ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Chapter 8: Special Senses

BSRT II-A | 2022-2023

CHAPTER 8: SPECIAL SENSES o Ciliary glands are located between the

I. Special Senses eyelashes
II. Part I: The Eye and Vision  Conjunctiva
a. Anatomy of the Eye o Membrane that lines the eyelids and
b. External and Accessory Structures eyeball
c. Internal Structures: The Eyeball o Connects with the transparent cornea
d. Physiology of Vision o Secretes mucus to lubricate the eye and
i. Closer Look keep it moist
III. Part II: The Ear: Hearing and Balance  Lacrimal apparatus = lacrimal gland + ducts
a. Anatomy of the Ear o Lacrimal gland—produces lacrimal fluid
b. Equilibrium (tears); situated on lateral end of each eye
c. Static Equilibrium o Tears drain across the eye into the
d. Dynamic Equilibrium lacrimal canaliculi, then the lacrimal sac,
e. Hearing and into the nasolacrimal duct, which
f. Hearing and Equilibrium Deficits empties into the nasal cavity
IV. Part III: Chemical Senses: Smell and Taste  Tears contain:
a. Olfactory Receptors and the Sense of o Dilute salt solution
Smell o Mucus
b. Taste Buds and Sense of Taste o Antibodies
V. Part IV: Developmental Aspects of the Special o Lysozyme (enzyme that destroys bacteria)
Senses  Function of tears
o Cleanse, protect, moisten, lubricate the
SPECIAL SENSES eye
 Special senses include:
o Smell
o Taste
o Sight
o Hearing
o Equilibrium
 Special sense receptors
o Large, complex sensory organs
o Localized clusters of receptors

PART I: THE EYE AND VISION

 70 percent of all sensory receptors are in the
eyes
 Each eye has over 1 million nerve fibers carrying
information to the brain

ANATOMY OF THE EYE

 Accessory structures include the:
o Extrinsic eye muscles
o Eyelids
o Conjunctiva
o Lacrimal apparatus

 Extrinsic eye muscles

o Six muscles attach to the outer surface of
the eye
o Produce gross eye movements

EXTERNAL AND ACCESSORY STRUCTURES

 Eyelids
o Meet at the medial and lateral
commissure (canthus)
 Eyelashes
o Tarsal glands produce an oily secretion
that lubricates the eye
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Chapter 8: Special Senses
BSRT II-A | 2022-2023

 Fibrous layer = sclera + cornea

o Sclera
 White connective tissue layer
 Seen anteriorly as the “white of the
eye”
o Cornea
 Transparent, central anterior
portion
 Allows for light to pass through
 Repairs itself easily
 The only human tissue that can be
transplanted without fear of
rejection
 Vascular layer
o Choroid is a blood-rich nutritive layer that
contains a pigment (prevents light from
scattering)
o Choroid is modified anteriorly into two
smooth muscle structures
 Ciliary body
 Iris—regulates amount of light
entering eye
 Pigmented layer that gives
eye color
 Pupil—rounded opening in
INTERNAL STRCUTURES: THE EYEBALL the iris
 Sensory layer
 Three layers, or tunics, form the wall of the
o Retina contains two layers
eyeball
1. Outer pigmented layer absorbs light
o Fibrous layer: outside layer
and prevents it from scattering
o Vascular layer: middle layer
2. Inner neural layer contains receptor
o Sensory layer: inside layer
cells (photoreceptors)
 Humors are fluids that fill the interior of the
 Rods
eyeball
 Cones
 Lens divides the eye into two chamber
o Electrical signals pass from
photoreceptors via a two-neuron chain
 Bipolar neurons
 Ganglion cells
o Signals leave the retina toward the brain
through the optic nerve
o Optic disc (blind spot) is where the optic
nerve leaves the eyeball
 Cannot see images focused on the
optic disc
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Chapter 8: Special Senses
BSRT II-A | 2022-2023

 Sensory layer (continued)

o Rods
 Most are found toward the edges of
the retina
 Allow vision in dim light and
peripheral vision
 All perception is in gray tones
o Cones
 Allow for detailed color vision
 Densest in the center of the retina
 Fovea centralis–lateral to blind spot
 Area of the retina with only
cones
 Visual acuity (sharpest vision)
is here
o No photoreceptor cells are at the optic
disc, or blind spot
o Cone sensitivity
 Three types of cones
 Each cone type is sensitive to
different wavelengths of visible light
 Aqueous humor
o Watery fluid found between lens and
cornea
o Similar to blood plasma
o Helps maintain intraocular pressure
o Provides nutrients for the lens and cornea
o Reabsorbed into venous blood through
the scleral venous sinus, or canal of
Schlemm
 Vitreous humor
o Gel-like substance posterior to the lens
o Prevents the eye from collapsing
o Helps maintain intraocular pressure
 Ophthalmoscope
o Instrument used to illuminate the interior
of the eyeball and fundus (posterior wall)
o Can detect diabetes, arteriosclerosis,
degeneration of the optic nerve and retina

