal Casabella, joining the critic
Edoardo Persico since 1931, and author of essays on architecture and new materials. His publishing
activity is very important in order to understand Pagano’s sensibility to the technological issue, an
interest originated in the early days of his career. Ranging from architecture to design, Pagano outlined
his own style by always using practical and cheap advanced materials in the name of what was called
“rhetoric of simplicity”. His global approach is apparent in the three buildings that he built from 1928
through the following fourteen years, the offices of the Gualino Palace in Turin (1928–1932) that was
mentioned in Section 2.1, the Institute of Physics, and the subsequent Commercial University Bocconi
of Milan in collaboration with Giangiacono Predeval (1937–1942) (Figures 32–34).
In all three buildings, Pagano designed the interiors and furnishings, also making use of the
standard production on the market. His activity as a designer was characterized by a strong interest
in standard furniture, in particular for metal furniture, and it extended to the field of transportation
design with studies for aerodynamic lines and interior design of the ETR200 (Elettro Treno Rapido)
Breda, the progenitor of Italian high-speed trains. Pagano was the curator of the 1940 Milan Triennale
Exhibition that was entirely devoted to industrial design (Bassi 2014).
Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 27 of 40

Figure 32.
Figure 32. Commercial
Commercial University
University Bocconi
Bocconi by Giuseppe Pagano
by Giuseppe Pagano Pogatschnig
Pogatschnig and
and Giangiacomo
Giangiacomo
Predeval. Milan (1937–1942). Passage between the Rector’s study and the director’s office. Photo from
Predeval. Milan (1937–1942). Passage between the Rector’s study and the director’s office. Photo from
Domus (1942).
Domus (1942).
 Figure 32. Commercial University Bocconi by Giuseppe Pagano Pogatschnig and Giangiacomo
Arts 2019, 8, 27 Milan (1937–1942). Passage between the Rector’s study and the director’s office. Photo from
Predeval. 28 of 40
Domus (1942).

Figure 33.
Figure 33. The
The auditorium
auditorium with
with armchairs
armchairs in
in curved
curved plywood.
plywood. Patent
Patent of the Maggioni
of the Maggioni company
company in
in
Varedo.
Varedo.
Arts 2019, From:
From:
8, x FOR Università
Università
PEER Bocconi di Milano. Costruzioni Casabella 170–171: allegato 59.
REVIEW Bocconi di Milano. Costruzioni Casabella 170–171: allegato 59. 28 of 40

In the two university buildings, particularly in the more mature Bocconi Univerisity (Pagano
Pogatschnig 1942, pp. 2–4) Pagano’s passion for the new materials—stoneware, glass block, linoleum,
steel—was pushed to the extreme with sophisticated chromatic research on the shades of green and
grey.
Another interest always present in his work is the integration of architecture and art, of which
the works by Arturo Martini and the pottery by Fausto Melotti and Tullio d’Albissola in the Milan’s
building are good examples (Bassi and Castagno 1994, p. 113).
The close ties linking the two university architectures concern both the aspects specific to the
architectural composition and those inherent to the construction choices, the materials, and the
furnishings.

Figure 34.
Figure 34. The
Theblock
blockofofoffices.
offices. Lithoceramic
Lithoceramic coating,
coating, wooden
wooden window
window frames,
frames, parapets
parapets in safety
in safety glass.
glass. Photo from (Pagano Pogatschnig
Photo from (Pagano Pogatschnig 1942, p. 7).1942, p. 7).

