3.

9
ECOSYSTEM
Cent
(10%) Law
Per chemical
into
en
Ten
In stem, the green plants capture about 1% solar energy and convert it out ofwhich
an ecosyst

sider that roughly 1000

e t us consid
of solar energy reach a plant,
calories
are stored of energy (99%)
arc
a r
eray (99%)
alories (1%) the by
plant. The remaining calories herbivores
eat
e environment or utilised for the maintenance of the plant. When heat; som6
os

een plants,
t h e s eg r e e
great amount of energy is lost into the environment as
a
and
into digestion and in other activities, while the rest is utilised for growth
thesis
amount used carnivores.
noution. An average of 10% of the energy (1 calorie) is passed
r e p r a
n to the

o
10% Can De taken as
Therefore, 109 the average value for the of energy that reaches
amount
efore, herbivores
next level
the next leve of consumers. This is known as the 10% Law. According to this law
tain
more energy-rich food than carnivores.

990 Joules
energy lost to
environment
0.9 Joule
9 Joules energy lost to
energy lost to environment
environment

10Joules Joule
Energy Energy

10 Joules energy 1 Joule energy 0.1 Joule energy

available as food available as food available as food
Producer) (Herbivore) (Carnivore)
Fig. 3.8: Flow of energy in an ecosystem according to the 10% Law

BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES-CYCLING OF SUBSTANCES IN NATURE

You learnt that the Earth receives energy from the sun, while all other chemical elements
remain within a closed system. The main chemical elements that cycle in nature are:
carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and phosphorous. These are the building blocks of
life, and are used for various life processes. Each of these elements is circulated through the
Dlotic components and the abiotic components of an ecosystem. A few of such biogeochemical
cycles are discussed below.

THE WATER CYCLE

tne water cycle, also called as hydrologic cycle, is the continuous circulation of water within
the Earth's atmosphere.
3 10 ENVIRONMENTAL STUit.
and out of various
The driven by involves the movement of water into
cycle, sun,
remarkable point about
resources and reservoirs byvarious processes. The
physical water
and solid. Various steps of w
(ycle is the cycling of water in different phases of liquid, gas water
cycle are as follows.
which surlace water
turns
I. Evaporation: Water cycle startswith evaporation during into
such as rivers, lakes, oceans äre
water vapour due to heat of the sun. Water bodies, atmosphere.
the
water in the
main sources of evaporation contributing 90% of

into water. This proca.

water vapour without first turning ess
Snow and ice can turn directly into
at the mountain peaks
or other high-up
aces. placa
called sublimation. This usually takes place
Is
the atmosphere in the formm
AS you are aware that plant leaves lose excess of water in o
areas of the Far
evapotranspiration. As large arth
This process is known as
water vapour.
releases large percentan
are covered by vegetation,
the process of evapotranspiration
10% atmospheric water is
because of the plant lit
of water in the atmosphere. About
around the world.
much lighter than the air because of which they ric
2. Condensation: The water vapour are
low temperature conditions convert
up in the atmosphere. At high altitudes, extremely
water vapour into tiny water droplets ice. This process is called condensation. The
particles come in contact with each other and form clouds which are blown to the long
distances by moving air currents and winds.
3. Precipitation: Gradually the water droplets combine to form larger droplets. When
droplets are large enough, the air is unable to hold water and they fall out of the cloud
onto the ground. This process is called precipitation or rainfall.

If precipitation occurs in extremely cold conditions and at very low air pressure, the water
droplets often crystallise and freeze. As a result, water falls down as solid ice (hail) or snow.
in case of conditions between snow and rain, the droplets fal as icy cold, half-frozen water
referred to as sleet.

