Electrostatic Generators For Space

Purchased from American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
ENERGY CONVERSION FOR SPACE POWER

Downloaded by PURDUE UNIVERSITY on November 28, 2016 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/5.9781600864773.0767.0779 | Book DOI: 10.2514/4.864773
ELECTROSTATIC GENERATORS IN SPACE POWER SYSTEMS
Domini que Gignoux •*
Cosmic, Inc.
Washington, D. C.
ABSTRACT
Designs presently under development for space applica-
tions in the 0-10 kilowatt range are described. Theoretical
calculations of power per unit area of rotor surface are
given, and these results are applied to projected designs.
Specific powers of 5 kilowatts per pound are anticipated.
Electrostatic machines are now the subject of renewed

interest, because space constitutes an environment particu-
larly favorable to them, and in which they show evidence of
advantages over electromagnetic machines. Let us first give
a general definition of the principle involved in electro-
static machines, generators and motors. Whereas in electro-
magnetic machines, electric charges are moved at extremely
high speed within a conductor under the influence of the
variations of an external magnetic field, in electrostatic
machines the charges are stationary with respect to an agent
or charge carrier which will effect actual transport of the
charges from a point at a low potential to a point at a high
potential. Electrostatic machines are often called influence
machines, because of the manner in which the charges are
generated prior to the elevation of their potential. Fric-
tion machines, in which the charges are initially generated
by the friction of two different materials, have only an
historical interest.
We shall first outline the basic principles of con-

ducting carrier machines, and describe two types of electro-
static generators which are presently under development for
•^President, Cosmic, Inc.

Submitted for publication to the American Rocket Society,
December 22, 1960.
767
space applications .
Basic- principles of conducting carrier generators

Electric influence can be used to attract charges to

objects of continuous electrical conductivity; such objects
can then be used to move the charges from the input to the
output terminal of a generator . These machines can operate
in any insulating medium: vacuum, gas or liquid. The
pressurized gas machines are particularly interesting,
because of the ease with which experiments can be conducted,
but for space application only vacuum will be used. Liquid
insulated machines offer great advantages for very high power
and low rotating speeds, thus certainly will be used on a
large scale for industrial purposes.
In this discussion we shall limit ourselves to the

design problems of vacuum insulated, electrostatic generators.
Most of the conclusions reached will nevertheless be appli-
cable to machines using any insulating fluid medium.
Since electrostatic machines are energy converters, we

must examine the basic mechanism for transfer of mechanical
into electrical energy. The forces, which will be useful,
will be those acting on the charges of the rotor, i.e. on the
surfaces of the conducting carriers which constitute the
rotor: Consider an element of surface dS around a point M
of a charged conducting
carrier. This element carries
a charge dq which can be
expressed in terms of density
' (T coulomb /meter2, as:
dq = <T dS
The electric field on the surface of the element is
The force to which the element is submitted can there-

fore be written
The force per unit area can be called electrostatic
768
pressure, and is given by

If the surface element is moving with a speed repre-

sented by the vector T, the power produced by the surface
dS is
(i)
This formula is , fundamental in the theory of electro-
static machines, and points out the parameter E, electric
field, which in addition must be everywhere smaller than
the maximum field E^.^ permitted in the dielectric used, or
in the vacuum.
The equations giving the power of an electrostatic

generator are therefore:
(2)
applied to the surface of the conducting carriers
with the condition:
Everywhere E < Emax
This formula gives only the maximum instantaneous power

which the generator is capable of generating at a given time.
To obtain a significant expression of the power, one must
consider the average power over one complete operating cycle
of the machine .
Let 06 be the angle of the rotor with respect to an

origin, the electrostatic pressure P at point M is a
function P ( «t }, and the power of the machine can be
written: j 3>* „
(3) Average W^~2rr I /Jp(oC)Vd2
Everywhere E < Emax
This fundamental formula is of great interest; it

points out the product P.V, which is so important in the
design of electrostatic machines. It shows that the areas
of an electrostatic machine, where the electrostatic pressure
is perpendicular to the direction of motion, make no contri-
bution to the output power of the machine. For example, in
769
the machines of the rotating condenser type, the parallel

surfaces of the rotor and stators do not contribute to the
energy conversion. Only the edges of the rotor are the
subject of useful forces. The parallel surfaces serve only

to shape the electric field, which is acting on the edges.
It is to be noted that this formula is not a character-

istic proper to one machine, but is also dependent on the
load with which it is being used. The load, for instance,
will have an influence on the electric field E. In fact,
maximizing the power of a machine will mean adjusting the
load all through the operating cycle, so as to utilize the
output current and voltage in a manner which will maintain
E at its optimum.
We shall now discuss two examples of electrostatic

generators of the conducting carrier type.
The single capacitor generator;
This generator consists essentially of one disk-shaped

rotor moving between two stators. The rotor may consist of
any number of charge carriers. In the developed view below,
one cycle of operation is shown.
Input Inductor 2 Output Inductor 3
Output
terminal
Direction of
xt Commutator
Rotation
External H-V. Supply

