MODULE 4

THE GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT

Knowledge of the gastrointestinal tract (GI) is important to the study of feeds and
feeding because of the influence on the utilization of foods and nutrients. The organs, glands,
and specialized structures of the gastrointestinal tract are concerned with procuring, chewing,
and swallowing food; with the digestion and absorption of nutrients; and with some secretory
and excretory functions.
Digestion may be defined simply as the preparation of food for absorption. In the broad
sense, it may include mechanical forces (chewing or mastication; muscular contractions of GI
tract), chemical action (hydrochloric acid in the stomach; bile in the small intestine), or
hydrolysis of ingesta by enzymes produced in the GI tract or from microorganisms in various
sites in the tract. The overall function of the various digestive processes is to reduce food to a
molecular size or solubility that allows absorption and cellular utilization of the individual
nutrients released in the process.
Absorption consists of the processes that result in the passage of small molecules from
the lumen of the GI tract through the mucosal cells lining the surface of the lumen and into the
blood or lymph systems.

Anatomy and Function of the Gastrointestinal Tract

The GI tract of mammals includes the mouth and associated structures and glands, the
esophagus, the stomach, the small intestine, and the large intestine (including a cecum in some
species). Associated organs that are intimately involved with digestion and absorption are the
liver (secretes bile into the small intestine). The tract itself is essentially a modified tubular
structure used for ingestion and digestion of food and the elimination of some of the wastes of
metabolic activity produced by the animal body. Its ultimate purpose is to provide for the
efficient assimilation of nutrients and to reject dietary constituents unnecessary for or
potentially harmful for the animal.
Types of GI Tracts:
• Nonruminants (monogastric) - mammals with an uncomplicated stomach (one
glandular stomach compartment).
• Ruminants (polygastric) – mammals with multi-compartment stomach.
The following terms are associated with the study of animal digestion:
1. Prehension- taking in of feed or water.
2. Mastication- reduction of feed particle size; generally, by chewing.
3. Deglutition- act of swallowing.
4. Regurgitation- costing up of undigested material.
5. Excretion- removal of wastes.
6. Herbivores- species of animals which are vegetarians and depend entirely upon plants
for food.
 7. Carnivores- species of animals which feed almost entirely upon flesh of other animals
or nonplant materials, e.g., meat, fish, insects.
8. Omnivores- plant and animal eaters.
Classification of animals according to the type of digestive system:
1. Simple monogastric- animals which have a single compartment stomach. They make
very poor use of fibrous feeds, e.g. man, monkey, pig, dog, cat, poultry.
2. Monogastric with functional cecum system- animals with a single compartment
stomach but can make use of fibrous feeds because of the microbial fermentation
processes of the cecum and the large intestine, e.g.horse, rabbit, guinea pig, rat, mouse.
3. Polygastric animals- animals with multicompartment stomach and they can use
effectively high levels of fibrous feeds because of the microbial fermentation processes
of the rumen compartment.

Monogastric Digestive System

1. Swine
a. Mouth- proximal organ of the GIT containing accessory organs.
1. Teeth- prehension and mastication.
2. Tongue- prehension, mixing and deglutition.
3. Salivary glands- secrete fluid called saliva.

b. Esophagus
c. Stomach
d. Small Intestine – divide into three sections:
a. Duodenum- first section (indispensable to life)
➢ Receives secretion from pancreas, liver, intestinal walls.
➢ Active site of digestion.
b. Jejunum- middle section: active in nutrient absorption.
c. Ileum- last section: active in nutrient absorption.

e. Large Intestine- divide into three sections

a. Cecum- first section
b. Colon- middle section
c. Rectum- last section

Functions:
➢ Site of water resorption
➢ Absorption of some mineral elements such as calcium
➢ Storage reservoir of undigested GIT contents
➢ Bacterial fermentation
2. Horse
a. Mouth
1. Prehensive organ include teeth, upper lip and tongue
2. Teeth
➢ Upper jaw is wider than the lower jaw, thus, mastication can occur on
only one side of the mouth at a time.
 3. Saliva
a. Contains no enzyme
b. Secretion is stimulated by scratching of feed on mucus membrane of inner
cheeks.
c. May secrete up to 10 gal/day (mature horse)

b. Esophagus
1. Long tube from mouth to stomach on the left side of the neck
2. Only one-way peristaltic movements, thus it is very difficult for horse to
regurgitate.

c. Stomach- small stomach compared to other species.

d. Small Intestine- same as the pig except that the horse does not have a gall bladder.
e. Large Intestine
1. Accounts for large part of GIT capacity (over 60%)
2. Divided into cecum, large colon, small colon, and rectum
3. Cecum and large colon
➢ Contains an active flora of bacteria similar to the microbial population
in rumen compartment of ruminants.
4. Small colon- primary area of water resorption from intestinal contents.
5. Because the large intestine is usually expanded with ingested material,
impaction may easily occur.
3. Avian Species
a. Mouth
➢ No teeth; does contain tongue and salivary glands.
➢ Beak is adapted for rapidly picking up small particles of feed; beak also
serves to partially reduce feed to a size that may be swallowed.
b. Esophagus- most birds (except insect-eating species) have an enlarged area
in the esophagus referred to as the crop which functions include:
➢ Serves as an ingesta holding and moistening reservoir
➢ Allows breakdown reaction of salivary amylase
➢ Fermentation occurs in some species

c. Proventriculus (glandular stomach)

➢ Site of gastric juice production (HCI and pepsin)
➢ Ingesta passes through rapidly (approximately 14 seconds)

d. Gizzard (ventriculus)
1. Thick muscular walled organ acting to physically reduce particle size of
ingesta (similar to mastication mammals)
2. Normally contains grit (small stones or hard particles) which aids in the
grinding of ingested feeds and grains

e. Small Intestine
1. Absorption and digestion
 f. Ceca and Large Intestines
1. Contains two blind pouches (ceca) as compared to one in mammals.
2. The ceca and large intestine are site of water resorption; some fiber
digestion and water-soluble vitamin synthesis occurs on the ceca
because of bacterial fermentation but at much lower levels than in most
mammals.
3. Large intestine is very short and empties into the cloaca where fecal
material will be voided via the vent.

