- examples are mitochondria, nucleus

Chapter 1
The Human Organism

Anatomy and Physiology

3. Tissues
Anatomy - group of cells with similar structure and function plus
- investigates body structure extracellular substances they release
- the term means to dissect Four broad types:
Physiology • Epithelial
- investigates processes and functions
• Connective
Human Physiology
• Muscular
- studies the human organism
• Nervous
Systemic Physiology
- studies body organ-systems
Cellular Physiology
- studies body cells
Importance of Anatomy and Physiology
Understand how the body:
- responds to stimuli 4. Organs
- environmental changes - two or more tissue types acting together to perform
- environmental cues function(s)
- diseases - Examples: stomach, heart, liver, ovary, bladder, kidney
- injury

Types of Anatomy
Systemic
- studies body organ-systems
Regional
- studies body regions (medical schools)
Surface
- studies external features, for example, bone
projections 5. Organ-System
Anatomical imaging - group of organs contributing to some function
- using technologies (x-rays, ultrasound, MRI) - for example, digestive system, reproductive system.

Structural and Functional Organization

Six levels from chemical to organism

1. Chemical
- smallest level
- atoms, chemical bonds, molecules

6. Organism
- all organ systems working together
- includes associated microorganisms such as intestinal
2. Cellular bacteria
- cells: basic units of life
- compartments and organelles
Major Organs of the Body
Organ Systems of the Body
Characteristics of Life
 Set points for sone variable can be temporarily
Organization adjusted depending on body activities, as
- functional interrelationships between parts
Metabolism
- sum of all chemical and physical changes
sustaining an organism
- ability to acquire and use energy in support of
these changes
Responsiveness
- ability to sense and respond to environment
changes
- includes both internal and external needed:
environments
Growth
- can increase in size
- size of cells, groups of cells, extracellular
materials
Development
- changes in form and size
- changes in cell structure and function from Negative feedback is the main mechanism used
generalized to specialized-differentiation homeostatic regulation
Reproduction • a negative feedback response involves:
- formation of new cells or new organisms detection: of deviation away from set
- generation of new individuals point
- tissue repair and
correction: reversal of devition toward
Homeostasis set point and normal range
Homeostasis
- maintenance of constant internal environment The components of feedback :
despite fluctuations in the external or internal 1. Receptors
environment - detects changes in variable
Variables 2. Control central
- measures of body properties that may change - receives receptor signal
in value - establishes set point
Examples of variables - send signal to effector
• body temperature 3. Effector
• heart rate - directly causes change in variable
• blood pressure
• blood glucose levels

Normal range: normal extent of increase or

decrease around a set point
Set point: normal, or average value of a
variable
Over time, body temperature fluctuates
around a set point
Negative Feedback Control of Body
Temperature
Positive feedback mechanisms occur when the
intials stimulus further stimulates the reponses
• system response causes progressive
deviation away from
• set point, outside of normal range
• not directly used for homeostasis
• some positive feedback occurs under
normal conditions (Example: childbirth)
• generally associated with injury, disease
• negative feedback mechanisms unable
to maintain homeostasis
Comparison of negative feedback and positive
feedback
Terminology and the Body Plan
Anatomical position
- person standing erect with face and palms
forward
- all relational descriptions based on the
anatomical position, regardless of body
orientation
Directional Terms
Superior – above
Inferior – below
Anterior – front (also called ventral)
Posterior – back (also called dorsal)
Note: In four-legged animals, the terms ventral
(belly) and dorsal (back) correspond to anterior
and posterior in humans
Medial – close to midline
Lateral – away from midline
Proximal – close to point of attachemnt
Distal – far from point of attachment
Superficial – structure cole to the surface
Deep – structure toward the interior of the
body
Transverse plane – a horizontal plane that
separates the body into superior and inferior
parts
Frontal plane – a vertical plane that separates
the body into anterior and posterior parts

Planes of Section Through an

Organ

Body Planes
Sagittal plane – separates the body into right an
left parts
Median plane – a sagittal plane along the
midline that divides body into equal left and
right halves
 Body Regions Subdivisions

Upper limbs
- Upper arm, forearm, wrist, hand
Lower limbs
- thigh, lower leg, ankle, foot
Central region
- head, neck, trunk

Body Parts and Regions

Body Cavities

Thoracic cavity
- space within chest wall and diaphragm
- contain heart, lungs, thymus gland, esophagus,
trachea
Mediastinum
- space between lungs
- contains heart, thymus gland, esophagus,
trachea
Abdominal cavity
- space between diaphragm and pelvis
- contains stomach, intestines, liver, spleen,
pancreas, kidneys
Pelvic cavity
- space within pelvis
- contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs,
part of large intestine
 Serous Membranes Pleura and Pleural Cavity
Pleura
Line trunk cavities, covers organs - visceral pleura
Structure: covers lungs
• visceral serous membrane covers - parietal pleura
lines inner wall of thorax
- pleural cavity
• reduces friction
• adheres lungs to thoracic wall

Peritoneum and Peritoneal Cavity

Peritoneum
- visceral peritoneum
• covers, anchors organs
• double layers called mesenteries
- parietal peritoneum
• parietal serous membrane is the outer line inner wall of abdominopelvic cavity
membrane - peritoneal cavity
• cavity - a fluid-filled space between the reduces friction
membranes

Three sets of serous membrane and cavities:

Pericardium and Pericardial Cavity

Pericardium
- visceral pericardium
covers heart Chapter 2
- parietal pericardium The Chemical Basis of Life
thick, fibrous
- pericardial cavity Basic Chemistry
reduces friction
Matter - anything that occupies space and has
mass (solid, liquid, or gas)
Mass - amount of matter in an object
Weight - gravitational force acting on object
Elements and Atoms Atomic Number and Atomic Mass
Element Atomic number - the number of protons in each
• simplest form of matter atom
• Example: C, H, O, N, Ca, K, Na, Cl Mass number - the number of protons and
Atom neutrons in each atom
• smallest particle of an element
• contains protons, electrons, and neutrons Chemical Bonds
Chemical bonds occur when outermost
electrons (valence shell electrons) are
transferred or shared between atoms
Types of chemical bonds
• Ionic
• Covalent
• Hydrogen

Ion and Ionic Bonding

Ion - a charged atom formed because of a
donation or gain of an electron(s)
• Example: Na+
Ionic bonding occurs when there is an attraction
Planetary Models of Atomic
between two oppositely charged ions
Structure
• Example: NaCl

Ionic Bonding

Subatomic Particles

Proton - positive charged particle located inside

the nucleus
Neutron - neutral charged particle located
inside the nucleus
Electron - negative charged particle located
outside the nucleus
Model of an Atom Covalent Bonding
Covalent bonding occurs when atoms share one
or more pairs of electrons
• Example: hydrogen molecule
Polar covalent bonds form when there is an
unequal sharing of electrons
• Example: water (H2O)
Polar molecules have an asymmetrical electrical
charge
Nonpolar molecules have a symmetrical The hydrogen bond is a weaker bond than the
electrical charge ionic or covalent bonds

Covalent Bonding

Molecules and Compounds

Molecule
Hydrogen Bonding • 2 or more atoms chemically combine
• Example: water (H2O)
Polar molecules, like water, have a positive end Compound
and a negative end • chemical combination of 2 or more different
types of atoms
A hydrogen bond forms when the positive end • Example: NaCl
of one polar molecule is weakly attracted to the
negative end of another polar molecule Chemical Reactions
Chemical reactions occur when there is a
Polar Covalent Bonds formation or breaking of chemical bonds
Polar covalent bonded molecules, like water, between atoms, ions, molecules, or
have a positive end and a negative end compounds. Reactants - substances that enter
into the reaction
Products - substances that result from the
reaction

