CHAPTER 8 l UNIVERSALITY OF ASIAN ETHICS

CHAPTER 8 Universality of
Asian Ethics
LE AR NI NG OUTCOMES
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to: 1

1. Define what is universal in Asian religious ethics;

2. Identify the commonalities in the universal Asian values;

3. Identify the similarities between ethics and philosophies;.

4. Explain how ethics philosophies are translated into every day practice in Asian culture; and

5. Identify the similarities and differences between Asian ethics and Westerns ethics.
 UNIVERSALITY OF ASIAN ETHICS l CHAPTER 8

INTRODUCTION
In the last seven chapters we have learnt about ethics and ethics in various religions in Asia such
as Islamic Ethics, Hindu Ethics, Confucianism Ethics and etc. Did you notice that all religions
are philosophies on how we should live our lives and how we should behave in order to attain
happiness?.

The way our behaviours are shaped may be different from one another and this may be due to
different influences in our religion. For example, though the notion of non-harming “ahimsa”
exists in both Hinduism and Buddhism, the way it is interpreted in Hinduism is different from
the Buddhism interpretation.

Although there are differences in these religions, all the religions that we have learnt, emphasise
on the following areas:
• Ethics in relation to self and family
• Ethics in relation to social and interpersonal
• Ethics in relation to business, consumer and trade
• Ethics in relation to medicine, science and health
• Ethics in relation to environment
In this chapter, we will look at how these religions influence the universality of ethical
2 consideration in the Asian region.
CHAPTER 8 l UNIVERSALITY OF ASIAN ETHICS

8.1 Common Perspectives on Ethics

Across Religions and Philosophies

In chapter one to seven, we have learnt about ethics and ethical teachings of the major religions
in Asia. The key characteristics of the religions that we have learnt so far are shown in Figure
8.1.

Figure 8.1: Key characteristics of major religions in Asia

Islam Hinduism Shinto

Belief in one God.
Sacred scripture: the Koran.
Important aspects are The way of the Gods.
reincarnation and karma. No religious scripture,
Upanishads, Bhagavad- founder or codes.
Gita and Brahma Sutra are
scriptures used as guides to
life.

Confucianism Christianity Buddhism

Collection of teachings and Belief in one God Collection of teachings and
observations on how to live Sacred scripture: the Bible observations of Gautama
and govern. Buddha on how to reach
Nirvana and escape from
the cycle or birth, death and
rebirth
 UNIVERSALITY OF ASIAN ETHICS l CHAPTER 8

From Figure 8.1, we can see that:

• Some religions are called religious philosophies.
• Some of the religion founders have never intended for their philosophies to become a
religion.
• Some religions do not have divine books such as in Islam or Christianity but they have
collection of teachings and observations compiled by their followers.
• Some notable religions such as Confucianism is noted for its governance philosophies.
• Each religion is transcendental and its teachings are related to human living conditions.
• Each religion is seen as a path to self-discovery and act as ethical authority.
• Each religion exists until now despite the age of technology and sciences.
From chapter two to seven, did you notice that religions and philosophies are sometimes
discussed together with regards to ethics? There are three main areas where religions and
philosophies are discussed: Most religions are philosophies of how we should live our lives.

There are many schools of philosophy that refuse to use religion as ethical authority but instead
state that we should use our logical thinking and reasoning for ethical decisions.

Whether a person believes in religion or not, all human beings are looking for a philosophy
that can guide their lives. This philosophy which can be religious or non-religious incorporated
ethical elements to ensure that we are doing the right thing at the right time and in the right
4
context.

Before we move on to the next section of this chapter, try the following activity.

Recall all the characterictics of each religion.

Islam Hinduism Confucianism Shinto Christianity Buddhism

What is the most common philosophy that is found in these religions? Can you
name them?
CHAPTER 8 l UNIVERSALITY OF ASIAN ETHICS

8.2 Is There a Universal Set of Asian Ethics?

We have learnt about major religions in Asia and we know that all these religions dicusssed
about the same ethical considerations. Thus, do you think there is a universal set of Asian
ethics? Based on what you have learnt, are there ethics that are particular only to Asians?

For people who have lived both in Asia and other parts of the world, they may have noticed
that there are some ethics that are only particular to Asians. These ethics have become part of
the culture and norms of the Asians. In Asia, multiracial and multireligious communities live
together. For example, in Malaysia, multiple religious holidays are celebrated. The religious
ethics in the different religions are not only respected by the followers, but also respected by
their neighbours. In some parts of the world, this is not practised and many western visitors who
came to Asia notice this particular part of Asian culture.

