29 Word Formation 35

стрельб" ‘shooting’ from стрелть ‘to shoot’; adjectives: мал'ш ‘child,

small boy’ from млый ‘small’; other nouns: рыб"к ‘fisherman’ from
р'ба ‘fish’; prepositions: прдок ‘ancestor’ from перед/пред ‘before’;
numerals: трйка ‘troika’ from тре ‘three’; adverbs: почемчка
‘inquisitive child’ from почем#? ‘why?’.
(ii) While little or no guidance can be offered on the selection of suffixes
to convey particular meanings, familiarity with the range of suffixes
available within each field of meaning can be beneficial.
(iii) Many loan suffixes are components of nouns that have been
borrowed virtually in their entirety:
-аж as in тонн"ж ‘tonnage’
-ант as in дилетт"нт ‘dilettante’
-арий as in планет"рий ‘planetarium’
-ат as in электор"т ‘electorate’
-ент as in агнт ‘agent’,
-ер as in трнер ‘trainer’
-есса as in поэтсса ‘poetess’
-иада as in олимпи"да ‘Olympiad’
-изм as in социалзм ‘socialism’
-ик as in диабтик ‘diabetic’
-ир as in банкр ‘banker’
-иса as in актрса ‘actress’
-ист as in коммунст ‘communist’
-ит as in артрт ‘arthritis’
-итет as in приоритт ‘priority’
-ор as in агрссор ‘aggressor’.
-тор as in ави"тор ‘aviator’

Note
Some of the compounds are based on Russian stems: ельцинст ‘Yeltsin
supporter’, трудоголзм ‘workaholism’, in which case the suffixes (here,
-ист, -изм) can be identified as separate formants.
(iv) Other suffixes cover broad categories of meaning (the most
characteristic suffixes are listed here for each category; a full list
appears under (vi), below, which enumerates fifty-two suffixes with their
meanings):
(a) Abstract meanings (attitudes, feelings, qualities):
-ба, -ие/-ье, -изм, -ость/-есть, -ота, -ствие, -ство, -сть.
(b) Actions (verbal nouns):
36 The Noun 29

-ация/-изация, -ка, -ние, -ок, -ство, -тие.

(c) Animate beings (agents of actions, nationals, inhabitants, members of
organizations, etc.):
-ак/-як, -анин/-янин, -арь, -ач, -ец, -ик, -ист, -ник, -ок, -тель, -ун,
-щик/-чик.
(d) Collectives:
-ство, -ура.
(e) Objects/implements:
-ик, -ка, -ло, -ник, -ок, -тель, -щик/-чик.
(f ) Places:
-ище, -ня, -ье.
(g) Quantity, dimension:
-ина, -ство.

Note
(a) Some suffixes have certain very specific meanings: -ёнок/-онок
(young of animals), -ика (berries), -ина (types of meat), -кн
(remnants), -ница (containers), -ович/-(ь)евич/-ич (patronymics),
-от (sounds), -ота and -уха (medical conditions);
(b) The commonest feminine suffixes (in addition to -есса, -иса, which
are listed under (iii)) are: -иня/-ыня, -иха, -ица, -ка, -ница, -ша,
-щица/-чица, -ья.
(v) Most consonant changes in suffixed nouns affect the velar
consonants. The following changes occur: г: ж, к: ч and х: ш before
the suffixes: -ество (e.g. монх ‘monk’: моншество ‘monks’), -ие
(велкий ‘great’: велчие ‘greatness’), -ина (горх ‘peas’: горшина
‘pea’), -инка (снег ‘snow’: снежнка ‘snow-flake’), -ист (шпга
‘sword’: шпажст ‘fencer’ [but танк ‘tank’: танкст ‘tank-driver’]),
-иха (мльник ‘miller’: мльничиха ‘miller’s wife’), -ица (волк
‘wolf’: волчца ‘she-wolf’), -ник (молок ‘milk’: молчник ‘milk-jug’),
-ница (спчка ‘match’: спчечница ‘matchbox stand’), -ня ([in names
of places] кнюх ‘groom’: кон&шня ‘stable’), -ок (пр'гать ‘to jump’:
прыжк ‘jump’), -онок (волк ‘wolf ’: волчнок ‘wolf-cub’), -ье (брег
‘shore’: побержье ‘coastline’.