A+B → C+D
Reactants Product
Types of Chemical Reactions
Hydrogen Bonding Synthesis reaction
A hydrogen bond forms when the positive end • build a new molecule
of one polar molecule is weakly attracted to the • energy-requiring
negative end of another polar molecule • Example: ADP + P → ATP
Decomposition reaction
• break down molecule
• energy-releasing
• Example: ATP → ADP + P
Energy and Chemical Reactions
Energy and Chemical Reactions
Exchange reaction
• combination of synthesis and decomposition
reactions
• Example: AB + CD → AC + BD
• Example: HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O
Energy and Chemical Reactions
Reversible reactions occur when the reaction
can run in the opposite direction, so that the
products are converted back to the original
reactants.
Equilibrium - when the rate of product
formation equals the rate of reactant formation
Energy
Energy is the capacity to do work
Work is the moving of matter
Kinetic energy is energy in motion
Chemical Energy
Chemical energy is a form of potential energy
stored in chemical bonds
Food molecules such as glucose contain
potential energy
An example of a reaction that releases energy is
the breakdown of ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
to ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and a
phosphate group
ATP → ADP + P
Rate of Chemical Reactions
The rate at which a chemical reaction proceeds
is influenced by several factors:
• concentration of the reactants
• temperature
• catalyst
Rate of Chemical Reactions
Concentration of the reactants - within limits
the higher the concentration of reactants the
faster the rate
Temperature - within limits, the higher the
temperature the faster the rate
Catalyst - increases the rate of a reaction
without itself being permanently changed or
depleted.
Acids and Bases
Acid - a proton H+ donor
• pH below 7
• Example: HCl (hydrochloric acid)
Base - a proton H+ acceptor
• pH above 7
• Example: NaOH (sodium hydroxide)
pH Scale
 Inorganic Chemistry versus • Brain cells require glucose
Organic Chemistry
Inorganic chemistry deals with those substances
that do not contain carbon

Organic chemistry is the study of carbon

containing substances
Characteristics of Lipids
Exception some carbon containing compounds • Contain C, H, O
are not organic in that they do not also contain • Contain a lower proportion of oxygen to
hydrogen, such as CO2 (carbon dioxide) carbon than do carbohydrates
• Insoluble in water
Organic Molecules • Examples: fats, oils, cholesterol, triglycerides,
Carbon’s ability to form covalent bonds phospholipids
with other atoms makes it possible the
formation of large, diverse, complicated Functions of Lipids
molecules for life. • Long term energy storage
• Insulates against heat loss
The four major groups of organic molecules • Protective cushion for organs
essential to living organisms are • Cholesterol is part of the cell membrane
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic structure
acids. Types of Lipids
Saturated
• single covalent bonds between carbon atoms
Carbohydrates
• Examples: beef, pork, whole milk, cheese,
Characteristics of Carbohydrates
eggs
• Contain C, H, O
Unsaturated
• H:O is a 2:1 ratio
• one or more double covalent bonds between
• Example: C6H12O6
carbons
• Monosaccharides are the building blocks.
• Examples: olive oil, fish oil, sunflower oil
• Monosaccharide:
• simple sugar (1 sugar)
Triglycerides
• Examples: glucose and fructose

Carbohydrates
Disaccharide
• 2 sugars
• Example: glucose + fructose = sucrose
• Example: glucose + galactose = lactose
Polysaccharide
• many sugars
• Example: starch, grain, vegetables, glycogen

Functions of Carbohydrates
• Short-term energy storage
• Converted to glucose quickly
• Glucose is used to make ATP (energy)

Fatty Acids
Phospholipids
Characteristics of Proteins
• Contains C, H, O, N
• Amino acids are the building blocks
• 20 different naturally occurring amino acids
• Amino acids contain an amine (NH2 ) group
and carboxyl group
• Amino acids are not stored, so a daily supply
is required
Amino Acid structure and Bonding
Linear sequence of Animo acids in a
Protein
Protein Folding
Functions of Proteins
• Used to make skin, hair, nails, muscles
• Part of the hemoglobin molecule
• Act as enzymes
• Immune system functions
• Muscle contractions (actin and myosin)
• Part of the cell membrane
Protein Denaturation
Protein denaturation occurs when the hydrogen
bonds that maintain shape of a protein are
broken and the protein becomes nonfunctional.
Factors that can cause denaturation are: high
temperatures and/or improper pH
Enzymes
Enzymes are organic catalysts that increase the
rate at which biochemical reactions proceed
without the enzyme being permanently
changed.
Enzymes work by lowering the energy of
activation.
 Activation Energy and Enzymes
Enzymes Action
Nucleic Acids
Composed of C, H, O, N, P
Examples: DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and
RNA (ribonucleic acid)
Nucleotides are the building blocks
Nucleotides are composed of a nitrogen
base, phosphate, and 5-carbon sugar.
Structure of DNA
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
ATP is an especially important organic molecule
found in all living organisms.
It consists of adenosine (the sugar ribose with
the organic base adenine) and three phosphate
groups.
ATP is often called the energy currency of cells
because it is capable of both storing and
providing energy.
Structure of ATP
Chapter 3
Cell Structure and Their
Functions
Cell Structure
Organelles
• specialized structures in cells that perform
• specific functions
• Example: nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes
Cytoplasm
• jelly-like substance that holds organelles
Cell membrane
• also termed the plasma membrane
• a structure that encloses the cytoplasm
 Generalized Cell
Functions of the Cell
• Smallest units of life
• Cell metabolism and energy use
• Synthesis of molecules
• Communication
• Reproduction and inheritance
Cell Membrane
The cell membrane, or plasma membrane, is
the outermost component of a cell.
It forms a boundary between material in inside
the cell and the outside.
Materials inside the cell are intracellular and
those outsides are extracellular.
It acts as a selective barrier.
Cell Membrane Structure
The fluid-mosaic model is the model used to
describe the cell membrane structure.
The membrane contains phospholipids,
cholesterol, proteins, and carbohydrates.
Phospholipids form a bilayer.
Phospholipids contain 2 regions: polar and
nonpolar.
Phospholipid Structure
A phospholipid molecule has a polar head
region that is hydrophilic and a nonpolar
tail region that is hydrophobic.
The polar region is exposed to water
around the membrane.
The nonpolar region is facing the interior
of the membrane.
The Cell Membrane
Movement through the Cell Membrane
The cell membrane has selective permeability,
which allows only certain substances to pass in
and out of the cell.
Substances such as enzymes, glycogen, and
potassium are found in higher concentrations
inside the cell.
Substances such as sodium, calcium, and
chloride are found in higher concentrations
outside the cell.
Cell Membrane Passage
Some substances, like O2 and CO2, can pass
directly through the cell membrane’s
phospholipid bilayer.
Some substances must pass through
transmembrane protein channels, such as Na+
through its channels.
The route of transport through the membrane
depends on the size, shape, and charge of the
substance.
Some substances require carrier molecules to
transport them across the cell membrane, such
as glucose.
Some substances require a vesicular transport
across the membrane.
The vesicle must fuse with the cell membrane
for transport.
Active Transport and Passive
Transport
Passive membrane transport does not require
the cell to expend energy.
Active membrane transport does require the
cell to expend energy, usually in the form of
ATP.
Passive membrane transport mechanisms
include diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated
diffusion.
Active membrane transport mechanisms
include active transport, secondary active
transport, endocytosis, and exocytosis.
Diffusion
Diffusion generally involves movement of
substances in a solution down a concentration
gradient.
A solution is generally composed of two major
parts, solutes and the solvent.
Solutes are substances dissolved in a
predominant liquid or gas, which is called the
solvent.
Solutes, such as ions or molecules, tend to
move from an area of higher concentration of a
solute to an area of lower concentration of that
same solute in solution.
This movement from high concentration to a
low concentration is diffusion.
Concentration Gradient
A concentration gradient is the difference in the
concentration of a solute in a solvent between
two points divided by the distance between the
two points.
The concentration gradient is said to be steeper
when the concentration difference is large
and/or the distance is small.
Diffusion
Leak and Gated Channels
Lipid soluble substances can diffuse directly
through the phospholipid bilayer.
Water-soluble substances, such as ions, can
diffuse across the cell membrane only by
passing through cell membrane channels.
Two classes of cell membrane channels include
leak channels and gated channels.
Leak channels constantly allow ions to pass
through.
Gated channels limit the movement of ions
across the membrane by opening and closing.
 Diffusion through the Cell A cell may be placed in solutions that are either
Membrane hypotonic, isotonic, or hypertonic compared to
the cell cytoplasm.

