I.
UNIVERSITY INFORMATION
1. Vision of the University: Cagayan State University is
a world class university in the
arts, culture, agriculture and natural sciences as well as
in technological and
professional fields.
2. Mission of the University: Cagayan State University
shall produce globally
competent graduates through excellent instruction,
innovative and creative research,
responsive public service and productive industry and
community engagement
3. Quality Policy Statement
The Cagayan State University, as a provider of
educational services, is committed to
the complete satisfaction of its clients. The University
shall adhere to its documented
QMS in delivering products and services in accordance
with ISO 9001: 2008 Quality
Management System Requirements.
CSU is dedicated to achieve the following QUALITY
OBJECTIVES:
✓ To achieve and maintain ISO 9001: 2008
certification.
✓ To maintain a strong competitive edge in the delivery
of educational services,
and
✓ To solidify our identity with our clients by improving
quality services and
analyzing current business and growth to improve
effectiveness and customer
awareness of our activities.
4. Goals of the College
Our graduates will be globally competitive leaders in
their profession and in the
society, radiating the knowledge, skills, wisdom and
values gained for committed
service.
5. Objectives of the Department
The BSABE graduates after three to five years of their
professional career shall:
1. Effectively practice agricultural engineering in the
fields of soil and water
resources, agricultural structures and environment,
agricultural power and
machinery and agricultural processing and
electrification;
2. Demonstrate competency in the basic engineering
skills and technical
knowledge as well as professional skills and values in
the solution of
problems related to agro-industrial development
3. Demonstrate leadership, ethical and societal
responsibilities through active
involvement in community services and development of
agricultural
engineering business enterprise
4. Pursue graduate education and research in
agricultural engineering and
related field;
5. Extend services in the preservation and protection of
the natural environment; and
6. Effectively work in inter and multi-disciplinary and
multi-cultural teams in
diverse fields of practice and can communicate with
technical and broader
communities through written, oral and visual formats.
FARM POWER ENGINEERING
The field of Farm Power and Machinery involves
the application of mechanical, physical, biological and
electronic principles to the solution of real-life problems
or issues in crop/fruit/vegetable production and
processing.
Farm power is one of the most expensive and
critical inputs when growing a rice crop.
Humans, animals and machines are all used
as sources of power in agriculture production.
When undertaking different operations on a farm, a
certain amount of work is required to complete the task.
When this work is undertaken over time, it is then
called power.
Power or the rate of doing work can be expressed as
horsepower or Kilowatt.
One horsepower is equivalent to 0.75 Kilowatt.
SOURCES OF ENERGY AND POWER IN THE FARM
 HUMAN POWER
 ANIMAL POWER
 MECHANICAL POWER
 ELECTRICAL POWER
 RENEWABLE ENERGY
Human power is the main source for operating
small implements and tools at the farm. Stationary
work like chaff cutting, water lifting, threshing,
winnowing and field work like weeding, broadcasting
are also done by manual labour.
The oldest sources of power in the farm but
considered as poor source of power since it develops only
0.1 hp working continuously under favorable conditions.
Human Power = 0.1 Hp (Horsepower)
Today, human power is still considered as major
sources of power in the farm because of:
1. Size of farm
2. Topography
3. Crops grown
4. High cost of equipment
5. High cost and non-availability of fuel
6. Availability of low cost labor
ADVANTAGES OF HUMAN POWER
It is easily available and can be used for all types of
work
The limitations of human energy are the costliest
power compared to all other forms of power
Very low efficiency
Requires full maintenance when not in use and
affected by weather condition and seasons
Considering that there are 3M farms, 12M hectares
of agricultural lands, and assuming 5 farmers per farm.
Human power contribution per hectare
Human power contribution is about 0.125 hp
ANIMAL POWER
The average power developed by a pair of bullocks
is about 1 hp for farm operations. Bullocks are employed
for all types farm work in all seasons. Besides bullocks
and buffaloes other animals like camels, horses,
donkeys, mules and elephants are also used at some
places. The average force a draft animal can exert for
farm work is nearly one-tenth of its body weight.
ADVANTAGES OF ANIMAL POWER
 Easily available
 Used for all types of work
 Low initial investment
 Supplies manures to the field and fuels to farmers
 Lives on farm produce
 Mobile in most terrain conditions
 Can work closer to the levees
 If female, it is capable of reproduction
 Source of milk and meat
DISADVANTAGES OF ANIMAL POWER
 Low work capacity
 More labor input and drudgery
 Limited working period to avoid the intense heat of
the sun
 Prone to disability by disease, poisoning and death
and lost by rustling
 Requires daily attention such as feeding and
pasturing even when not in use
 Under management practices, carabao causes
unsanitary conditions near the house due to waste
feed, dung and urine
MECHANICAL POWER
 Broadly speaking, mechanical power includes
stationary oil engines, tractors and power tillers.
 The internal combustion engine is a good device
for converting fuel energy (Chemical energy) into
useful work (Mechanical energy).
The internal combustion engines are of two types:
(1) Spark ignition engines (Petrol or Kerosene
engine)
(2) Compression ignition engines (Diesel engines)
 The thermal efficiency of diesel engine varies from
32 to 38 percent whereas that of petrol engine
varies from 25 to 32 percent.
 In modern days, almost all the tractors and power
tillers are operated by diesel engines. Diesel
engines are used for operating irrigation pumps,
flour mills, oil ghanis, cotton gins, chaff cutter,
sugarcane crusher, threshers, winnowers etc.