Asthe
In Alessandra Muntoni
two university writes (Muntoni
buildings, 2010,in
particularly p.the
104), the architecture
more of theUniverisity
mature Bocconi Institute of(Pagano
Physics
is cultured and
Pogatschnig inspired
1942, byPagano’s
pp. 2–4) differentpassion
Europeanformodels,
the newsuch as Gropius’ Bauhaus,
materials—stoneware, glassMarinus Dudok’s
block, linoleum,
Dutch Pavilion
steel—was in Paris’
pushed to theCité Internationale
extreme Universitaire,
with sophisticated Gunnarresearch
chromatic Asplund’son library in Stockholm
the shades of green
(Figures
and grey.35–38).
Another interest always present in his work is the integration of architecture and art, of which
the works by Arturo Martini and the pottery by Fausto Melotti and Tullio d’Albissola in the Milan’s
building are good examples (Bassi and Castagno 1994, p. 113).
 Arts 2019, 8, 27 29 of 40

Figure 34. The block of offices. Lithoceramic coating, wooden window frames, parapets in safety
The from
glass. Photo close (Pagano
ties linking the two university
Pogatschnig architectures concern both the aspects specific to
1942, p. 7).
the architectural composition and those inherent to the construction choices, the materials, and
the furnishings.
As Alessandra Muntoni writes (Muntoni 2010, p. 104), the architecture of the Institute of Physics
As Alessandra Muntoni writes (Muntoni 2010, p. 104), the architecture of the Institute of Physics
is cultured and inspired
is cultured by different
and inspired European
by different European models, such
models, such as as Gropius’
Gropius’ Bauhaus,
Bauhaus, Marinus Marinus
Dudok’sDudok’s
Dutch Pavilion in Paris’
Dutch Pavilion CitéCité
in Paris’ Internationale
InternationaleUniversitaire, Gunnar
Universitaire, Gunnar Asplund’s
Asplund’s librarylibrary in Stockholm
in Stockholm
(Figures
(Figures 35–38). 35–38).

Figure 35. Institute

Figure of Physics
35. Institute by Giuseppe
of Physics by GiuseppePagano Pogatschnig
Pagano Pogatschnig (1932–1935).
(1932–1935). Particular
Particular of the coating
of the coating
in Litoceramica and of the external floor of travertine. The benches are three
in Litoceramica and of the external floor of travertine. The benches are three blocks of blocks of travertine. Photo
travertine.
Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW
from (De Smaele 1936, p. 11). 29 of 40
Photo from (De Smaele 1936, p. 11).

Figure 36. A corner view of the complex. Photo from (De Smaele 1936, p. 10).
Figure 36. A corner view of the complex. Photo from (De Smaele 1936, p. 10).
Arts 2019, 8, 27 30 of 40
Figure 36. A corner view of the complex. Photo from (De Smaele 1936, p. 10).

37. The side entrance to the classrooms.

Figure 37. classrooms. Photo from (Papini
(Papini 1936,
1936, p.
p. 5).
5).

Figure 38.
Figure 38. The main entrance.
The main entrance. Photo
Photo from (De Smaele
from (De Smaele 1936,
1936, p.
p. 9).
9).

The descriptions and the photographic images of the Institute of Physics published by Casabella
in 1936 provide aa rich
in 1936 provide rich documentation
documentation ofof the
the architectural project and
architectural project and the
the furnishings
furnishings utilized
utilized in
in the
the
classrooms, the laboratories, and the hall. Pagano carefully studied any architectonic detail, including
doors and windows; he designed various types of furniture manufactured in series, and he used seats
made by metallic tubular and metallic bookshelves made by Lips Vago (Bassi and Castagno 1994, p. 103).
The care with which Pagano chose and approached the materials and drew all the elements and
construction systems was instrumental in solving problems of environmental comfort and achieving
optimal functioning. From the constructive point of view, the Institute of Physics is exemplary for its
particular technological mix.
The building walls, which develop around a courtyard, are in load-bearing masonry 60 cm
thick. The beams are made of reinforced concrete, the floors of mixed type, and the roofs are flat and
practicable. The walls are coated with yellow-orange Litoceramica bricks, while the Travertine is used
in blocks for the base and in square slabs of 60 cm for the square on which the main entrance opens
(Pagano Pogatschnig 1936). The simplicity and rigor of the Institute are exemplified by the careful
design of the rectangular windows.
Arts 2019, 8, 27 31 of 40

