VARIOUS METHODS OF SHOE CONSTRUCTION

INTRODUCTION:

The need for a foot covering has been felt by man from the beginning of the
civilization. The important reasons can be through for the invention of the footwear. The
first being the need for protection of the foot from injury and for a means of maintaining
an even temperature by reducing the conduction heat inwards or outwards. History
reveals that for many centuries in the hot countries specially near the sea-shoes, sandals
type of footwear developed because this combines both the aspects i.e. protection of foot
from injury and to keep foot cool. In the colder countries a complete foot covering has
long been the fashion. Early shoes mostly were of one piece. The upper itself used to a
form a part of the sole also. The craftsman and now-a-days by many modern methods of
shoe construction were all evolved to achieve this.

TYPE OF ATTACHMENT:

Methods of shoe construction can be divided into main three groups according to
their attachment of the outsole of the upper, are as follows:

I. INDIRECT ATTACHMENT:

In this method, attachment of the outsole to the upper and insole is “indirect”
through the medium of welt or middle sole previously united to the upper and insole by
any one of a number of methods .

II. DIRECT ATTACHMENT:

In this method the outsole is attached “directly” to the insole and upper. The
method of attachment may be either by one or other kind of stitching i.e. by chain
stitching or lock stitching by cemented method, by combination of cement and imitation
stitching, by rivets or by combination of screws and stitching.

III. SINGLE SOLE CONSTRUCTION:

In this method the fundamental difference with the other method is that this has
single sole not requiring any insole as essential components.

I. Construction under ‘indirect’ method of attachment are as follows:

1. Good year welted

2. Silhouwelts
3. Lockstitch through sewn welt
4. Fair attached
5. Moccasin
 1. CONSTRUCTION UNDER ‘DIRECT’ METHOD OF ATTACHMENT ARE:

1. Machine sewn (both back-lasted and little way lasted)

2. Little way lockstitch
3. Cemented
4. Cemented with rand stitch extended edge
5. Riveted
6. Riveted screwed and stitched
7. Directing vulcanizing process
8. Direct injection process

2. CONSTRUCTION UNDER SINGLE SOLE METHOD OF ATTACHMENT:

1. Turn place
2. Veldtshoen
3. Slip lasted
4. Delmack
5. Delwelt

The methods of construction mentioned above under three categories are now
explained item wise and while going through this description necessary reference may be
made to the diagram of the particular construction.

INDIRECT ATTACHMENT:

1. GOOD YEAR WELTED:

In this method the insole is prepared by cutting two shallow channels parallel and
close to the outer-edge on the flesh side which are later raised and joined together to form
and upstanding rib all along the waist and forepart, the upper at the forepart and waist is
temporarily secured to this rib with fine wire staples driven horizontally during the
operation of lasting on the little waist staple lasting machine. The toe portion is lasted on
the bed laster with the help of the wipers and is held with the help of a cooper wire tied
round from toe cap joint to the outer side of the toe cap joint to the other side of the toe
cap joint. The welt and upper are then sewn to the rib with the horizontal chain stitched
seam on the welt sewing machine.

The edges extended beyond the seam are then trimmed and shank fixing and
bottom filling are then done. The outsole is then secured to the welt by a vertical lock
stitched seam on an outsole stitching machine. As neither the staples nor stitches
penetrate, at the inner surface of the insole, a full length socks is not fitted.
2. SILHOUWELT:

This is also a kind of welted construction with the same principles as followed in
the good year welted construction. The only change is that the sole instead of being
stitched to welt is cemented. This method of construction is generally used for lighters
styles of footwear, especially for men. A lighter and narrow welt is used in this
construction which is attached exactly in the manners as in the Goodyear welted
construction. But after the shank fixing and bottom filling have been done, the sole is
cemented on the welt. This produces a lighter shoe.

3. LOCK STITCH THROUGH SEWN WELT:

This is a cheaper form of welted construction and is generally used for middle-
class shoes for men. In this the insoles are not channeled as in the case of the good year
welted. Lasting is done on the little way staple lasting machine with the help of staples
which do not penetrate the insoles. The vertical lock stitch seams than attaches the welt to
the upper and the insoles from inside shoe. After shank fixing and bottom filling the
outsole is lock stitched with the extended edge of the welt. In this construction, the
stitches which secure the welt to the upper and insole are visible in the shoe and hence a
full socks is necessary.

