ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Chapter 9: Endocrine System
BSRT II-A | 2022-2023
CHAPTER 9: ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
I. The Endocrine System
a. The Chemistry of Hormones
b. Hormone Action
c. Stimuli for Control of Hormone
Release
II. The Major Endocrine Organs
a. Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus
b. Pineal Gland
c. Thyroid Gland
d. Parathyroid Glands
e. Thymus
f. Adrenal Gland
g. Pancreatic Islets
h. Gonads
III. Other Hormone-Producing Tissues and
Organs
IV. Developmental Aspects of the Endocrine
System
V. Disorders of the Endocrine System
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
 Second controlling system of the body
o Nervous system is the fast-control system
 Uses chemical messengers (hormones) that are
released into the blood
 Hormones control several major processes
o Reproduction
o Growth and development
o Mobilization of body defenses
o Maintenance of much of homeostasis
o Regulation of metabolism
 Hormones are produced by specialized cells
 Cells secrete hormones into extracellular fluids
 Blood transfers hormones to target sites
 These hormones regulate the activity of other
cells
 Endocrinology is the scientific study of
hormones and endocrine organs
THE CHEMISTRY OF HORMONES
 Hormones are classified chemically as:
o Amino acid–based, which includes:
 Proteins
 Peptides
 Amines
o Steroids—made from cholesterol
o Prostaglandins—made from highly active
lipids that act as local hormones
HORMONE ACTION
 Hormones affect only certain tissues or organs
(target cells or target organs)
 Target cells must have specific protein receptors
 Hormone binding alters cellular activity
 Hormones arouse cells or alter cellular activity
 Typically, one or more of the following occurs:
1. Change plasma membrane permeability or
membrane potential by opening or closing
ion channels
2. Activate or inactivate enzymes
3. Stimulate or inhibit cell division
4. Promote or inhibit secretion of a product
5. Turn on or turn off transcription of certain
genes
 Hormones act by two mechanisms
1. Direct gene activation
 Used by steroid hormones and thyroid
hormone
2. Second-messenger system
 Used by protein and peptide hormones
 Direct gene activation
1. Steroid hormones diffuse through the
plasma membrane of target cells
2. Once inside the cell, the hormone enters
the nucleus
3. Then, the hormone binds to a specific
protein within the nucleus
4. Hormone-receptor complex binds to
specific sites on the cell’s DNA
5. Certain genes are activated to transcribe
messenger RNA
6. New proteins are synthesized
 Second-messenger system
1. Hormone (first messenger) binds to a
membrane receptor
2. Activated receptor sets off a series of
reactions that activates an enzyme
3. Enzyme catalyzes a reaction that produces
a second-messenger molecule (such as
cyclic AMP, known as cAMP)
4. Oversees additional intracellular changes
to promote a specific response in the
target cell
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Chapter 9: Endocrine System
BSRT II-A | 2022-2023

STIMULI FOR CONTROL OF HORMONE RELEASE

 Hormone levels in the blood are maintained
mostly by negative feedback
 A stimulus or low hormone levels in the blood
trigger the release of more hormone
 Hormone release stops once an appropriate
level in the blood is reached
 The stimuli that activate endocrine glands fall
into three major categories
1. Hormonal
2. Humoral
3. Neural
 Hormonal stimuli
o Most common
category of
stimulus
o Endocrine
organs are
activated by other THE MAJOR ENDOCRINE ORGANS
hormones
o Example:  Hypothalamus
Hormones of the  Pituitary gland
hypothalamus  Pineal gland
stimulate the  Thyroid gland
anterior pituitary  Parathyroid glands
to secrete its  Thymus
hormones  Adrenal glands
 Pancreas
 Gonads (testes and ovaries)