Ruminant Digestive System

1. Mouth
a. No upper incisors; only an upper dental pad and lower incisors which act in
conjunction with lips and tongue for prehension of feedstuffs.
b. Saliva
• Production is relatively continuous, although greater quantities are produced
when eating and ruminating than when resting (quantity produced may reach
over 12 gal/day in adult cows and 2 gal or more daily in sheep
• Contains no enzymes but provides a source of Cl, P and Na which are utilized
by rumen microorganisms.
• Highly buffered which aids in maintaining an appropriate pH in the rumen.

2. Stomach

Divided into Four (4) compartments

a. Reticulum (honey comb)
• Most cranial compartment and not completely separated from the rumen,
esophagus opening (cardia) is common to both reticulum and rumen
compartments.
• Walls are like honeycomb-like compartments which traps hardware and does
not allow it to proceed through the remainder of the GIT.
• Walls secrete no enzyme.
• Functions in moving ingested feed into the rumen or into the omasum and in the
regurgitation of ingesta during rumination.
b. Rumen (paunch)

• Large, hollow, muscular compartment which almost entirely fills the left side
of the abdominal cavity.
• Walls of the mature animal contain small tonguelike projections called the
papillae which can readily identified by the naked eye. The walls secrete no
enzymes.
• Functions include: storage, soaking, physical mixing and breakdown,
fermentation chamber.
c. Omasum (manyplies)
• Spherical organ fitted with muscular laminae
 • Located to the right of the rumen and reticulum
• Function in reducing particle size of ingesta before it enters the abomasums and
some absorption of water
3. Small and Large intestine
• These parts of the ruminant GIT are similar in structure and function as
discussed with the pig
4. Additional peculiarities to the ruminant digestive system
a. Esophageal groove
• A passageway which extends from the cardia to the omasum, formed by two
heavy muscular folds or lips which can close to direct ingesta from the
esophagus into the omasum directly, or open and permit the ingesta to enter the
rumen and reticulum.
• Functions to allow milk from the suckling animal to bypass the reticulorumen
and escape bacterial fermentation.
b. Rumination
• A process that permits an animal to forage and ingests feed rapidly, then
complete the chewing at a later time; steps include regurgitation of the feed,
remastication, resalivation and finally reswallowing.
c. Eructation (belching of gas)
• Microbial fermentation in the rumen results in the production of large amounts
of gases (carbon dioxide and methane) which must be eliminated.
• Contraction of the upper sacs of the rumen force gases forward and down; the
esophagus dilates and allows the gas to escape.
• Bloat is a common problem in ruminants in which gas cannot escape. This
creates a distention of the rumen which can be visually seen on the left side of
the animal.
Accessory Organs of the Digestive System
1. Pancreas- gland found in the first loop of the duodenum and secretes the hormone insulin
and glucagons and enzymes for digestion.
2. Liver- largest gland of the body
Functions in digestion: secretes bile, detoxification of poisons, breakdown of uric acid,
formation of urea, desaturation of fatty acids.

3. Gall bladder- function as storage place of bile.

• Animals without gall bladder: horse, deer, elk and moose, elephant, giraffe,
rhibnoceros, camels, rats.

4. Peritoneum- serous membrane which covers the abdominal viscera and lines the inner
surface of the abdominal cavity a portion of the pelvic cavity.