Hypotonic
A hypotonic solution has a lower concentration
of solutes and a higher concentration of water
relative to the cytoplasm of the cell.

The solution has less tone, or osmotic pressure,

than the cell.

Water moves by osmosis into the cell, causing it

to swell.

If the cell swells enough, it can rupture, a

Leak and Gated Membrane process called lysis.
Channels
Isotonic
A cell immersed in an isotonic solution has the
same solute concentrations inside and outside
the cell.

The cell will neither shrink nor swell

Hypertonic
The cytoplasm of a cell in a hypertonic solution
has a lower solute concentration and higher
water concentration than the surrounding
solution.

Water moves by osmosis from the cell into the

hypertonic solution, resulting in cell shrinkage,
or crenation.
Osmosis Osmosis
Osmosis is the diffusion of water (a solvent)
across a selectively permeable membrane from
a region of higher water concentration to one
of lower water concentration.

Osmosis exerts a pressure, termed osmotic

pressure, which is the force required to prevent
movement of water across cell membrane

Osmotic Pressure and the Cell

Osmotic pressure depends on the difference of
solution concentrations inside a cell relative to
outside the cell.
Red Blood Cell Changes in Differing concentration to an area of lower concentration
Solutins of that substance.

Because movement is with the concentration

gradient, metabolic energy in the form of ATP is
not required.
Facilitated Diffusion

Active Transport

Active transport is a carrier-mediated process,

Carrier-Mediated Transport
requiring ATP, that moves substances across the
cell membrane from regions of lower
Some water-soluble, electrically charged or
concentration to those of higher concentration
large sized particles cannot enter or leave
against a concentration gradient.
through the cell membrane by diffusion.
Active transport processes accumulate
These substances include amino acids, glucose, necessary substances on one side of the cell
and some polar molecules produced by the cell. membrane at concentrations many times
greater than those on the other side.
Carrier molecules are proteins within the cell
membrane involved in carrier-mediated
transport.
Sodium-Potassium Pump
Carrier-Mediated Transport
A major example of active transport is the
action of the sodium-potassium pump present
Carrier-mediated transport mechanisms include
in cell membranes.
facilitated diffusion and active transport.
The sodium-potassium pump moves Na+ out of
Facilitated diffusion does not require ATP for
cells and K+ into cells.
energy.
The result is a higher concentration of Na+
Active transport does require ATP for transport
outside cells and a higher concentration of K+
inside cells.
Facilitated Diffusion

Facilitated diffusion is a carrier-mediated

transport process that moves substances across
the cell membrane from an area of higher
 Sodium-Potassium Pump

Endocytosis
Endocytosis is a process that that brings
materials into cell using vesicles.

Receptor-mediated endocytosis occurs when a

specific substance binds to the receptor
molecule and is transported into the cell.

Phagocytosis is often used for endocytosis

when solid particles are ingested.
Secondary Active Transport Pinocytosis has much smaller vesicles formed,
Secondary active transport uses the energy
and they contain liquid rather than solid
provided by a concentration gradient
particles.
established by the active transport of one
substance, such as Na+ to transport other Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis
substances.

No additional energy is required above the

energy provided by the initial active transport
pump.

Secondary Active Transport

In cotransport, the diffusing substance moves in
the same direction as the initial active
transported substance.

In counter transport, the diffusing substance

moves in a direction opposite to that of the
initial active transported substance.
 Exocytosis
Exocytosis involves the use of membrane-
bound sacs called secretory vesicles that
accumulate materials for release from the cell.
The vesicles move to the cell membrane and
fuse, ultimately releasing the material by
exocytosis.
Examples of exocytosis are the secretion of
digestive enzymes.
General Cell Structure
The interior of a cell is composed of the
cytoplasm, which a jelly-like fluid that surrounds
the organelles.
Organelles are specialized structures that
perform certain functions.
Organelles include the nucleus, ribosomes,
endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus,
lysosomes, peroxisomes, mitochondria,
cytoskeleton, centrioles, cilia, flagella, and
microvilli.
Generalized Cell
Cell Nucleus
• The nucleus is a large organelle usually
located near the center of the cell.
• The nucleus is bounded by a nuclear
envelope, which consists of outer and
inner membranes with a narrow space
between them.
• The nuclear membrane contains
nuclear pores, through which materials
can pass into or out of the nucleus.
• The nuclei of human cells contain 23
pairs of chromosomes which consist of
DNA and proteins.
• During most of a cell’s life, the
chromosomes are loosely coiled and
collectively called chromatin.
• When a cell prepares to divide, the
chromosomes become tightly coiled
and are visible when viewed with a
microscope.
• Within the nucleus are Nucleoli, which
are diffuse bodies with no surrounding
membrane. that are found within the
nucleus
• There are usually one to several
nucleoli within the nucleus.
• The subunits of ribosomes, a type of
cytoplasmic organelle, are formed
within a nucleolus.
• These ribosomal components exit the
nucleus through nuclear pores.
Cell Nucleus
 Chromosome Structure Endoplasmic Reticulum
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a series of
membranes forming sacs and tubules that
extends from the outer nuclear membrane into
the cytoplasm.

The rough ER is involved in protein synthesis

and is rough due to attached ribosomes.

The smooth ER has no attached ribosomes and

is a site for lipid synthesis, cellular
detoxification, and it stores calcium ions in
skeletal muscle cells.

Ribosomes
• Ribosome components are produced in
the nucleolus.
• Ribosomes are the organelles where
proteins are produced.
• Ribosomes may be attached to other
organelles, such as the endoplasmic
reticulum.
• Ribosomes that are not attached to any
other organelle are called free Golgi Apparatus
ribosomes. The Golgi apparatus, also called the Golgi
complex, consists of closely packed stacks of
Ribosome Production curved, membrane-bound sacs.
It collects, modifies, packages, and distributes
proteins and lipids manufactured by the ER.

The Golgi apparatus forms vesicles, some of

which are secretory vesicles, lysosomes, and
other vesicles.

Lysosomes
Lysosomes are membrane-bound vesicles
formed from the Golgi apparatus.
They contain a variety of enzymes that function
as intracellular digestive systems.
Vesicles formed by endocytosis may fuse with
lysosomes in order to breakdown materials in
the endocytotic vesicles.
One example is white blood cells phagocytizing
bacteria.
Lysosome Action
Peroxisomes
Peroxisomes are small, membrane-bound
vesicles containing enzymes that break down
fatty acids, amino acids, and hydrogen peroxide
(H2O2).
Hydrogen peroxide is a by-product of fatty acid
and amino acid breakdown and can be toxic to
a cell.
The enzymes in peroxisomes break down
hydrogen.
Mitochondria
Mitochondria (singular mitochondrion) are
small organelles responsible for producing
considerable amounts of ATP by aerobic (with
O2) metabolism.
They have inner and outer membranes
separated by a space.
The outer membranes have a smooth contour,
but the inner membranes have numerous folds,
called cristae, which project into the interior of
the mitochondria.
The material within the inner membrane is the
mitochondrial matrix and contains enzymes and
mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA).
Cells with a large energy requirement have
more mitochondria than cells that require less
energy.
A Mitochondrion
The Cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton gives internal framework to
the cell.
It consists of protein structures that support the
cell, hold organelles in place, and enable the cell
to change shape.
These protein structures are microtubules,
microfilaments, and intermediate filaments.
Microtubules
Microtubules are hollow structures formed
from protein subunits.
Centrioles
The centrosome is a specialized area of
cytoplasm close to the nucleus where
microtubule formation occurs.
It contains two centrioles, which are normally
oriented perpendicular to each other.