Note
Nouns in -онок also undergo the mutations д: ж (медвдь ‘bear’:
медвежнок ‘bear-cub’) and ц: ч (зяц ‘hare’: зайчнок ‘leveret’),
those in -ество — т: ч (студнт ‘student’: студнчество ‘student
body’), those in -ина — ск: щ (трскаться ‘to crack’: трщина
 29 Word Formation 37

‘crack’) and ст: щ (тлстый ‘thick’: толщин ‘thickness’), those in

-иха and -ница – ц: ч (пловц ‘swimmer’: пловчха ‘female swimmer’,
прец ‘pepper’: пречница ‘pepper-pot’). For consonant change in the
verbal noun, see section on -(е)ние (28) (ii), below and for consonant
change in nouns in -анин, see (2), below.
(vi) Noun suffixes
(l) -ак/-як (-чак after -ль)
Persons
(a) with particular physical characteristics or personality traits (based on
adjs.):
беднк ‘poor person’, весельч"к ‘jolly person’, пошлк ‘vulgar
person’, смельч"к ‘daredevil’, толстк ‘fat person’.
(b) practitioners (from nouns):
горнк ‘miner’, морк ‘sailor’, рыб"к ‘fisherman’.
(c) nationalities, inhabitants of certain ancient towns and cities:
пермк ‘inhabitant of Perm’, полк ‘Pole’, слов"к ‘Slovak’, тверк
‘inhabitant of Tver’.

Note
сибирк ‘Siberian’.
(2) -анин/-чанин/-янин
(i) nationals, inhabitants, members of social, religious and other groups:
армянн ‘Armenian’, гражданн ‘citizen’ (from град ‘town’),
крестьнин ‘peasant’, мусульм"нин ‘Moslem’, париж"нин ‘Parisian’,
риж"нин ‘inhabitant of Riga’ (from Рга ‘Riga’), севернин
‘northerner’, славянн ‘Slav’, христианн ‘Christian’, юж"нин
‘southerner’ (from юг ‘south’).

Note
Derivative -чанин (with infix -ч-) appears after и in англич"нин (but
россинин ‘inhabitant of Russia’), в in ростовч"нин ‘inhabitant of Rostov’,
харьковч"нин ‘inhabitant of Kharkov’ (but варшавнин ‘inhabitant of
Warsaw’, киевлнин ‘Kievan’), ль in сельч"нин ‘villager’, м in сумч"нин
‘inhabitant of Sumy’ (but рмлянин ‘Roman’), н in клинч"нин
‘inhabitant of Klin’, т in датч"нин ‘Dane’ (but египтнин ‘Egyptian’,
израильтнин ‘Israeli’), and replaces ск in братч"нин ‘inhabitant of Bratsk’,
минч"нин ‘inhabitant of Minsk’, норильч"нин ‘inhabitant of Norilsk’.
(3) -анка/-янка/-енка
Female nationals (from zero-suffixed m. forms and some in -ец):
38 The Noun 29

греч"нка ‘Greek woman’ (cf. грек ‘Greek’), инди"нка ‘Indian

woman’ (cf. индец ‘Indian’, индец ‘North American Indian’),
китанка ‘Chinese woman’ (cf. китец ‘Chinese’), турч"нка
‘Turkish woman’ (cf. т#рок ‘Turk’), францженка ‘Frenchwoman’
(cf. франц#з ‘Frenchman’).

(4) -арь
(i) Practitioners:
(a) from nouns:
апткарь ‘chemist’, библиоткарь ‘librarian’, врат"рь ‘goalkeeper’.
(b) from verbs:
звон"рь ‘bell-ringer’, пкарь ‘baker’, ткарь ‘turner’.
(ii) Objects (from nouns or adjs.):
букв"рь ‘primer’, слов"рь ‘dictionary’, сух"рь ‘rusk’.