 Lens
o Flexible, biconvex crystal-like structure
o Held in place by a suspensory ligament
attached to the ciliary body
 Lens divides the eye into two chambers
1. Anterior (aqueous) segment
o Anterior to the lens
o Contains aqueous humor, a clear,
watery fluid
2. Posterior (vitreous) segment
o Posterior to the lens
o Contains vitreous humor, a gel-like
substance
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Chapter 8: Special Senses
BSRT II-A | 2022-2023
PHYSIOLOGY OF VISION
 Pathway of light through the eye and light
refraction
o Light must be focused to a point on the
retina for optimal vision
o Light is bent, or refracted, by the cornea,
aqueous humor, lens, and vitreous humor
o The eye is set for distant vision (over 20
feet away)
o Accommodation—the lens must change
shape to focus on closer objects (less than
20 feet away)
o Image formed on the retina is a real image
o Real images are:
 Reversed from left to right
 Upside down
 Smaller than the object
CLOSER LOOK
 Visual fields and visual pathways to the brain
o Optic nerve
 Bundle of axons that exit the back of
the eye carrying impulses from the
retina
o Optic chiasma
 Location where the optic nerves
cross
 Fibers from the medial side of each
eye cross over to the opposite side
of the brain
o Optic tracts
 Contain fibers from the lateral side
of the eye on the same side and the
medial side of the opposite eye
 Synapse with neurons in the
thalamus
o Optic radiation
 Axons from the thalamus run to the
occipital lobe
 Synapse with cortical cells, and
vision interpretation (seeing) occurs
o Summary of the pathway of impulses from
the retina to the point of visual
interpretation
1. Optic nerve
2. Optic chiasma
3. Optic tract
4. Thalamus
5. Optic radiation
6. Optic cortex in occipital lobe of
brain
 Visual fields
o Each eye “sees” a slightly different view
o Field of view overlaps for each eye
 Binocular vision results and provides:
o Depth perception (three-dimensional
vision)
 Emmetropia—eye focuses images correctly on
the retina
 Myopia (nearsightedness)
o Distant objects appear blurry
o Light from those objects fails to reach the
retina and are focused in front of it
o Results from an eyeball that is too long
 Hyperopia (farsightedness)
o Near objects are blurry, whereas distant
objects are clear
o Distant objects are focused behind the
retina
o Results from an eyeball that is too short or
from a “lazy lens”
 Astigmatism
o Images are blurry
o Results from light focusing as lines, not
points, on the retina because of unequal
curvatures of the cornea or lens
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Chapter 8: Special Senses
BSRT II-A | 2022-2023

o Function
 Transmit vibrations from tympanic
membrane to the fluids of the inner
ear
 Vibrations travel from the hammer
→ anvil → stirrup → oval window of
inner ear
 Internal (inner) ear
o Includes sense organs for hearing and
balance
o Bony labyrinth (osseous labyrinth)
consists of:
 Cochlea
 Vestibule
PHYSIOLOGY OF VISION  Semicircular canals
 Eye reflexes o Bony labyrinth is filled with perilymph
o Convergence: reflexive movement of the  Membranous labyrinth is suspended
eyes medially when we focus on a close in perilymph and contains
object endolymph
o Photopupillary reflex: bright light causes
pupils to constrict
o Accommodation pupillary reflex: viewing
close objects causes pupils to constrict
PART II: THE EAR: HEARING AND BALANCE
 Ear houses two senses
1. Hearing
2. Equilibrium (balance)
 Receptors are mechanoreceptors
 Different organs house receptors for each sense

ANATOMY OF THE EAR

 The ear is divided into three areas
1. External (outer) ear
2. Middle ear
3. Internal (inner) ear
 External (outer) ear EQUILIBRIUM
o Auricle (pinna)  Equilibrium receptors of the inner ear are called
o External acoustic meatus (auditory canal) the vestibular apparatus
 Narrow chamber in the temporal  Vestibular apparatus has two functional parts
bone 1. Static equilibrium
 Lined with skin and ceruminous 2. Dynamic equilibrium
(earwax) glands
 Ends at the tympanic membrane
(eardrum)
o External ear is involved only in collecting
sound waves
 Middle ear cavity (tympanic cavity)
o Air-filled, mucosa-lined cavity within the
temporal bone
o Involved only in the sense of hearing
o Located between tympanic membrane
and oval window and round window
o Pharyngotympanic tube (auditory tube)
 Links middle ear cavity with the
throat STATIC EQUILIBRIUM
 Equalizes pressure in the middle ear
 Maculae—receptors in the vestibule
cavity so the eardrum can vibrate
o Report on the position of the head
o Three bones (ossicles) span the cavity
o Help us keep our head erect
1. Malleus (hammer)
o Send information via the vestibular nerve
2. Incus (anvil)
(division of cranial nerve VIII) to the
3. Stapes (stirrup)
cerebellum of the brain
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Chapter 8: Special Senses
BSRT II-A | 2022-2023

 Anatomy of the maculae

o Hair cells are embedded in the otolithic
membrane
o Otoliths (tiny stones) float in a gel around
hair cells
o Movements cause otoliths to roll and bend
hair cells