4. FAIR STITCHES:

In this construction the upper is either tack lasted or little way staple lasted to the
insole. A leather middle sole is than secured to the insole and the upper with a chain
stitched seam which is a visible on the inside surface of the insole. The middle sole is so
cut as to provide and extended edge around the forepart through seam known in this type
of construction as ‘FAIR STITCHING’. A full length socks is necessary in this type of
construction as the tacks ends of the lasting tack in case of tack lasted and the chain-stitch
uniting the insole upper and the middle sole are visible on the inside.

5. MOCCASION.

The main characteristic of this type of shoe is its apron front. But all apron front
shoes are not necessarily made of this method. Moccasin is the name of the particular
type of shoe and also a name of construction. The vamp in this construction extends
under the sole of the foot and its upper edges are attached to the apron which is also
known as a vamp plug, covering the top of the foot. No insoles are used in this type of
construction. There is the middle sole which is attached to the upper by lock-stitched
around the extended edge of the middle sole under the edge of the upper. The apron front
or the vamp plug is sewn to the vamp by means of what is called a ‘Cutter Seam’ which
forms an understanding rib of leather sewn across. Full socks are needed as the lock stitch
seam is visible on the insole.
 DIRECT ATTACHMENT:
1. MACHINE SEWN:

This method of construction is used mainly in the making of light medium grade
men’s and women’s footwear. This method is also known as MCKAY. In this method of
construction the upper is tack lasted to the insole and after the shank fixing and bottom
filling, the out sole is attached to the insole by chain-stitch. Both the tack end of the
lasting tacks and chain-stitch are visible on the insole surface on the inside of the shoe
and therefore a full length socks is necessary.

The variation in this method is known as Machine sewn way lasted. In this
method lasting of the upper to the insole is done on the little way staple lasting machine.
Where the upper is lasted to the insole with the help of staples, which do not penetrate the
insole, are not visible on the inside surface of the insole giving a neat appearance.
Although the chain stitch which unites the sole, upper and insole is visible a full lock is
necessary

2. LITTLE WAY LOCKSTITCH:

In this method, the upper is lasted with the help of staples on the little way staple
lasting machine. After bottom filling and the shank fixing the sole is united with the
upper and insole with look stitch or with the chain stitch as in the previous case. As
stitching is visible on the surface of the insole a full length socks is necessary.

3. CEMENTED CONCTRUCTION:

This method of construction has become very popular since the introduction of
the cellulose adhesives. It is suited generally for light types of men’s footwear and more
generally for ladies fashion shoes. One of the greatest advantages is that there is no
channel needed for the sole. There is no need for tempering and the shoes can be finished
with a clear natural finish.

THE WORK IS LASTED IN VARIOUS WAYS:

1. Like machine sewn with staple side and the toe being lasted either on bed laster or on
the number 9 toe laster.

2. Side and toe being lasted on console lasting machine.

3. Sides are tack lasted and toe being cement lasted.

4. The whole upper except the seat portion is lasted with cement. The surplus lining
and toe puff are usually trimmed off before toe lasting so that the upper can be lasted in
as smooth and light as possible. After the lasting the shoe is pounded up to make it as flat
as possible and to create a definite leather line which is very important for this
construction.
 The upper (lasted margin) and the soles are roughed on the roughing machine
very carefully with a wire brush. The upper roughing machine removes the grain surface
of the leather and raised the fibers which allow deeper penetration of the adhesives. Great
care must be taken at the time of this operation to see that the upper is roughed up to the
feather line only. If the roughing goes beyond the feather line, it will be visible on the
finished shoe and this will be very difficult to be rectified in future. Like upper the sole is
also roughed in the same manner which raises the fiber and creates velvet like surface. At
the time of roughing it should carefully be watched that fibers are only raised are not
weekend, or pulled away. It is very important that the both the roughed surfaces are
brushed to free the surface from leather dust which it not removed may create difficulties
in forming a proper bend.

After roughing of the surface the cavity formed after the lasting between the
upper and the insole is filled up to the level the cavity on one hand to give added comfort
to the wearer. Bottom filling can be done in a number of ways, i.e. with the help of felt
piece, with crock sheets cut to shape, granulated crock either cold setting or hot setting.