(5) -ация/-изация/-фикация
Verbal nouns (from verbs in -овать/-(из)ировать/-фицировать):
демонстр"ция ‘demonstration’, классифик"ция ‘classification’,
приватиз"ция ‘privatization’, рекоменд"ция ‘recommendation’
роботиз"ция ‘robotization’.

Note
(a) -яция after л: вентилция ‘ventilation’.
(b) some nouns in -фикация denote provision of facilities:
кинофик"ция ‘supplying with cinemas’ электрифик"ция
‘electrification’.

(6) -ач
Persons:
(i) with particular characteristics:
(a) from adjs.:
бог"ч ‘rich man’, лих"ч ‘reckless driver’, ловк"ч ‘dodger’.
(b) from nouns:
бород"ч ‘bearded man’, сил"ч ‘strong man’, ус"ч ‘man with large
moustache’.
(ii) practitioners (from verbs or nouns):
врач ‘doctor’, скрип"ч ‘violinist’, труб"ч ‘trumpeter’, ткач ‘weaver’.
 29 Word Formation 39

(7) -ба
Verbal nouns (from impf. verbs):
борьб" ‘struggle’, жентьба ‘marriage’, прсьба ‘request’, слжба
‘service’, стрельб" ‘shooting’, ходьб" ‘walking’.

(8) -ёж
Verbal nouns in -ёж derive from verbs in -ить:
грабёж ‘robbery’, кутёж ‘carousing’, платёж ‘payment’.

Note
галдёж ‘din’, from галдть ‘to make a din’.

(9) -ёнок/-онок
The young of animals and birds:
медвежнок ‘bear-cub’, львёнок ‘lion-cub’, орлёнок ‘young eagle’,
тигрёнок ‘tiger-cub’, утёнок ‘duckling’.

(10) -ец
Persons:
(i) with personality traits (from adjs.):
гордц ‘arrogant man’, мудрц ‘wise man’, счастлвец ‘happy person’,
хитрц ‘cunning devil’.
(ii) agents of actions (from verbs):
борц ‘wrestler’, гребц ‘oarsman’, певц ‘singer’, продавц ‘salesman’.

Note
In -лец: владлец ‘owner’, кормлец ‘bread-winner’ and from verbal nouns
in -ение: переселнец ‘settler’, снабжнец ‘supplier’.
(iii) many nationals:
америк"нец ‘American’, исп"нец ‘Spaniard’, итальнец ‘Italian’,
кан"дец ‘Canadian’, нмец ‘German’, норвжец ‘Norwegian’,
укранец ‘Ukrainian’.
(iv) most inhabitants:
европец ‘European’, кавк"зец ‘Caucasian’, лндонец ‘Londoner’,
новгордец ‘inhabitant of Novgorod’, петербржец ‘inhabitant of
St Petersburg’.

Note
Infix -ов- in донб"ссовец ‘inhabitant of Donbass’, etc.
40 The Noun 29

(v) members of organizations, including acronyms and indeclinable nouns

(often with infix -ов-):
взовец ‘higher education student’ (from вуз ‘institution of higher
education’), дин"мовец ‘member of Dynamo’, недлец ‘employee of
Nedelya’, омновец ‘member of OMON’ (special police force), оновец
‘UNO official’.
(11) -знь
States (based on verbs):
болзнь ‘illness’, бознь ‘fear’, жизнь ‘life’, непризнь ‘hostility’.
(12) -ие/-ье
Qualities (based on adjs.):
велчие ‘greatness’, веслье ‘gaiety’, здорвье ‘health’.

Note
Usage in compound words: долголтие ‘longevity’, остромие ‘wit’,
равнодшие ‘indifference’.
(13) -изм
Policies, attitudes:
брежневзм ‘Brezhnevism’, вещзм ‘acquisitiveness’, наплевзм
‘couldn’t-care-less attitude’, плюралзм ‘pluralism’.
(14) -изна
Qualities (based on adjs.):
белизн" ‘whiteness’, дешевзна ‘cheapness’, крутизн" ‘steepness’,
новизн" ‘newness’.