The microtubules perform a variety of roles,
including helping to support the cytoplasm of
cells, assisting in cell division, and forming
essential components of certain organelles,
such as cilia and flagella.
Each centriole is a small, cylindrical organelle
composed of microtubules.
The centriole is involved in the process of
mitosis.

Microfilaments
Microfilaments are small fibrils formed from
protein subunits that structurally support the
cytoplasm, determining cell shape.

Some microfilaments are involved with cell

movement.

Microfilaments in muscle cells enable the cells

to shorten, or contract.

Intermediate Filaments
Intermediate filaments are fibrils formed from
protein subunits that are smaller in diameter
than microtubules but larger in diameter than
microfilaments.
They provide mechanical support to the cell.
A specific type of intermediate filament is
keratin, a protein associated with skin cells. Cilia
Cilia project from the surface of certain cells.
The Cytoskeleton They are responsible for the movement of
materials over the top of cells, such as mucus.

Cilia are cylindrical structures that extend from

the cell and are composed of microtubules.

Flagella
Flagella have a structure similar to that of cilia
but are much longer, and they usually occur
only one per cell.

Sperm cells each have one flagellum, which

propels the sperm cell
 Microvilli
Microvilli are specialized extensions of the cell
membrane that are supported by
microfilaments.
They do not actively move as cilia and flagella
do.
Microvilli are numerous on cells that have them
and they increase the surface area of those
cells.
They are abundant on the surface of cells
that line the intestine, kidney, and other
areas in which absorption is an important
function.
Whole Cell Activity
A cell’s characteristics are determined by the
type of proteins produced.
The proteins produced are in turn determined
by the genetic information in the nucleus.
Information in DNA provides the cell with a
code for its cellular processes.
DNA
DNA contains the information that directs
protein synthesis; a process called gene
expression.
A DNA molecule consists of nucleotides joined
together to form two nucleotide strands.
The two strands are connected and resemble a
ladder that is twisted around its long axis.
Each nucleotide consists of a 5-carbon sugar, a
phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.
DNA
Each nucleotide on one DNA strand has a
specific bonding pattern to another nucleotide
on the opposite strand.
A gene is a sequence of nucleotides that
provides a chemical set of instructions for
making a specific protein.
Gene Expression
Gene expression, which is protein synthesis,
involves transcription and translation.
Transcription involves copying DNA into
messenger RNA.
Translation involves messenger RNA being used
to produce a protein.
Transcription
Transcription takes place in the nucleus of the
cell.
DNA determines the structure of mRNA through
transcription.
Transcription
During transcription, the double strands of a
DNA segment separate, and DNA nucleotides of
the gene pair with RNA nucleotides that form
the mRNA.
DNA contains one of the following organic
bases: thymine, adenine, cytosine, or guanine.
Messenger RNA (mRNA) contains uracil,
adenine, cytosine, or guanine.
Transcription
DNA nucleotides pair only with specific RNA
nucleotides.
DNA’s thymine pairs with RNA’s adenine.
DNA’s adenine pairs with RNA’s uracil.
DNA’s cytosine pairs with RNA’s guanine
DNA’s guanine pairs with RNA’s cytosine.
 Translation Translation of mRNA in Protein
Synthesis

Overview of Gene Expression

Translation

Translation occurs in the cell cytoplasm after

mRNA has exited the nucleus through the
nuclear pores.

The mRNA attaches to a ribosome.

Codons (3 nucleotide bases) on the mRNA are

read by anticodons (3 nucleotide bases) on
transfer RNA (tRNA).

Translation
Transfer RNA transports specific amino acids
from the cytoplasm to the ribosome-mRNA
complex and initiates formation of the
The Cell Cycle
polypeptide chain.
During growth and development, cell division
occurs to increase the number of cells or
The process continues until the entire
replace damaged or dying ones.
polypeptide is completely formed.
This cell division involves a cell cycle.
The cell cycle includes two major phases: a
nondividing phase, called interphase, and a cell
dividing phase, termed mitosis.
The Cell Cycle
A cell spends most of its life cycle in interphase
performing its normal functions.
During interphase, the DNA (located in
chromosomes in the cell’s nucleus) is replicated.
The two strands of DNA separate from each
other, and each strand serves as a template for
the production of a new strand of DNA.
The Cell Cycle
Nucleotides in the DNA of each template strand
pair with new nucleotides that are subsequently
joined by enzymes to form a new strand of
DNA.
The sequence of nucleotides in the DNA
template determines the sequence of
nucleotides in the new strand of DNA.
Replication of DNA gives two identical
chromatids joined at a centromere; both form
one chromosome.
DNA Replication
Cell Genetic Content
Each human cell (except sperm and egg)
contains 23 pairs of chromosomes, a total of 46.
The sperm and egg contain 23 chromosomes
total.
One pair of chromosomes are the sex
chromosomes, which consist of two X
chromosomes if the person is a female or an X
and Y chromosome if the person is a male.
Mitosis
Mitosis involves formation of 2 daughter cells
from a single parent cell.
Mitosis is divided into four phases: prophase,
metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
Prophase
During prophase the chromatin condenses to
form visible chromosomes.
Microtubules, termed spindle fibers, form to
assist in breaking the centromere between the
chromatids and move the chromosomes to
opposite sides of the cell.
The nuclear membrane dissolves.
Metaphase
During metaphase, the chromosomes align near
the center of the cell.
The movement of the chromosomes is
regulated by the attached spindle fibers.
Anaphase
At the beginning of anaphase, the chromatids
separate and each chromatid is called a
chromosome.
Each of the two sets of 46 chromosomes is
moved by the spindle fibers toward the
centriole at one of the poles of the cell.
At the end of anaphase, each set of
chromosomes has reached an opposite pole of
the cell, and the cytoplasm begins to divide.
Telophase
During telophase, the chromosomes in each of
the daughter cells become organized to form
two separate nuclei, one in each newly formed
daughter cell.
The chromosomes begin to unravel and
resemble the genetic material during
interphase.
Following telophase, cytoplasm division is
completed, and two separate daughter cells are
produced.
The Cell Cycle
Differentiation
A sperm cell and an oocyte unite to form a
single cell, then a great number of mitotic
divisions occur to give the trillions of cells of the
body.
The process by which cells develop with
specialized structures and functions is called
differentiation.
During differentiation of a cell, some portions of
DNA are active, but others are inactive.
Diversity of Cell Types
Apoptosis
Apoptosis, termed programmed cell death, is a
normal process by which cell numbers within
various tissues are adjusted and controlled.
In the developing fetus, apoptosis removes
extra tissue, such as cells between the
developing fingers and toes.
In some adult tissues, apoptosis eliminates
excess cells to maintain a constant number of
cells within the tissue.
Cellular Aspects of Aging
There are various causes for cellular aging.
• Existence of a cellular clock
• Presence of death genes
• DNA damage
• Formation of free radicals
• Mitochondrial damage
 Tumors
Tumors are abnormal proliferations of cells.
They are due to problems occurring in the cell
cycle.
Some tumors are benign and some are
malignant (cancer).
Malignant tumors can spread by a process,
termed metastasis.
Chapter 4
Tissue
A tissue is a group of cells with similar structure
and function, plus the extracellular substance
surrounding them.
Histology is the study of tissues.
Types of Tissues
There are four tissue types in the human body:
1. Epithelial – a covering or lining tissue
2. Connective – a diverse primary tissue type
that makes up part of every organ in the body
3. Muscle – a tissue that contracts or shortens,
making movement possible
4. Nervous – responsible for coordinating and
controlling many body activities
Epithelial Tissues
Epithelium, or epithelial tissue, covers and
protects surfaces, both outside and inside the
body.
Included under the classification of epithelial
tissue are the exocrine and endocrine glands.
Epithelial Tissue Characteristics
1. Mostly composed of cells
2. Covers body surfaces
3. Distinct cell surfaces
4. Cell and matrix connections
5. Nonvascular
6. Capable of regeneration
Characteristics of Epithelium
Functions of Epithelial Tissues
1. Protects underlying structures
2. Acts as a barrier
3. Permits passage of substances
4. Secretes substances
5. Absorption of substances
Classification of Epithelial
Epithelial tissues are classified primarily
according to the number of cell layers and the
shape of the superficial cells.
The cell layers can be simple, stratified, or
pseudostratified.
The cell shapes can be squamous, cuboidal,
columnar, or a special transitional shape, that
varies with the degree of stretch.
Classification of Epithelial
Simple epithelium consists of a single layer of
cells, with each cell extending from the
basement membrane to the free surface.
Stratified epithelium consists of more than one
layer of cells, but only the basal layer attaches
the deepest layer to the basement membrane
 Classification of Epithelial
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium is a
special type of simple epithelium, that appears
to be falsely stratified.
It consists of one layer of cells, with all the cells
attached to the basement membrane.
Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
Simple cuboidal epithelium is a single layer of
cube-like cells that carry out active transport,
facilitated diffusion, or secretion.
They have a greater secretory capacity than
simple squamous epithelial cells.

