ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Chapter 7: The Nervous System

BSRT II-A | 2022-2023

CHAPTER 7: NERVOUS SYSTEM ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

I. Functions of the Nervous System  Nervous system classifications are based on:
II. Organization of the Nervous System o Structures (structural classification)
a. Structural Classification o Activities (functional classification)
b. Functional Classification
III. Nervous Tissue: Support Cells
IV. Nervous Tissue: Structure & Function
a. Supporting Cells
b. Neurons
V. Central Nervous System
a. Functional Anatomy of the Brain
b. Protection of the Central Nervous
System
c. Brain Dysfunction
d. Spinal Cord
VI. Peripheral Nervous System
a. Structure of a Nerve
b. Cranial Nerves
c. Cranial Nerves Mnemonic Device
d. Spinal Nerves
e. Autonomic Nervous System
i. Somatic and Autonomic
Nervous Systems Compared
ii. Anatomy of the
Parasympathetic Division
iii. Anatomy of the Sympathetic
Division STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION
iv. Autonomic Functioning  Central nervous system (CNS)
VII. Developmental Aspects of the Nervous o Organs
System  Brain
 Spinal cord
FUNCTIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM o Function
 Integration; command center
1. Sensory input—gathering information  Interprets incoming sensory
 Sensory receptors monitor changes, called information
stimuli, occurring inside and outside the  Issues outgoing instructions
body  Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
2. Integration o Nerves extending from the brain and
 Nervous system processes and interprets spinal cord
sensory input and decides whether action  Spinal nerves—carry impulses to
is needed and from the spinal cord
3. Motor output  Cranial nerves—carry impulses to
 A response, or effect, activates muscles or and from the brain
glands o Functions
 Serve as communication lines
among sensory organs, the brain
and spinal cord, and glands or
muscles

FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION
 Sensory (afferent) division
o Nerve fibers that carry information to the
central nervous system
 Somatic sensory (afferent) fibers
carry information from the skin,
skeletal muscles, and joints
 Visceral sensory (afferent) fibers
carry information from visceral
organs
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Chapter 7: The Nervous System
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 Motor (efferent) division

o Nerve fibers that carry impulses away
from the central nervous system organs to
effector organs (muscles and glands)
o Two subdivisions
 Somatic nervous system = voluntary
 Consciously (voluntarily)
controls skeletal muscles
 Autonomic nervous system =
involuntary
 Automatically controls  CNS glial cells: ependymal cells
smooth and cardiac muscles o Line cavities of the brain and spinal cord
and glands o Cilia assist with circulation of
 Further divided into the cerebrospinal fluid
sympathetic and
parasympathetic nervous
systems

NERVOUS TISSUE: SUPPORT CELLS

 Support cells in the CNS are grouped together as
neuroglia
 General functions
o Support
o Insulate
o Protect neurons

NERVOUS TISSUE: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION  CNS glial cells: oligodendrocytes

 Nervous tissue is made up of two principal cell o Wrap around nerve fibers in the central
types nervous system
o Supporting cells (called neuroglia, or glial o Produce myelin sheaths
cells, or glia)
 Resemble neurons
 Unable to conduct nerve impulses
 Never lose the ability to divide
o Neurons

NERVOUS TISSUE: SUPPORTING CELLS

 CNS glial cells: astrocytes
o Abundant, star-shaped cells
o Brace and anchor neurons to blood
capillaries
o Determine permeability and exchanges
between blood capillaries and neurons  PNS glial cells
o Protect neurons from harmful substances o Schwann cells
in blood  Form myelin sheath around nerve
o Control the chemical environment of the fibers in the PNS
brain o Satellite cells
 Protect and cushion neuron cell
bodies