ELECTRICAL POWER
Electrical power is used mostly in the form of
electrical motors on the farms.
Motor is a very useful machine for farmers. It is
clean, quest and smooth running. Its maintenance and
operation needs less attention and care. The operating
cost remains almost constant throughout its life.
Electrical power is used for water pumping, dairy
industry, cold storage, farm product processing, fruit
industry and many similar things.
RENEWABLE ENERGY
It is the energy mainly obtained from renewable
sources like sun, wind and biomass
Biomass energy (biogas, producer gas, ethanol and
biodiesel), wind energy and solar energy are used in
agriculture and domestic purposes with suitable
devices.
It can be used for lighting, cooking, water heating,
space heating, water distillation, food processing, water
pumping, diesel engine operation and electricity
generation. This type of energy is inexhaustible in
nature.
USAGE OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES
Solar energy- Solar dryers, lantern, cooker, solar still,
solar refrigeration, solar lighting etc.
Wind energy- Water pumping, electricity generation etc.
Biomass energy- Gasifiers to produce producer gas,
pyrolysis to produce liquid fuels, Biogas etc.
Tidal energy – electricity generation
Geothermal energy- Heat and electricity production
SOLAR ENERGY
Solar energy has been use throughout the world
mainly for drying and heating.
Very recently, new dimensions of solar energy
applications have been developed like electricity
generation, space cooling, refrigeration and water
pumping.
However, due to high investment costs, the
commercial use of these modern technologies has yet
been limited.
The energy received from the sun, per unit of time,
on a normal surface at the average distance between the
sun and earth outside the earth’s atmosphere is equal to
1,353 w/m^2.
The radiation absorbed by the earth is about 690
w/m^2
CLASSIFICATION OF SOLAR ENERGY
APPLICATIONS
a. Thermal or heat based applications
b. Photovoltaic applications
c. Photosynthesis
Thermal or heat based applications
These rely on heat energy coming from the sun. The
heat energy can be used directly to heat or cool systems
or be transformed to other forms of energy such as
mechanical or electrical
Photovoltaic applications
These rely on the illumination-spectrum intensity
coming from the sun. With the aid of semi-conductor
materials, solar cells, the illumination is transformed
directly into electricity.
Photosynthesis
This involves the process of converting light energy into
chemical energy. The energy is stored in carbohydrate
molecules synthesized from carbon dioxide and water.
Oxygen is released as a byproduct.
WIND ENERGY
Wind was another early source of power used to
multiply the productive capacity of the human muscle.
On the seas, it has been used to propel ships, and on
land, it has served a variety of purposes like water
pumping, grinding grains and generating electricity.
The theoretical power from wind can be given by the
formula:
Theoretical power = ( ρ A V^3 ) / 2
where: ρ = air density, 1.25 kg/m^3
A = rotor area, m^2
V = wind speed, m/s
For mechanical energy conversion:
Available power = 0.245 A V^3
For electric energy conversion:
Available power = 0.10 A V^3
WATER POWER
The movement of masses of water is a form of
kinetic energy which can be converted into mechanical
energy throughout the use of water wheels or water
turbines.
In general, two types of water masses movement
can be used :
A. The falling/ flowing of streams of water through the
force of gravity, and
B. The rise and fall of tides through lunar (and solar)
gravity
In hp, the theoretical power available from flowing
water is:
Theoretical power = ( Q * H ) / 33,000
Q=VAρ
where: H = head, ft
Q = mass flow rate, lbs/min
V = velocity of water, ft/min
A = cross sectional area of water stream,
ft^2
ρ = density of water, 62.4 lbs/ft^3
In kW, the theoretical power available is:
Theoretical power = ( Q * H ) / 102
Q=VAρ
where: H = head, m
Q = mass flow rate, kg/sec
V = velocity of water, m/sec
A = cross sectional area of water stream,
m^2
ρ = density of water, 1000 kg/m^3
BIOMASS ENERGY
Biomass refers to all organic materials that
originate from living organisms.
Biomass equally applies to both animal and plant
derived materials such as wood, agricultural products
and residues, animal wastes and many others.
Large proportion of biomass, mainly fuelwood, is
being used in developing countries.
SOURCES OF BIOMASS AVAILABLE FOR ENERGY
1. Livestock manure (cattle, pigs, poultry, etc.)
2. Grains, root crops and sugar crops (for ethanol
production)
3. Crop residues (rice straws and hulls, corn stalks
and cobs, sugarcane baggase)
4. Rural and municipal wastes
5. Aquatic plants (water hyacinth)
6. Energy farms (fast growing trees, jatropha and
other hydrocarbon crops, etc.)
MERITS AND DEMERITS OF DIFFERENTFARM
POWER SOURCES
ELECTRIC MOTORS
 Used to turn fans, pumps, compressors
 Facilitate the circulation of air, water, refrigerant,
and other fluids
 Motors are designed for particular applications
 The correct motor must always be used
 Most motors operate on similar principles
HOW MOTORS WORK
 Electric motors can be powered by Alternating
Current (AC) or Direct Current (DC).
 DC motors were developed first and have certain
advantages and disadvantages.
 Each type of motor works differently but they all
use the power of the electromagnetic field.
Electric motors are more efficient means of
converting energy into mechanical power compared to
internal combustion engines as presented in the table
below:
ADVANTAGES OF USING ELECTRIC MOTORS
OVER INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES
ACCORDING TO GUSTAFSON AND MORGAN :
1. Low initial cost
2. Available in fractional hp sizes (1/4,1/2,3/4 HP) and
integral hp sizes (1,1 ½, 2, 2 ½, 3 HP)
3. Compact
4. Long life
5. Easy to start and simple to operate
6. Inexpensive to operate
7. Quiet operation
8. No exhaust fumes
9. Potential for automatic control
DISADVANTAGES OF USING ELECTRIC MOTORS
OVER INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES
ACCORDING TO GUSTAFSON AND MORGAN :
1. Not adapted to mobile applications such as field
machines
2. Used only in farms with existing electric lines
3. Affected by power outages