Pagano drew two types of wood frames that were manufactured by the company Fratelli Villa
of Telesforo and Antonio. The frames present the same shape, size, and materials, but they differ in
the closing system. Most of the windows measure 150 × 200 cm and are subdivided by two identical
larch frames, which have a flap and latch opening. The Victoria patent allows the sliding up and down
of the two doors and the flap opening of the lower frame equipped with an insulating glass and a
Termolux diffuser.
In the interior, Pagano used a green linoleum shade for the surfaces. The same material and color
was adopted for the floorings apart from the Carrara marble paving utilized for atriums, staircases,
and landings (Pagano Pogatschnig 1936). The green color was also used by Pagano for the vertical
finishes in enamel and paint. The walls of the Superior and Experimental Physics graduated classroom
are covered with green Richard-Ginori ceramics on which the equipment was installed, including
sliding boards, paintings, ammeters, clocks, and voltmeters (Figure 39). Additionally, the laboratories
were designed with innovative materials, always with linoleum floors and metal furniture (Figure 40).
The furniture was particularly studied by Pagano. Archive sources and architecture magazines of the
period prove that the office furniture was directly conceived by the architect. The project consisted
of forty types including chairs, desks, paper holders, and metal sheet cabinets that differed from
each other for the variation of shelves thickness and distribution. From the photographs and the
documents conserved in the Sapienza University Historical Archives—in particular in the C.E.R.U.R.
Fund (Consorzio per l’assetto edilizio della Regia Università di Roma)—we can see that the office type
was designed in a linear way and furnished with metallic furniture. The table (250 cm × 80 cm) could
have the top covered in green or black linoleum, in 5 mm pressed masonite, or in pitch pine.
The base consisted of two cabinets that could be made with different variants with or without
drawers. Chairs and armchairs presented tubular steel structures and wooden seats. A model
with padding was also made (Figures 41 and 42). The furniture was manufactured by the Parma
company of Saronno (Figure 43). Then, there was the delicate question of the classroom desks. In line
with the functional, essential, and practical approach that characterized his design concept, Pagano
posed two problems, the ergonomic question and the maximum exploitation of the space with a
minimum
Arts 2019, 8, xencumbrance.
FOR PEER REVIEW 31 of 40

Figure
Figure 39. The
39. The Superior
Superior and and Experimental
Experimental Physics
Physics graduated
graduated classroom.
classroom. Photo
Photo fromfrom (De Smaele
(De Smaele 1936, p. 21).
1936, p. 21).
Arts 2019, 8, 2739. The Superior and Experimental Physics graduated classroom. Photo from (De Smaele
Figure 32 of 40
1936, p. 21).

Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 32 of 40

Figure
Figure 40. The
40.
Arts 2019,
The laboratories
laboratories
8, x FOR
withthe
with
PEER REVIEW
thefurniture
furniture designed
designed byby Pagano.
Pagano. Photo
Photo from
from (De(De Smaele
Smaele 1936, p.
1936,
32 ofp.4025).
25).

After long negotiations, the production of the desks was entrusted to Beltrami company
(Mitrano 2008) (Figures 44–46). The company’s choice of metal shelving for the library was also
complex. Finally, the assignment was given to the Lips Vago (Figure 47).
To conclude this paragraph, it is possible to affirm that the Physics Institute was a laboratory of
modern architecture and design in which Pagano was able to interpret the programmatic lines
outlined by Piacentini with exemplary research on environmental comfort and functionality.
This case opens a field of historical, morphological, and constructive investigation of scientific
interest. The studies, combined with the idea of global design that underpins their realization, should
be extended to the myriad of objects and furnishings that are still present today, producing many
questions related to their knowledge and enhancement.