The roughed surfaces are then cemented with the help of any permanent setting
adhesives e.g. Neoprene or Nitro cellulose based. Cement could be applied on the sole
and upper surfaces either with the help of upper/sole cementing machine. In the absence
of a suitable machine the operation could also be done manually.

The dried up cemented surfaces can be activated with infra red rays, moisture-
laden hot air or with solvent. The soles are then laid on position over the lasted shoe
bottom and placed under a cementing press either pneumatically or hydraulic operated.
Cementing press can be twin bed four bed or multi bed, latest being a twin bed hydraulic
operated with automatic time setting device where the operator simply places and
removes the shoe from the beds as the machine automatically presses and releases the
shoe at the time of interval set on the machine.

IMPORTENTS POINT TO BE OBSERVED DURING THIS CONSTRUCTION:

The roughing of upper and sole is very important as the permanency of the bond
between two cemented surfaces depends not only on the strength of the adhesives, but
also upon the proper penetration of adhesives through of these surfaces. The application
of adhesive is also very important. It is always a better apply two thin coats of adhesives
than one thick coat as it will be easier for the adhesives of light viscosity to penetrate into
the fibers of both upper and sole. The presser applied and also the lengths of time the
shoes are kept under presser are very important. Last but not the least, the roughed
surfaces should be absolutely free from buffed dust as this dust may not allow the
adhesives to penetrate the fibers and form a penetrate bond.
DIRECTING VULCANISING PROCESS:

In recent years this process of construction become very popular, as it’s

eliminates as many usual operations involved in other contraction, the upper is lasted and
roughed like cement bottom. The special type of cement is applied on the bottom. Prior to
this operation bottom filling is applied; generally a cold type of bottom filling is used.
The lasted shoe is then removed from the last and re-lasted on the metal last mounted on
the vulcanizing machine. The rubber compound of required weight as per size of the shoe
is put on the forepart and the seat of the mould. At the seat of wooden block is placed
under the rubber compound which fills up the cavity of the heel and reduces the quantity
of the rubber. Then the shoe along with other compound is pushed in the machine and the
machine is operated, which brings the two sides moulds and the bottom mould in position
and vulcanizing starts. After the required time the machines opens up automatically and
the sole with the heel is moulded and vulcanized. The moulds are heated before the actual
operation starts. The quantity of the rubber compound for each size of shoe is very
important. If the rubber compound is less, than the proper moulding will not take place
and if it is more than not only it will have surplus material which are to be trimmed off,
but also there is a chance of the damaging moulds.

INJECTION MOULDING:

In recent years one of the most significant developments in the shoe industries has
been the introduction of the use of polyvinyl chloride PVC.

This PVC can be used for completely moulded upper and soles but it is most
widely used for soling either in the form of pre-mould sole and heel units or it is directly
moulded to shoe bottom by the process of injection moulding.

Any conventional method of lasting may be used with injection moulding. But it
is very important that the lasting must very tight. Where the upper is cement lasted it is
important that the last margin is well bonded to the insoles, right to edges of the lasting
allowances, otherwise the force of the plastic as is injection will force the lasting
allowance away from the insole. Like cemented and PVC construction roughing is a
major key factor. Upper should be roughed to remove the pigment and the grain layers
and the cerium is exposed, but not too deeply to meet the cerium fluffy. Roughing must
be even, with no peaks of grain left on the prepared surface and right up to the feather
line. The roughing must also extend over the feather if a good bond is to be achieved.

If any grain surface is left on the leather and the adhesives remains on the surface
for the period in excess of 8 hour then poor cohesion will take place between adhesives
and PVC. Since most of the oils in a skin are in the grain area, the most of the grease
content of leather in the bonding area is removed by roughing to the correct depth. The
bond will be improved by removal of grain as the adhesives bond well where no oil
exists. It is very important that the grease content in leather should not be more than 6%
otherwise a weak bond may take place.
 The adhesives play a very important role in the injection moulding process. The
sole may be of hard wearing quality but it would be of no use if this pulls away from the
upper due to weakness in adhesives. Recently in a new group of adhesives has been
developed which produces exceptionally bonds with PVC. These are known as
polyurethane adhesives. Polyvinyl chloride is a hard and rigid material at room
temperature. It becomes plastic on heating and in this state can be shaped to any form
which it will retain on cooling and this process can be repeated. PVC is also known as
thermo plastic material since it repeatedly becomes plastic on heating. PVC itself is very
brittle hence some other substance is added to PVC to improve the softness and flexibility
which is known as Plasticizer. At first PVC was used for the manufacture of the PVC
sheet and the soles were cut from the sheets. The direct injection moulding machine came
up evolving from the use of PVC sheets for soles. PVC in its raw states is hard white
powder which when heated forms a solid rigid material the plasticizer is added to
increase the softness and flexibility of PVC.