Figure 8.2 shows the various religions that are practised in Asia.

Figure 8.2 : Religions in Asia

In the case of Malaysia,

for instance, multiple
religious holidays are 5
celebrated.
ATLAS OF FAITHS BELIEVERS as percentage of global population (2002)

12.5
Agnostics 17.4 Roman Catholics

13.0 5.6 Protestants

Other believers
6.4 Orthodox Chr.
2.4 Atheist
0.2 Jews 6.4 Other Christians
5.9 Buddhists

13.3 Hindus 19.8 Muslims

- 3200

3052 - 3000
BELIEVERS BY - 2800
RELIGION
- 2600
Total Christians
in millions - 2400
Majority of
population 2229 - 2200
comprised of: - 2000
Roman Jew - 1800
Catholics 1747 Muslims
- 1600
Buddhists
Protestants - 1400
Japanese
Christians Shintoists
1175 -- 1200
1000

from various and 962 Hindus

churches - 800
Buddhists
686 - 600
Orthodox
Christians Hindus 425 - 400
323 Buddhists
Churches Sikhs - 200

of Eastern 13.2 16.7- 0

Christianity Indigenous 1990 2000 2025Jews 2050
religions
Forecast
Mormons
no dominant
Muslims religion/
(Sunnis) nonreligious
Muslims unpopulated
(Shiites)
 UNIVERSALITY OF ASIAN ETHICS l CHAPTER 8

In the next section, we will learn about business ethics in East and Southeast Asia and how
Asian companies are approaching business practices training. Before we move on, attempt the
following activity.

If you have a foreign student in your class, ask him/her about his/her
observations of Asian customs and whether he/she saw any similarity
between Asian customs and his/her customs. If you do not have any foreign
student in your class, you can browse the websites listed below and explore
about worldwide customs, religions and philosophies:

• http://www.everyculture.com/
• http://www.1000ventures.com/business_guide/crosscuttings/cultures_
world.html

What are the similarities and differences between Asia and European
customs and Asia and the American? Can you outline them? Are the Asian
customs very similar to each other and very different to anywhere else in
the world? If this is so, does it make it more plausible to have a universal
Asian ethics? Discuss with your peers.

8.3 Asian Ethics on Business and Commerce

For centuries, the traditional cultures and values have been practised in Asian business dealings.
The Western concept of business ethics as a formal discipline has become an emerging discipline
in Asia.

The interest in western business ethics particularly in business practices training has been
increasing steadily in many Asian countries for the past decade. According to Amber Kelleher
(formerly the Manager of Institutional Programs for the International Business Ethics Institute),
this increase was due to the following factors:
• The 1997 Asian financial crisis which led to legislative reforms founded on anticorruption
measures;
• Dependence on foreign direct investment required companies to increase transparency and
improve their corporate governance systems; and
• Many Asian governments are enacting accounting reforms to avoid the devastating
consequences of the recent corporate scandals in the United States as shown in Figure 8.3.
CHAPTER 8 l UNIVERSALITY OF ASIAN ETHICS

Figure 8.3: Corporate scandal clippings

Compass Group dismisses

executives involved in UN
scandal
Guinness in
in share tra volved
fraud ding

HP executive in spying scandal

You can learn more about the various corporate scandals at this site:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_abuse
 UNIVERSALITY OF ASIAN ETHICS l CHAPTER 8

Some prominent figures' views on Asian business ethics are described in Figure 8.4 below.

Figure 8.4: Views on Asian business ethics

Business Ethics and Legal System

Prof. Junheng Sun, author of Contemporary Business Ethics,:

Asia legal systems often lag behind market mechanisms,

but I expect continued progress

Business Ethics in the Workplace

Ji-hyun Kim, a journalist with the Korea Herald, recently notes,

The very idea that some companies are seeking

Most employees, and even CEOs, still feel to set down some form of rules to guide their
uncomfortable at the mention of the word employees in carrying out their duties in an
‘ethics’ around the workplace. ethical manner represents huge progress.