Note
Infix -ов- in дороговзна ‘expensiveness’.
(15) -ик
(i) Persons:
(a) (based on adjs. in -н-):
вечрник ‘evening-class student’ (cf. вечрний ‘evening’), винвник
‘culprit’, шкльник ‘schoolboy’.

Note
Some forms are based on adjs. in -нный: тамженник ‘customs officer’,
adjs. in -ственный: общственник ‘public figure’, or verbs in -ствовать:
путешственник ‘traveller’.
(b) practitioners, based on adjs. in:
 29 Word Formation 41

-в-: биржевк ‘stockbroker’ (cf. биржевй ‘stock-exchange’ [adj.]),

кроссовк ‘cross-country runner’, оптовк ‘wholesaler’, плановк
‘planner’.
-н-: глазнк ‘oculist’ (cf. глазнй ‘eye’ [adj.]), железнодо-
ржник ‘railway worker’, пож"рник ‘firefighter’, сезнник
‘seasonal worker’.
(ii) Objects based on adjs. in:
-в-: беловк ‘fair copy’ (cf. беловй ‘fair’ [adj.]), броневк ‘armoured
car’, грузовк ‘lorry’, черновк ‘rough copy’.
-н-: куп"льник ‘bathing costume’ (cf. купльный ‘bathing’ [adj.]),
п"мятник ‘monument’.
(16) -ика
Berries:
бруснка ‘red whortleberry’, голубка ‘bilberry’, землянка ‘wild
strawberries’.
(17) -ин
Nationals:
болг"рин ‘Bulgarian’, грузн ‘Georgian’, осетн ‘Ossetian’, тат"рин
‘Tatar’.
(18) -ина
(i) dimensions:
глубин" ‘depth’, длин" ‘length’, толщин" ‘thickness’, ширин" ‘width’.
(ii) the results of actions or processes (based on verbs):
вп"дина ‘hollow’, морщна ‘wrinkle’, рж"вчина ‘rust’, трщина
‘crack’, цар"пина ‘scratch’.
(iii) types of meat:
бар"нина ‘mutton’, говдина ‘beef ’, осетрна ‘sturgeon’, свинна
‘pork’.

Note
Derivative -атина/-ятина, based on the plural of young animals:
медвеж"тина ‘bear meat’, телтина ‘veal’.
(iv) Singulatives:
бсина (from б#сы ‘beads’) ‘bead’, виногр"дина ‘grape’, горшина
‘pea’, солмина ‘straw’.

Note
Forms in -инка: снежнка ‘snowflake’, чанка ‘tea-leaf ’.
42 The Noun 29

(19) -иня/-ыня
Feminine counterparts of zero-suffixed and some other nouns:
б"рыня ‘lady’ (from брин ‘lord’), героня ‘heroine’, мон"хиня
‘nun’.

(20) -ист
Persons (based on nouns):
(a) musicians:
арфст ‘harpist’, виолончелст ‘cellist’, гитарст ‘guitarist’, пианст
‘pianist’.
(b) sportsmen:
волейболст ‘volleyball player’, теннисст ‘tennis-player’,
футболст ‘footballer’, хоккест ‘ice-hockey player’, шахматст
‘chess-player’.
(c) drivers:
таксст taxi driver, танкст ‘tank driver’, тракторст ‘tractor
driver’.

(21) -иха
Feminine ending (based on m. counterparts):
(a) women with particular characteristics:
трусха ‘cowardly woman’, щеголха ‘showy dresser’.
(b) practitioners:
пловчха ‘female swimmer’, поварха ‘cook’, портнха ‘dressmaker’,
ткачха ‘weaver’.
(c) wives:
купчха ‘merchant’s wife’, мльничиха ‘miller’s wife’, полкв-
ничиха ‘colonel’s wife’.
(d) animals:
зайчха ‘doe’, лосха ‘female elk’, ослха ‘female ass’, слонха ‘cow
elephant’.