PVC has another drawback that it’s melt and becomes plastic at approximately
160 degree Celsius and start to decompose at 190 degree Celsius. For this critical
temperature ranges the machinery used must be accurately controlled. Some stabilizers
are also added to PVC to prevent this decomposition. As raw PVC is of white color
pigments are added to produce to required colours. PVC is found to under presser hence a
lubricant is added to the mixture to reduce the friction against the container. The amount
of the plasticizer is very important as gives the material flexibility. The amount should be
controlled to allow the maximum degree of flexibility without effacing to allow the
maximum degree of flexibility without affecting the varying property. Generally it is
found that the softer the PVC the better the wear, but if it is too soft than the sole will
chip and flake easily. As 7 plasticizer have adverse effect on the bonding of PVC too
leather the type of plasticizer is also important.
CONSTRUCTION:

There are several methods by which PVC can be plasticized and extruded. PVC is
supplied in the form of granules. These granules are fed into a hopper which in turn feeds
them into the barrel where they are plasticized the barrel is kept at a carefully controlled
temperatures depending on the PVC compound. The PVC granules are fed at one of the
barrel and moved along the barrel by a revolving screw in the centre.

The screw is so designed that at the end the barrel of the plastic is extruded the screw is
wider than at the hopper end. Thus the PVC is forced along the barrel by the screw and
the pressures increases as its meet the extrusion point or nozzle. It will be remembered
that to have a smooth flow. PVC needs both heat and presser. The heat is provided by the
shearing friction of the PVC being forced along the outside of the barrel. On a machine
where the screw is turning almost continuously, the heater elements are automatically
switched off, for most of the time and in most cases water cooling is necessary to
maintain the desired temperature.

The presser is provided by the pumping action of the screw. Presser is also
increase at the nozzle since the nozzle is small and the PVC is therefore forced out of the
barrel into the mould. Presser at the nozzle can be as high as 20,000 lbs. per square inch.
There is another method of extrusion where a ram is used to force the PVC through the
nozzle with direct presser. There are certain machines which incorporate a combination
of both methods. The amount of PVC entering the mould is controlled by a micro switch
inside the mould usually located at the farthest end of the mould from the extrusion point.

This micro switch trips at a set presser and cuts off the flow of plastic from the
barrel. The switch trips at a presser approximately 20lbs per square inch. Although
pressure in parts of the mould may be as high as 8,000 lbs. per square per inch.

The PVC is then allowed to cool and solidify in the mould for a specified time to
produce the finished shoes.

The moulds which form the sole shape are made up from four separate parts:
1. Sole mould
2. Two sides moulds
3. Last.

The two side’s moulds joint at toe and heel and move apart on opening giving
easy access to the shoe in the mould.

The upper is lasted into the metal last prior to injection moulding.

The injection point varies on different types of machines and can usually be
positioned to suit customer requirements. The injection point is normally through the sole
moulds or through the joint in the two side’s moulds or through the sole mould at the
waist.

There are many machines on the market which is specifically designed to

injection mould shoes, both complete upper and soles and heels directly into leather or
synthetic uppers.

There are many machines available for direct moulding, which can be categorized
into two types, multi stations machines and single or twin head machines.

It is important when injection moulding that the molten PVC is given time to cool
and retain its shape before it is removed from the mould.

To give ample cooling time for each sole unit, and to utilize the expensive
injection mechanism to its capacity, multi stations machines were introduced.

The BU Primatic and the CIC Sole master are examples of multi stations
machines, the primatic having twelve stations and the sole master ten. Each station of the
machine can take either foot of any sizes.
 These machines are built with the moulds, circulating past the injection point with
one station as unloading and reloading point where the operator works.