AC MOTORS
Energy comes from magnetic fields generated through
coils wrapped around the output shaft.
Consist of several parts, including a stator and rotor.
AC motors are efficient, durable, quiet and flexible,
making them a viable solution for many power
generation needs
1. Stator / Armature Coil
The stator includes the main components of the electric
motor. Because this component will be in direct contact
with the performance of the motor. The stator is a static
copper winding located around the main axis. The
function of the stator is to generate a magnetic field
around the rotor.
2. Rotor Coil
As well as the stator coil, the more the number of
turns on the rotor the greater the resulting spin.
Commonly used copper with a small diameter. It aims to
make the number of windings more even if it requires a
large wire length.
The wound end will be connected to another rotor
located at the end of the main shaft.
3. Main Shaft
The main shaft is a metal component that extends
as a place to attach some components. In addition to the
coil rotor, the component attached to this shaft is a drive
pulley. Generally the main shaft is made of aluminum
which is anti-rust. In addition, this component must
also be stable at high rotation and temperature.
4. . Brush
Brush is a copper brush that will connect a lithric
current source with a coil rotor. This brush is attached
to a small rotor located at the end of the main rotor.
Friction that occurs will flow the current in the same
direction even though the rotor rotates. So that the
rotation can be synchronous and continuous.
5. Bearing
Because this tool produces rotation, it is necessary
a special component that will be used as a pad for a
smooth round. This is the function of the bearing, as a
bearing between the shaft surface and the motor
housing. Bearing generally made from aluminum that
has a light friction style. So as not to inhibit motor
rotation.
6. Pulley Drive
This component is located at the outer end of the
main shaft. Its function is to transfer motor rotation to
other components. This component is generally in the
form of gear or pulley, which is ready to be connected
with components that need to be driven with this motor.
7. Motor Housing
Outside of the electric motor we will see an iron
plate that is used to protect all parts of the electric
motor. In addition, motor housing also serves to protect
us as the user of a very high rotation rotors.
TWO TYPES OF AC MOTORS
1. SYNCHRONOUS
2. INDUCTION
SYNCHRONOUS
The synchronous motor rotates at the same rate as
the frequency of the supply current, a fact that gives the
motor its name.
Synchronous motors are constructed of a stator, rotor
and are used in a wide range of applications.
INDUCTION
Induction motors are the simplest and most rugged
electric motor available.
These AC electric motors consist of two electrical
assemblies: the wound stator and the rotor assembly.
The electric current needed to turn the rotor is created
by electromagnetic induction created by the stator
winding.
Induction motors are among the most commonly used
type of motor in the world.
DC MOTORS
The energy used by a DC motor comes from
batteries or another generated power source that offers
constant voltage.
DC motors are made up of several parts, the most
notable of which include bearings, shafts and a gearbox
or gears.
DC motors offer better speed variation and control
and produce more torque than AC motors.
TWO TYPES OF DC MOTORS
1. BRUSHED
2. BRUSHLESS
BRUSHED
One of the oldest types of motor.
Brushed motors are internally commutated electric
motors powered by direct current.
Brushed motors are constructed of a rotor, brushes,
an axle and the charge and polarity of the brushes
control the direction and speed of the
motor.
BRUSHLESS
Brushless motors also include specialized circuitry
to control speed and direction.
In brushless motors, magnets are mounted around
the rotor, a configuration that improves efficiency.
ELECTRIC MOTORS
The power output can be obtained using the equation:
P = V I cos θ
where: P is the power
V is the voltage
I is the current
cos θ is the phase factor
ENGINES
➢Engines are mechanical devices that convert heat
energy of fuels into mechanical energy
HEAT ENGINES
➢The heat engine is an equipment which generates
thermal energy and transforms it into mechanical
energy.
➢The heat energy is produced by the combustion of
fuel.
TWO TYPES OF HEAT ENGINES
❑Internal Combustion Engines ( ICE )
❑External Combustion Engines ( ECE)
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES
➢In this type of engine the burning or combustion
of the fuel takes place inside the engine cylinder and the
resulting explosion causes an instantaneous application
of pressure to a piston.
➢Internal Combustion Engines are now generally
applied in various operations and processes involving
agricultural and biological production and post
production systems.
➢The thermal efficiency of internal combustion
engine is about 40%.
➢Petrol engine (gasoline) is an example of internal
combustion engine, where the working fluid is a mixture
of air and fuel .
There are two ways in which combustion takes place in
the cylinder:
➢By rapid explosion of air-fuel mixture within the
cylinder, when it is ignited by a spark, is called constant
volume combustion (C.V.C.).
➢Combustion takes place by slow burning when
the fuel is injected into highly compressed heated air
contained in the cylinder. This is called constant
pressure combustion (C.P.C.), because when the
combustion takes place, the pressure in the cylinder is
almost constant.
There are two ways in which combustion takes place in
the cylinder:
Ignited by a spark rapid explosion of air-fuel
mixture constant volume combustion (CVC)
Fuel is injected into highly compressed heated air
Combustion takes place by slow burning constant
pressure combustion (CPC)
S.I. engine vs C.I. engine
Spark ignition engine (SI engine)
An engine in which the combustion process in each
cycle is started by use of an external spark.
Compression ignition engine (CI engine)
An engine in which the combustion process starts
when the air-fuel mixture self ignites due to high
temperature in the combustion chamber caused by high
compression.
[Spark ignition and Compression Ignition engine
operate on either a four stroke cycle or a two stroke
cycle]