Business Ethics Focus

According to Professor Iwao Taka of Reitaku University in Japan In Korea, Ji-hyun Kim reports

Some key issues in Japan include deceptive Training in bribery and corruption-centric
8 business practices as product mislabelling or which are considered to be the largest
violation of intellectual property rights challenge Korean companies face

Curtis Andrews, with Pfizer Pharmaceuticals in Korea, adds:

Gift and entertainment policies are topics in

ethics training programs in Asia

As business ethics is relatively new for most employees in Asia, companies are most likely to
encounter several challenges when planning and implementing related training programmes.
These challenges are listed in Figure 8.5. Ji-hyun Kim notes, “Companies themselves concede
that they need to figure out how to more effectively present training to their employees".
CHAPTER 8 l UNIVERSALITY OF ASIAN ETHICS
Figure 8.5: Challenges in planning and implementing business ethics training programmes
Conflict of Interest
Topic
Seniority Imperative
Feedback Mechanism
Abstract vs Concrete
Case Study and
Scenario Discussion
Post-Training Effect
• Common in the West; not readily discussed in Asia due to
difference in cultural traditions
• Example: leveraging “guanxi” (relationships) is historically
dominant and common in Asia to facilitate favoutable
business circumstances
• Experience and seniority is very important in Asia not in the
West
• Senior managers conduct ethics training can provide visible
support for ethics initiative
• In Asia there is an absence of a feedback mechanism as
recommendations could cause the facilitator to lose face
• Unless the facilitatator encourages a frank and open
discussion, which is difficult in many Asian cultures where
employees are taught unquestioning respect for authority,
questions of misconduct may go unreported
• Asian cultures tend to use abstract business concepts to
illustrate a idea (Western prefer concrete examples) 9
• Example: gifts from supplier training: in Asia focus on
maintaining harmony with the supplier; in the United States
emphasis more on the value of the gift and at which value
the gift cannot be accepted
• Are common in Western trainings not in Asia might be due to
Asian educational system that does not emphasize creative
problem solving and preference fot abstract than concrete
example
• Some employees in Asia admin that they are still uncertain
of their role and how their behaviour should change after
training
• Without the appropriate context, the may resist attempts to
alter historically accepted business practices
 UNIVERSALITY OF ASIAN ETHICS l CHAPTER 8

Some recommendations on how to increase effectiveness of Ethics training in Asia are shown
in Figure 8.6.

Figure 8.6: Recommendations to improve effectiveness of ethics training in Asia

Train to Understand Consequences of Actions

Mochel Campeanu, of Allianz First Lofe in Seoul,
recommends that employees “understand, imagine,
compare, and then decide,”which is an entirely new
approach to decision-making for many employees in Asia.

When employees are trained to consider the consequences

of their actions, their decision-making process will gradually
What will happen if become more introspective and they hopefully may become
I do this? Is this the
right thing to do? less inclined to make decisions just because “this is the way
it is done here”.

Integrate Traditional Concepts and Cultural Characteristics in Content

Cultural characteristics, in particular, should not be overlooked. For example, companies should
integrate traditional philosophical concepts (Buddhism, Confucianism, etc.) into the programme
10 content.
Likewise, companies should acknowledge the roles that personal connections (guanxi) and ‘face’
or respect (mianzi) play by helping employees understand how to manage business relationships
appropriately

A more difficult challenge in business ethics training in companies is to foster individual

accountability among senior managers of the organisation, whose decision-making capabilities
may be compromised by external pressures such as political influence or personal enterprise.

Ji-hyun Kim contends that corruptive practices by people in power will continue until the
connections (i.e., the conflicts of interest) between business and political circles are eliminated.
Increased global attention on corporate responsibility will continue to fuel corporate governance
reforms worldwide.

In 2006, a research team from Malaysia Science University conducted a study (with limited
sampling) on the ethical orientation of the Board of Directors. The findings discovered are:
• Majority of the Board of Directors still practice “guanxi”.
• Companies that have Muslim Board of Directors tend to have a higher level of Corporate
Social Responsibility (CSR) activities and CSR Disclosure.
• Religion can play a role in the ethical orientation of the corporate world.
CHAPTER 8 l UNIVERSALITY OF ASIAN ETHICS

We have now reached the end of this section. Before we continue with the rest of the chapter,
try the following Self-Check and Activity.

(a) What does guanxi mean? What do you understand it to mean from a
business perspective?
(b) Do you agree with everything the Western author wrote? Discuss the
points that you do not think are accurate with the class.

What do you think are the challenges for businesses to be ethical? Is it

similar or different from what an individual would face? Discuss with your
peers.

8.4 Asian Ethics on Human Rights

Human rights in Asia have been frequently talked about and debated among the international 11
communities especially on controversial issues such as Sati and Honour killing as shown in
Figure 8.7.