5. Mesenteries- double fold of peritoneum, which supports the intestines and attaches it to the
dorsal abdominal wall.
 MODULE 5
NUTRIENT DIGESTION, ABSORPTION AND TRANSPORT
As indicated previously, nutrient digestion involved the conversion of various feed
nutrients into its absorbable forms from the digestive tract. Most of these processes are
accomplished through the action of various enzymes, which are found in the digestive juices.
Enzymes are organic catalysts, which hastens specific organic reactions which result in
the breakdown of the nutrient to basic units (end products).
Digestive juices are fluids secreted into the digestive tract by glands or tissues along
the digestive tract (saliva, gastric juice, bile, pancreatic juice and intestinal juice).
Absorption- the movement of the end products of digestion from the digestive tract into
the blood and/or lymph system. In nonruminants absorption occurs primarily in the small
intestine and large intestine. The villi of the small intestine especially facilitate absorption at
this location. In ruminants, absorption take place largely through the rumen wall. In general,
absorption can take place either by simple diffusion from high concentration (GI tract) to area
of lower concentration (the blood) or active transport which involves the use of a specific
carrier.
All of the end products of digestion, except those of fats and possibly the fat-soluble
vitamins are absorbed directly into the bloodstream. End products of fat digestion are absorbed
into the lymph system through the lacteals of the villi in the form of chyle, which enters the
blood through the thoracic duct and undergoes certain metabolic changes in the liver before
being used in the tissues.
Metabolism occurs only after the basic units of the nutrients are absorbed into the blood.
Metabolism refers to all the chemical reactions performed by the cells to use the basic units of
the nutrients for their specific functions, i.e., glucose for energy or amino acids for protein
synthesis. Generally, the reactions function in series and are described as pathways or cycles
(Embden- Myerhof pathway of glucose metabolism or the TCA or Krebs cycle.
Forms into which a nutrient must be converted in order for it to be absorbed from the
digestive tract is presented in Table 1.
Details of the digestion of nutrients are summarized in Table 2.
Table 1. The end product or basic unit of the nutrient.
Nutrient End Product
Protein Amino Acid
Starch Glucose (nonruminant)
Volatile fatty acids and Lactic Acid (ruminant)
Cellulose Volatile fatty acids
Sucrose Glucose and fructose
Lactose Glucose and galactose
Lipids Fatty acids and glycerol
Mineral Any soluble form
Vitamins Any soluble form
 Table 2. Summary of Digestion
Nutrient Mouth Rumen Stomach/Abomasum Small Intestine Cecum & Large
Intestine
Protein None Some breakdown to Rennin curdles milk; Trypsin (pancreatic Continued action of
amino acids by bacterial pepsin acts on protein to juice) act on protein & trypsin, etc. and the
fermentation some form intermediate protein IPBP to produce other intestinal peptidase
microbial synthesis of breakdown products IPBP & amino acids,
EAA (IPBP), such as proteoses, peptidase (intestinal
polypeptides and peptides. juice, IJ) act on IPBP to
produce amino acids.
Starch Nonruminants, Some starch undergoes None Pancreatic amylase acts Continued action of P.
salivary microbial fermentation to on starch to produce amylase and intestinal
amylase acts form acetic, propionic, maltose. Maltase (IJ) maltase.
on starch to butyric, & other VFA’s acts on maltose to form
produce methane (CH4), CO2 and glucose.
maltose heat
Sucrose None Same as for starch above None Sucrase (IJ) acts on Continued action of
sucrose to form glucose intestinal maltase.
& fructose.
Lactose None Lactose ordinarily not None Lactase (IJ) acts on Continued action of
found in a functioning lactose to form glucose intestinal lactase.
rumen and galactose.
Cellulose None Same as for starch above None None
Fat None Some microbial Gastric lipase acts on Certain compounds of Similar to that in rumen
fermentation of fats to some fat to form FA’s & bile react with fat to but much less
form fatty acids and glycerol form soap & glycerol. P. extensive, except in the
glycerol. Some lipase acts on fat to form horse.
fermentation of glycerol FA’s, glycerol, &
to propionic monoglycerides.
 MODULE 6
FEEDSTUFFS, FEED SUPPLEMENTS AND ADDITIVES
Composition of Animal Feedstuffs
The feed an animal consumes may vary from very simple compounds such as salt
(NaCl) or glucose to extremely complex mixtures provided by some plant and most animal
products. Not all components are usable nutrients. Indeed, some of the material consumed may
be insoluble and/or indigestible, and some may be toxic under certain conditions.
A listing of chemicals (and nutrients) that may be present in the food or feed is presented
in Table 4. The names and terminology are introduced here to facilitate discussions in
succeeding chapters.
Techniques Used in Evaluating Feeds
Efficient utilization of feedstuffs in animal feeding necessities knowledge of their
nutrients composition, the digestibility of nutrients they contain (bioavailability), their ability
to provide energy, the presence of inhibitors or toxin and the need for processing to improve
palatability or nutrients availability. In this section, some of the more common techniques used
to acquire information are briefly described.
There are numerous procedures in determining the quality of feed ingredients. The
choice of methods depends on the facilities available.
Visual Examination
The visual examination can be conducted with the naked eye or with the use of a hand
lens or microscope to detect off quality feed ingredients or finished feeds.
Representative samples of incoming raw material must be inspected to see that these
conform to the following specifications:
1. Color- typical, bright uniform color. However, color may reflect the inclusion of a
contaminant material, which has similar color as in the feed ingredient.
2. Odor- clean, characteristic smell, no evidence of overcooking and undercooking as in
the case of beans.
3. Texture- reasonable particle size for the product.
4. Moisture- non-sticking, no wet spots, free flowing.
5. Uniformity- consistent in color and texture.
6. Temperature- no evidence of heating.
7. Absence of dirt, mold, sticks metal objects, and gravel, and other foreign materials.
8. No evidence of bird, rodent or insect contamination.
9. Dry and no evidence of previously being wet.
Table 3. A simplified schematic chart of elements and compounds that may be present
in food.
Essential amino acids- isoleucine, leucine,
lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine,
tryptophan, valine

Protein Semi-essential- arginine, cystine, glucine,

histidine, proline, tyrosine

Non-essential- alanine, aspartic acid,

Nitrogen glutamic acid, hydroxyproline, serine
containing

--peptides, amines, amides, nucleic acids,

nitrates, urea, many nonprotein amino acids
Nonprotein
and hundreds of other compounds containing
nitrogen N

Essential fatty acids --linoleic, linolenic

Sterols --cholesterol, vitamin D, many other related

compounds
Terpenoids
--carotene, xanthophylls, others
Lipids
Waxes
--cutin, others
Phospholipids
Organic compounds