(Excitation)
770
The conducting carrier 1 connects in the input position

with a brush that is permanently grounded. In this position,
the carrier is influenced by a plate of the stator, i.e. the
input inductor 2, which is maintained at a high potential by

means of an external source. When the carrier reaches the
output position, it is shielded from the influence of the
ground by a stationary output inductor 3? and it is con-
nected, by means of a brush, to the output terminal. This
removes the charges from the carrier.
Let us call Q the charge which is placed on the carrier

due to the influence of the input inductor, and C, the
capacitance between the rotating carrier 1 and the input
inductor 2. A direct application of the formula, Q = CV,
shows that, as the carrier 1 moves away from input inductor
2, their mutual capacitance will decrease, and, therefore,
the difference of potential V between them will increase. If
the input inductor 2 is maintained at a negative potential,
positive charges will be influenced onto the carrier 1, and
will build up a positive potential at the output terminal.
A practical construction will require carriers and

inductors of a substantial thickness, so that the electro-
static pressure P applies to edges having a substantial
surface. The optimum shape is the one which will result in
a constant field on the surface of the electrodes, thereby
permitting full advantage to be taken of the dielectric
strength of the insulating medium. Such an optimum shape
and thickness is shown in the figure below for a conducting
carrier, which is arranged between two inductive plates
separated by a distance of ^-e. The exact shape has been
calculated by Noel J. Felici, and is given by the equations:
Ze
X* - -7F
where x is the abscissa parallel to the electrodes1

surfaces, y the ordinate, and (jj the angle of the
tangent with the x-axes.
771

The instantaneous power produced by the edge of a

carrier, having a length L perpendicular to the plan of the
drawing is:
but since E is constant, we have
ft)
The formula given above for the power of an electro-
static generator is useful as a guide for the designer in
determining the shape to be given to the surface of the
rotor or stator. We shall now utilize another formula to
determine the optimum commutator which should be used with
a particular generator and load.
We shall take the case of a generator without output

inductor, in which the only capacitance coming into play is
that of the carrier with respect to the input inductor. We
shall describe the behavior of the system with respect to a
parameter t, which will be such that the capacitance of the
carrier, with respect to the input ifiductor, varies as:
(7) C = k + h cos t
772
We shall assume that the contact with the output "brush

occurs from t = <9 to t =JT .
The "behavior of the system is then the following:
£ -Q C is maximum, carrier is in contact with

input brush.
C decreases, carrier is free of any

contact.
C decreases, carrier is connected to

«<J7" output terminal which is maintained at
a constant potential U "by the load
circuit.
t -JT,
C is at its minimum.
We must choose the value of 0 , so that the carrier

reaches the point of contact of the output brush at a poten-
tial exactly equal to U for an excitation potential Vex, so
as to ensure reversibility of the commutation.
The charge acquired by the carrier is: gs - (K+h ) I/
For t = 0 , we must have Cf~ (&+h CCS & )£(/- t£« )
Therefore, (t+ h CCS O(V~ f ) ~ ~ fa* ) %* ,
which indicates the value of © for which com-

mutation must start:
The charge which remains uncollected at minimum

capacitance will be:
Therefore the charge transferred to the high voltage

terminal per cycle is: t
Let N be the r.p.m. of the machine, and n, the number

of cycles per turn. Assuming that the load is one having a
very large capacitance, i.e. the charge above is delivered
775
at a constant voltage, we have for the output current:

and the power then becomes:
The maximum power will be given for: n ^ -, n ve>
We then have: . .,
^ _ 4 V<L* A/r,
COS
Several models of generators of this type have been