4. Run-off: As the water falls, it runs over the Earth's surface. This process is known as
run-off which leads to the movement of water into different surface water bodies,
such as streams and rivers. These run off to either form lakes or
rejoin the ocean. A major
part of the rainwater flows in the gutters, drains, rocks or over rocks and is also carried
to the rivers. As water flows
through or over rocks containing soluble minerals, some of ,

the minerals get dissolved in the water. These

nutrients are utilised by the marine
organisms
As the precipitation reaches the
Earth, some of the water falls
directly on the grouna
while the remaining falls on the
the water falling on the
vegetation, buildings, streets, water bodies, etc. A parto
ground seeps through the soil to an impervious layer of or
rock. This is collected as
groundwater and remains below the Earth's surface as clay
reservoir. freshwae
The water collected
present at various places
or
on the Earth reaches back to the
atmosphere and the cycle restarts.
ECOSYSTEM 3.11

Volcanic
steam
Atmosphere Condensation

Sublimation
Ice and
snow Precipitation Desublimation
Evapotranspiration Evaporation
FOg
drip
Snowmelt runoff Surface
runoff
Dew

ation Streamflow
Evaporation
Seepage
Flora and
Spring tauna
Fresh Plant Oceans
water uptake

Groundwater flow
Vents and
Groundwater storage volcanos

Fig. 3.9: The water cycle

Changes in the Water Cycle

water cycle. The
Human activities, especially deforestation, have disturbed the natural
cover results in soil erosion
and
indiscriminate cutting of trees and depletion in vegetation
decreased amount of rainfall. As a
reduced moisture in the atmosphere. This causes
down the ground decreases and the underground
result, the amount of water that seeps
Further, the loose soil flows with the
water reservoirs are not properly replenished.
water and deposits in dams and river beds choking them completely.

where the supply of water to glaciers

Glacial retreat is example of a changing water cycle,
an
sublimation.
the loss of water from melting and
from precipitation cannot keep up with

Other human activities that alter the

water cycle include:

agriculture
of the atmosphere
alteration of the chemical composition
construction of dams
removal of groundwater from wells
water abstraction from rivers

urbanisation
it did 100 years ago. However,
more precipitation now than
TOn an average, the world is getting El Niño, a temporary
in a few countries, such as Africa, it has
led to prolonged drought periods.
has caused adverse
Pacific Ocean in the region around the equator,
change in the climate of the winter.
atmosphere, generally in Northern Hemisphere
enects in both the ocean and
 3.12 AL
THE CARBON CYCLE SDe,
of the essential elements of all organic substances and life forms,S. It.
It occurs
Carbon is one

nature in various forms, such as

elemental form in diamonds and graphites,

atmosphere (it forms only 0.03-0.04%

of atmosphere as Co
carbon dioxide in
to 21% oxygen and 78% nitrogen), mpared
carbonates and hydrogen carbonate salts in minerals,
carbon-containing molecules, e,g., proteins, carbohydrates,
fats, nucleic acido
and
vitamins, in life forms,
carbonate salts in the endoskeleton and exoskeleton ofvarious animals, and
carbon dioxide dissolved as carbonates in the oceans.

cyclically between biotic

and abiotic components. Yon
learnt that plants trap sunlight and convert CO, into glucose molecules by the procesehave
Like water, carbon also moves

i
in all life forms through the procese
photosynthesis. Thus, carbon is incorporated of
are either
photosynthesis. The glucose molecules synthesised by the plants transforha
to other substances or utilised to provide energy by respiration. During respiration, plans
release carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. A part of carbon also passes to the herbivoree

when they eat plants.

All organisms release CO, during breathing. However, Co, is also returned to the atmosphera

by the death and decay of organisms or parts of the organisms.

Still, human beings have impaired the carbon cycle by the non-judicious utilisation of
fossil fuels, indiscriminate deforestation, conversion of agricultural land into roads
etc. Further, the enormous amount of smoke arising from our industries, vehicles, kitchens
fires, etc., adds CO, to the atmosphere. The increased concentration in CO, may affect the
atmospheric temperature resulting in global warming.

Carbon dioxide
(CO) in air

Photosynthesis
Respiration in producers Buming of wood
and fossil fuels

CO2dissolved
in ocean onoumors
Decomposition of
Photosynthesis organic wastes
and aquatic
food chain
Fossil fuels

Fig. 3.10: The carbon cycle

THE OXYGEN CYCLE

Oxygen is very important and abundant element
a
on the Earth which is
existence of life. Oxygen is present as
essential for tu
 ECOSYSTEM 3.13
.elemental form in the atmosphere constituting 21% of total gases.
. c o a combined form in atmosphere forming 0.03% ofthe total gases.
oxides of most metals, silicon and as nitrates, sulphates, carbonates, etc, in the Earth's crust.

a n essential biological constituent in carbohydrates, proteins, fats and nucleic acids. Like

Co the levels of oxygen are also maintained in the atmosphere. The major sources of
atmospheric oxygen are photosynthesis and photodissociation of water vapour
.The atmospheric Oxygen released is utilised in respiration, combustion and in the

formation of oxides of nitrogen and other gases.