--Lecithin, others
Miscellaneous
--free fatty acids, others

Monosaccharides --simple pentose or hexose sugars

Disaccharides --sugars with 2 molecules of simple sugars

Oligosaccharides --sugars with more than 2 simple sugars but

still relatively small molecules
Carbohydrates

Nonfibrous --dextrins, starches, pectins

Polysaccharides

Fibrous
--hemicellulose, cellulose, xylans
Polysaccharides

Water soluble --ascorbic acid, biotin, choline, cobalamin,

folacin, niacin, pantothenic acid,
pyridoxine, riboflavin, thiamin
Vitamins

Fat soluble --vitamin A, D, E and K

Miscellaneous --Lignin; organic --acids, compounds contributing to

and odor, toxins color, flavor or inhibitors of various
hormones types; animal and plant
 Macro minerals --Ca, Cl, K, Mg, Na, P, S

Essential elements
--Co, Cr, Cu, F, Fe, I, Mn, Mo,
Inorganic compounds
Micro minerals
Ni, Se, Si, Sn, V, Zn

Possibly essential --As, Ba, Br, Cd, Sr

Non-essential --Ag, Al, Au, Bi, Ge, Hg, Pb, Rb, Sb, Ti

Often toxic --As, Cd, Cu, F, Hg, Mo, Pb, Se, Si

The bags of finished feeds, concentrates, premixes that need careful and thorough
inspection have the following characteristics:
➢ Clumps, moldy spots
➢ Musty, moldy or “off” odor
➢ Wet spots
➢ Hot spots
➢ Excessive foreign materials
➢ Evidence of rodents, bird’s infestation
The composition stated in the bag of finished feeds, and concentrates could be verified
by chemical analysis.
Microscopic Evaluation
Feed Microscopy
Feed microscopy is the technique of evaluating feed samples with a microscope for the
purpose of identifying the component. This information can be used to confirm or deny the
presence of all of the listed ingredients, noting the presence of extra ingredients, identifying
unwanted materials, poisonous weed seeds, and so on. Even if adulterants are finely ground to
avoid detection, a feed microscopist may be able to identify them by histological structure
using a high-power compound microscope.
The equipment’s and instruments required for feed microscopy are simple, usually low
power stereo-microscope, set of sieves, illuminator, twizzer or forceps, probe or needle, and
spot plates.
The test is done by placing sufficient amount of the sample on the spot plate and then
observed under the stereo-microscope. Searching through a sample under the microscope is
made easier by starting at one edge and working across, raking the examined material away
from the unexamined with a dissecting needle or probe. The shape, color, and appearance of
the ingredients in the sample are observed and presence or absence of adulterants is noted. If
the material being examined is a mixed feed, a list of the ingredients should be kept at hand
and each ingredient checked off as it is found.
Analytical Methods
Proximate Analysis
The time-honored standard chemical method of feed analysis is called the proximate
analysis. It involves some simple chemical techniques designed to differentiate nutrients
component from non-nutritive material. The components of the proximate analysis are dry
matter, crude protein, ether extract, ash crude fiber, and nitrogen-free extract (NFE). Each of
these categories and the information provided are briefly described below.
Dry matter. Dry matter determination involves drying the feed sample in a drying oven to
constant weight. Dry matter determination is important for two reasons. First, some materials,
such as green feeds, silage, food processing wastes, etc. have very high moisture content. Their
quality and value depend upon how much of their weight is actually made up of water. This
information is important, for example, in balancing ration-containing silage and in purchasing
feedstuff. The other reason the dry matter determination are important is that feed analysis
involve small sample sizes of a few grams or less; micro method used milligram quantities. To
avoid spurious weight changes of the sample due to loss or gain of water from the laboratory
environment, it is necessary to conduct the analysis on a dry weight basis. However, in most
cases the livestock producer or nutritionist needs to know the composition on an as-is basis or
as-fed basis. Thus, it is important to be able interconvert feed analysis data from a dry matter
to an as-is basis;
1. To convert values from a dry matter basis to a wet-weight or as-is basis, multiply by
the percent dry matter by 100. Example: On a dry matter basis, an alfalfa sample
contains 16.5% crude protein. The dry matter content is 92%. The protein on an as is
basis is 16.5 x (92/100) = 15.2%.

2. To convert for a wet-weight to a dry weight basis multiply by 100 divided by the percent
dry matter. Example; A barley sample contains 11.2% crude protein on a wet-weight
basis, and contains 96% dry matter. The protein contains a dry matter basis is 11.2 x
(100/96) = 11.7%.