 CNS glial cells: microglia

o Spiderlike phagocytes
o Monitor health of nearby neurons
o Dispose of debris
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Chapter 7: The Nervous System
BSRT II-A | 2022-2023
NERVOUS TISSUE: NEURONS
 Neurons = nerve cells
o Cells specialized to transmit messages
(nerve impulses)
o Major regions of all neurons
 Cell body—nucleus and metabolic
center of the cell
 Processes—fibers that extend from
the cell body
 Cell body is the metabolic center of the neuron
o Nucleus with large nucleolus
o Nissl bodies ▪
 Rough endoplasmic reticulum
o Neurofibrils
 Intermediate filaments that
maintain cell shape
 Processes (fibers)
o Dendrites—conduct impulses toward the
cell body
 Neurons may have hundreds of
dendrites
o Axons—conduct impulses away from the
cell body
 Neurons have only one axon arising
from the cell body at the axon
hillock
 End in axon terminals, which
contain vesicles with
neurotransmitters
 Axon terminals are separated from
the next neuron by a gap
o Synaptic cleft—gap between axon
terminals and the next neuron
o Synapse—functional junction between
nerves where a nerve impulse is
transmitted
 Myelin
o White, fatty material covering axons
o Protects and insulates fibers
o Speeds nerve impulse transmission
 Myelin sheaths
o Schwann cells—wrap axons in a jelly roll–
like fashion (PNS) to form the myelin
sheath
 Neurilemma—part of the Schwann
cell external to the myelin sheath
 Nodes of Ranvier—gaps in myelin
sheath along the axon
o Oligodendrocytes—produce myelin
sheaths around axons of the CNS
 Lack a neurilemma
 Terminology
o Nuclei—clusters of cell bodies in the CNS
o Ganglia—collections of cell bodies outside
the CNS in the PNS
o Tracts—bundles of nerve fibers in the CNS
o Nerves—bundles of nerve fibers in the PNS
o White matter—collections of myelinated
fibers (tracts)
o Gray matter—mostly unmyelinated fibers
and cell bodies
 Functional classification
o Sensory (afferent) neurons
 Carry impulses from the sensory
receptors to the CNS
 Receptors include:
 Cutaneous sense organs in
skin
 Proprioceptors in muscles
and tendons
o Motor (efferent) neurons
 Carry impulses from the central
nervous system to viscera and/or
muscles and glands
o Interneurons (association neurons)
 Cell bodies located in the CNS
 Connect sensory and motor neurons
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Chapter 7: The Nervous System
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 Structural classification
o Based on number of processes extending
from the cell body
o Multipolar neurons—many extensions
from the cell body
 All motor and interneurons are
multipolar
 Most common structural type

o Bipolar neurons—one axon and one

dendrite
 Located in special sense organs,
such as nose and eye
 Rare in adults

o Unipolar neurons—have a short single

process leaving the cell body
 Sensory neurons found in PNS
ganglia
 Conduct impulses both toward and
away from the cell body

 Functional properties of neurons

o Irritability
 Ability to respond to a stimulus and
convert it to a nerve impulse
o Conductivity
 Ability to transmit the impulse to
other neurons, muscles, or glands
 Electrical conditions of a resting neuron’s
membrane
o The plasma membrane at rest is inactive
(polarized)
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Chapter 7: The Nervous System
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o Fewer positive ions are inside the neuron’s

o plasma membrane than outside
 K + is the major positive ion inside
the cell
 Na+ is the major positive ion outside
the cell
o As long as the inside of the membrane is
more negative (fewer positive ions) than
the outside, the cell remains inactive
o Initial conditions of sodium and
potassium ions are restored using the
sodium-potassium pump
o This pump, using ATP, restores the
original configuration
o Three sodium ions are ejected from the
cell while two potassium ions are returned
to the cell
o Until repolarization is complete, a neuron
cannot conduct another nerve impulse

 Action potential initiation and generation

o A stimulus changes the permeability of the
neuron’s membrane to sodium ions
o Sodium channels now open, and sodium
(Na+ ) diffuses into the neuron
o The inward rush of sodium ions changes
the polarity at that site and is called  Transmission of the signal at synapses
depolarization o Step 1: When the action potential reaches
the axon terminal, the electrical charge
opens calcium channels

o A graded potential (localized

depolarization) exists where the inside of
the membrane is more positive and the
outside is less positive
o If the stimulus is strong enough and
sodium influx great enough, local
depolarization activates the neuron to
conduct an action potential (nerve
impulse)

o Step 2: Calcium, in turn, causes the tiny

vesicles containing the neurotransmitter
chemical to fuse with the axonal
 Propagation of the action potential membrane
o If enough sodium enters the cell, the
action potential (nerve impulse) starts and
is propagated over the entire axon
o All-or-none response means the nerve
impulse either is propagated or is not
o Fibers with myelin sheaths conduct nerve
impulses more quickly