Classification of Internal Combustion Engine (IC ❑ Compression stroke

engines) ▪ The charge taken in the cylinder is compressed by
❑ According to Number of Strokes : the piston during this stroke .
1. Four Stroke Cycle Engine : ▪ The entire charge of the cylinder is compressed to
In this type of engine, one complete combustion a small volume containedin the clearance volume of the
cycle is completed in four strokes of the piston or two cylinder.
revolution of the crankshaft. ▪ If only air is compressed in the cylinder (as in case
The four events that take place inside the engine of compression ignition engine), the fuel is injected at
cylinder are: the end of the compression stroke.
1. Suction of air or air – fuel mixture in to the cylinder ▪ The ignition takes place due to high pressure and
2. Compression of the gases temperature.
3. Ignition of the fuel mixture to produce power ▪ If the mixture of air and fuel is compressed in the
4. Exhaust of burnt gases cylinder (as in case of spark ignition engine) the mixture
is ignited by spark plug.
▪ After ignition, tremendous amount of heat is
generated, causing very high pressure in the cylinder
which pushes the piston backward for useful work.
▪ Both valves are closed during this stroke

❑Power Stroke
The events taking place in I.C. engine are as follows : ▪During power stroke , the high pressure developed
I. Air or air-fuel mixture (charge) is taken in the due to combustion of fuel causes the piston to be forced
cylinder. downward at regular intervals.
II. The charge is compressed in the cylinder by the ▪ The connecting rod with the help of crankshaft
piston. transmits the power to the transmission system for
III. If charge is only air, the fuel is injected at the end of useful work.
compression. ▪Both valves are closed during this stroke.
IV. The charge is ignited at a predetermined time under
specified pressure inside the engine cylinder.
V. The power developed due to expansive forces of gases
inside the cylinder is transferred to the crankshaft
through the connecting rod.
VI. Exhaust gases go out of the cylinder at regular
interval of time.