Figure 8.7: Controversial issues in Asia infringing on human rights according to international community

Sati Honour Killing

Widows are burnt together with the
deceased husband.
Certain tribal communities practice
“honour killings” where killing are done
even to family members to protect the
family honour or to atone for dishonour
or shame brought upon the family.
 UNIVERSALITY OF ASIAN ETHICS l CHAPTER 8

What the western communities conceive to be human rights may not be considered as human
rights to the Asian communities. In the west, individuality is deemed to be most important,
however, in Asia, the collective good, hence family, networks, friendships and relations are
considered more important than the individual.

We will now look at human rights from the Confucian perspectives and the Western perspectives
as listed in Table 8.1.

Confucian Perspectives Western Perspectives

• A Confucian individual is one who is • A Western individual is one who is born

born into obligations.
• A Confucian individual is bound by
rites. s
• Since the fulfillment of one’s essential
humanity, or ren, means oneness with
heaven, Confucianism presumes the
fundamental harmony between the
human world and nature and both are
12 part of a bigger system.
with rights.
• A Western individual is protected by
rights.
• In the Western communities, there is
a clear distinction between nature and
humanity. Humanity uses its rationality
to analyse the forms of nature.

In 1993, the Parliament of the World's Religions met in Chicago and produced the "Declaration
towards a Global Ethics”: The declaration:
• Espouses the fundamental moral principles to which all religions are encouraged to
subscribe.
• Is the ethic of the contemporary world.
• Furnished the common criterion of intelligibility with regard to defining human decency,
human flourishing and human dignity.
Before you continue with the rest of the section, try the following activity.

You can read the “Declaration towards a Global Ethic” at this website:
http://www.weltethos.org/pdf_decl/Decl_english.pdf

Form your own opinion of the declaration and what it actually means and
implies before proceeding further with this section.

Now that you have a basic understanding of the Global Ethics, do you agree
with it?
CHAPTER 8 l UNIVERSALITY OF ASIAN ETHICS

We have looked at human rights from the Confucianism and Western perspective. Now, let us
look at how these perspective are adopted in real life.

According to a United Nation survey:

• The richest 20% of the world consume almost 90% of all goods and services
• The poorest fifth consume fewer than 2%
So, what is the value of the concept of freedom for the poor? Let us consider these salient
points if a society is solely or largely based on people as autonomous individuals as per Western
philosophy.
• Higher tendency for the community to become uncaring, or at least passive, when it comes
to promoting the well-being of others.
• A person has no moral obligation or inclination to see that others' welfare is improved or
guaranteed.
• A person will see no compelling need to deal with the problem of inequitable distribution of
resources as seen in Figure 8.8 of the current distribution of wealth.
• Society can end up as self-centred society who is only willing to invest in order to protect
oneself.
• Individuals perceive self as only beneficiaries and unable to see and recognise others as
fellow-members of a larger human community.
13
Figure 8.8: Distribution of wealth in the world

DISTRIBUTION OF GLOBAL WEALTH

Wealth per capita

2000 ($)
Over 50,000
10,000 - 49,999
2,000 - 9,999
Under 2,000
No data
 UNIVERSALITY OF ASIAN ETHICS l CHAPTER 8

Confucianism philosophy on the other hand offers a more generous view of what it is to be a
human being:

The Confucian self is not completely free because each one of us is a father, a son, a subject, a
husband, a wife, a friend and a brother.

Obligations and responsibilities as self are to be fulfilled by individuals through the performance
of the rites and keeping to the norms in the appropriate sense of propriety, that is, the tradition
of li.

People are not incidental to my or your life; they are crucial in defining my own self and who
you are; by realising one's social roles, one achieves dignity, satisfaction, and meaning in life
as shown in Figure 8.9.

Figure 8.9: Confucian belief in the interconnection between people

“We define the people

around us; and they define
14 us. Our lives are interlinked,
interconnected with one
another.”

• Sense of justice is based on each person being aware that the meaning of life is dependent
on the well-being of other lives to whom we must relate.
• One should not only think in terms of what is due to us, but also what we must give to
others. If there are universal rights, there must also be universal responsibilities
Despite the differences between Confucian and Western perception on what is humanity, there
are always common universal human insights:

"Any man's death diminishes me, because I am involved in mankind; and

therefore never send to know for whom the bell tolls; it tolls for thee."

John Donne (1573-1631)

CHAPTER 8 l UNIVERSALITY OF ASIAN ETHICS

Before we end the section, check your understanding on what we have learnt in this section.

(a) What is the difference between the western notion of human rights and
Asian (in this case, via Confucian philosophy) human rights?
(b) Can you also argue for the collective human rights via other religious
philosophy other than Confucianism?