 Repolarization
o Membrane permeability changes again—
becoming impermeable to sodium ions
and permeable to potassium ions o Step 3: The entry of calcium into the axon
o Potassium ions rapidly diffuse out of the terminal causes porelike openings to
neuron, repolarizing the membrane form, releasing the neurotransmitter into
o Repolarization involves restoring the the synaptic cleft
inside of the membrane to a negative
charge and the outer surface to a positive
charge
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Chapter 7: The Nervous System
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 Reflexes are rapid, predictable, and involuntary

responses to stimuli
 Reflexes occur over neural pathways called
reflex arcs
 Two types of reflexes
o Somatic reflexes
o Autonomic reflexes

o Step 4: The neurotransmitter molecules  Somatic reflexes

diffuse across the synaptic cleft and bind o Reflexes that stimulate the skeletal
to receptors on the membrane of the next muscles
neuron o Involuntary, although skeletal muscle is
normally under voluntary control
o Example: pulling your hand away from a
hot object
 Autonomic reflexes
o Regulate the activity of smooth muscles,
the heart, and glands
o Example: regulation of smooth muscles,
heart and blood pressure, glands,
digestive system
 Five elements of a reflex arc
1. Sensory receptor—reacts to a stimulus
2. Sensory neuron—carries message to the
integration center
3. Integration center (CNS)—processes
o Step 5: If information and directs motor
enough output
neurotransmitter is 4. Motor neuron—carries message to an
released, a graded effector
potential will be 5. Effector organ—is the muscle or gland to
generated be stimulated
 Eventually an
action potential
(nerve impulse) will
occur in the neuron
beyond the synapse

 Two-neuron reflex arcs

o Step 6: The o Simplest type
electrical changes o Example: patellar (knee-jerk) reflex
prompted by
neurotransmitter
binding are brief
o The
neurotransmitter
is quickly
removed from the
synapse either by
reuptake or by
enzymatic activity
o Transmission  Three-neuron reflex arcs
of an impulse is electrochemical o Consists of five elements: receptor,
 Transmission down neuron is sensory neuron, interneuron, motor
electrical neuron, and effector
 Transmission to next neuron is o Example: flexor (withdrawal) reflex
chemical
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Chapter 7: The Nervous System
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CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS)

 Functional anatomy of the brain

o Brain regions
 Cerebral hemispheres
 Diencephalon
 Brain stem
 Cerebellum

FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY OF THE BRAIN

 Cerebral hemispheres are paired (left and right)
superior parts of the brain
o Include more than half of the brain mass
o The surface is made of ridges (gyri) and
grooves (sulci)
o Fissures are deeper grooves
o Lobes are named for the cranial bones
that lie over them
 Three main regions of cerebral hemisphere
1. Cortex is superficial gray matter
2. White matter
3. Basal nuclei are deep pockets of gray
matter

 Cerebral cortex
o Primary somatic sensory area
 Located in parietal lobe posterior to
central sulcus
 Receives impulses from the body’s
sensory receptors
 Pain, temperature, light touch
(except for special senses)
o Sensory homunculus is a spatial map
o Left side of the primary somatic sensory
area receives impulses from right side
(and vice versa)
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Chapter 7: The Nervous System
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 Cerebral white matter

o Composed of fiber tracts deep to the gray
 Cerebral areas involved in special senses
o Visual area (occipital lobe)
o Auditory area (temporal lobe)
o Olfactory area (temporal lobe)
 Cerebral cortex (continued)
o Primary motor area
 Located anterior to the central
sulcus in the frontal lobe
 Allows us to consciously move
skeletal muscles
 Motor neurons form pyramidal
(corticospinal) tract, which
descends to spinal cord
 Motor homunculus is a spatial map
matter
 Corpus callosum connects
hemispheres
 Tracts, such as the corpus callosum,
are known as commissures
 Association fiber tracts connect
areas within a hemisphere
 Projection fiber tracts connect the
cerebrum with lower CNS centers