A high degree of accuracy is necessary when planning the work into the machine,
if the machine is too be fully utilized.

Since the cooling time of the PVC in the sole mould is the key factor to the time
necessary for the production of each complete sole and heel, then if this Dwell Time
could be reduced the complete cycle time for each shoe would also be reduced.

Therefore the cooling of the PVC must be speeded up. Since the moulds are not
heated, any heat in the moulds must come from the PVC as it cools. Thus, if the moulds
could be kept cool, The PVC would solidify faster.

It was found possible to control the temperature of the moulds to retain them at
room temperature without affecting the PVC in any way. This was done by means of a
refrigeration plant which controls the mould temperature. It is important to note that this
refrigeration unit does not actually freeze the moulds but simply keeps them at room
temperature. The shorter dwell times accomplished by speeding up the cooling of the
complete sole meant that the multi-station machines were no longer essential.

Arising from this, a second generation or Injection Molding machines has evolved
namely the Single and Twin head Machines, which are most suitable for small scale
industries, as these require much lesser investment. These new smaller machines are
more flexible in their use and require less rigid planning. They are cheaper to buy
reduced by the refrigeration system.

Better Molding will take place when all solvents have evaporated from the
adhesive as the presence of solvent will cause bad marking on the Molding and also
adversely affect the bend. Polyurethane adhesives can because either one or two part
adhesives, the one part being ready mixed, and the second part being applied as two
separate coating of adhesive. These adhesives have a limited pot life and film life and
should only be used to the specific time limits if consistent results are to be obtained.
While selecting Polyurethane adhesives the following four points are to be considered:

1. Strength
2. Price and usage
3. Green strength
4. Ease of use.

1. Strength:

The adhesive must have adequate strength as per requirement of the

construction, as for example high strength is not as essential for slippers as it is for
shoes.
2. Price and usage:

While buying the adhesive, the price factor is to be considered as there are
adhesives of different prices as per the properties they have. The properties should be
up to the requirements and is no use of buying high priced adhesives with properties
far beyond the requirement of the construction.

3. Green strength:

Green strength is the strength of the bond immediately after bonding this is
very important. The rate of production is governed by the cooling rate of the soles. If
this cooling time is shortened; then it is very important to ensure that the green
strength of the adhesive is adequate at the new shorter time. An adhesive with low
green strength may cause the sole to lift when the shoe is slipped from the last.

4. Face of use:
While selecting the adhesives we should consider that it should have the
following qualities while using.

a. The pot life of adhesive should be longer.

b. It should not need constant stirring
c. It is easy to apply
d. It is easily activated
e. Dwell time after application and before injection molding should be adequate
f. It should be safe to use.
The amount of adhesive used also plays an important role. If too much adhesive is
applied when the solvent will not evaporate thus giving a poor bond. And if too little
adhesive is applied then starvation occurs which will give a weak bond.
With some forms of Injection Molding, paper Scrim is used to prevent PVC from
being forced under the lasting margin. This is not necessary if the lasting allowance is flat
and well stuck down. Scrims are usually necessary if waist injection is used, but not as
important if the injection point is at the toe or heel, as the plastic travels along the length
of the shoe rather than hitting the insole at right angles.

Filler blocks are used with injection molding as with vulcanizing, blocks of light
weight wood and paper board are made to fill the heel cavity. If these filler blocks were
not used, then when the PVC is injected into the sole mold, the extra thickness of PVC at
the heel would take longer to cool. Thus, the dwell time of the shoe in the machine would
be increased.

The design and shape of the filler block should be such that the substance of PVC
around the block is the same as the sole substance, and that the block does not alter the
correct pitch of the shoe when complete.
 It is important that filler block are securely attached, otherwise the force of the
PVC on injection will force the block out of position. This is especially important when
the injection point in the mould is at the toe or the waist.

When moulds are made they are made to fit samples of the lasted shoes which are
to be used in the moulds. Each last design will need different moulds, but variations in
shoes design on the one last are covered by the same set of moulds. If a good result is to
be obtained, it is, therefore, important that the samples from which the moulds are made
are representative of the standard of work achieved and that the standard of lasting is
good, i.e., tight to wood and flat with no pleats or creases. It is important that the fit of the
mould is exact, otherwise the pressure of the PVC on injection will force its way out
through the poorly sealed sections of the mould.