 Humoral stimuli
o Changing blood levels of certain ions and
nutrients stimulate
hormone release
 Humoral
indicates various
body fluids, such as
blood and bile
o Examples:
 Parathyroid
hormone and
calcitonin are
produced in
response to
changing levels of
blood calcium
levels
 Insulin is  Some glands have purely endocrine functions
produced in o Anterior pituitary, thyroid, adrenals,
response to parathyroids
changing levels of  Endocrine glands are ductless glands
blood glucose levels  Hormones are released directly into blood or
 lymph
 Neural stimuli  Other glands are mixed glands, with both
o Nerve fibers stimulate hormone release endocrine and exocrine functions (pancreas,
o Most are under the control of the gonads)
sympathetic nervous system
o Examples: Sympathetic stimulation of the
adrenal medulla to release epinephrine
and norepinephrine
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Chapter 9: Endocrine System
BSRT II-A | 2022-2023
PITUITARY GLAND AND HYPOTHALAMUS
 Pituitary gland
o Pea-sized gland that hangs by a stalk from
the hypothalamus in the brain
o Protected by the sella turcica of the
sphenoid bone
o Has two functional lobes
 Anterior pituitary—glandular tissue
 Posterior pituitary—nervous tissue
o Often called the “master endocrine gland”
 Hypothalamus produces releasing hormones
and inhibiting hormones
o These hormones are released into portal
circulation, which connects hypothalamus
to anterior pituitary
 Hypothalamus also makes two hormones:
oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone
o Carried to posterior pituitary via
neurosecretory cells for storage
 Posterior pituitary
o Does not make the hormones it releases
o Stores hormones made by the
hypothalamus
o Two hormones released
 Oxytocin
Stimulates contractions of the
uterus during labor, sexual
relations, and breastfeeding
Causes milk ejection (let-
down reflex) in a
breastfeeding woman
 Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Inhibits urine production
(diuresis) by promoting water
reabsorption by the kidneys
Urine volume decreases,
blood pressure increases
In large amounts, causes
constriction of arterioles,
leading to increased blood
pressure (the reason why ADH
is known as vasopressin)
Alcohol inhibits ADH secretion
 Six anterior pituitary hormones
o Two hormones affect nonendocrine
targets
1. Growth hormone
2. Prolactin
o Four are tropic hormones
1. Follicle-stimulating hormone
2. Luteinizing hormone
3. Thyrotropic hormone
4. Adrenocorticotropic hormone
 All anterior pituitary hormones:
o Are proteins (or peptides)
o Act through second-messenger systems
o Are regulated by hormonal stimuli
o Are regulated mostly by negative feedback
 Growth hormone (GH)
o General metabolic hormone
o Major effects are directed to growth of
skeletal muscles and long bones
o Plays a role in determining final body size
o Causes amino acids to be built into
proteins
o Causes fats to be broken down for a
source of energy
 Prolactin (PRL)
o Stimulates and maintains milk production
following childbirth
o Function in males is unknown
 Gonadotropic hormones
o Regulate hormonal activity of the gonads
 Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
 Stimulates follicle
development in ovaries
 Stimulates sperm
development in testes
 Luteinizing hormone (LH)
 Triggers ovulation of an egg in
females
 Stimulates testosterone
production in males
 Thyrotropic hormone (TH), also called thyroid-
stimulating hormone (TSH)
o Influences growth and activity of the
thyroid gland
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Chapter 9: Endocrine System
BSRT II-A | 2022-2023

 Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

o Regulates endocrine activity of the
adrenal cortex

PINEAL GLAND
 Hangs from the roof of the third ventricle of the
brain
 Secretes melatonin
o Believed to trigger the body’s sleep/wake
cycle
o Believed to coordinate the hormones of
fertility in humans and to inhibit the
reproductive system until maturity occurs

THYROID GLAND
 Found at the base of the throat, inferior to the
PARATHYROID GLANDS
Adam’s apple
 Consists of two lobes and a connecting isthmus  Tiny masses on the posterior of the thyroid
 Follicles are hollow structures that store  Secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH)
colloidal material o Most important regulator of calcium ion
 Produces two hormones (Ca2+) homeostasis of the blood
1. Thyroid hormone o Stimulates osteoclasts to remove calcium
2. Calcitonin from bone
o Hypercalcemic hormone (increases blood
calcium levels)
o Stimulates the kidneys and intestine to
absorb more calcium