 Basal nuclei
o “Islands” of gray matter buried deep
within the white matter of the cerebrum
o Regulate voluntary motor activities by
modifying instructions sent to skeletal
muscles by the primary motor cortex
 Diencephalon
o Sits on top of the brain stem
o Enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres
o Made of three structures
1. Thalamus
2. Hypothalamus
3. Epithalamus

 Cerebral cortex (continued)

o Broca’s area (motor speech area)
 Involved in our ability to speak
 Usually in left hemisphere
o Other specialized areas
 Anterior association area (frontal
lobe)
 Posterior association area
(posterior cortex) ▪ Speech area (for
sounding out words)
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Chapter 7: The Nervous System
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 Diencephalon: thalamus
o Encloses the third ventricle
o Relay station for sensory impulses passing
upward to the cerebral cortex
o Transfers impulses to the correct part of
the cortex for localization and
interpretation
 Diencephalon: hypothalamus
o Makes up the floor of the diencephalon
o Important autonomic nervous system
center
 Regulates body temperature
 Regulates water balance
 Regulates metabolism
o Houses the limbic center for emotions
o Regulates the nearby pituitary gland
o Houses mammillary bodies for olfaction
(smell)
 Diencephalon: epithalamus
o Forms the roof of the third ventricle
o Houses the pineal body (an endocrine
gland)
o Includes the choroid plexus—forms
cerebrospinal fluid
 Brain stem
o Attaches to the spinal cord
o Parts of the brain stem
1. Midbrain
2. Pons
3. Medulla oblongata
 Brain stem: midbrain
o Extends from the mammillary bodies to
the pons inferiorly
o Cerebral aqueduct (tiny canal) connects
the third and fourth ventricles
o Two bulging fiber tracts, cerebral
peduncles, convey ascending and
descending impulses
o Four rounded protrusions, corpora
quadrigemina, are visual and auditory
reflex centers
 Brain stem: pons
o The rounded structure protruding just
below the midbrain
o Mostly composed of fiber tracts
o Includes nuclei involved in the control of
breathing
 Brain stem: pons
o The rounded structure protruding just
below the midbrain
o Mostly composed of fiber tracts
o Includes nuclei involved in the control of
breathing
 Brain stem: medulla oblongata
o The most inferior part of the brain stem
that merges into the spinal cord
o Includes important fiber tracts
o Contains important centers that control:
 Heart rate
 Blood pressure
 Breathing
 Swallowing
 Vomiting
o Fourth ventricle lies posterior to pons and
medulla
 Brain stem: reticular formation
o Diffuse mass of gray matter along the
brain stem
o Involved in motor control of visceral
organs
o Reticular activating system (RAS)
 Plays a role in awake/sleep cycles
and consciousness
 Filter for incoming sensory
information
 Cerebrum
o Two hemispheres with convoluted
surfaces
o Outer cortex of gray matter and inner
region of white matter
o Controls balance
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o Provides precise timing for skeletal

muscle activity and coordination of body
movements

PROTECTION OF THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM CEREBROSPINAL FLUID

 Similar to blood plasma in composition
 Three additional protections for the CNS: the  Formed continually by the choroid plexuses
meninges, cerebrospinal fluid, and blood-brain o Choroid plexuses—capillaries in the
barrier ventricles of the brain
 CSF forms a watery cushion to protect the brain
MENINGES and spinal cord
 Dura mater  Circulated in the arachnoid space, ventricles,
o Outermost leathery layer and central canal of the spinal cord
o Double-layered external covering  Cerebrospinal fluid circulation
 Periosteum—attached to inner 1. CSF is produced by the choroid plexus
surface of the skull of each ventricle
 Meningeal layer—outer covering of 2. CSF flows through the ventricles and
the brain into the subarachnoid space via the
o Folds inward in several areas median and lateral apertures. Some
 Falx cerebri CSF flows through the central canal of
 Tentorium cerebelli the spinal cord
 Arachnoid layer 3. CSF flows through the subarachnoid
o Middle layer space
o Weblike extensions span the 4. CSF is absorbed into the dural venous
subarachnoid space to attach it to the pia sinuses via the arachnoid villi
mater
o Subarachnoid space is filled with
cerebrospinal fluid
o Arachnoid granulations protrude through
the dura mater and absorb cerebrospinal
fluid into venous blood
 Pia mater
o Internal layer
o Clings to the surface of the brain and
spinal cord
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Chapter 7: The Nervous System
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 Gray matter of the spinal cord and spinal roots