Due to variations in the shape of the cells, the

epithelia appears stratified.

Classification of Epithelial
There are three types of epithelium based on
idealized shapes of the epithelial cells:
1. Squamous cells are flat or scalelike.
2. Cuboidal cells are cube-shaped—about as
wide as they are tall.
3. Columnar cells tend to be taller than they are
wide.
Simple Columnar Epithelium
Simple columnar epithelium is a single layer of
Simple Squamous Epithelium tall, thin cells.
Simple squamous epithelium is a single layer of
thin, flat cells.
The large size of these cells enables them to
perform complex functions, such as secretion.
Some substances easily pass through this thin
layer of cells, but other substances do not. The simple columnar epithelium of the small
The lungs, simple squamous epithelium, allows intestine produces and secretes mucus and
for gas exchange. digestive enzymes.
The kidneys, simple squamous epithelium, helps
filter wastes from the blood while keeping
blood cells inside the blood vessels.

Stratified Squamous Epithelium

Pseudostratified Columnar
Epithelium
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
secretes mucus, which covers its free surface.
Cilia in the airways move the mucus and
accumulated debris toward the throat, where
it is swallowed
 Pseudostratified Columnar
Epithelium
Stratified Squamous Epithelium
Stratified squamous epithelium forms a thick
epithelium because it consists of several layers
of cells.
Though the deepest cells are cuboidal or
columnar and are capable of dividing and
producing new cells, the naming is based on the
shape of the surface cells.
There are two types of stratified squamous
epithelia: keratinized stratified squamous and
nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelia
Keratinized Stratified Squamous
Epithelium
The outer layer of the skin is comprised of a
keratinized squamous epithelium.
The keratin reduces the loss of water from the
body
Nonkeratinized Stratified
Squamous Epithelium
Stratified squamous epithelium of the mouth is
a moist nonkeratinized stratified squamous
epithelium.
This nonkeratinized stratified squamous
epithelium provides protection against abrasion
and acts as a mechanical barrier.
Water, however, can move across it more
readily than across the skin (keratinized
stratified squamous).
Stratified Squamous Epithelium
Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium
Stratified cuboidal epithelium consists of more
than one layer of cuboidal epithelial cells.
This epithelial type is relatively rare and is found
in sweat gland ducts, ovarian follicular cells, and
the salivary glands.
It functions in absorption, secretion, and
protection.
Stratified Columnar Epithelium
Stratified columnar epithelium consists of more
than one layer of epithelial cells; the surface
cells are columnar but the deeper cells are
irregular or cuboidal in shape.
Like stratified cuboidal epithelium, stratified
columnar epithelium is relatively rare, found in
the mammary gland ducts, the larynx, and a
portion of the male urethra.
This epithelium carries out secretion,
protection, and some absorption.
Transitional Epithelium
Transitional epithelium is a special type of
stratified epithelium that can be greatly
stretched.
The shape of the cells change as the epithelium Desmosomes are mechanical links that bind
is stretched. cells together.

Transitional epithelium lines cavities that can Hemidesmosomes are half desmosomes that
expand greatly, such as the urinary bladder. anchor cells to the basement membrane.

It also protects underlying structures, like the Tight junctions prevent the passage of
urinary bladder, from the caustic effects of materials between epithelial cells because they
urine. completely surround each cell, similar to the
Transitional Epithelium way a belt surrounds the waist.

Materials that pass through the epithelial layer

must pass through the cells, so those cells
regulate what materials can cross.
Tight junctions are found in the lining of the
intestines.

Gap junctions are small channels that allow

small molecules and ions to pass from one
epithelial cell to an adjacent one.

Most epithelial cells are connected to one

Free Cell Surfaces
Most epithelia have a free surface that is not in
contact with other cells and faces away from
underlying tissues.
another by gap junctions, and researchers
believe that molecules or ions moving through
the gap junctions act as communication signals
to coordinate the activities of the cells.
Cell Connections

The characteristics of the free surface reflect its

functions.

The free surface can be smooth or lined with

microvilli or cilia.

Cilia move materials over the top of the cell.

Microvilli increase surface area.

Cell Connections
Cells have several structures that hold one cell
to one another or to the basement membrane.