The overall length of the lased upper is the important factor if the complete sole
and heel is to fit the shoe correctly. Any variations in the substance of the leather, linings
or components or nay alternation of length due of variation in design will affect the
overall length and cause a poor seal of the moulds at the feather. It is usually advisable
that net insoles are used, so that any addition in overall length, i.e. an extra lining or
seam, can be offset by undercutting the insole. Conversely, if a mudguard is required, the
insole is usually undercut to allow the PVC flow up to the top of the mudguard.

To avoid problems in obtaining uniform substance at the feather line all the other
components should be correctly skived, and the thickness at the joint should be
uniformed, because big steps in substance will cause spun at the seal line.
While Molding the Molding machine can be set to produce two variations in
appearance:
1. Top or Bottom seal and 2. Side seal.
Top or bottom seal: Top or Bottom seal produces soles over the feather giving the
same appearance as vulcanized sole.
TOP SOLE
When set for top Seal the molds will close in this order:
1. Sole
2. Side moulds
3. Last
The top of the shoe, i.e., the part in the last provides the seal to the moulds. Top
seal gives the effect of demented sole, to the feather edge.

SIDE SEAL:
When set for side seal, the moulds close in a different order:
1. Last and sole together
2. Side moulds
In this instance the side mold provide the sole, closing on the insole edge about 1/8”
up. Side seal gives the effect of vulcanized sole with the sole extending over the
feather edge.
Common faults which may occur with injection Molding:

The faults can be divided into two sections:

1 Those faults which are primary shoe making faults.
2 Those faults which are mechanized.
SHOE MAKING FAULTS:

A) If lasting is not tight and flat, the pressure of the molten plastic on injection will force
the upper away from the insole.
B) If the heel block is too large, there will be insufficient P/C to give good wear at the
heel, or the block may not be totally covered. If the heel block is too small, then the
extra substance of PVC around the block will shrink on cooling, causing the surface
of the heel to fall in and the resultant heel will not be square. If the heel block is
insecurely attached the force of the injection will force the block away from the
insole.
C) The moisture content of heel block must be carefully controlled. If the moisture
content is high, steaming will occur when the hot PVC comes into content with the
block, causing cavities in the heel.
D) As with all cemented attachments of which Injection Molding is a variation, roughing
is a key operation. Roughing must be even and to the correct depth, to remove the
pigment and grain layers and expose the corium, if a good bond is to be obtained.
E) If too little adhesive is applied, poor bond will occur through starvation and if too
much adhesive is used then also poor bond will occur because the solvent will not
evaporate, which will prevent the film from curing or crystallizing.
F) Poor shoe design can cause poor sealing along the feather edge of the moulds, bulky
seams being the chief cause. A careful choice of upper and lining material is also
important to maintain the correct substance, and thus ensure a good seal around the
feather.
MECHANICAL FAULTS:

a) Col flow will show on the soles as flow lines, causing ridges of weakness. This
cold flow may occur due to:
i. Too low plasticizing temperature
ii. Too low nozzle temperature
iii. Too short time dwell in the barrel
iv. Too cold sole plate.
The insufficient heat which causes cold flow lines may also influence the bonding
of sole to upper. If the temperature is lower than that necessary to fully plasticize the
PVC, then it may also be insufficient to activate the adhesive, resulting in poor bonds.

b) Heavy patch on a smooth Molding can be seen due to frosting. Frosting is caused
by the molten PVC striding against the too cold surface of the mould. This is
liable to occur in the new Single and Twin Head Machines where a refrigeration
unit is incorporated.
 c) An overall blistering effect on the surfaces of the Mould can be seen due to
degradation in some compounds. Degradation is caused by:
i. Too long swell time at too high temperature;
ii. Obstructions in the screw or barrel causing hold ups in the flow of the PVC.
iii. Hot spots in the barrel where heaters are too close to the barrel.

d) Cold sink which is a hollow depression may occur whenever there is a large mass
of PVC in one lump, i.e. in a heel with no heel block.
ADVANTAGS & DISADVANTAGES OF INJECTION MOLDING
OVER VULCANTISING

It is to be considered that why injection Molding process has become more

popular than vulcanizing process. When the latter process has been tried tested and
proved successful.