❑ Suction /Induction stroke

❑Exhaust stroke
▪ During suction stroke , only air or mixture of air
▪ Exhaust gases go out through exhaust valves
and fuel are drawn inside the cylinder.
during this stroke.
▪ The charge enters the engine through the inlet
▪All the burnt gases go out of the engine and the
valve which remains open during admission of the
cylinder becomes ready to receive the fresh charge.
charge.
▪ The inlet valve is closed and exhaust valve
▪ The exhaust valve remains closed during this
remains open during this strokeas shown in the figure.
stroke.
▪ The pressure in the engine cylinder is less than
atmospheric pressure during this stroke due to which
the charge is sucked in to the engine cylinder.
2. Two Stroke Cycle Engine:
The two stroke cycle engine completes all the four
events i.e. suction, compression, power or expansion and
exhaust in two strokes (up stroke & down stroke) of
piston or one revolution of crankshaft.
During each stroke of the piston, two events takes
place.
Principle of operation of Two stroke engine
❑ First stroke (Suction and Compression)
▪ When the piston moves up in the cylinder it covers
two of the ports, the exhaust port and transfer port,
which are normally almost opposite to each other.
▪ This traps a charge of fresh mixture in the
cylinder and further upward movement of the piston
compresses this charge.
▪ Further movement of the piston also uncovers a
third port in the cylinder called transfer port and the
charge is compressed.
▪ More fresh mixture is drawn through this port
into the crankcase.
▪ Just before the end of this stroke, the mixture in
the cylinder is ignited in the two stroke cycle.
❑Second stroke (Power and Exhaust)
▪ The rise in pressure in the cylinder caused by the
burning gases forces the piston to move down in the
cylinder.
▪ When the piston goes down, it covers and closes
the suction port, trapping the mixture drawn into the
crankcase during the previous stroke then compressing
it.
▪ Further downward movement of the piston
uncovers first the exhaust port and then transfer port.
▪ This allows the burnt gases to flow out through
exhaust port.
▪ Also the fresh mixture under pressure in the
crankcase is transferred into the cylinder through
transfer port during this stroke.
▪ Special shaped piston crown deflect the incoming
mixture up around the cylinder so that it can help in
driving out the exhaust gases.▪ When the piston is at the
top of its stroke, it is said to be at the top dead centre
(TDC), when the piston is at the bottom of its stroke, it
is said to be at its bottom idead centre (BDC).
▪ In two stroke cycle engine, both the sides of the
piston are effective which is not in the case of four
stroke cycle engine.
❑ According to thermodynamic working cycle:
1. Otto-cycle engine:
The heat is taken in at one constant volume and
rejected at another constant volume of the cylinder.
The combustion of the fuel takes place at constant
volume. Petrol engine works on otto cycle.
2. Diesel cycle engine:
In this cycle, the heat is taken at constant pressure
and rejected at constant volume.
The combustion of the fuel takes place at constant
pressure.
Diesel engine works on this cycle.
3. Dual cycle engine:
In this type of engine, some part of the heat is
taken at constant volume and the remaining part at
constant pressure process.
The heat is rejected at constant volume
❑ According to type of fuel used:
1.Gas engine:
In this type of engine, the gaseous fuel like
Compressed Natural Gas (CNG), coal gas, Bio gas,
Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG), producer gas is used to
operate the engine. The engine is equipped with a
special modified manifold system.
2. Petrol engine:
In this type of engine, petrol is used as a fuel. A
mixture of petrol and air enters the cylinder in a proper
ratio during the suction stroke. The fuel mixture in
vapour form is ignited with the help of an electric spark
produced in the spark plug. Their method of ignition is
called spark ignition.
Most of the two stroke and small engines use this
system.
3. Diesel engine:
In this type of engine, diesel is used as a fuel. Here,
the air is compressed in the cylinder and atomized
diesel is sprayed for ignition. The method of ignition is
called compression ignition. All heavy vehicle use this
system
❑According to number of cylinders:
1. Single cylinder engine:
Here only one cylinder is present as shown below.
The power generated in the power stroke is used for
functioning of other strokes of the engine.
2. Multi cylinder engine:
Here more than one cylinder are present as shown
below. As per the firing order the power suction takes
place in the respective cylinders
❑According to cylinder arrangement:
1. Horizontal cylinder engine:
Most of the single cylinder engines are of this type
of cylinder arrangement.
2. Vertical cylinder engine:
Most of the present multiple cylinder engines have
this type of cylinder arrangement.
❑ According to engine speed:
1. Low speed engine:
The crankshaft speed of the engine is less than 100 rpm.
2. Medium speed engine:
The crankshaft speed of the engine is in between
100 and 250 rpm.
3. High speed engine:
Here the crankshaft speed of the engine is more
than 250 rpm.
❑According to cooling system used:
1. Air cooled engine:
Here the cooling of the engine cylinder is done by
air. In this case fins are provided on the cylinder as
shown in the figure below.
2. Water cooled engine:
Here cooling of the engine cylinder done by water
circulated by a radiator and water pump as shown in
the figure below.
PARTS OF A PISTON
PARTS
• Block
Body of the engine containing cylinders, made of
cast iron or aluminium.
• Cylinder
The circular cylinders in the engine block in which
the pistons reciprocate back and forth.
• Head
The piece which closes the end of the cylinders,
usually containing part of the clearance volume of the
combustion chamber.
• Combustion chamber
The end of the cylinder between the head and the
piston face where combustion occurs.
– The size of combustion chamber continuously
changes from minimum volume when the piston is at
TDC to a maximum volume when the piston at BDC.
• Camshaft
Rotating shaft used to push open valves at the
proper time in the engine cycle, either directly or
through mechanical or hydraulic linkage (push rods,
rocker arms, tappets) .
• Crankcase
Part of the engine block surrounding the
crankshaft.
– In many engines the oil pan makes up part of the
crankcase housing.
• Exhaust manifold
Piping system which carries exhaust gases away
from the engine cylinders, usually made of cast iron .
• Intake manifold
Piping system which delivers incoming air to the
cylinders, usually made of cast metal, plastic, or
composite material.
– In most SI engines, fuel is added to the air in the
intake manifold system either by fuel injectors or with a
carburetor.
–The individual pipe to a single cylinder is called
runner.
• Spark plug
Electrical device used to initiate combustion in an
SI engine by creating high voltage discharge across an
electrode gap.
• Flywheel
Rotating mass with a large moment of inertia