These structures do three things: mechanically

bind the cells together, help form a
permeability barrier, and provide a mechanism
for intercellular communication.
 Glands
Glands are secretory organs that secrete
substances onto a surface, into a cavity, or into
the bloodstream.
Glands are composed primarily of epithelium,
with a supporting network of connective tissue.
Glands with ducts are called exocrine glands.
Both the gland and its ducts is lined with
epithelium.
Endocrine glands are ductless glands; they
secrete their products (termed hormones) into
the bloodstream.
Glands
Most exocrine glands are multicellular,
comprised of many cells.
Some exocrine glands are composed of a single
cell, like goblet cells, that secrete mucus.
Multicellular exocrine glands can be classified
according to the structure of their ducts and
secretory regions.
Simple glands have a single, non-branched duct,
some have branched ducts.
Compound exocrine glands have multiple,
branched ducts.
Glands with secretory regions shaped as tubules
(small tubes) are called tubular, whereas those
shaped in saclike structures are called acinar or
alveolar.
Tubular glands can be straight or coiled.
Glands with a combination of the two are called
tubuloacinar or tubuloalveolar.
Exocrine Gland Structures
Glands
Exocrine glands can also be classified according
to how products leave the cell.
Merocrine secretion involves the release of
secretory products by exocytosis.
Apocrine secretion involves the release of
secretory products as pinched-off fragments of
the gland cells.
Holocrine secretion involves the shedding of
entire cells.
Exocrine Glands and Secretion
Types
Connective Tissue
Connective tissue is a diverse primary tissue
type that makes up part of every organ in the
body.
Connective tissue differs from the other three
tissue types in that it consists of cells separated
from each other by abundant extracellular
matrix.
Connective tissue is diverse in both structure
and function.
Connective tissue is comprised of cells, protein
fibers, and an extracellular matrix.
Functions of Connective Tissue
1. Enclose and separate other tissues
2. Connecting tissues to one another
3. Supporting and moving parts of the body
4. Storing compounds
5. Cushioning and insulating
6. Transporting
7. Protecting
Connective Tissue Cells
The specialized cells of the various connective
tissues produce the extracellular matrix.
The name of the cell identifies the cell
functions.
Osteoblasts form bone, osteocytes maintain it,
and osteoclasts break it down.
Fibroblasts are cells that form fibrous
connective tissue, and fibrocytes maintain it.
Chondroblasts form cartilage and chondrocytes
maintain it.
Found in connective tissue are cells associated
with the immune system, such as white blood
cells.
Macrophages are large cells that are capable of
moving about and ingesting foreign substances,
including microorganisms in the connective
tissue.
Mast cells are nonmotile cells that release
chemicals, such as histamine, that promote
inflammation
Extracellular Matrix
The extracellular matrix of connective tissue has
three major components: protein fibers, ground
substance, and fluid.
Ground substance consists of non-fibrous
protein and other molecules.
The structure of the matrix is responsible for
the functional characteristics of connective
tissues— for example, they enable bones and
cartilage to bear weight.
Matrix Protein Fibers
Three types of protein fibers—collagen,
reticular, and elastic—help form most
connective tissues.
Collagen fibers, which resemble microscopic
ropes, are very flexible but resist stretching.
Reticular fibers are very fine, short collagen
fibers that branch to form a supporting
network.
Elastic fibers have the ability to return to their
original shape after being stretched or
compressed, giving tissue an elastic quality.
Matrix Ground Substance
The ground substance consists of non-fibrous
molecules and is shapeless.
It consists of proteoglycans, which are large
molecules that consist of a protein core
attached to many long polysaccharides.
Proteoglycans trap large quantities of water
between the polysaccharides, which allows
them to return to their original shape when
compressed or deformed.
Types of Connective Tissues
The two main types of connective tissue are
embryonic and adult connective tissue.
By eight weeks of development, most of the
embryonic connective tissue has become
specialized to form the types of connective
tissue seen in adults.
Types of Connective Tissues
Loose connective tissue consists of relatively
few protein fibers that form a lacy network,
with numerous spaces filled with ground
substance and fluid.
Three subdivisions of loose connective tissue
are areolar, adipose, and reticular.
Areolar connective tissue primarily consists of
collagen fibers and a few elastic fibers.
The most common cells in loose connective
tissue are the fibroblasts.
Types of Connective Tissues
Adipose tissue consists of adipocytes, or fat
cells, which contain large amounts of lipid for
energy storage.
Adipose tissue pads and protects parts of the
body and acts as a thermal insulator.
Reticular tissue forms the framework of
lymphatic tissue, such as in the spleen and
lymph nodes, as well as in bone marrow and the
liver.
Areolar Connective Tissue
Adipose Tissue
Types of Connective Tissues
Dense connective tissue has a relatively large
number of protein fibers that form thick
bundles and fill nearly all of the extracellular
space.
There are two major subcategories of dense
connective tissue: collagenous and elastic.
Types of Connective Tissues
Dense collagenous connective tissue has an
extracellular matrix consisting mostly of
collagen fibers.
Dense collagenous connective tissue has an
extracellular matrix consisting mostly of
collagen fibers.
Dense collagenous connective tissue having the
collagen fibers oriented in the same direction is
termed dense regular.
Examples of dense regular are tendons and
ligaments.
Types of Connective Tissues
Dense collagenous connective tissue having the
collagen fibers oriented in the multiple
directions is termed dense irregular.
Examples of dense irregular are in the dermis of
the skin and in organ capsules.
Dense Regular Collagenous Connective
Tissue
Types of Connective Tissues
Dense elastic connective tissue has abundant
elastic fibers among its collagen fibers.
The elastic fibers allow the tissue to stretch and
recoil.
Examples include the dense elastic connective
tissue in the vocal cords.
A genetic condition called Marfan syndrome
results from, in part the inability to properly
maintain and form elastic fibers.
Dense Regular Elastic Connective
Tissue
Fibrocartilage is found in the disks between the
vertebrae (bones of the back) and in some
joints, such as the knee and
temporomandibular (jaw) joints.
Elastic cartilage contains elastic fibers in
addition to collagen and proteoglycans.
The elastic fibers appear as coiled fibers among
bundles of collagen fibers.

Elastic cartilage is able to recoil to its original

shape when bent.

The external ear, epiglottis, and auditory tube

contain elastic cartilage.

Fibrocartilage and Elastic

Cartilages
Cartilage
Cartilage is composed of chondrocytes, located
in spaces called lacunae within an extensive
matrix.
Collagen in the matrix gives cartilage flexibility
and strength.
Cartilage is resilient because the proteoglycans
of the matrix trap water.

Cartilage
There are three types of cartilage: hyaline,
fibrocartilage, and elastic cartilage.

Hyaline cartilage is the most abundant type of

cartilage and has many functions, such as
covering the ends of bones, where they form
joints.

Fibrocartilage has more collagen than does

hyaline cartilage and is able to withstand
compression and resist tearing or pulling.
Fibrocartilage is found in the intervertebral
disks.
Bone
Bone is a hard connective tissue that consists of
living cells and a mineralized matrix. Osteocytes
are located within lacunae.

The strength and rigidity of the mineralized

Hyaline Cartilage
matrix enables bones to support and protect
other tissues and organs.
Two types of bone tissue exist: spongy bone
and compact bone.
Spongy bone has spaces between trabeculae
or plates, of bone and therefore resembles a
sponge.
The three types of muscle tissue are skeletal,
cardiac, and smooth.
Skeletal muscle attaches to the skeleton and
enables the body to move.

Compact bone is more solid, with almost no Skeletal muscle cells are striated, or banded,
space between many thin layers of mineralized because of the arrangement of contractile
matrix. proteins within the cells.
Bone Skeletal Muscle

Blood
Blood is a liquid connective tissue
Muscle
It contains a liquid matrix, termed the plasma,
Cardiac muscle is the muscle of the heart; it is
along with formed elements.
responsible for pumping blood.
The formed elements are erythrocytes,
leukocytes, and platelets.
Cardiac muscle cells are cylindrical but much
shorter than skeletal muscle cells.
It functions in transport of food, oxygen, waste,
Cardiac muscle cells are striated and usually
hormones, and other substances.
have one nucleus per cell.
Blood
They are often branched and connected to one
another by intercalated disks.

Cardiac Muscle

Muscle
The main function of muscle tissue is to
contract, or shorten, making movement
possible.

Muscle contraction results from contractile

proteins located within the muscle cells.
 Muscle
Smooth muscle forms the walls of hollow
organs; it is also found in the skin and the eyes.
Smooth muscle is responsible for a number of
functions, such as moving food through the
digestive tract and emptying the urinary
bladder.
Smooth muscle cells are tapered at each end,
have a single nucleus, and are not striated.
Smooth Muscle
Nervous Tissue
Nervous tissue forms the brain, spinal cord, and
nerves.
It is responsible for coordinating and controlling
many body activities.
Nervous tissue consists of neurons and support
cells, termed glial cells.
The neuron is responsible for conducting action
potentials.
It is composed of three parts: a cell body,
dendrites, and an axon.
Nervous Tissue
Tissue Membranes
A tissue membrane is a thin sheet or layer of
tissue that covers a structure or lines a cavity.
Most membranes consist of epithelium and the
connective tissue on which the epithelium rests.
There are four tissue membranes in the body:
cutaneous, mucous, serous, and synovial.
The skin, termed the cutaneous membrane, is
an external body surface membrane.
Tissue Membranes
The mucous membranes line cavities that open
to the outside of the body, such as the
digestive, respiratory, and reproductive tracts.
Mucous membranes consist of epithelial cells,
their basement membrane, and a thick layer of
loose connective tissue.
Many, but not all, mucous membranes secrete
mucus.
The functions of mucous membranes include
protection, absorption, and secretion.
Tissue Membranes
Serous membranes line cavities that do not
open to the exterior of the body, such as the
pericardial, pleural, and peritoneal cavities.
Serous membranes consist of three
components: a layer of simple squamous
epithelium, its basement membrane, and a
delicate layer of loose connective tissue.
Serous membranes do not contain glands, but
they secrete a small amount of fluid called
serous fluid, which lubricates the surface of the
membranes.
Tissue Membranes
Synovial membranes line the cavities of freely
movable joints.
They are made up of only connective tissue and
consist of modified connective tissue cells.