o Internal gray matter is mostly cell bodies
BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER o Dorsal (posterior) horns house
 Includes the least permeable capillaries of the interneurons
body  Receive information from sensory
 Allows water, glucose, and amino acids to pass neurons in the dorsal root; cell
through the capillary walls bodies housed in dorsal root
 Excludes many potentially harmful substances ganglion
from entering the brain, such as wastes o Anterior (ventral) horns house motor
 Useless as a barrier against some substances neurons of the somatic (voluntary)
nervous system
BRAIN DYSFUNCTIONS  Send information out ventral root
o Gray matter surrounds the central canal,
 Traumatic brain injuries
which is filled with cerebrospinal fluid
o Concussion
 White matter of the spinal cord
 Slight brain injury
o Composed of myelinated fiber tracts
 Typically little permanent brain
o Three regions: dorsal, lateral, ventral
damage occurs
columns
o Contusion
o Sensory (afferent) tracts conduct impulses
 Marked nervous tissue destruction
toward brain
occurs
o Motor (efferent) tracts carry impulses from
 Coma may occur
brain to skeletal muscles
o Death may occur after head blows due to:
 Intracranial hemorrhage
 Cerebral edema
 Cerebrovascular accident (CVA), or stroke
o Results when blood circulation to a brain
area is blocked and brain tissue dies
o Loss of some functions or death may
result
 Hemiplegia—one-sided paralysis
 Aphasia—damage to speech center
in left hemisphere
 Transient ischemic attack (TIA)
o Temporary brain ischemia (restriction of
blood flow)
o Numbness, temporary paralysis, impaired
speech

SPINAL CORD
 Extends from the foramen magnum of the skull
to the first or second lumbar vertebra
 Cauda equina is a collection of spinal nerves at
the inferior end
 Provides a two-way conduction pathway to and
from the brain
 31 pairs of spinal nerves arise from the spinal
cord
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Chapter 7: The Nervous System
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PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS)

 PNS consists of nerves and ganglia outside the
CNS
STRUCTURE OF A NERVE
 Nerves are bundles of neurons found outside the
CNS
 Endoneurium is a connective tissue sheath that
surrounds each fiber
 Perineurium wraps groups of fibers bound into a
fascicle
 Epineurium binds groups of fascicles

 Mixed nerves
o Contain both sensory and motor fibers
 Sensory (afferent) nerves
o Carry impulses toward the CNS
 Motor (efferent) nerves
o Carry impulses away from the CNS

CRANIAL NERVES
 12 pairs of nerves serve mostly the head and
neck
 Only the pair of vagus nerves extends to thoracic
and abdominal cavities
 Most are mixed nerves, but three are sensory
only
1. Optic
2. Olfactory
3. Vestibulocochlear

CRANIAL NERVES MNEMONIC DEVICE

 Oh – Olfactory
 Oh – Optic
 Oh – Oculomotor
 To – Trochlear
 Touch – Trigeminal
 And – Abducens
 Feel – Facial
 Very – Vestibulocochlear
 Green – Glossopharyngeal
 Vegetables – Vagus
 A – Accessory
 H – Hypoglossal
 The first letter of each word in the saying is the first
letter of the cranial nerve to be remembered: “Oh,
oh, oh, to touch and feel very good velvet at home.”
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Chapter 7: The Nervous System
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SPINAL NERVES
 31 pairs
 Formed by the combination of the ventral and
dorsal roots of the spinal cord
 Named for the region of the spinal cord from
which they arise