.Again, the oxygen utilised in these processes is released during photosynthesis and
photodissociation of water vapour.
Thus, the cycle goes on and maintains the level of oxygen in the atmosphere. Though oxygen
is essential for respiration, and thus, for life, the molecular 0, may be toxic to living body cels
and some forms of life, especially some bacteria. This is because of the fact that molecular
0, is chemically highly reactive. In fact, in the presence of 0, nitrogenous bacteria cannot
fix the atmospheric nitrogen.

amospherc- condonsaton
HO

almospheric o
ovaporation amospher
ansplration recipitadon
CO from plant
oxygen andsol
release.from COuptake
photosynithesis y plants

weathormg
panis

animal
tossilfuel rospirntion
combustio
blomass
Combustion

decay ol plants..
and anlmas

Fig. 3.11:The oxygen cycle

THE NITR0GEN CYCLE

Atmosphere is the chief reservoir of nitrogen. 78% of the atmosphere is made of nitrogen.
Nitrogen is also a vital component of many essential organic compounds of the organisms,
especially proteins, nucleic acids and some vitamins. It constitutes nearly 16% of all the
proteins by weight. Apart from these, nitrogen is also found in other biologically important
compounds, such as urea and alkaloids.
Though nitrogen forms the maximum part of the atmosphere, it cannot be used directly by
living organisms, except a few bacteria. It needs to be first fixed and then converted into
certain compounds (ammonia, nitrites or nitrates) to be absorbed by the plants. However,
the amount of these compounds is limited in the soil. If these compounds are not replenished
in the soil,
they would rapidly exhaust.
I Nitrogen moves between atmosphere and living forms in a cyclic way. This is called nitrogen cycle.
 3.14 ENVIRONMENTAL STUNI
Nitrogen cycle mainly consists of five steps:
Fixation of atmospheric nitrogen in the form of nitrates-Nitrogen fixation

Lonversion of soluble nitrates into organic compounds-Nitrogen assimilation

Conversion of organic compounds into ammonical compounds-Ammonification
Conversion of ammonia into nitrites and then to nitrates-Nitrification
Conversion of nitrates to atmospheric nitrogen-Denitrification

Nitrogen Nitrogen gas (N2)

Oxides
in atmosphere
Return to Earth
dissolved
n rain Nitrates
produced
by lightning
Plants
Denitrilying Animals
bacteria

NO3 Detritus
Nitrate Ammonifyipg
bacteria an
Runoff of Nuriyins detrivores Free-living
nitrogen from bacteria
fertilizers Loss to and
symbiotic
leaching NH4 Na fixing
from soil bacteria
Ammonium
Fig. 3.12: The nitrogen cycle

Fixation of nitrogen is the first and the most important step of nitrogen cycle. It can ocur
by the following three different ways:
Certain bacteria can fix atmospheric nitrogen and form nitrates. These are known as the
nitrogen fixing bacteria. Some of these are free-living soil bacteria(Azotobacter), a
few are blue-green algae (Anabaena, Spirulina), while others (Rhizobium) live in small
root nodules of leguminous plants.
Nitrogen fixation by bacteria is quite slow compared to the
rate of nitrogen requirement. The demand of nitrogen is,
therefore, fulfilled by nitrogen-containing fertilisers,
such as urea.
During thunderstorms, some ofthe oxygen and the nitrogen
present in the atmosphere are subjected to high pressures
and high temperatures of the lightning and form oxides
of nitrogen. These oxides of nitrogen dissolve in the
rainwater and form nitrous or nitric acids which reach Root
nodules
the soil. There, they are converted into nitrates which are
then taken up by the plants. in
Plants after taking up nitrates convert them into amino
Fig. 3.13: Root nodules
leguminous plants
acids required to manufacture proteins.
.When animals feed on these plants, the nitrogen passes on to the animals.