8.5 Asian Ethics on Self and Family

Asia contains about 60% of the world’s population and is growing rapidly each year with China
and India being two of the most populated countries in the world. Figure 8.10 shows the world
population distribution..

Figure 8.10: World population density distribution

15

Although customs and traditions might be different among Asian countries, new ones, due to
the influence of globalisation are being created in most of the countries in Asia. From country
to country, the new ways and ideas are similar.

The following activity will provide you on some issues on family traditions and coping with
the new wave of modernisation and globalisation. Some of these issues are unique for certain
countries and some of the issues are universal among Asian countries.
 UNIVERSALITY OF ASIAN ETHICS l CHAPTER 8

BBC ran an interesting programme in several countries in Asia, looking at the

different generations grappling with their eastern values in family traditions
and coping with the new wave of modernisation and globalisation.

Go to this website and view and listen to the various case studies presented on
the Asian family in Singapore, Vietnam, Japan, Korea and other countries
in Asia: http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/programmes/archive/030818_
asianfamily.shtml

There are various issues faced in each country; some unique while others are
universal in nature.

How do you feel about these issues? Do you face them too? How do you
resolve them? Discuss with your peers the articles in the website and your own
opinion and experiences.

The basic Asian family would be the same as in any family in comparison to the rest of the
world. Patriarchy families are still more popular among many Asian families. It is believed that
the man is in charge of the house in most if not all the countries in Asia.
16
Western influence, economic pressures and changing lifestyle are affecting the traditional ways
of life in Asian nations and most of the time it is the family structure which is mostly affected.
Some of these challenges are:
• Women in Singapore are putting off marriage and having babies to an extent it has raised
concerns that the island's 4.3 million population could go into decline.
• According to women's group in Vietnam, Confucianism has been used to justify the
continuing inequality between men and women, particularly in rural areas.
• The opening up of the economy policy in some Asian countries such as Vietnam and China
has also put family life under strain as individual members or whole families are moving
into the cities in search for better opportunities.
We have now reached the end of the section. Attempt the following questions to evaluate your
understanding about this section.
CHAPTER 8 l UNIVERSALITY OF ASIAN ETHICS

(a) What are your observations about family ethics and ties in Malaysian
society? Are they changing?
(b) Based on the article, what do you think are the pros and cons of adhering
or not-adhering to our family’s way of life?

8.6 Asian Ethics on Interpersonal Relations

When discussing religious ethics, we should consider not only the specific religion involved,
but also its cultural setting. For example, when analysing traditional Zen Buddhist ethics, we
need to consider it from various angles as shown in Figure 8.11.

Figure 8.11: Zen buddhist ethics angles

As its new evolution in

As a Buddhist ethics As an East Asian movement North American or Western
European cultural settings
17

In this section, we will look at Asian ethics in relation to interpersonals in Buddhism. In Indian
Buddhism, the rules that govern individual and the community are different from the rules that
govern East Asian Buddhism. This is shown in Figure 8.12.
 UNIVERSALITY OF ASIAN ETHICS l CHAPTER 8

Figure 8.12: Indian Buddhist and East Asian Buddhist rules

East Asian
Indian Buddhism Buddhism
COMMUNAL COMBINATION OF
INDIVIDUAL
INDIVIDUAL AND COMMUNAL

• Vows aimed at • Rules for social behaviour

governing sangha. • In East Asian Buddhists (unlike
transforming their own
their Indian predecessors) it is
attitudes and • Law-like communal rules; more commonly combined the
behaviours known as the vinaya, regulate the equivalents of “śīla ” an “vinaya”
śīla w h i c h i n v o l v e s behaviour of monks and into a compound term, “jielu” in
“precepts” that are not nuns and, in some Chinese or “kairitsu” in Japanese
commandments or moral circumstances, laypersons
ought about what is right as well. • Suggest perceived intrinsic
or wrong
• Include not only the connection between
• Precepts are more like rules but also sanctions self-imposed d isciplinary
resolutions (such as New akin to “house rules” not resolutions and appropriate
Year’s resolutions) that principles. communal behaviour.
one imposes on oneself
for the sake of personal • For example: prohibitions • Constitutes a philosophical
improvement. If one were against eating after moral system.
prone to drunkenness noontime and against
resulting in violent wearing gold adornments.
behaviour,
18 • There may be moral norms
for instance, one might
behind some rules—for
resolve on New Year
instance, prohibitions
never to drink alcohol
against stealing—but one
again so that one
finds that kind of rule even
can be a better person
today in, say, the rules for
youth hostels as well.
In itself, this hardly
constitutes a philosophical
moral system.