 Thyroid hormone
o Major metabolic hormone
o Controls rate of oxidation of glucose to
supply body heat and chemical energy
o Needed for tissue growth and
development
o Composed of two active iodine-containing
hormones
 Thyroxine (T4 )—secreted by thyroid
follicles
 Triiodothyronine (T3 )—conversion
of T4 at target tissues
 Calcitonin
o Decreases blood calcium levels by causing
calcium deposition on bone
o Antagonistic to parathyroid hormone
o Produced by parafollicular cells found
between the follicles
THYMUS
 Located in the upper thorax, posterior to the
sternum
 Largest in infants and children
 Decreases in size throughout adulthood
 Produces a hormone called thymosin
o Matures some types of white blood cells
o Important in developing the immune
system
ADRENAL GLANDS
 Sit on top of the kidneys
 Two regions
1. Adrenal cortex—outer glandular region has
three layers that produce corticosteroids
 Mineralocorticoids are secreted by
outermost layer
 Glucocorticoids are secreted by
middle layer
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Chapter 9: Endocrine System
BSRT II-A | 2022-2023

 Sex hormones are secreted by  Most of the hormones produced are

innermost layer androgens (male sex hormones),
2. Adrenal medulla—inner neural tissue but some estrogens (female sex
region hormones) are also formed
 Hormones of the adrenal cortex  Adrenal medulla
o Mineralocorticoids (mainly aldosterone) o Produces two similar hormones
 Produced in outer adrenal cortex (catecholamines)
 Regulate mineral (salt) content in 1. Epinephrine (adrenaline)
blood, particularly sodium and 2. Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
potassium ions o These hormones prepare the body to deal
 Regulate water and electrolyte with short-term stress (“fight or flight”) by:
balance  Increasing heart rate, blood
 Target organ is the kidney pressure, blood glucose levels
o Release of aldosterone is stimulated by:  Dilating small passageways of lungs
 Humoral factors (fewer sodium ions
or too many potassium ions in the
blood)
 Hormonal stimulation (ACTH)
 Renin and angiotensin II in response
to a drop in blood pressure
o Aldosterone production is inhibited by
atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), a
hormone produced by the heart when
blood pressure is too high

PANCREATIC ISLETS
 Pancreas
o Located in the abdomen, close to stomach
o Glucocorticoids (including cortisone and o Mixed gland, with both endocrine and
cortisol) exocrine functions
 Produced by middle layer of adrenal  The pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans)
cortex produce hormones
 Promote normal cell metabolism o Insulin—produced by beta cells
 Help resist long-term stressors by o Glucagon—produced by alpha cells
increasing blood glucose levels o These hormones are antagonists that
(hyperglycemic hormone) maintain blood sugar homeostasis
 Anti-inflammatory properties
 Released in response to increased
blood levels of ACTH
o Sex hormones
 Produced in the inner layer of the
adrenal cortex
 Small amounts are made
throughout life
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Chapter 9: Endocrine System
BSRT II-A | 2022-2023