Synovial membranes produce synovial fluid,

which makes the joint very slippery, thereby
reducing friction and allowing smooth
movement within the joint.

Internal Membranes

Tissue repair can occur by regeneration or by

fibrosis.

In regeneration, the new cells are the same

type as those that were destroyed, and normal
function is usually restored.

In fibrosis, or replacement, a new type of tissue

develops that eventually causes scar production
and the loss of some tissue function.

Tissue Inflammation
Inflammation is usually a beneficial process
occurring when tissues are damaged.
When viruses infect epithelial cells of the upper
respiratory tract, inflammation and the
symptoms of the common cold are produced.
Tissue Repair
Regeneration can completely repair some
tissues, such as the skin and the mucous
membrane of the intestine. In these cases,
regeneration is accomplished primarily by stem
cells.
Stem cells are self-renewing, undifferentiated
cells that continue to divide throughout life.
Tissue repair occurs in sequential steps.

The inflammatory process occurs in stages.

Inflammation mobilizes the body’s defenses and

isolates and destroys microorganisms, foreign
materials, and damaged cells so that tissue
repair can proceed.
Inflammation produces five major symptoms:
redness, heat, swelling, pain, and disturbance of
function.
Tissue Repair
Tissue repair involves substitution of dead cells
for viable cells.
 Chapter 6 The matrix always contains collagen, ground
substance, and other organic molecules, as well
Skeletal System: Bones as water and minerals.
and Joint
Extracellular Matrix
Collagen is a tough, ropelike protein.
Components of Skeletal System
• Bones Proteoglycans are large molecules consisting of
• Cartilages many polysaccharides attaching to and
• Tendons encircling core proteins.
• Ligaments
The proteoglycans form large aggregates and
Bones of the Skeletal System attract water.

The extracellular matrix of tendons and

ligaments contains large amounts of collagen
fibers, making these structures very tough, like
ropes or cables.

Cartilage Extracellular Matrix

The extracellular matrix of cartilage contains
collagen and proteoglycans.

Collagen makes cartilage tough, whereas the

water-filled proteoglycans make it smooth and
resilient.
As a result, cartilage is relatively rigid, but it
springs back to its original shape after being
bent or slightly compressed.

It is an excellent shock absorber.

Bone Extracellular Matrix

Skeletal System Function The extracellular matrix of bone contains
1. Support collagen and minerals, including calcium and
2. Protect phosphate.
3. Movement
4. Storage The ropelike collagen fibers lend flexible
5. Blood cell production strength to the bone.

The mineral component gives bone

Extracellular Matrix
compression (weight-bearing) strength.
Bone, cartilage, tendons, and ligaments of the
Most of the mineral in bone is in the form of
skeletal system are all connective tissues.
calcium phosphate crystals called
hydroxyapatite.
Their characteristics are largely determined by
the composition of their extracellular matrix.
 Shape Classification of Bones Long Bone Structures
There are four bone shape classifications: long,
short, flat, and irregular.

Long bones are longer than they are wide;

examples are upper and lower limb bones.

Short bones are approximately as wide as they

are long; examples are the bones of the wrist
and ankle.

Shape Classification of Bones

Flat bones have a relatively thin, flattened
shape; examples are bones of the skull and
sternum.

Irregular bones include the vertebrae and facial Epiphyseal plate: site of growth between
bones, which have shapes that do not fit readily diaphysis and epiphysis
into the other three categories. Medullary cavity: center of diaphysis red or
yellow marrow
Long Bone Structures Long Bone Structures

Diaphysis: Periosteum: membrane around bone’s outer

Shaft surface
Compact bone tissue (on outside) Endosteum: membrane that lines medullary
Epiphysis: cavity
Ends spongy bone tissue
Articular cartilages:
Covers epiphyses
Reduces friction
 Structure of Long Bone In adults most red bone marrow is in the flat
bones and the long bones of the femur and
humerus.

Compact Bone Tissue

Location: outer part of diaphysis (long bones)
and thinner surfaces of other bones
Osteon: structural unit of comapct bone
includes lamella, lacunae, canaliculus, central
canal, osteocytes
Lamella: rings of bone matrix

Compact Bone Tissue

Lacunae: Spaces between lamella

Bone Marrow
Bones contain cavities, such as the large
medullary cavity in the diaphysis, as well as
smaller cavities in the epiphyses of long bones
and in the interior of other bones.

These spaces are filled with soft tissue called Canaliculus: tiny canals trasport niutrients and
marrow. remove waste
Central canal: center of osteon contaons blood
Red marrow is the location of blood forming vessels
cells.
Spongy (Cancellous) Bone Tissue
Yellow marrow is mostly fat.
In newborns most bones have blood making
red bone marrow.

In adults red marrow in the diaphysis is

replaced by yellow bone marrow.

Spongy bone
• It is located at the epiphyses of long bones
and center of other bones.
• It has trabeculae, which are interconnecting
rods, and spaces that contain marrow.
• It has no osteons.
 Spongy Bone Tissue
Both types of bone formation result in compact
and spongy bone.

Intramembranous Ossification

Intramembranous ossification occurs when

osteoblasts begin to produce bone within
connective tissue.

This occurs primarily in the bones of the skull.

Osteoblasts line up on the surface of connective

tissue fibers and begin depositing bone matrix
to form trabeculae.

Intramembranous Ossification
The process begins in areas called ossification
centers and the trabeculae radiate out from the
centers.

Usually, two or more ossification centers exist

Bone Cells
Osteoblasts: responsible for the formation of
bone and the repair and remodeling of bone.
Osteocytes: cells that maintain bone matrix and
form from osteoblast after bone matrix has
surrounded it.
in each flat skull bone and mature skull bones
result from fusion of these centers as they
enlarge.
The trabeculae are constantly remodeled and
they may enlarge or be replaced by compact
bone.
Bone Formation in the Fetus

Osteoclasts: contribute to bone repair and

remodeling by removing existing bone, called
bone reabsorption.

Bone Formation
Ossification is the formation of bone by
osteoblasts.

Bone formation that occurs within connective

tissue membranes is called intramembranous
ossification.

Bone formation that occurs inside hyaline

cartilage is called endochondral ossification.
Bone formation that occurs inside hyaline
cartilage is called endochondral ossification.
 Endochondral Ossification
Endochondral bone formation is bone
formation within a cartilage model.
The cartilage model is replaced by bone.
Initially formed is a primary ossification center,
which is bone formation in the diaphysis of a
long bone.
A secondary ossification center is bone
formation in the epiphysis.
Steps in Endochondral Ossification
1. Chondroblasts build a cartilage model,
the chondroblasts become
chondrocytes.
2. Cartilage model calcifies (hardens).
3. Osteoblasts invade calcified cartilage
and a primary ossification center forms
diaphysis.
4. Secondary ossification centers form
epiphysis.
5. Original cartilage model is almost
completely ossified and remaining
cartilage is articular cartilage.
Endochondral Ossification of a
Long Bone
Bone Growth in Width
Bone growth occurs by the deposition of new
bone lamellae onto existing bone or other
connective tissue.
As osteoblasts deposit new bone matrix on the
surface of bones between the periosteum and
the existing bone matrix, the bone increases in
width, or diameter. This process is called
appositional growth.
Bone Growth in Length
Growth in the length of a bone, which is the
major source of increased height in an
individual, occurs in the epiphyseal plate.
This type of bone growth occurs through
endochondral ossification.
Chondrocytes increase in number on the
epiphyseal side of the epiphyseal plate.
Bone Growth in Length
Then the chondrocytes enlarge and die.
The cartilage matrix becomes calcified.
Much of the cartilage that forms around the
enlarged cells is removed by osteoclasts, and
the dying chondrocytes are replaced by
osteoblasts.
Bone Growth in Length
The osteoblasts start forming bone by
depositing bone lamellae on the surface of the
calcified cartilage.
This process produces bone on the diaphyseal
side of the epiphyseal plate.
Bone Remodeling Calcium homeostasis is maintained by
Bone remodeling involves: parathyroid hormone (PTH) and calcitonin
• removal of existing bone by osteoclasts
and Calcium Homeostasis
• deposition of new bone by osteoblasts
• occurs in all bones
• responsible for changes in bone shape,
bone
• repair, adjustment of bone to stress,
and
• calcium ion regulation
Bone Repair
1. Broken bone causes bleeding and a
blood clot forms.
2. Callus forms which is a fibrous
network between 2 fragments.
3. Cartilage model forms first then,
osteoblasts enter the callus and
form cancellous bone this Bone Anatomical Terms
continues for 4-6 weeks after Foramen:
injury. • hole
4. Cancellous bone is slowly • Example - foramen magnum
remodeled to form compact and Fossa:
cancellous bone. • depression
• Example - glenoid fossa
Bone Repair Process: • projection
• Example - mastoid process
Bone Anatomical Terms
Condyle:
• smooth, rounded end
• Example - occipital condyle
Meatus:
• canal-like passageway
• Example - external auditory
Tubercle:
• lump of bone
Bone and Calcium
• Example - greater tubercle
Homeostasis