Check your understanding of this section before moving on to the next section.

(a) If human beings do not keep to their self-discipline, what does that mean
for the community as a whole?
(b) What examples in the newspaper that you think demonstrates the problem
in (a)?
CHAPTER 8 l UNIVERSALITY OF ASIAN ETHICS

8.7 Asian Ethics on Science, Technology

and Medicine

There has been a great deal of argument that science and religion do not mix.

Many attempts have been made to link the truth in divine revelations such as the holy Bible
and the holy Koran about when the earth was born, the science behind procreation and how the
world will eventually end. Maurice Bucaille wrote a controversial book entitled “The Bible,
The Qur’an and Science” in which he claimed that Islam and Science are twi-sisters”.

If you want to know more about this book, you can visit the websites listed below.

Visit the following website to read more about Maurice Bucaille’s “The
Bible, The Qur’an and Science”.

• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Bucaille
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XaSfE1DW2-w

Discuss with your peers your findings and your opinion of Maurice Bucaille’s
work.
19

All religions encourage its followers to seek knowledge and that includes knowledge in science
and medicine:

Islam for example, has long encouraged its followers - male and female to seek knowledge,
wherever it may be. It was quoted that Muslims were even told to go China to obtain knowledge
if they have to.

In the areas of astronomy, medicine and engineering, there have been many pioneers in the
Islamic traditions, including the sanitisation of hospitals, the invention of medicine and the
instruments of telling time.

In all of the religions that we have learnt, not much have discussed about technology. This
may be due to the reason that technology plays a very small role during the times the religion
was born. In this millennia, religious ethics had to confront challenges that was brought by the
technology. These challenges are listed in Figure 8.13.
 UNIVERSALITY OF ASIAN ETHICS l CHAPTER 8

Figure 8.13: Religious ethics challenges in technological age

Borderless communications and information

in the form of the internet
• Pose more challenge to parental authority with access to all
sorts of information via the internet
• Allows a great deal of debate about ethics and about religion
• Can open up channels of understanding and new perspectives
and conducted in a proper manner and the correct intentions,
the internet technology can bridge differences globally and
regionally in a positive way
• Little censorship in virtual space and even less control over
whether something is factual or just hearsay
• Religion and or ethics can play a role in anchoring society to its
foundations with volatile and uncertainty in information age with
some breaking away from their traditional beliefs while others
hang on to their religious and ethical beliefs like a life-line.

Conveniences of life such as machineries etc

• Makes life faster and in some ways more impersonal
20
• Materialistic priorities and lifestyle expectations dominate many of
the new generations’ minds of late

• Many customs and traditions that grew out of mostly religious

foundations are followed mostly during rites of passage only
otherwise forgotten – birth, marriage and death and on special
occasions – religious holidays and such
CHAPTER 8 l UNIVERSALITY OF ASIAN ETHICS

In addition to technology challenges, religious ethics also faced medical science challenges as
shown in Figure 8.14.

Figure 8.14: Religious challenges in medical science

Euthanasia
• Majority of Asian religions advocate the value of life though now it
is challenged with the argument of quality life and choices
• Many people make it known that if they become in a comatose
state with little or no recovery prognosis, they do not wish to be
dependent on life-support for a long period
• Advances in science and medicine allow for the possibility that a
cure may be found or a miracle can occur with God’s blessings
although the individual had made it known for euthanasia in such
situations, the family may be faced with a very difficult decison

Abortion
• There are also rules governing abortions and surrogacy

• Life is values in most religion even that of a foetus. 21

• However, in most religion if the mother’s life is in danger or the

foetus is deformed with little chance of survival permits abortion.

• Other reasons for abortion such as teenage pregnancy is a very

controversial issue in most religions

No matter what the challenges are, it is worthwhile to remember that if we go back to the
fundamentals of ethics, all actions that are taken must be the one that is most ethically viable
for all concerned. The religious ethics in all the ethical decision making is taking action that is
most compassionate and humane.

We have now reached the end of the section. Attempt the following Self-test and Activity before
proceeding to the next section.
 UNIVERSALITY OF ASIAN ETHICS l CHAPTER 8

(a) Can technology positively contribute to our ethical understanding?

How?
(b) Think of several instances where religious ethics are applied to medical
issues. Do the ethical principles make those issues easier to think
about?