GONADS
 Insulin
o Released when blood glucose levels are
high
o Increases the rate of glucose uptake and
metabolism by body cells
o Effects are hypoglycemic
 Glucagon
o Released when blood glucose levels are
low
o Stimulates the liver to release glucose to
blood, thus increasing blood glucose
levels
 Produce sex cells
 Produce sex hormones
 Ovaries
o Female gonads located in the pelvic cavity
o Produce eggs
o Produce two groups of steroid hormones
1. Estrogens
2. Progesterone
 Testes
o Male gonads suspended outside the pelvic
cavity
o Produce sperm
o Produce androgens, such as testosterone
 Estrogens
o Stimulate the development of secondary
female characteristics
o Mature the female reproductive organs
o With progesterone, estrogens also:
 Promote breast development
 Regulate menstrual cycle
 Progesterone
o Acts with estrogen to bring about the
menstrual cycle
o Helps in the implantation of an embryo in
the uterus
o Helps prepare breasts for lactation
 Testes
o Produce several androgens
o Testosterone is the most important
androgen
 Responsible for adult male
secondary sex characteristics
 Promotes growth and maturation of
male reproductive system
 Required for sperm cell production
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Chapter 9: Endocrine System
BSRT II-A | 2022-2023
OTHER HORMONE-PRODUCING TISSUES AND ORGANS
 Other organs that are generally nonendocrine in
function also secrete hormones
o Stomach
o Small intestine
o Kidneys
o Heart
 Placenta
o Produces hormones that maintain
pregnancy
o Some hormones play a part in the delivery
of the baby
o Produces human chorionic gonadotropin
(hCG) in addition to estrogen,
progesterone, and other hormones
o Human placental lactogen (hPL) prepares
the breasts for lactation
o Relaxin relaxes pelvic ligaments and pubic
symphysis for childbirth
DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF THE ENDOCRINE
SYSTEM
 In the absence of disease, efficiency of the
endocrine system remains high until old age
 Decreasing function of female ovaries at
menopause leads to such symptoms as
osteoporosis, increased chance of heart disease,
and possible mood changes
 Efficiency of all endocrine glands gradually
decreases with aging, which leads to a
generalized increase in incidence of:
o Diabetes mellitus
o Immune system depression
o Lower metabolic rate
o Cancer rates in some areas
DISORDERS OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
 DIABETES MILLITUS – a very common disorder of
the endocrine system. It is caused by a deficiency
in insulin production. Other individuals with
diabetes have a decreased number of insulin
receptors on target cells so that glucose is unable
to move into cells even with normal insulin
amounts. This condition results in chronic
elevations of glucose in the blood, a condition
known as hyperglycemia. There are 2 types of
diabetes mellitus:
o Type 1 diabetes – also known as juvenile-
onset diabetes because it usually develops
between 11 and 13 years of age but before
30. It is an autoimmune disease that
destroys the beta cells of the pancreas.
Individuals with this type of diabetes must
take daily insulin injections.
o Type 2 diabetes – known as noninsulin-
dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) and
is the most common form of the disease,
affecting about 90% of people with
diabetes. It usually develops after 40 years
of age and produces milder symptoms.
 DIABETES INSIPIDUS – is caused by either not
enough antidiuretic hormone (ADH) being
produced by the posterior pituitary gland or from
ADH receptors that are not functioning properly.
This is not to be confused with diabetes mellitus.
Individuals with diabetes insipidus excrete
copious amounts of urine and thus become
severely dehydrated.
 SEASONAL AFFECTIVE DISORDER – occurs in
individuals who are sensitive to an
overproduction of melatonin that occurs in
climate zones that have cloudy winter months
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Chapter 9: Endocrine System
BSRT II-A | 2022-2023

with little bright sunshine. It produces a type of

depression. Since winter months also have short
days, this also contributes to more melatonin
being secreted by the pineal gland (less light
equals more melatonin). Individuals with this
condition can be treated with daily doses of
several hours of bright artificial light.
 ALDOSTERONISM – is caused by too much
secretion of aldosterone, one of the
mineralocorticoid hormones from the adrenal
cortex. Symptoms of this condition include high
blood pressure. This results from sodium and
water retention by the kidneys, reduced levels of
potassium in the blood, and an increase in blood
pH.
 CUSHING’S SYNDROME – caused by a long-term
excessive production of cortisol by the adrenal
cortex. Individuals with this condition have
decreased glucose tolerance levels. Symptoms
of the condition include excessive weight around
the waist, and a round moonlike face caused by
the accumulation of excessive adipose tissue on
the trunk and face. The skin may become
abnormally pigmented, causing reddish blotches
on the face of light-skinned individuals.
Individuals with this syndrome are susceptible to
having infections, which may become difficult to
eradicate.
 GRAVE’S DISEASE – is a symptom of
hyperthyroidism. Symptoms include an
abnormal protrusion of the eyeballs and an
enlarged thyroid gland. The disease is more
common in women and appears to be genetic in
origin. It occurs between 30 and 60 years of age.
Other symptoms include weight loss, fatigue,
palpitations of the heart, nervousness, and slight
tremors in the hands. This disease is treated with
drugs or radioactive iodine.
 GOITERS – is an enlargement of the thyroid gland
that results when the diet is deficient in an iodine.
 CRETINISM – a condition characterized by
physical deformity and learning disabilities that
is caused by congenital thyroid deficiency. It
results in dwarfism in which the adult body
proportions remain childlike.