built. The photograph at the end of this chapter shows a
machine built for 3>000 r.p.m. at the University of Grenoble
by Felici circa 19^9-
A practical model of a generator suitable for high speed
is shown in Figure 1; the rotor and stator are each made of
one solid piece of metal. No commutator is used, and the
generator is operated as an A.C. generator. The current is
rectified by Selenium rectifiers.
The multiple capacitor generator:
In such a machine, as shown in Figure 2, a large number
of charge carriers move from the input to the output termi-
nal. While under the influence of the input inductor, the
charge carrier is connected to the ground and acquires, for
instance, a positive charge under the influence of a nega-
tive potential applied to the input inductor, so that, as
explained for the previous type of generator, the potential
of the charge carrier increases as it is moved away from the
input inductor, and the charges at a high positive potential
are delivered to the output terminal. In order to facilitate
the removal of the charges, output inductors are used, which
act as screen, and serve to neutralize the influence of the
input inductor on the charge carrier. It is necessary to
increase as much as possible the number of charge carriers,
and to reduce their size and their distance from one another.
One can see the advantage of a generator of this type over
the single capacitor type, since it increases the area,
which is the subject of active forces, and the length of
time of each cycle during which each carrier is submitted to
a force.
774
We have seen on the single capacitor design that the

forces are acting only on the edges of the charge carriers;
furthermore, these forces are only at their maximum during a
part of a cycle. With the multiple capacitor design, the

number of edges is increased by increasing the number of
carriers. It is also possible to reach a field configuration,
such that the carrier is moving in a constant longitudinal
field during most of its movement from the input to the out-
put terminal. This is being accomplished as is shown in
Figure 2 (bottom), by placing a semi-conducting material
between the input and output inductors. The small leakage
current in the semi-conducting material suffices to main-
tain a constant gradient of potential, i.e. a longitudinal
field from the input to the output pole.
Conclusion
Electrostatic machines have been built using insulating

carrier generators with a'power of 2 watts per cm^ of rotor
surface. Large machines, built by Felici, have reportedly
generated 10 kilowatts. These performances have been
obtained in pressurized hydrogen with cylindrical rotors.
By increasing the rotating speed, and replacing the cylin-
drical rotor with a disk-shaped rotor, it appears immedi-
ately feasible to reach a power of 5 watts per cm . The
results obtained with the hydrogen machine are most encour-
aging when compared to the maximum field strength permitted
in pressurized hydrogen, which, for the longitudinal field,
is of the order of 18 KV/cm, and, for the normal field,
200 KV/cm. Much greater field strength will be reached in
the machines of the future, and, since the power increases
as the square of the field strength, power per unit area of
vacuum-insulated machines would appear to be possible of the
order of 50 watts/cm . However, such a high figure may not
quite be attained for the following reason: whereas, in the
insulating carrier generators, every part of the rotor sur-
face is the subject of active forces, such is not the case in
conducting carrier machines, so that one can only expect
powers in the range of 10 to 20 watts per cirr of rotor sur-
face. In vacuum, where protective casing is not necessary,
this could lead to powers of the order of 5 kilowatts per
pound, taking into account rotor, stator and shaft. The
weight of the excitation and control circuits will not
exceed O.k pound, when no extreme conditions of stability
and regulation are required.
775
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Technical Books
1) Schaffers, V., La Machine a Influence, Gauthier-Villars,

Par is , France, 1908.
2) Neubert, Ulrich, Elektrostatik in der Technik, von

Oldenbourg, Munchen, 195^ •
3) Felici, Noel J., Elektrostatische Hochspannungs

Genera tor en, G. Braun, Karlsruhe, 1957 •
Technical Papers
4) Trump, John G., ELECTROSTATIC SOURCES OF ELECTRIC POWER,

Electrical Engineering, volume 66, p. 52 5 > June 19^7-
5) Gartner, Elie, CONTRIBUTION A L! ETUDE DES GENERATRICES

ELECTROSTATIQUES A TRANSPORTEURS ISOLANTS, Revue Generale
de 1'Electricite, tome 62, pp. 71-86 and 136-151,
February and March 1953 •
6) Felici, Noel J., THE DEVELOPMENT OF ELECTROSTATIC
MACHINES FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES, Research, volume 7,
pp. 265-271, Butterworths Scientific Publications,
London, July
7) Gignoux, Dominique, ELECTROSTATIC GENERATOR HAS HIGH
STABILITY, Electronics, volume 30, no. 7, pp. 192 and
July 1, 1957-
8) Breaux, Onezime P., ELECTROSTATIC POWER GENERATION FOR
SPACE PROPULSION, AIEE Conference paper no0 CP 59-91^,
May 1, 1959.
9) Felici, Noel J., RECENT DEVELOPMENTS AND FUTURE TRENDS IN