Figure
Figure 41. 41. Drawing
Drawing by Giuseppe
by Giuseppe Pagano.Office
Pagano. Office table.
table. Image
Imagefrom: C.E.R.U.R.
from: FundFund
C.E.R.U.R. (Consorzio per
(Consorzio per
l’assetto edilizio della Regia Università di Roma) Envelope 32, Pos 88.
l’assetto edilizio della Regia Università di Roma) Envelope Envelope 32,
32, Pos
Pos 88.
88.

Figure 42. Institute of Physics. Type office. Photo from (De Smaele 1936, p. 24).

Figure
Figure 42.
42. Institute
Institute of
of Physics.
Physics. Type
Type office.
office. Photo
Photo from (De Smaele
from (De Smaele 1936,
1936, p.
p. 24).
24).
 Arts 2019, 8, 27 33 of 40
Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 33 of 40

Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 33 of 40

FigureFigure
43. Advertising PAS
43. Advertising (Parma
PAS (ParmaAntonio
Antonio &&Figli).
Figli). Image
Image from
from Domus
Domus (1936).(1936).

After long negotiations, the production of the desks was entrusted to Beltrami company (Mitrano
2008) (Figures 44–46). The company’s choice of metal shelving for the library was also complex. Finally,
the assignment
Figure was given to the PAS
43. Advertising Lips Vago (Figure
(Parma 47). & Figli). Image from Domus (1936).
Antonio

Figure 44. Technical drawing of articulated bench. Image from (De Smaele 1936, p. 20).

Figure 44. Technical

Figure drawing
44. Technical of of
drawing articulated bench.Image
articulated bench. Image from
from (De (De Smaele
Smaele 1936,
1936, p. 20). p. 20).
Arts 2019, 8, 27 34 of 40
Figure 44. Technical drawing of articulated bench. Image from (De Smaele 1936, p. 20).

Arts 2019,
Arts 8, xxFigure
2019, 8, Figure 45.
45. Institute
FOR PEER
FOR PEER REVIEW of
Institute
REVIEW of Physics.
Physics. The
The classroom
classroom desks.
desks. Photo
Photo from
from (De
(De Smaele
Smaele 1936,
1936, p.
p. 20).
20). 34 of
34 of 40
40

Figure 46.
Figure 46. Technical
46. Technical drawing
Technical drawing of
drawing of articulated
of articulated bench
articulated benchby
bench byBeltrami
by Beltramicompany.
Beltrami company.Patent
company. Patent9322/1934.
Patent 9322/1934. Image
9322/1934. Image
from: C.E.R.U.R. Fund (Consorzio per l’assetto edilizio della Regia Università di Roma) Envelope
from: C.E.R.U.R. Fund (Consorzio per l’assetto edilizio della Regia Università di Roma) Envelope 43.
Envelope 43.
43.

Figure 47.
Figure 47. Institute
Institute of
of Physics. Metal
Metal shelving for
for Library. Photo
Photo from
from (De
(De Smaele
Smaele 1936,
1936, p.
p. 23).
23).
Figure 47. Institute of Physics.
Physics. Metal shelving
shelving for Library.
Library. Photo from (De Smaele 1936, p. 23).