HEARING
 Spiral organ of Corti
o Located within the cochlear duct
o Receptors = hair cells on the basilar
membrane
o Gel-like tectorial membrane is capable of
bending hair cells
o Cochlear nerve attached to hair cells
transmits nerve impulses to auditory
DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM cortex on temporal lobe
 Crista ampullaris
o Responds to angular or rotational
movements of the head
o Located in the ampulla of each
semicircular canal
o Tuft of hair cells covered with cupula
(gelatinous cap)
o If the head moves, the cupula drags
against the endolymph
o Hair cells are stimulated, and the impulse
travels the vestibular nerve to the
cerebellum
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Chapter 8: Special Senses
BSRT II-A | 2022-2023
 Pathway of vibrations from sound waves
o Move by the ossicles from the eardrum to
the oval window
o Sound is amplified by the ossicles
o Pressure waves cause vibrations in the
basilar membrane in the spiral organ of
Corti
o Hair cells of the tectorial membrane are
bent when the basilar membrane vibrates
against it
o An action potential starts in the cochlear
nerve (cranial nerve VIII), and the impulse
travels to the temporal lobe
 High-pitched sounds disturb the short, stiff
fibers of the basilar membrane
o Receptor cells close to the oval
window are stimulated
 Low-pitched sounds disturb the long, floppy
fibers of the basilar membrane
o Specific hair cells further along the
cochlea are affected
HEARING AND EQUILIBRIUM DEFICITS
 Deafness is any degree of hearing loss
o Conduction deafness results when the
transmission of sound vibrations through
the external and middle ears is hindered
o Sensorineural deafness results from
damage to the nervous system structures
involved in hearing
o Ménière’s syndrome affects the inner ear
and causes progressive deafness and
perhaps vertigo (sensation of spinning)
PART III: CHEMICAL SENSES: SMELL AND TASTE
 Chemoreceptors
o Stimulated by chemicals in solution
o Taste has five types of receptors
o Smell can differentiate a wider range of
chemicals
 Both senses complement each other and
respond to many of the same stimuli
OLFACTORY RECEPTORS AND THE SENSE OF SMELL
 Olfactory receptors are in roof of nasal cavity
o Olfactory receptor cells (neurons) with
long cilia known as olfactory hairs detect
chemicals
o Chemicals must be dissolved in mucus for
detection by chemoreceptors called
olfactory receptors
 Impulses are transmitted via the olfactory
filaments to the olfactory nerve (cranial nerve I)
 Smells are interpreted in the olfactory cortex
TASTE BUDS AND THE SENSE OF TASTE
 Taste buds house the receptor organs
 Locations of taste buds
o Most are on the tongue
o Soft palate
o Superior part of the pharynx
o Cheeks
 The tongue is covered with projections called
papillae that contain taste buds
o Vallate (circumvallate) papillae
o Fungiform papillae
o Filiform papillae
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Chapter 8: Special Senses
BSRT II-A | 2022-2023

 The eye continues to grow and mature until age

 Gustatory cells are the taste receptors
o Possess gustatory hairs (long microvilli)
o Gustatory hairs protrude through a taste
pore
o Hairs are stimulated by chemicals
dissolved in saliva
8 or 9
 Age-related eye issues
o Presbyopia—“old vision” results from
decreasing lens elasticity that
accompanies aging
 Causes difficulty to focus for close
vision
o Lacrimal glands become less active
o Lens becomes discolored
o Dilator muscles of iris become less
efficient, causing pupils to remain
constricted
 The newborn infant can hear sounds, but initial
responses are reflexive
 By the toddler stage, the child is listening
critically and beginning to imitate sounds as
language development begins
 Age-related ear problems
o Presbycusis—type of sensorineural
deafness that may result from otosclerosis
 Otosclerosis—ear ossicles fuse
o Congenital ear problems usually result
from missing pinnas and closed or missing
external acoustic meatuses
 Taste and smell are most acute at birth and
decrease in sensitivity after age 40 as the
number of olfactory and gustatory receptors
decreases

 Impulses are carried to the gustatory complex

by several cranial nerves because taste buds are
found in different areas
o Facial nerve (cranial nerve VII)
o Glossopharyngeal nerve (cranial nerve IX)
o Vagus nerve (cranial nerve X)
 Taste buds are replaced frequently by basal cells
 Five basic taste sensations
o Sweet receptors respond to sugars,
saccharine, some amino acids
o Sour receptors respond to H+ ions or acids
o Bitter receptors respond to alkaloids
o Salty receptors respond to metal ions
o Umami receptors respond to the amino
acid glutamate or the beefy taste of meat

PART IV: DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF THE SPECIAL

SENSES
 Special sense organs are formed early in
embryonic development
 Maternal infections during the first 5 or 6 weeks
of pregnancy may cause visual abnormalities as
well as sensorineural deafness in the developing
child
 Vision requires the most learning
 The infant has poor visual acuity (is farsighted)
and lacks color vision and depth perception at
birth