Crude Protein (Kjeldahl Analysis). Crude protein (CP) is defined as the nitrogen content of the
feed multiplied by a factor of 6.25. This factor derived from the generalization that most protein
contains 16 percent nitrogen. Nitrogen is measured by the kjeldahl procedure, which is named
by the Danish chemist who developed it. The feed sample is boiled in concentrated sulfuric
acid, resulting in the complete oxidation of all organic material. The proteins and amino acid
are completely degraded; their nitrogen released as ammonium ion (NH4). The solution is
made alkaline, converting NH4 to ammonia (NH3). Steam is passed through the solution
(steam distillation), driving off the NH3, which is trapped in boric acid solution. The
concentration of NH3 is measured by titration. It is important to recognize that the crude protein
procedure measures nitrogen. Thus it does not distinguish between high-quality and poor-
quality protein, or protein and non-protein nitrogen.
Ether Extract. The fat content of feed is determined by extracting a feed sample with ether.
The change in weight of the sample is due to the loss of ether extract or ether-soluble lipids.
Ash. Total mineral content is measured by burning the feed sample in a muffle furnace at 600
C. This combust all organic matter, leaving a residue of ash or inorganic mineral salts. The ash
content is useful as a measure of total mineral content, and also is indicative of soil
contamination of feedstuff. A high ash content of hay sample, for instance, may indicate
excessive contamination with soil and dirt.
Crude Fiber. The crude fiber content is measured by boiling an either extracted feed sample
in diluted acid; them dilute alkali, drying and burning in a muffle furnace. The difference in
weight before and after burning is the crude fiber fraction. In the modified crude-fiber
determination, the correction for ash content is not done. This procedure was developed in the
early days of nutrition research in an attempt to estimate the indigestible portion of food in the
human digestive tract, by simulating the acid condition of the stomach and alkaline condition
of the intestine. In spite of well-recognized inadequacies, crude fiber values are still widely
used.
New procedure to estimate the fiber content of forage has been developed such as acid
detergent fiber and neutral detergent fiber.
Nitrogen-Free Extract. Nitrogen free extract is derived by subtracting the sum of the other
components from 100:
% NFE = 100 - % (water + crude protein + ether extract + ash + crude fiber)
The NFE theoretically represents mainly starch, sugars, and other readily available
carbohydrates. In practice, the inaccuracies associated with crude fiber are such that neither
crude fiber nor NFE are nutritionally very meaningful.

Determination of Specific Nutrients

Although proximate analysis gives a general indication of the value of a feed, it does
not really deal with specific nutrients. These can be determined by specific techniques. Amino
acids are measured by column chromatography, usually using an automated system known as
an amino acid analyzer. Individual mineral, such as calcium, phosphorus, copper, and zinc, can
be measured by spectrophotometric procedures, or by the now common technique of atomic
absorption spectrometry. Specific vitamins are measured using the chromatographic
procedures, such as high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). These nutrients are not
usually measured on a routine basis because the determinations are expensive and may be time
consuming.
Near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy is a widely used technique for feed and forage
analysis. Feed samples are exposed to infrared radiation and the reflectance of the radiation by
the sample is measured. The instrument is calibrated by mathematically equilibrating
reflectance values with known chemical values for a series of samples of a particular ingredient.
Thus the technique is of the most value when a large number of similar samples are to be
analyzed.
Other Chemical Tests
Other chemical tests include the determination in feed of values for salt (NaCl),
xanthophylls, urease activity, peroxide, free fatty acid, degree brix, and salmonella (Table 5).
Table 5. Suggested chemical analyses for feed ingredient evaluation
Ingredient Moisture Crude Crude Crude Fat Ca P Others*
Protein Fiber
Blood meal / / -- -- -- / --
Copra meal / / / / -- -- --
Corngerm meal / / / -- -- -- --
Corn gluten feed / / / -- -- -- --
Corn gluten meal / / / -- -- -- --
Corn grit / / / -- -- -- --
Fat & oil / -- -- -- -- -- d, e
Fish meal / / -- / / / a, g
Ipil-ipil leaf meal / / / -- -- -- b
Grain / / -- / -- -- --
Limestone -- -- -- -- / -- --
Meat & bone / / -- -- / / g
Meal / -- -- -- -- -- f
Molasses / / / / / / --
Mixed feed -- -- -- -- / -- --
Oyster shell / / / -- -- / --
Rice bran D1, D2 / / / -- -- -- --
Roughage / / / -- -- -- c
Soybean meal -- -- -- -- / / --
Tricaphos -- / -- -- -- -- --
Urea

*Others
a- salt
b- xanthophylls
c- urease activity
d- peroxide value
e- fatty acid
f- brix
g- salmonella

Estimation of Feed Energy

Feed energy is expressed in calories or in joules. Appropriate definitions and
conversions are as follows:

1 calorie = the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by
1 degree centigrade, measure from 14.5 to 15.5 degrees centigrade.
1 kilocalorie (kcal) = 1,000 calories
1 megacalorie (mcal) = 1,000 kilocalories
1 calorie = 4.184 joules (J)
1 kilocalorie = 4.184 kilojoules (kJ)
1 kilojoule = 0.238 kcal.
 The calorie content of biological materials is determined in a bomb calorimeter. In brief,
the sample is burned in a combustion chamber (bomb) inserted in a vessel containing a known
weight of water. As the sample burns, it releases heat, taken up by the water. From the weight
of the sample, weight of the water, and rise in temperature of the water, the number of calories
of heat energy released can be calculated. When a feed sample is burned in a calorimeter, its
gross energy is determined. To determine the fraction of the gross energy that the animal can
actually utilized, a metabolism trial must be conducted to account for the various losses. This
gives values for digestible, metabolizable, and net energy:
Digestible energy (DE) = Gross energy (GE) – fecal energy
Metabolizable energy (ME) = DE – (urinary energy + rumen gas losses)
Net energy (NE) = ME – heat loss
Thus, the NE represents the fraction of the GE actually utilized by the animal for
productive purposes.
In the above determinations, feces and urine arising from the test feed are collected,
and their energy content determined by bomb calorimetry. Since the urinary energy is usually
quite low, DE values are satisfactory for expression of energy requirements of most species. In
poultry, feces and urine are voided together, so ME values are commonly used. For
determination of NE, a respiration chamber allowing measurement of heat loss is needed.
Alternatively, the NE can be estimated by measuring energy retention by the animal, using a
specific-gravity determination on the carcass.
Total Digestible Nutrients
An older method for estimating digestible energy is the total digestible nutrients (TDN)
system. This is the summation of the digestible energy-yielding constituents. 2.25, to account
for the higher energy content of fat compared to compared to carbohydrate and protein,
multiply the ether extract. (Fats yield about 9 kcal/g DE, whereas protein and carbohydrate
yield about 4 kcal/gal.). The digestibility values for each fraction are determined
experimentally or books values are used.
%TDN = % digestible CP = 2.25 (% digestible ether extract) + % digestible crude fiber
+ % digestible NFE
Determination of Digestibility
Nutrient digestibility measures the amount of a nutrient in a feed that is digested and
absorbed and thus available for metabolism. For example, raw feather meal contains 90% crude
protein, but the digestibility of the protein is only 10 percent. Therefore, the potentially usable
protein content of raw feather meal is only 9 percent. (Steam cooking feathers, to produce
hydrolyzed feather meal, markedly improve the value of the material).
Procedures used to assess digestibility. Direct measurement involves keeping an animal
in a metabolism cage or crate and measuring the feed intake and the feces excreted. The feed
and the feces are analyzed for nutrients of interest. The difference between the amount of
nutrient consumed and excreted in the feces is the amount digested and absorbed.
Example: A pig is housed on a metabolism crate. It consumes 20 lb of the test diet, and excretes
10 lbs of feces. The percentage crude protein of the feed is 15 and of the feces is 7. Therefore,
(1) Protein intake = 20 lbs x 0.15 = 3 lb
(2) Fecal protein = 10 lbs x 0.07 = 0.7 lb
(3) Protein digested = 3 lb – 0.7 lb = 2.3 lb
(4) % protein digestibility = (2.3/ 3.0 x 100 = 76.6%)
Another method of fecal collection is to equip the animal with a harness and collection
bags so that the feces and urine (if necessary) can be collected . Animals can be trained to accept
this procedure. Digestibility can also be estimated by procedures that do not require a total
fecal collection. An indigestible substance (referred to as a marker) can be added to the feed.
By measuring the concentration of the marker in the feed and feces, one can calculate the extent
of disappearance from the gut of digestible compounds to the feed. This procedure can use
“grab samples” of fecal material rather than a total collection. Chromic oxide, an indigestible
bright green dye, is often used as a marker.
Feedstuffs Classification
Generally, feedstuffs are classified as either concentrates or roughages.
Concentrates are feeds low (below 20%) in crude fiber and high (above 60%) in TDN
(energy or protein or both) on an air-dry basis. For example, cereal grains are considered
primarily as energy sources, but also contribute a significant amount of protein. Protein
supplements generally are feeds with more than 20% CP.
Roughage, feeds high in fiber (above 20%) and low (below 60%) in TDN. Hay, pasture,
silage are examples of roughages. They are used mainly as feeds for ruminants or non-ruminant
herbivore.
Classification of Feeds

I. Concentrates (energy sources)

• Cereal grains: corn, sorghum, barley, rye, etc.
• Grain-milling by-products: corn bran, rice bran, corn gluten meal
• Roots and tubers: cassava, potatoes, etc.
• Food processing by-products: molasses citrus pulp, distiller’s by-products, brewer’s by-
products
• Industrial by-products
II. Concentrates (protein supplements)
• Oilseed meals: soybean, cottonseed, rapeseed, canola, linseed, peanut, safflower, and
sunflower meals.
• Grain legumes: beans, peas, lupins
• Animal protein: meat meal, tankage, fishmeal, whey, and feather meal
• Nitrogen sources for ruminants
• Nonprotein nitrogen sources: urea, biuret, dried poultry waste
• By-ass protein: corn gluten meal
III. Roughages
• Pasture
- Grasses
- Legumes
• Green chop
• Silage
• Dry forages
- Hay
- Straw, stover, chaff
• Agricultural by-products, e.g. corn cobs, hulls, bagasse

IV. Feed Supplement and Additives

• Mineral supplements: salt, limestone
• Vitamin supplements
• Synthetic amino acids
• Drugs, e.g. antibiotics, ionophores
• Preservatives, e.g. antioxidants, mold inhibitors
• Buffers, Enzymes, Hormones, Flavors, Probiotics, pellet binders

FEED SUPPLEMENTS

The feedstuffs previously discussed function primarily in providing protein and energy.
In addition, they contain variable quantities of minerals and vitamins. Usually vitamin and
mineral supplements is required to produced balanced, nutritionally adequate diets. Synthetic
amino acids supplements are now commercially available in the market.

Synthetic Amino Acids

Amino acids are building blocks of protein, produced commercially either by microbial
fermentation, chemical synthesis or extraction from denatured proteins with chemical
characteristics similar to their natural origin.

DL-methionine is a racemate of amino acid methionine that occurs naturally with at least 99%
purity. It is white to slightly yellowish crystals somewhat like organic sulfur in odor.

Lysine is a synthetic amino acid produced by fermentation, which is soluble in water with at
least 98.5% purity for HCl form and at least 99% for pure L-lysine. It is dirty white or cream
in color, odorless.

L-Threonine is a synthetic amino acid produced by fermentation. Off-white and odorless.

Tryptophan is a synthetic amino acid produced by fermentation, off-white and odorless.

Mineral Supplements

These are requirements for skeletal development of the animals, for eggshell formation in
laying hen and for other regulatory processes in the body.

Ground limestone (calcium carbonate) must contain 33 to 39% Ca and less than 5%
magnesium.

Oyster shell commonly used for topdressing or as free choice source of calcium.