Bone is a major storage site for calcium Axial Skeleton

The axial skeleton is composed of
Movement of calcium in and out of bone helps the skull, the vertebral column, and
determine blood levels of calcium the thoracic cage.

Calcium moves into bone as osteoblasts build The skull has 22 bones divided into
new bone Calcium move out of bone as those of the braincase and those of
osteoclasts break down bone the face.
The braincase, which encloses the cranial cavity, lateral walls of nasal cavity, floors of
consists of 8 bones that immediately surround eye orbits
and protect the brain. • Maxillary sinus
Palatine bones
The bony structure of the face has 14 facial • Form posterior portion of hard
bones. palate, lateral wall of nasal
Axial Skeleton cavity
Thirteen of the facial bones are rather solidly Facial Bones
connected to form the bulk of the face. Zygomatic bones
• Cheek bones
The mandible, however, forms a freely movable • Also form floor and lateral wall
joint with the rest of the skull. of each eye orbit
Lacrimal bones
There are also three auditory ossicles in each • Medial surfaces of eye orbits
middle ear (six total). Nasal bones
Cranial Bones • Form bridge of nose
Frontal bone
• Anterior part of cranium Facial Bones
Parietal bones Vomer
• Sides and roof of cranium • In midline of nasal cavity
Occipital bones • Forms nasal septum with the
• Posterior portion and floor of ethmoid bone
cranium Inferior nasal conchae
Temporal bones • Attached to lateral walls of
• Inferior to parietal bones on nasal cavity
each side of the cranium Mandible
• Temporomandibular joint • Lower jawbone
• Only movable skull bone
Cranial Bones
Sphenoid bone
• Forms part of cranium floor, The Skull
lateral posterior portions of
eye orbits, lateral portions of
cranium anterior to temporal
bones
• Sella turcica
Ethmoid bone
• Anterior portion of cranium,
including medial surface of
eye orbit and roof of nasal
cavity
• Nasal conchae
Facial Bones
Maxillae
• Form upper jaw, anterior
portion of hard palate, part of
The Skull Paranasal Sinuses

Several of the bones associated

with the nasal cavity have large

cavities within them, called the

paranasal sinuses which open into
the nasal cavity.
The paranasal sinuses are:
The Skull • Frontal
• Ethmoid
• Sphenoid
• Maxillary
Paranasal Sinuses

Hyoid Bone
The hyoid bone is an unpaired,
U-shaped bone that is not part
of the skull and has no direct
bony attachment to the skull or
any other bones.

The hyoid bone has the unique

distinction of being the only
The Skull bone in the body that does not
articulate with another bone.

The hyoid bone provides an

attachment for some tongue
muscles, and it is an attachment
point for important neck
muscles that elevate the larynx.
 Functions of Vertebral
Column

Supports body weight

Protects the spinal cord
Allows spinal nerves to exit the spinal
cord
Provides a site for muscle attachment
Provides movement of the head and
trunk

Vertebral Column

Vertebral Column

The vertebral column, or spine, is the central

axis of the skeleton, extending from the base of
the skull to slightly past the end of the pelvis.
In adults, it usually consists of 26 individual
bones, grouped into five regions.

The adult vertebral column has four major

curvatures: cervical, thoracic, lumbar and
sacrococcygeal.

The cervical region curves anteriorly.

The thoracic region curves posteriorly.
The lumbar region curves anteriorly.
The sacral and coccygeal regions together curve
posteriorly.
Vertebral Column

7 cervical vertebra
12 thoracic vertebra
5 lumbar vertebra
1 sacrum 1 coccyx
Atlas:
• 1st vertebra
• holds head
Axis:
• 2nd vertebra
• rotates head
 Vertebra

Thoracic Cage
Protects vital organs 12 pair of ribs Sternum:
• breastbone
True ribs:
• attach directly to sternum by
cartilage
False ribs:
• attach indirectly to sternum by
cartilage
Floating ribs:
• not attached to sternum

Regional Differences in
Vertebrae

Thoracic Cage
Bones of the Pectoral
Girdle
Scapula:
• shoulder blade
Clavicle:
• collar bone
Pectoral Girdle

Sacrum
 Scapula and Clavicle The Humerus

Ulna & Radius

Upper Limb Bones

Humerus:
• upper limb
Ulna:
• forearm
Radius:
• forearm
Carpals:
• wrist
Metacarpals:
• hand

Upper Limb Bones

Bones of the Wrist & Hand

 Pelvic Girdle • large lower leg
Where lower limbs attach to the body Fibula:
Pelvis: • small lower leg
• includes pelvic girdle and Lower Limb Bones
coccyx Tarsals:
Ischium: • ankle
• inferior and posterior region Metatarsals:
Ilium: • foot
• most superior region Phalanges:
Acetabulum: • toes and fingers
• hip socket (joint) Lower Limb Bones
Pelvis

Hip Bones

Comparison of the Male

Pelvis to the Female
Pelvis

Bones of the Thigh

Lower Limb Bones

Femur:
• thigh Patella:
• knee cap
Tibia:
 Bones of the Foot • slightly movable joint
• Example - between vertebrae
Diarthrosis:
• freely movable joint
• Example - knee, elbow, and
wrist articulations
Fontanels and Sutures

Articulations
Articulations (joints) are where two bones come
together.

Joints can be classified structurally as fibrous,

cartilaginous, or synovial, according to the
major connective tissue type that binds the
bones together and whether a fluid-filled joint
capsule is present.

Joints are also be classified in functional

categories according to their degree of motion
as synarthroses, amphiarthroses, or diarthroses.

Structural Classification of Joints

Fibrous joint:
• united by fibrous connective
tissue
• subclasses are sutures,
syndesmosis, and gomphoses
Cartilaginous:
• united by means of cartilage
• subclasses are synchondroses
and symphysis
Synovial:
• joined by a fluid cavity Structure of a Synovial
• Most joints of the appendicular Joint
skeleton

Functional Classification
of Joints
Synarthrosis:
• non-movable joint
• Example – skull bone
articulations
Amphiarthrosis:
 Types of Synovial
Joints Effects of Aging on the Skeletal
System and Joints
1. Decreased Collagen Production
2. Loss of Bone Density
3. Degenerative Changes

Types of Movement
Flexion: bending
Extension: straightening
Abduction: movement away from midline
Adduction: movement toward the midline
Pronation: rotation of the forearm with palms
down
Supination: rotation of the forearm with palms
up
Rotation: movement of a structure about the
long axis

Types of Movement