Reflect and discuss how technology has affected your life and your values.
Has it had a huge impact and changed your perceptions of right and wrong?
For example, policing your children’s internet activities etc. Discuss with
your peers and exchange experiences.

8.8 Asian Ethics on Environme

Mencius, the most famous Confucian after Confucius himself wrote:

If rightly tended, no creature but thrives;

If left untended, no creature but pines away.
22

In addition to the above words from Mencius, Confucius himself said:

Hold fast to it and you can keep it,

Let go, and it will stray.
For its comings and goings its has no time nor tide;
No one knows where it will bide.
Surely it was of the [innate and good] feelings that he was speaking."
(Three Ways of Thought in Ancient China)

Since the beginning of time, people have been destroying the environment. Protecting our
nature needs constant vigilance and this requires ethical education.

According to Mencius, awareness of what is innate and good can be uncovered in everyone.
If we understand the fundamental nature of our interrelation with the environment, we will
be able to respect not only our fellow human beings but also all the creatures living in our
environment.
 CHAPTER 8 l UNIVERSALITY OF ASIAN ETHICS

In ancient Buddhist teaching:

• The earth is a great enlightened being, a great Bodhisattva who gives us a place to live on,
to grow and to walk the path to enlightenment.
• The earth is our mother. She gives birth to us, nourishes us, and it is to her that we return at
death.
• We should give her (the earth) the same kind of love and respect that we should have for
our human mothers.
• Since the earth is the mother for all beings, all beings are brothers and sisters.
According to Buddha, we are alienated from the true source of our being - our enlightened
nature because our minds are polluted with the following:
• Selfishness
• Desire
• Greed
• Anger
In the state of alienation, we unwittingly influence the world around us in unnatural ways and
this resulted in distortion of the natural patterns of the environment and of the way how things
should be. This distortion caused pollution and other environmental problems.

Other factors that cause the pollution of the mind are causation and responsibility. Jesus said
23
“As ye sow, so shall ye reap.” This statement is about the workings of cause and effect, or
karma, as it is known in the Buddhist tradition.

Buddhism emphasises that our verbal and physical behaviour is the outcome of our intentions.
If my intentions are good and pure, my behaviour will be good and pure as well. However, if
I am motivated but my mind is filled with selfish desires, greed, hatred, and violence, then my
speech and actions will accord with what is in my mind.

We also tend to see the world and its living beings through the tinted and distorted lenses of our
own minds. Turbid and defiled minds lead to turbid and defiled actions which in the end destroy
and pollute the planet that is mother and home to us all.

If we cannot see how our actions are related to our consequences, then it will be difficult for us
to take responsibility for the consequences of our actions. For example, do we see or even think
about the trees or the dioxin and other chemicals that are used in the paper-making process and
then are dumped into our waterways?

We might want to ponder how our action and the consequences of our action caused damages
to our environment. Let us look at the following activity.
 UNIVERSALITY OF ASIAN ETHICS l CHAPTER 8

When someone buys a Big Mac at McDonald’s, does he/she see where the
cow is grazing, what it is eating, where the manure ends up?

Many children do not even know that burgers and milk come from cows. Their
knowledge came from what they personally see and experience: the ready to
cook plastic packages in the supermarket. To them, burger and milk come
from McDonald’s and the supermarket.

Try asking your children or your nephews and nieces or your friend’s children
whether they understand the cause and effects as portrayed in the scenario
above.Without the understanding of cause and effect; do you think the
development of these children’s ethical values will be affected?

In tackling pollution and other environmental problems, both locally and globally, there are
three notions that deserve our special attention as shown in Figure 8.15 below.

Figure 8.15: Tackling environmental issues

Own minds and own intentions Cause and effect Interrelationship

• We should pay special attention
24 to the state of our own minds
and our own intentions.
• Violent action only begets • We have to make a
more violence.
• We should recognize the • We should always be aware of
consequences of our actions the interrelationship with all life
in our daily activities and jobs. on the planet.
concerted effort to educate • We must respect our mother
ourselves, our children and earth and profound respect
our communities about the also for all the older children
environmental consequences of mother earth, for all our
of our actions and to take brothers and sister both human
responsibility for what we did. and non-human.

If we can adopt the three approaches shown in Figure 8.15 through our own example and in
the education of our children, then we will be able to overcome pollution and environmental
degradation. These actions will also enable us to revitalise and stop the fragmentation of our
communities, thus enabling us to find real satisfaction and meaning in our lives.