(22) -ица
Feminine ending:
(a) counterparts of zero-suffixed m. nouns:
фельдшерца ‘female surgeon’s assistant’, царца ‘tsarina’.
 29 Word Formation 43

(b) counterparts of nouns in -ец:

ревнвица ‘jealous woman’, сослужвица ‘female colleague’,
счастлвица ‘happy woman’.
(c) animals and birds:
волчца ‘she-wolf ’, львца ‘lioness’, медвдица ‘she-bear’, орлца
‘female eagle’.
(23) -ич
Inhabitants of certain ancient towns and cities:
втич ‘inhabitant of Vyatka’, костромч ‘inhabitant of Kostroma’,
москвч ‘Muscovite’, мич ‘inhabitant of Omsk’, псквич ‘inhabitant
of Pskov’.
(24) -ище
(i) places (from nouns or – particularly those in -лище – verbs):
вместлище ‘receptacle’, жилще ‘dwelling’, кл"дбище ‘cemetery’,
стрльбище ‘firing range’, убжище ‘refuge’.
(ii) handles:
ножевще ‘knife-handle’, кнутовще ‘whip-handle’, топорще
‘axe-handle’.
(25) -ка
(i) verbal noun:
The suffix appears after vowel + consonant combinations, and derives
from:
(a) some 2nd-conjugation verbs in -ить: запр"вка ‘refuelling’ (from
запрвить(ся) ‘to refuel’), перевзка ‘transportation’, чстка
‘cleaning’.

Note
Гл"жка ‘ironing’ from глдить ‘to iron’, слжка ‘tracking’ from
следть ‘to track’, and derivative -ёжка/-овка after vowel +
two consonants: бомбёжка ‘bombing’ (from бомбть ‘to bomb’),
сверлвка ‘drilling’.
(b) from some verbs in -ать: задржка ‘delay’ (from задержть ‘to
delay’), обрабтка ‘processing’.

Note
-овка after vowel + two consonants: переигрвка ‘replay’ from
переигрть ‘to replay’.
44 The Noun 29

(c) from many verbs in -овать:стыквка ‘docking’ from стыковться

‘to dock’; and -ировать: меблирвка ‘furnishing’ from меблировть
‘to furnish’.

Note
Some verbs in -ировать have alternative verbal nouns in -ка and -ние,
e.g., регулирвка/регулрование ‘regulation’ from регулровать ‘to
regulate’.
(d) from some verbs in -оть, e.g. клка ‘chopping’ (from колть ‘to
chop’).
(e) from a number of other verbs: мйка ‘washing’ (from мыть ‘to
wash’), помка ‘capture’ (from поймть ‘to catch’), стржка
‘hair-cutting’ (from стричь ‘to cut’).
(ii) feminine suffix (from many zero-suffixed m. nouns and many m. nouns
in -ент: -ец, -ин, -ист, -ич):
грузнка ‘Georgian woman’, конькобжка ‘skater’, москвчка
‘Muscovite’, студнка ‘student’, тракторстка ‘female tractor driver’.
(iii) contracted forms (from adj. + noun phrases):
вечёрка ‘evening paper’, Лнинка ‘Lenin Library’, откр'тка ‘postcard’,
стка ‘mobile phone’, электрчка ‘suburban commuter train’.

Note
Some nouns in -лка denote rooms, e.g. раздев"лка ‘changing room’.
(iv) objects (in -лка, from impf. verbs):
вшалка ‘stand’, грлка ‘hot-water bottle’, зажиг"лка ‘lighter’,
открыв"лка ‘bottle-opener’, точлка ‘pencil sharpener’.

(26) -ки
Remnants:
обьдки ‘scraps’, оплки ‘sawdust’, очстки ‘peelings’, поднки ‘dregs’.

(27) -ло
Implements, agents of action (from impf. verbs):
крыл ‘wing’, м'ло ‘soap’, сверл ‘drill’, точло ‘grind-stone’,
шло ‘awl’.

Note
N. pl. counterparts чернла ‘ink’, удил" ‘bit’.

(28) -ние (-ание/-ение)