connected to the crank shaft of the engine.
– The purpose of the flywheel is to store energy and
furnish large angular momentum that keeps the engine
rotating between power strokes and smooths out engine
operation.
• Fuel injector
A pressurized nozzle that sprays fuel into the
incoming air (SI engines )or into the cylinder (CI
engines).
• Fuel pump
Electrically or mechanically driven pump to supply
fuel from the fuel tank (reservoir) to the engine.
1. Crankshaft
2. Wrist pin
3. Piston
4. Connecting rod
5. Manifold
6. Flywheel
7. Spark plug
8. Valves
9. Fuel injector
10. Engine block
11. Piston
12. Piston ring
13. Wrist pin and wrist pin lock
External Combustion Engines ( ECE )
In this type of engine the fuel is burnt outside the
engine cylinder, in a device called boiler to produce hot
gas or steam, which is used in the engine cylinder to
develop the mechanical work.
Boiler – heat exchanger
The fuel is ignited and burned outside a cylinder
and the heat energy is applied indirectly to a piston by
an intermediate medium, usually water vapor.
The steam engine, the stirling engine, and the modern
day stream turbine are external combustion engines.
The thermal efficiency of external combustion engine is
usually in the range of 15 to 20%, which is very low
compared to the internal combustion engine.
Bore is the diameter of the engine cylinder expressed in
cm or meter.
Stroke
It is the linear distance traveled by the piston from
Top dead center (TDC) to Bottom dead center (BDC) and
the distance travelled is called stroke length, expressed
in cm or meter.
Stroke-bore ratio
The ratio of length of stroke (L) and diameter of
bore (D) of the cylinder is called stroke-bore ratio (L/D).
In general, this ratio varies from 1 to 1.45 and for
tractor engines, this ratio is about 1.25
Swept volume/piston displacement
It is the volume displaced by one stroke of the
piston.
It is the space displaced by the piston in its up and down
movement
The bigger the bore and the longer the stroke, the
greater the piston displacement
Swept volume = A x L ……… m3 or cc
Where,
A - Cross sectional area of piston in sqm or sqcm
L - Stroke length in m or cm.
PISTON DISPLACEMENT
PD = π d^2 L / 4
where: d = bore or diameter of the cylinder
L = stroke or the distance traveled by the
piston
For multi-cylinder engine:
PD = (π d^2 L / 4) * no. of cylinder
Compression ratio
It is the ratio of the volume of the charge at the
beginning of the compression stroke to the volume of the
charge at the end of compression stroke, i.e. ratio of
total cylinder volume to clearance volume.
The compression ratio of diesel engine varies from
14:1 to 22:1 and that of spark ignition engine
(carburetor type engine) varies from 4:1 to 8:1
What do we mean when we say an engine has a 6 to 1
(6:1) compression ratio?
We mean that the space in the cylinder
when the piston is at the top of the stroke is only
one-sixth as great as when the piston is at the bottom of
the stroke.
The higher the compression ratio, the greater the
efficiency.
However, as the compression ratio increased, the
loads and stresses upon engine parts become more
severe
CR = TV / CV
where: TV = total volume
CV = clearance volume
Clearance volume
It is the minimum volume of the cylinder available
for the charge (air or air fuel mixture) when the piston
reaches at its outermost point (top dead center or outer
dead center) during compression stroke of the cycle.
Minimum volume of combustion chamber with piston
at TDC.
TOTAL VOLUME
TV = PD + CV
where: PD = piston displacement
CV = clearance volume
COMPRESSION RATIO
CR = TV / CV
where: TV = total volume
CV = clearance volume
Top Dead Center (TDC)
 Position of the piston when it stops at the furthest
point away from the crankshaft.
 Top because this position is at the top of the
engines (not always), and dead because the piston
stops as this point. Because in some engines TDC is
not at the top of the engines(e.g: horizontally
opposed engines, radial engines,etc,.) Some sources
call this position Head End Dead Center (HEDC).
Bottom Dead Center (BDC)
 Position of the piston when it stops at the point
closest to the crankshaft.
 Some sources call this Crank End Dead Center
(CEDC) because it is not always at the bottom of
the engine.
 Some source call this point Bottom Center (BC).
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
Determine the compression ratio of the following
specifications:
Total volume = 70 cc
Bore = 4cm
Stroke = 5cm
Ans: COMPRESSION RATIO = 9.76 : 1
Determine the bore of the engine if its clearance
volume is 7.18 cc, compression ratio is 8:1 and stroke is
4 cm.
Ans: BORE/ DIAMETER = 4 cm
THEORETICAL OTTO CYCLE VS THEORETICAL
DIESEL CYCLE
The Theoretical Otto Cycle
➢The Otto cycle is the theoretical cycle for
spark-ignition engines.
➢Figure 2 is a pressure/volume diagram of the cycle.
➢At point 0, the intake valve is open and the piston is
at HDC.
➢From point 0 to point 1, the piston moves to CDC and
draws a charge of air and fuel vapor into the cylinder.
➢The intake valve closes at point 1.
➢The process that occurs between point 1 and point 2 is
a polytropic compression stroke.
➢The piston compresses the trapped mixture while
moving toward HDC.
➢The spark plug ignites the fuel-air mixture at point 2
and the pressure rises rapidly.
➢Although it is not shown on the diagram, the
temperature rises proportionally with the pressure.
➢The process that occurs between point 3 and point 4 is
a polytropic expansion stroke.
➢The hot, pressurized gases do mechanical work by
forcing the piston toward CDC.
➢At point 4, the exhaust valve opens and the pressure
drops to atmospheric as the exhaust gases rush out.
➢The process that occurs between point 1 and point 0 is
the exhaust stroke.
➢The piston forces out the remaining exhaust gases
while moving toward HDC.
➢The cycle starts over at point 0 as the exhaust valve
closes and the intake valve opens.
➢The theoretical engine efficiency, that is, the
fraction of the fuel energy that is theoretically converted
to mechanical work in the Otto cycle is given by the
following equation:
Where: r = compression ratio
n = specific heat ratio
SAMPLE PROBLEM ENGINE PERFORMANCE
Given a four-cylinder Otto cycle engine with a Torque
90-mm bore, 100-mm stroke, and a clearance volume of can be described as a turning effort. Torque is
0.106 L, calculate the total engine displacement, the exerted, for example, when a wrench is used to tighten a
maximum volume per cylinder, the compression ratio, nut on a bolt. The torque exerted on the nut is defined
and the theoretical cycle efficiency. (Assume n = 1.4) by the following equation:
Given: T=F×L
No. of cylinder = 4
Bore/ piston diameter = 90 mm Where:
Length of stroke = 100 mm T = torque in N.m (lb-ft)
Clearance volume = 0.106 L F = force in N (lb)
Specific heat ratio = 1.4
Required: L = length in m (ft)
▪ Total engine displacement Power
▪ Maximum volume per cylinder is defined as the rate of doing work. That is, it is
▪ Compression ratio
▪ Theoretical cycle efficiency the amount
Solution: of work accomplished per unit of time. In equation form,
power (P) is