We have now reached the end of the topic. Before we recap the whole topic in Summary,
evaluate what you have learnt.

(a) What does the author suggest is the real cause of lack of environmental
ethics?
(b) What other religious ethics is similar to the recommendations the author
makes?
CHAPTER 8 l UNIVERSALITY OF ASIAN ETHICS

SUMMARY
SUMMARY

1. We can conclude that all human beings whether they believe in religion or not, are looking
for a philosophy to guide our lives. This philosophy, which can be religious and non-
religious incorporated ethical elements to ensure we are doing the right thing at the right
time and in the right context.

2. Developing and implementing business ethics as a formal dicipline is still new to many
organisations in Asia. Many companies in Asia model their ethics training programme
based on Western experiences, but in the future ethics training initiatives will combine
Asian and Western approaches.

3. In Asian ethics human rights are regarded as universal responsibilities - if there are
universal rights, there must also be universal responsibilities. In other words, we should
not only think in terms of what is due to us, but also what we must give.

4. In interpersonal relations, Asian ethics links self-imposed disciplinary resolutions and

appropriate communal behaviour.

5. In the era of globalisation, Asian family ethics faced many challenges but the younger
25
generation still rely on the filial piety to comply to tradition as well as meeting the global
expectations.

6. Technological and medical advances have created new dimensions in ethical issues which
in the ancient times may not have been in existence.

7. To enforce Asian environmental ethics is to return to the fundamental religious principles

and taking responsibility in our actions and continuously acting in full awareness of the
consequences of our actions.
 UNIVERSALITY OF ASIAN ETHICS l CHAPTER 8

GLOSSARY

Chung - Loyalty to the state.

Hsiao - Love within the family which includes

the love of parent for their children and of
children for their parents, siblings, etc.

Jen - Benevolence, humaneness toward

others(the highest Confucian virtue).

Li - The course of life as it was intended to

be.

26
T’ai-shen - Spirit of the foetus.

Xin - Honesty and trustworthiness.

Yi - Righteousness.
CHAPTER 8 l UNIVERSALITY OF ASIAN ETHICS

REFERENCES

Sweeny, K. (2008). Crisis decision theory: Decisions in the face of negative events.
Psychological Bulletin, 134(1), 61-76.

Hopfe, Lewis M & Woodward, Mark R. (2001). Religions of the world. Upper Saddle
River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Camilleri, Joseph A. Ed. (2001) Religion and culture in Asia Pacific: Violence or
healing?. Australia : Vista Publications.

Markham, Ian S. Blackwell. (2007). Do morals matter? A guide to religious ethics.

Australia: Publishing.

Prof. On-cho Ng. (November 21, 2003). Rethinking confucianism: Asian values and the
global ethics of human rights and responsibilities. The Pennsylvania State University.

T. P. Kasulis. (2006). Zen as a social ethics of responsiveness. Ohio State University.

Amber Kelleher. Business practices training in Asia. International business ethics review.
Volume 6, Issue 1.
27
Ronald Epstein. (May 19, 1992) Pollution and the environment: Some radically new
ancient views. Talmage, California: Dharma Realm Buddhist University Public Lecture
Series.

Amartya Sen. (July 14-July 21, 1997). “Human rights and Asian values,” The new
republic.

Beekum, Rafik Issa. (2004). Islamic business ethics. India: Goodword Books.

USM. (2006). Governance, ethics and corporate social responsibility of PLCs in

Malaysia.
 UNIVERSALITY OF ASIAN ETHICS l CHAPTER 8

True/False Questions
1. It is necessary to be religious in order to be ethical. True or False:
A. True.
B. False.

2. Confucius claims that “if there is universal rights, then there must also be universal
responsibilities”. True or Fasle:
A. True.
B. False.

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Select the differences between Asian and Western Business Ethics Trainings
A. Asian ethics has always taught and trained on explicit Business ethical dealings
since ancient times unlike the West.
B. There are few feedback mechanism in Asia ethics training as compared to the West
28 which usually requests feedback.
C. Conflict of interest topics are not readily discussed in Asian ethics unlike the West.
D. Abstract concepts are more widely used in Asian ethics training than in the West
which uses concrete concepts.

2. The Indian Buddhist encompasses which of the following?

A. Individual attitudes and behaviour.
B. Communal rules and behaviour.
C. Combination of both individual and communal behaviour.

Drag & Drop Question

1. Match the Western and Eastern value below:
A. West.
B. East.
i. Individuality is most important, born and protected by rights.
ii. Collective good is most important, born into obligations and bound by rites.