4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
To conclude this paragraph, it is possible to affirm that the Physics Institute was a laboratory of
modernAs IIarchitecture
tried to andthe
to show,
show, design in which
peculiarity of Pagano
the modern
modernwas movement
able to interpret the programmatic
of Italian
Italian lines
architecture that
that outlined
flourished
As tried the peculiarity of the movement of architecture flourished
by Piacentini
in the
the period
period of with exemplary
of 1926–1943
1926–1943 lies research
lies in on environmental
in aa singular
singular synthesis comfort
synthesis between and
between national functionality.
national tradition
tradition and
and international
international
in
This case
avant-gardes, an opens a field
an expression
expression ofof historical,
of rationalism morphological,
rationalism rooted
rooted in in the and constructive
the history
history of investigation
of architecture
architecture and of scientific
and conditioned
conditioned by
avant-gardes, by
interest.
the The
politics studies,
of the combined
fascist regime. with the idea
Consistently, of global
the design
uniqueness that
of underpins
modern their
Italian realization,
architecture should
can be
the politics of the fascist regime. Consistently, the uniqueness of modern Italian architecture can be
be extended
identified in to double
its the myriad
link of objects
with the andof
forms furnishings
the past andthat are stratifications
urban still present today,
and producing
with the many
principles
identified in its double link with the forms of the past and urban stratifications and with the principles
questions
of the
the modern
modernrelated to their knowledge and enhancement.
movement.
of movement.
The analysis
The analysis outlined
outlined here
here covers
covers the
the main
main topics
topics of
of the
the influence
influence of of autarchic
autarchic politics
politics in
in
architecture and design, the new profile of the integral architect connected to the
architecture and design, the new profile of the integral architect connected to the foundation of the foundation of the
School of
School of Architecture
Architecture in in Rome,
Rome, the
the main
main architectural
architectural themes,
themes, the
the collaborations
collaborations between
between rationalist
rationalist
architects, and industries with the testing of new standardized typologies
architects, and industries with the testing of new standardized typologies of objects. of objects.
The technological question is considered central and shows how Italian rationalism is
Arts 2019, 8, 27 35 of 40

4. Conclusions
As I tried to show, the peculiarity of the modern movement of Italian architecture that flourished
in the period of 1926–1943 lies in a singular synthesis between national tradition and international
avant-gardes, an expression of rationalism rooted in the history of architecture and conditioned by
the politics of the fascist regime. Consistently, the uniqueness of modern Italian architecture can be
identified in its double link with the forms of the past and urban stratifications and with the principles
of the modern movement.
The analysis outlined here covers the main topics of the influence of autarchic politics in
architecture and design, the new profile of the integral architect connected to the foundation of the
School of Architecture in Rome, the main architectural themes, the collaborations between rationalist
architects, and industries with the testing of new standardized typologies of objects.
The technological question is considered central and shows how Italian rationalism is
characterized by some common themes associated with the characteristics of new materials and
constructive procedures.
The new vision prevailing in Italy in the interwar period manifested itself through the integration
between architecture and industrial production. This integrated approach led to a reflection on the
modalities whereby industrial production could influence and renew the architectural culture.
The integration of these two fields was due to several factors including the evolution of schools,
academies, and institutes where—beginning in the early 1920s—a convergence between them took
place, the creation of specialized magazines (Architecture and Decorative Arts in 1921, La Casa Bella and
Domus both founded in 1928), and above all, the temporary exhibitions of the Monza Biennial (1923,
1925, 1927, 1930) and of the Milan Triennial (1933–1940) where furnishings became more connected to
serial production (Guida 2017; Morone 2017).
It is evident how the culture of the rationalist project involving architecture and design was
strongly conditioned by the new materials and technologies necessary to permit the evolutionary leap
that placed these artifacts in the scenario of modernity comparable with what was achieved abroad.
For instance, the interest in metal furniture linked the Italian designers of that time to their Bauhaus
counterparts such as Marcel Breuer, whose iconic metal furniture produced in Germany was known
by Giuseppe Pagano.
In general, one could say that it was the design of the products of industrial civilization that gave
rise to the new architecture (Bassi and Castagno 1994, p. 79). The case study of the Institute of Physics
by Giuseppe Pagano (and all of his work in general) substantiates this assertion, and it is exemplary in
defining the integral approach to the project typical of modernity. An approach that, for Pagano, relied
also to environmental problems and the functionality of the building and furnishings.
In this sense, modern architecture and design can be studied together through cataloguing, census,
and comparison in order to transfer knowledge to future generations.
Also, in the methodological approach to the maintenance and restoration, many elements are
closely intertwined, in particular those concerning the industrial components which are mostly out of
the market today.
This article refers to an area of research related to the theme of restoration and redevelopment of
modern architecture and design. The premise is that any maintenance, restoration, or redevelopment
requires the understanding of the meanings of buildings and objects, including materials and
technologies. The question is delicate and complex. The studies conducted for decades have identified
some intervention methodologies that synthetically refer to two models.
The conservative model is applicable when the “original material” is strongly present in a limited
number of exemplary cases (Carbonara 1992, p. 53). It is an orientation that follows the concept of
“philological reconstruction”, à l’identique, which provides transformations, although marginal ones.
This standpoint is founded on the concept of “critical restoration” and the restoration theory by
Cesare Brandi. For Brandi, restoration is “the methodological moment of the recognition of the work
Arts 2019, 8, 27 36 of 40