Steamed bone meal generally contains about 26% Ca and 12% P. It must be thoroughly cooked
to prevent spread of disease-causing organisms.

Dicaphos/Tricaphos are produced from rock phosphates. Certain rock phosphate deposits can
be used for feeding purposes provided, these either contains very little fluorine or that fluorine
has been removed by heating. The maximum level off should be 0.2%.

Sodium chloride or common table salt must be added in poultry and livestock rations. The
amount to be added varies from 0.20 to 0.50% of the total diet depending on the salty contents
of other ingredients.

Trace mineral supplements (iron, copper, zinc, manganese, selenium, iodine and cobalt) must
be supplied to finished feeds in the form of soluble salts: iron as ferrous sulfate, manganese
and zinc as sulfate or oxide, copper as sulfate, selenium as sodium selenite, iodine as potassium
iodide and cobalt as cobaltous chloride. All of these compounds must be of feed grade quality.
Cobalt is added only for ruminants.

Vitamin Supplements

When feeds are deficient in vitamins, the needed vitamins must be added to the diet as
chemically synthesized vitamins, or vitamins produced by fermentation processes. Vitamins
are commercially available in feed grade, prepared in varying concentration or potency.

FEED ADDITIVES
Feed additives are nonnutritive substances added to feeds to improve the efficiency of feed
utilization and feed acceptance, or to be beneficial to the health or metabolism of the animal in
some way.
Types of Feed Additives
I. Additives that influence feed stability, feed manufacturing, and properties of feeds.
A. Antifungals
B. Antioxidants
C. Pellet binders
II. Additives that modify animal growth feed efficiency, metabolism, and performance
A. Feed flavors
B. Digestion modifiers
1. Enzymes
2. Buffers
3. Ion-exchange compounds
4. Ionophores and methane inhibitors
5. Isoacids
6. Probiotics
7. Acidifiers (organic acids)
8. Antibloating agents
9. Salivation inducers
10. Defaunating agents

C. Metabolism modifiers
1. Hormones
2. Beta-adrenergic agents (repartitioning agents)

D. Growth promotants
1. Antibiotics
2. Chemotherapeutic agents
3. Saponins

III. Additives that modify animal health

A. Drugs
B. Environmentally active substances
C. Immunomodulators

IV. Additives that modify consumer acceptance

A. Xanthophylls
B. Saponins
ADDITIVES THAT INFLUENCE FEED STABILITY, FEED MANUFACTURING AND
PROPERTIES OF FEEDS
Antifungals
Antifungal agents (mold inhibitors) prevents fungal (mold) growth in stored feed
ingredients and mixed feeds. Molds reduce palatability and may produce mycotoxins. Aflatoxin
and Fusarium toxins are among those of most concern.
The use of mold inhibitor is strongly recommended when the moisture content of the
grain exceeds 13% to 14%, relative humidity is above 80% to 85%, the temperature is 55F or
above, or the grain is damaged, broken, or insect-infested. Propionic acid or its salts (sodium
or calcium propionate) are particularly effective at a level of approximately 1% of the grain or
diet. Propionate provides protection for at least 90 days. Other antifungals are: sodium
diacetate, sorbic acid and gentian violet. Ammonia treatment also inhibits mold growth.
 Sodium metabisulfite and sulfur dioxide are useful preservatives for most grains when
moisture content is less than 30% and the ambient temperatures are cool.
A new approach to grain storage to eliminate both mold growth and insect activity is
the use of low temperature chilling. Cold air is used to maintain a storage temperature below
50F (10C), which inhibit both molds and insects.
Antioxidants
Antioxidants are preservatives that prevent the auto oxidation of fats (rancidity).
Unsaturated fatty acids may react with oxygen to produce undesirable products with offensive
odors and toxic properties and destruction of nutrients, such as the fat-soluble vitamins.
Examples: Vitamin E and Vitamin C (natural antioxidants)
Synthetic antioxidants: Santoquin, Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) and Butylated
hydroxyanisole (BHA)
The synthetic antioxidants prevents peroxidation in feeds, also prevent these reactions
in animal tissues, causing a sparing effect on vitamin E and SE requirements. (A sparing effect
is when one nutrient or substances reduces the requirement for another nutrient, usually by
replacing it in some aspect of its metabolic function). In addition to preventing rancidity,
synthetic antioxidants help to overcome toxic effects of peroxides.
Pellet Binders
Pelleting increases the density of feed, often resulting in increased feed intake and
improved growth and efficiency. Pelleting reduces feed wastage and eliminates sorting of
ingredients by animals, reduces dust, and increases ease of feed handling. The major
disadvantage is the added cost, which may add 10 percent or more to the cost of the feed.
Another disadvantage is that pelleting may hide a multitude of sins in terms of the quality of
ingredients used.
One of the problems associated with pelleted feed s is the presence of fines (small feed
particles) and the tendency of pellets to crumble and break apart. Pellet binders are used to give
firmer, stronger pellets with a reduced tendency to crumble.
1. Bentonites are most widely used, they are clay minerals (montmorillonite or hydrated
aluminum silicate) with ion exchange properties, it may influence metabolism of
nitrogen in ruminants by complexing with ammonium ion. Bentonite absorbs ammonia
from solution when the ammonium concentration is high and releases it when the
ammonia concentration is reduced. It also absorbs mycotoxins and facilitates their
excretion.