defined as follows:
where x = distance traveled by the force (F) in time
(t)
Indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP).
It is the average net pressure on the piston during
the power stroke. It is expressed either in kPa or lb/in2.
Indicated horsepower (IHP).
It is the total horsepower generated in the cylinder
and received by piston.

for 4-stroke-cycle engine

for 2-stroke-cycle engine

The Theoretical Diesel Cycle
➢The cycle shown in Figure 3 is Dr. Rudolph Diesel’s
original theoretical cycle for the diesel engine.
➢The cycle is identical to the Otto cycle, except for the
processes between points 2 and 4.
➢In addition, the pressure at point 2 is much higher in
the diesel cycle than in the Otto cycle because of a
higher compression ratio.
➢Injecting and burning the fuel at constant volume in
the diesel cycle would have caused very high engine
pressures and stresses at point 3 because of the high
compression pressure at point 2.
➢The excessively high pressures were avoided in the
theoretical diesel cycle by injecting and burning the fuel
during the expansion stroke.
➢Gas pressures tend to fall during an expansion stroke,
but by injecting the fuel energy at the right rate,
pressures were kept constant between points 2 and 3 of
the theoretical diesel cycle.
➢Fuel input is stopped at point 3, and the pressures
begin to fall, as in a normal expansion stroke. Point 3 is
called the fuel cutoff point, and the ratio V3/V2 is called
the fuel cutoff ratio.
Where:
P – indicated mean effective pressure
L – piston stroke
A – piston area
N – number of revolutions per minute
n - number of cylinders
C - a suitable conversion constant
Brake horsepower (BHP).
It is the power available at the crankshaft. It is
measured using a suitable dynamometer.
Brake mean effective pressure (BMEP).
It is calculated from the brake horsepower of the
engine.
BMEP can not be measured. It is merely a value for
comparing the mean pressures in the engine cylinders.
Mechanical efficiency.
It is the ratio of the brake horsepower to the
indicated horsepower.
Volumetric efficiency.
It is the ratio of the actual weight of air inducted by
the engine during the intake stroke, to the theoretical
weight of air that should have been inducted by filling
the piston displacement volume with air at atmospheric
temperature and pressure.
Specific fuel consumption.
It is the quantity of fuel consumed by an engine on
the basis of its horsepower-hour performance.
Specific fuel consumption
. It is the quantity of fuel consumed by an engine on
the basis of its horsepower-hour performance.
Belt power
: It is the power of the engine, measured at the end
of a suitable belt, receiving drive from the PTO shaft of
the tractor.
Power take-off horse power (Pto power)
: It is the power delivered by a tractor through its
PTO shaft. In general, the belt and PTO horse power of
a tractor will approximately be the same.
Drawbar power (db)
: It is the power of a tractor measured at the end of
the drawbar. It is that power which is available for
pulling loads at the draw bar.
Frictional power (fp) :
It is the power required to run the engine at a
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
given speed without producing any useful work. It
1. An engine shaft rotating at 2000 rpm delivers 10 kw
represents the friction and pumping losses of an engine.
to a load. Calculate the torque exerted.
It is the power lost due to the friction between the Given:
rubbing parts of the engine. Engine shaft rotation = 2000 rpm
Power developed = 10 kw
Required:
Torque= ?
Mean effective pressure (mep): SOLUTION
It is the average pressure during the power stroke
minus the average pressure during other strokes. This
pressure actually forces the piston down during the
power stroke.
Piston speed (Sp):
It is the total length of travel of the piston in a
cylinder in one minute.
Brake dynamometer:
The brake dynamometer is used to measure the
2. A compression ignition engine was tested for a
brake power of the tractor engine. Different types of
continuous 5 hrs operation. It consumed a total of 8
dynamometer are used to measure the power.
liters and developed a constant power of 7 kw. If the fuel
SAMPLE PROBLEM
contains 45.46 MJ/kg, what is the approximate thermal
A 4-cylinder, 100 mm × 100 mm engine turns 1600
efficiency?
rpm. (a) What is the total engine displacement? (b) If Given:
the instantaneous piston head pressure is 690 kPa when Time of operation = 5hrs = 18,000 secs
the shaft has rotated 90º after top dead center position, Fuel consumption = 8 liters
Power developed = 7kw
what is the torque on the crankshaft? (c) If the mean Specific energy = 45.46 MJ/kg
effective pressure per power stroke is 550 kPa , what is Required:
the indicated power of the engine? (d) If the individual thermal efficiency = ?
cylinder’s clearance volume is 130 cm3 , what is the SOLUTION
engine’s compression ratio?
GIVEN
No. of cylinder = 4
Engine = 100mm x 100mm @ 1600rpm
Piston head pressure = 690 kPa
Mean effective pressure = 550 kPa
Clearance volume = 130 cubic centimeter
*shaft has rotated 90 degrees after TDC position
REQUIRED
a. Total engine displacement
b. Torque
c. Indicated horsepower
d. Compression ratio
SOLUTION
4. An engine with bore of 80 mm and a stroke of 80 mm
rotates at 2000 rpm. What is the maximum piston speed
inside the cylinder?
Given:
Bore = 80mm = 0.08 m
Stroke length = 80 mm = 0.08 m
Rotation = 2000 rpm
Required:
Piston speed = ?
SOLUTION
 Given:
Time of operation = 5 hrs
Fuel consumption = 9 liters
Power developed = 3 Kw
Specific energy = 34,636 MJ/m^3
Required:
Thermal efficiency = ?
SOLUTION
Thermal efficiency = power / fuel
= 3 Kw / fuel
Fuel :
4. What is the piston displacement, in cubic inches, of a = 34,636 MJ/m^3 * 9 li/5 hrs *1 m^3/ 1000 li * 1 hr/
4.5- in by 6-in cylinder engine? 3600 sec
5. A tractor pulls 2500 kg of load at a speed of 5 kph on a = 17,318 W or 17.318 Kw
flat ground. If the coefficient of rolling resistance is 0.25, Thermal efficiency = 3 Kw / 17.318 Kw
what is the drawbar power that the tractor generates? = 0.1732 * 100
= 17.32%
Coefficient of rolling resistance
➢Sometimes called rolling friction or rolling drag TRACTORS AND POWER TILLERS
➢Is the force resisting the motion when a body rolls on TRACTOR
a surface  Tractor is a self propelled machine used either for
pulling or pushing and stationary work.
 The word tractor is derived from two words traction
and motor.
 Tractor is a machine which is used for traction
purpose.
 Tractor can be used for different job by attaching
Given: implements, tools, as single unit.
Load = 2500 kg  Tractor is a self propelled power unit having wheels
Speed of tractor = 5kph or tracks for operating agricultural implements and
Coefficient of rolling resistance = 0.25
Required: machines including trailers.
drawbar power = ?  Tractor engine is used as a prime mover for active
SOLUTION tools and stationary farm operations through power
Drawbar power = Force * Speed take-off shaft or belt pulley.
= 2,500 kg * 5000 m/hr * 1 hr/ 3600 TRACTOR DEVELOPMENT
sec * 9.81 m/sec^2 The present tractor is a result of gradual
= 34,062.5 W or 45.66 development of machines in different stages.
= 45.66 Hp * 0.25
= 11.42 Hp
6. A prony brake test of an engine shows that the
crankshaft rotates at 1000 rpm. The brake arm length is
60-in and the net load on the scales is 50 lb. what is the
power developed?
Given:
Crankshaft rotation = 1000 rpm
Brake arm length = 60 in
Net load = 50 lb
Required:
Power developed = ?
SOLUTION