 Spinal nerves divide soon after leaving the

spinal cord into a dorsal ramus and a ventral
ramus
o Ramus—branch of a spinal nerve; contains
both motor and sensory fibers
o Dorsal rami—serve the skin and muscles
of the posterior trunk
o Ventral rami (T1 –T12) —form the
intercostal nerves that supply muscles
and skin of the ribs and trunk
o Ventral rami (except T1 –T12)—form a
complex of networks (plexus) for the
anterior

 Plexus—networks of nerves serving motor and

sensory needs of the limbs
 Form from ventral rami of spinal nerves in the
cervical, lumbar, and sacral regions
 Four plexuses
1. Cervical
2. Brachial
3. Lumbar
4. Sacral
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 Preganglionic neurons synapse with terminal

ganglia; from there, postganglionic axons
extend to organs that are served

ANATOMY OF THE SYMPATHETIC DIVISION

 Sympathetic division is also known as the
thoracolumbar division
 Preganglionic neurons originate from T1
through L2
o Axons pass through a ramus
communicans to enter a sympathetic
trunk ganglion
o Sympathetic trunk, or chain, lies near the
spinal cord
 After synapsing at the ganglion, the axon may
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM synapse with a second neuron at the same or
different level
 Motor subdivision of the PNS
 Or, the preganglionic neuron may pass through
o Consists only of motor nerves
the ganglion without synapsing and form part of
o Controls the body automatically (and is
the splanchnic nerves
also known as the involuntary nervous
o Splanchnic nerves travel to the collateral
system)
ganglion
o Regulates cardiac and smooth muscles
o Collateral ganglia serve the abdominal
and glands
and pelvic organs
SOMATIC AND AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEMS
COMPARED
 Somatic nervous system
o Motor neuron cell bodies originate inside
the CNS
o Axons extends to skeletal muscles that are
served
 Autonomic nervous system
o Chain of two motor neurons
 Preganglionic neuron is in the brain
or spinal cord
 Postganglionic neuron extends to
the organ
o Has two arms
 Sympathetic division
 Parasympathetic division

AUTONOMIC FUNCTIONING
ANATOMY OF THE PARASYMPATHETIC DIVISION
 Body organs served by the autonomic nervous
 Parasympathetic division is also known as the
system receive fibers from both divisions
craniosacral division
o Exceptions: blood vessels, structures of
 Preganglionic neurons originate in:
the skin, some glands, and the adrenal
o Cranial nerves III, VII, IX, and X
medulla
o S2 through S4 regions of the spinal cord
o These exceptions receive only
sympathetic fibers
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Chapter 7: The Nervous System
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 When body divisions serve the same organ, they
cause antagonistic effects due to different
neurotransmitters
o Parasympathetic (cholinergic) fibers
release acetylcholine
o Sympathetic postganglionic (adrenergic)
fibers release norepinephrine
o Preganglionic axons of both divisions
release acetycholine
 Sympathetic—“fight or flight” division
o Response to unusual stimulus when
emotionally or physically stressed or
threatened
o Takes over to increase activities
o Remember as the “E” division
 Exercise
 Excitement
 Emergency
 Embarrassment
 Parasympathetic—“housekeeping” activites
o “Rest-and-digest” system
o Conserves energy
o Maintains daily necessary body functions
o Remember as the “D” division
 Digestion
 Defecation
 Diuresis
DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
 The nervous system is formed during the first
month of embryonic development
 Any maternal infection can have extremely
harmful effects
 Oxygen deprivation destroys brain cells
 The hypothalamus is one of the last areas of the
brain to develop
 Severe congenital brain diseases include:
o Cerebral palsy
o Anencephaly
o Hydrocephalus
o Spina bifida
 Premature babies have trouble regulating body
temperature because the hypothalamus is one
of the last brain areas to mature prenatally
 Development of motor control indicates the
progressive myelination and maturation of a
child’s nervous system
 Brain growth ends in young adulthood. Neurons
die throughout life and are not replaced; thus,
brain mass declines with age
 Orthostatic hypotension is low blood pressure
due to changes in body position
 Healthy aged people maintain nearly optimal
intellectual function
 Disease—particularly cardiovascular disease—is
the major cause of declining mental function
with age
o Arteriosclerosis is decreased elasticity of
blood vessels