1. One of the main disadvantages of vulcanizing process is the heat necessary to

vulcanize the rubber. This creates handling problems when changing moulds and
when handling shoes on the alloy lasts. The shoes from the machine must be relisted
to cool and set into shape after vulcanizing. Problems are also caused by the effect of
heat on upper and in sole materials, limiting the materials which can be used.
a. Rubber is expensive and fluctuates in price. Ordering rubber creates problems.
Rubber must be ordered in blanks of several sizes to cover a size range of
shoes. Unvulcanised rubber has limited shelf life and can only be kept for
limited period.
b. The heat from the moulds shrinks the larger upper down to the last and seal
around the mould edges would not be secure enough to accommodate the
higher pressure of vulcanizing.
c. Vulcanizing process requires rubber chemist to control the rubber compound
for maintaining the quality standard.
MAIN ADVANTAGES OF PVC INJECTION MOLDING OVER VULCANIZING
These are:
1. Injection Molding is a cold process, thus handling is simplified.
2. The use of a much wider selection of upper and insole materials is possible.
3. Injection moulded shoes do not require re-lasting.
4. One set of moulds can be used for a size and a half thus less moulds are needed.
5. Unlimited shelf life of PVC granules.
6. Scrap can be-granulated in the factory and re-used.
7. PVC is cheaper than rubber of comparable quality.
8. PVCs are no-marking.
9. Injection Molding produces clean Molding with well defined patterns.
10. Less damage to uppers at ‘nip’ line due to lower in the moulds.
11. Consistent quality is easily controllable.
12. Colours are easily achieved and are consistent.
RIVETTED

This is a very simple and inexpensive method of construction where the upper is
tack-lasted and after shaking and bottom filling the sole is also riveted to the upper and
insole. The rivets may be of iron or brass and the points of those together with those of
the lasting tacks are well clean on the inner surface of the insole, a full length socks. This
type of construction has, however, been restricted in the making of foot-ball boots and
cheaper varieties of boy’s footwear.

RIVETED, SCREWED AND STITCHED:

This form of construction is widely used in making of army boots and other heavy
duty footwear. This incorporates three distinct methods of attachments:
a. Riveting: This is used after the uppers have been tack lasted to nail the middle sole,
upper and insole with either iron or brass rivets with head.
b. Stitching: This is used to secure the outsole to the extended edge of the middle sole
with a lock stitch either in groove or closed channel.
c. Screwing: This is the final operation which is done after uniting the outsole, middle
sole and insole. Screwing is done with the help of brass screw wires on the screwing
machine used for this purpose. Boots made on. These methods are put to heave wear
and hence, they are further reinforced with cutter nails, hob nails and frequently are
also fitted with toe and heel plates.
SINGLE SOLE CONSTRUCTION

VELDTSCHOEN:

This is a very simple method of construction and that the main characteristic of
this construction is that during lasting the upper instead of being turned in is flanged out.
Large quantities of children’s shoes are made by this method. The seat can either be tack-
lasted in the conventional method or flanged out as the forepart.
In case of tack-lasted sent, the seat is Instead on a seat piece and nicks are made at
the breasts of heel portion of the upper. The sole is attached to the last and the upper edge
is flanged out and temporarily lasted with stapes. A small rand is then put on the flanged
edge of the upper over the sole and is stitched round in a closed channel. There are,
however, many modifications in this method.

TURN SHOE PROCESS:

This is one of the oldest and finest methods of shoe-making ever devised. It dates
back to last 2000 years. Till a few years back, this was one of the most popular types of
shoe construction. This process is considered by many as an artistic craftsmanship. The
most unique feature about this process is that the shoe is forts made inside out and later
turned right side out. The other feature is that no insole is used in this type of
construction. It may be realized that because of the turning in and out, the materials used
in the shoe should be highly flexible, pliable and resilient type including the outsole.
Because no insole is used, the outsole plays an important role.
 At the beginning, a little ‘shelf’ is cut along with the waist and forepart portions
of the sole edge on its flesh side. Then a little farther away from the edge an adulate slit
or channel is out and the same is then opened. The upper is then lasted on this right-side
out which lasting tacks which is not driven in permanently. The sole and the upper are
then united with a horizontal chain stitch seam thought he channeled and shelved edge of
sole. The channel is then closed burying the stitches securely in the channel. The shoe is
then relisted right-side out for heeling and finished. The shoe produced has extremely
close edge soles.