of art in its physical and material consistency and in its aesthetic and historical polarity, in view of its
transmission to the future” (Brandi 1963).
The second model is aimed at architectural redevelopment and contemplates greater degrees of
freedom in intervening. However, the interventions are assessed “case by case” and must be based on
historical and critical analysis.
The case study presented here—like other interesting buildings of the Rome University Campus
such as the Gio Ponti’s School of Mathematics—deserves research on the current state of the interior
and a census of the original furnishings.
The goal is to recover the systems of objects still in use through a philological restoration that can
give back its unity to an architecture that was conceived by Pagano in every detail.
Obviously, such restoration of buildings that are still utilized should update the features
and equipment that are today obsolete but are necessary for environmental comfort and
scientific laboratories.
One may conclude from what is discussed above that, while keeping one’s distance from the
fascist ideology and condemning it, autarky can be studied in an objective way in order to know
and communicate constructive aspects of cities, architectures, and objects that participate in defining
memories and habitats of past historical conditions and related social practices.

5. Notes
1. Among the prominent scientists who collaborated with the CNR (National Research Council) are the
two chemists and academics Giulio Natta (1903–1979) and Livio Cambi (1885–1968). Natta, Nobel
Prize winner for chemistry with Karl Ziegler in 1963 for “their discoveries in the field of polymer
chemistry and technology”, worked in the field of catalytic synthesis of alcohols and their derivatives,
while Livio Cambi (1885–1968) dedicated his research to non-ferrous metals, contributing to building
a cultural climate aimed at achieving national autonomy (Maiocchi 2003).
2. Italian territorial expansion reached its maximum extension at the beginning of the Second World
War. The territories included parts of southern France, Dalmatia, Croatia, Montenegro, Albania,
Greece, the Aegean islands, Eritrea, Somalia, Libya, Ethiopia, the Tianjin Chinese concessions,
Shangai, and Amoy. At the end of the Second World War, harsh conditions were imposed on Italy
with confiscation of territories including all of the colonies. Only Somalia was administered by
an Italian mandate until 1960 (Rodogno 2006).
3. The frame was also used to build open spans: the portico of the Bocconi University offices (Milan,
1937–1942) by Giuseppe Pagano; the basement of the Palazzo delle poste (Rome, 1933–1935)
by Alberto Samonà, the large windows towards the courtyard of the School of Mathematics
(Città Universitaria di Roma, 1933–1935) by Gio Ponti; the windows of the main entrance of
the Palazzo delle poste (Rome, 1933–1935) by Mario Ridolfi; some parts of the Youth House in
Trastevere (Rome, 1932–1937) by Luigi Moretti, where the space between the pillars is closed by
large windows divided by metal profiles (Dal Falco 2002, pp. 1–9).
4. An exemplary case of the use of glass-blocking, in particular of the “Nevada” model produced by
the French company Saint-Gobain since 1928, is the Maison de Verre (1928–1932), which was built in
Paris between 1928 and 1932 by Pierre Chareau and Bernard Bijvoet (Vellay and Frampton 1984).

Funding: This research received no external funding.

Acknowledgments: All translations by the author. All images are public domain or are taken from books that are
electronically available as public domain.
Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.

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