ELECTROSTATIC GENERATION, Direct Current, volume ^,
pp. 192-201, December 1959 •
10) Gignoux, Dominique, ELECTROSTATIC GENERATORS FOR SPACE
APPLICATIONS, Proceedings of the International Symposium
on Electrostatic Forces, held in Grenoble, France,
September 27-Octo"ber 2, 1960, Editions du Centre National
de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris, France.
776
nloaded by PURDUE UNIVERSITY on November 28, 2016 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/5.9781600864773.0767.0779 | Book DOI: 10.2514/4.864
777 Purchased from American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics

Direction of Rotation
Input Brush Output Brush_____Q Output

~"^ Terminal
Auxiliary
Excitation
Generator
Input Inductor Output Inductor
o o o o o o o o o o o o o o Rotor
tSemi-conducting material
FIGURE 2: MULTIPLE CAPACITOR GENERATOR
Top: View showing one stator and a part of the rotor; one
input and one output brush are shown.
Bottom: Developed view showing one input and one output

pole; the inductors are embedded in a semi-conducting
material.
778
>*
&
OJ
S£
•8 H
lH ^
0 CD
3 o
<D J3
SO 03
O
• »\
Q 0)
H
8-8
-P 3
•H 0
p.
o? a
O »H
(D 0)
CQ -H
05 "8
M
+^ ^a
•H <L)
0)
O 03
-P r-\
O
CD
^d
rd
•N O
x—s »H
-P -P
CH o3
<D J2J
r~i
«^ (D
^
lH fl
O 0)
•8°
S
779
nloaded by PURDUE UNIVERSITY on November 28, 2016 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/5.9781600864773.0767.0779 | Book DOI: 10.2514/4.864

Electrostatic Generators For Space

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Electrostatic Generators For Space

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Electrostatic Generators For Space

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Purchased from American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics

ENERGY CONVERSION FOR SPACE POWER

ELECTROSTATIC GENERATORS IN SPACE POWER SYSTEMS

Domini que Gignoux •*

Electrostatic machines are now the subject of renewed

We shall first outline the basic principles of con-

•^President, Cosmic, Inc.

ENERGY CONVERSION FOR SPACE POWER

Basic- principles of conducting carrier generators

Electric influence can be used to attract charges to

In this discussion we shall limit ourselves to the

Since electrostatic machines are energy converters, we

The electric field on the surface of the element is

The force to which the element is submitted can there-

The force per unit area can be called electrostatic

ENERGY CONVERSION FOR SPACE POWER

pressure, and is given by

If the surface element is moving with a speed repre-

The equations giving the power of an electrostatic

Everywhere E < Emax

This formula gives only the maximum instantaneous power

Let 06 be the angle of the rotor with respect to an

This fundamental formula is of great interest; it

ENERGY CONVERSION FOR SPACE POWER

the machines of the rotating condenser type, the parallel

subject of useful forces. The parallel surfaces serve only

It is to be noted that this formula is not a character-

We shall now discuss two examples of electrostatic

The single capacitor generator;

This generator consists essentially of one disk-shaped

External H-V. Supply

ENERGY CONVERSION FOR SPACE POWER

The conducting carrier 1 connects in the input position

input inductor 2, which is maintained at a high potential by

Let us call Q the charge which is placed on the carrier

A practical construction will require carriers and

where x is the abscissa parallel to the electrodes1

ENERGY CONVERSION FOR SPACE POWER

The instantaneous power produced by the edge of a

but since E is constant, we have

We shall take the case of a generator without output

ENERGY CONVERSION FOR SPACE POWER

We shall assume that the contact with the output "brush

The "behavior of the system is then the following:

£ -Q C is maximum, carrier is in contact with

C decreases, carrier is free of any

C decreases, carrier is connected to

We must choose the value of 0 , so that the carrier

For t = 0 , we must have Cf~ (&+h CCS & )£(/- t£« )

Therefore, (t+ h CCS O(V~ f ) ~ ~ fa* ) %* ,

which indicates the value of © for which com-

The charge which remains uncollected at minimum

Therefore the charge transferred to the high voltage

Let N be the r.p.m. of the machine, and n, the number

ENERGY CONVERSION FOR SPACE POWER

at a constant voltage, we have for the output current:

and the power then becomes:

The maximum power will be given for: n ^ -, n ve>