The shanks in this type of construction are at time as narrow as our finger nails –
sometimes called the ‘Fiddle Shanks’. The upper in this type of construction fits foot like
a glove. There is an extraordinary degree of flexibility in this type of construction besides
lightness. The good-year welted construction is generally known as ‘king’ of shoe
construction. Similarly, the turn shoe method of construction is known as ‘Queen’ of the
shoe manufacturing methods.

SLIP LASTED METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION:

The characteristics of this method of construction are that the upper and the insole
are sewn together in the closing room before the shoe is lasted. Much precision is
required in pattern cutting and also in the stitching of the insole to the upper. The last is
then force- lasted with no distortion of the shape of the upper. In case a platform is to be
fitted, the platform cover is also stitched along with the upper and insole which is turned
under the platform after the force-lasting is done. For concealing the seam joining, the
insole, upper and platform cover a recess is made around the edge of the platform and the
seam buries itself there when the platform cover is pulled down and lasted over the
platform. The edge of the last over the platform cover is roughed and the sole is cemented
on. This method of construction is also known in the shoe industry as ‘Californian’ and
‘Force Lasted’ method.

DELMACK CEMENTED METHOD:

The unique feature of this method is that the sole is split round its edges with a
skeleton insole on to which the upper is lasted with little way staples. The outsole part of
the split (Sole) is then stuck with adhesives to the upper which is roughed and cemented,
thus sandwiching the upper between the sole and insole. Although there is no stitching
and no lasting staples are visible on the insole, a full length socks is generally used to
avoid visibility of the split insole.

DELWELT CEMENTED:
This is exactly made on the same principle as Delwelt cemented with the
exception that the insole after having been split from the sole is channeled as the insole
rib, formed by cementing the two lips of the channel with a horizontal chain stitch or
lock-stitch to a welt. The shank fitting and bottom filling are done as usual. The outsole
part of the split is either cemented to the welt or stitched with the welt the lock of stitch
as in the conventional method. As in the previous case, here also a full length socks is
used.
 SERVICE FOOTWEAR

“Service Footwear” is those which are used by the personnel of the three Service,
i.e. Army, Navy and Air force. As the name implies, it can be realized that solders
footwear is essentially a part of his fighting gear. Whether it is a shoe or boot, it must be
sturdy, comfortable, durable and also suitable for the intended purpose. Much of the
solders’ fighting efficiency depends upon the comfort and protection that his footwear
provides him. In such type of footwear, the question of elegance and style are not of
much importance.

The term ‘Service Footwear’ includes a large variety of footwear items of various
designs, height and construction of the Army, Navy and Air Force, ranging from Hospital
slippers to Army Boot. The various types of footwear which come under this category
can be broadly divided into the following headings:
1. Boots
2. Shoes and
3. Chappals and Slippers.
BOOTS : ( Boot Ankle (Black only)

This is a general purpose boot ankle height for all normal duties of soldiers made
from printed zug-grain black charge tanned upper leather and vegetable tanned sole
leather. This boot does not have any lining. The boot is reinforced by metal hells and tee-
tips.

The uppers are tack-lasted to the leather insole and middle sole is riveted with
brass rivets to the tack-lasted upper and insole, after proper shanking and bottom filling.
The sole is then laid on the middle sole and is stitched along the projected feather edge
and in a groove channel. Screwing is thereafter done all rounds to reinforce the middle
sole upper and insole together.

Boot Ankle (Black and Brown) Officers:

This is an ankle boot intended for the use of the offices of the army. The
materials used are slightly superior in quality printed grain chrome leather. The method
of construction is same as boots ankle. This boot is lined throughout and has no metal
heels and toe-tips.

This is made on the riveted, stitched and screwed method. After lasting, bottom
filing and shanking is done and the middle sole is riveted. Then the sole is laid thereon.
The sole is stitched and screwed as in the first instance. The sole stitching is done in a
groove channel or open channel.