CLASSIFICATION OF TRACTOR
The tractors are classified into three classes on the basis
of:
❑ Type of construction
❑ Type of drive
❑ Type of purpose
7. A gasoline engine was tested for a continuous 5 hrs
operation. It consumed a total of 9 liters of fuel and Based on type of construction
developed a constant power of 3kw. If the fuel contains (a) Riding type tractors
34,636 MJ per cubic meter, what is the approximate – Tractors in which a driver can sit and drive e.g.,
thermal efficiency? General purpose four wheel tractors.
(b) Walking type tractors
– Tractors with which the operator walks along e.g.,
garden tractors, power tillers.
Based on type of drive 5. Quick and easy attachment.
(a) Track type tractors 6.Essential accessories such as hydraulic controls.
– In this type of tractors, instead of wheels; one Three point linkage and PTO.
track is fitted on either side. This track gets drive from Components of a tractor
the sprocket run by rear axle shaft. To steer the tractor, • Internal combustion engine
there is not steering gear fitted. The tractor is steered • Clutch
by applying brakes to one side of the track with the • Transmission gears
other track moving. These are used for bulldozing or • Differential unit
land clearing work. • Final drive
(b) Wheel type tractors • Rear wheels
– These are most commonly used agricultural • Front wheels
tractors. They can run fast and wheel tires absorb a • Steering system
certain amount of field shocks also. • Hydraulic control and hitch system
Wheel type tractors can be further divided as : • Brakes
1. Two-wheel tractors – These tractors are used for • Power take off unit
small farms, hilly area and gardening purposes and are • Tractor pulley
called power tillers. • Control panel
2. Three-wheel tractors – These tractors were very The tractor should be selected based on the following
popular 15 years back but now its place has been taken factors :
by four wheel tractors. These tractors had single or dual 1. Land holding
wheel fitted at the front end in the center and were Under a single cropping pattern, it is normally
considered good for negotiable shorter turns. recommended to consider 1 hp for every 2 hectares of
3. Four-wheel tractors – These are most commonly used land. In other words, one tractor 20-25 hp is suitable for
tractors in the country. These are also known as all 40 hectares farm.
purpose tractors. 2. Cropping pattern
Four wheel tractors: Generally 1.5 hectare/hp been recommended where
(1)Small tractors – 15 to 25 hp adequate irrigation facilities are available and more
(2)Medium tractors – 25 to 45 hp. than one crop is taken. So a 30-35 hp tractor is suitable
(3)Large tractors – more than 45 hp. for 40 hectares farm.
Based on type of drive 3. Soil conditions
(a) Utility tractors – It is a specific purpose field tractor A tractor with less wheel base, higher ground clearance
and is designed for ploughing driving any other and low overall weight may work successfully in lighter
equipment through its P.T.O. drive. It is not being soil but it will not be able to give sufficient depth in
manufactured at present in the country. black cotton soil.
(b) All purpose tractor – It is designed in such a way 4. Climatic conditions:
that it can meet practically all the demands for For very hot zone and desert area, air cooled engines are
agricultural purposes such as ploughing, harrowing, preferred over water cooled engines. Similarly for
leveling, pulling, seed drill, operating threshers, and higher altitude, air cooled engines are preferred because
pumps through its P.T.O. These are provided with three water is liable to be frozen at higher altitude.
point linkages. 5. Repairing facilities:
(c) Orchard type tractors - These are special types of It should be ensured that the tractor to be purchased
tractors used in orchards. These are made very high in has a dealer at near by place with all the technical skills
height so that driver while sitting on the seat, the for repair and maintenance of machine
operations on the trees could be performed. No part of 6. Running cost
the tractor is protruded outside so that tractor can go Tractors with less specific fuel consumption should be
easily in between trees safely. preferred over others so that running cost may be less.
(d) Garden tractors - These tractors are in the range of 1 7. Initial cost and resale value
to 10 hp and are very small in construction. These are While keeping the resale value in mind, the initial cost
mostly used for kitchen or vegetable gardens should not be very high, otherwise higher amount of
(e) Rotary Tillers - These are walking type of tractors interest will have to be paid.
and are used in small fields or on hills where fields are Control board or dash board of a tractor
very small and are at different levels where ordinary The control board of a tractor generally consists of the
tractors cannot work efficiently. Tined blades are fitted following:
to the tillers to prepare the seedbeds quite effectively by • Ignition switch
pulvlerizing the soil. These are also used in rice fields • Throttle lever
for puddling and other operations. • Decompression lever
(f) Earth Moving tractors - These tractors are heavy in • Hour meter
weight and strongly built available both is tract and • Light switch
tyre type. These are used for earth moving work on • Horn button
dams, quarries and other constructional works. • Battery charging
Characteristics of a good tractor: indicator
1. Greater clearance, both vertical and horizontal. • Oil pressure indicator
2. Adaptation to the usual row-widths. • Water temperature gauge
3. Quick – short turning ability.
4. Convenient and easy handling.
Control board or dash board of a tractor Light switch
- Light switch is for light points only.

Horn button
- This is for horn of the tractor.

Battery charging indicator

-This indicates the charge and discharge of the battery.

Ignition switch
-When the ignition switch is on, the electric current
flows in the electrical circuit.

Oil pressure indicator

-This indicates the lubricating oil pressure in the
system.

Throttle lever
- This lever is for increasing or decreasing the speed of
the engine.

Water temperature gauge

- This indicates the temperature of water of the cooling
system.

Decompression lever
-This lever releases compression pressure from the
combustion chamber of the engine and helps to stop the
engine.

Precautions to be taken before starting of a tractor:

1.)Fuel oil should be checked in the fuel tank. If it is not
adequate, fuel oil should be added to the tank.
2) Lubricating oil should be checked by a dipstick and if
necessary it should be topped up.
Hour meter 3) Water in the radiator should be checked, if necessary
-This meter indicates the engine hour as well as engine it should be topped up.
revolution per minute. 4) Air cleaner should be checked to see whether it is
clean or blocked. If blocked, it should be cleaned.
5) Transmission oil should be checked by a dipstick, if
necessary it should be topped up.
6) Air pressure in the tires should be checked and if
necessary the tires should be inflated as recommended
by the manufacturers.
7) Fan belt should be checked by hand; if necessary it
may be tightened or loosened.
8) Grease points should be checked, to see whether they
have been greased or not.
9) Important nuts and bolts should be checked. If any of
them are loose, it should be tightened.
10) The water level of the battery should be checked. If
it is below the partition wall, it should be filled up with
distilled water.
Three point linkage
➢ It is a combination of three links, one is upper link
and two are lower links, the links articulated to the
tractor and the implements at their ends in order to
connect the implement to the tractor.
➢ All the tractor drawn implement are attached to this
and hydraulic control is also provided for three point
linkage

Method of starting a diesel tractor

1.) Open the fuel cock.
2) Put the gear shift lever and PTO lever into neutral
position.
3) Put the throttle lever in about 3/4th position.
4) Put the hydraulic control level to the lowered
position.
5) Press the clutch pedal and turn the ignition key to the
Belt pulley
on position. Thus the tractor will be started.
➢ A pulley is provided with pto shaft for some of the
tractors through which rotary power output can be
Method to stop a tractor
tapped for operating stationery machines.
Tractor is a heavy machine and it can cause serious
accident if it is not stopped in time. The following
procedure should be followed for stopping the movement
of the tractor.
1.) Move the throttle lever down and reduce the engine
speed to the lowest possible limit.
2) Press the clutch pedal and press the brake pedal of
the tractor to stop the motion of the tractor.
3) Put the gear shift lever into neutral position.
4) If an implement is attached to the tractor, hydraulic
control lever should be moved slowly to the lower
position.
5) Pull the stock lever.
6) Apply the parking brakes, if necessary

Four power outlets of a tractor:

1. Power take-off unit (PTO)
2. Hook
3. Three point linkage
4. Belt pulley
Power take off (PTO)
➢ It is a part of tractor transmission system consists of
a shaft, a shield and a cover.
➢ The shaft is externally splined to transmit torsional
power to another machine.

Hook
➢ A hook is provided for hitching of trailers, and other
stationery machines operated by tractor like thresher,
winnower etc. It is provided at the back of the tractor.