2. Hemicellulose extracts and lignin sulfonate, by-products of the wood processing

industry, are used as pellet binders. Hemicellulose extracts of wood may have
“unidentified growth factor” activity attributed to the biological activity of phenolic
compounds.
ADDITIVES THAT MODIFY ANIMAL GROWTH, FEED EFFICIENCY,
METABOLISM, AND PERFORMANCE
Feed Flavors
Feed flavors are used to increase the acceptance of diets of low palatability, increase
the intake of palatable diets, and increase the intake of diets during periods of stress such as
weaning. In general, feed flavors do not improve performance of animals. Stimulating an
animal to consume more feeds would probably not be advantageous. Feed intake is regulated
according to metabolic need; excessive feed intake exceeds protein synthesis capabilities, so
that the extra nutrients are deposited as fats. Thus, the most probable useful role of feed flavors
would be to stimulate adequate or normal intake of unpalatable but otherwise nutritious diets.
Despite the plausibility of this approach there is little supportive data.
Digestion Modifiers
Enzymes
The primary use of enzymes to feed appears to be for digestion of substances that the
animal is intrinsically incapable if digesting. For nonruminants, addition of cellulose to feeds
would provide a means of digesting cellulose. The technology of using cellulytic enzymes has
not reached a practical stage.
The primary use of enzymes as feed additives has been the provision of sources of B-
glucanase to swine and poultry to increase the digestion of B-glucans. B-glucans are important
source of carbohydrate in barley and oats. Sources of glucanase, isolated from fermentation
products are available commercially.
The use of fungal enzyme from Trichoderma viride reduces the viscosity of water-
soluble pentosans in rye in the gut and improves its utilization by poultry, as a result of
hydrolysis of the viscous pentosans. The endosperm of wheat, triticale and rye contain
pentosans. Feeding a source of pentonase to broiler chicken improved growth and reduced the
severity of wet litter and sticky droppings when rye and triticale were fed.
Buffers
A buffer is a salt of a weak acid or base that resist a pH change, whereas an alkalizing
or neutralizing agent neutralize acid but it increases pH. Sodium bicarbonate, potassium
bicarbonate, magnesium bicarbonate, calcium carbonate and bentonite are true buffers,
whereas, sodium carbonate, potassium carbonate, magnesium oxide, sodium hydroxide and
calcium hydroxide are alkalizing agents.
Buffers are used extensively for ruminants fed with high-concentrate diets. Added
buffers are particularly useful in the adaptation period from high-roughage to high-concentrate
diets and aid in the prevention of lactic acidosis. They are also useful in rations for dairy cattle
fed high-concentrate diets, particularly when corn silage is the major roughage used.
A ruminal pH of 6.0 is the critical pH below which protein and cellulose digestion rates
are reduced.
Limestone exerts its maximum buffering activity at a pH of less than 5.5, so its major
effects are postruminal.
 Magnesium oxide functions as a rumen buffer, its effectiveness is increased with small
particle sizes.
Ion-exchange Compounds
The principal ion-exchange compounds used in feeding is zeolites, which are clay
materials consisting of hydrated alumino-silicates of various cations. They can gain and lose
water reversibly and exchange their constituent cations. Besides natural zeolites, synthetic
zeolites are also used as molecular sieves consisting of organic resins or inorganic
aluminosilicate gels. One of the major natural zeolites used in feeds is clinoptilolite.
Zeloites are refuted to have beneficial effects on growth, feed efficiency, and incidence
of enteric diseases.
Clinoptilolite is recognized to have beneficial effects on growth, feed efficiency, and
increase of enteric diseases.
Ionophores and Methane Inhibitors
Ionophores are a class of antibiotics that are extensively used as feed additives for cattle.
Their name is derived from their mode of action in interacting with metal ions and serving as
a carrier by which these ions can be transported across membranes.
The major ionophores used are produced by various strains of Streptomyces fungi and
include monensin (rumensisn), lasalocid, salinomycin, lysocellin, and narasin. These
compounds are also used as coccidiostats in poultry. Monensin is called monensin when used
in poultry feeding and rumensin when used as a cattle feed additive.
The feeding of ionophores to cattle consistently improves feed conversion efficiency
and often improves daily gain. The improvement in feed efficiency is largely attributed to a
change in rumen fermentation resulting in an increased proportion of propionic acid in the end
products of fermentation. Propionic acid is used more efficiently in metabolism than acetate
and butyrate, and there is less production of carbon dioxide and methane during formation of
propionate in the rumen. The result is that from a given quantity of feed, the animal derives
more net energy when the proportion of propionate as a percent of total VFA increases.
Methane (CH4) production reduces the efficiency of rumen fermentation. Inhibition of
methane production would increase the efficiency of ruminant production, as well as reducing
methane emissions, which have been linked to global warming.
Chloroform, iodoform, and other halogenated methane analogs inhibit methanogenesis.
These have not proven to be practical as feed additives. The main methane inhibitors with
practical application are the ionophores.
Isoacids
Isoacids include the following VFAs:
Isobutyric acid (CH3)2CHCOOH
2-methylbutyric acid CH3CH2CH(CH3)COOH
Isovaleric acid (CH3)2CHCH2COOH
Valeric acid CH3CH2CH2CH2COOH
Probiotics
Probiotics are defined as live microbial feed supplements which beneficially affect the
host by improving its gastrointestinal microbial balance.
Mode of action:
1. Change in gut microflora and a reduction in E. coli
2. Production of antibiotics
3. Synthesis of lactic acid with consequent reduction in intestinal pH
4. Adhesion to or colonization of the intestinal mucosa
5. Prevention of toxic amine synthesis in the gut
6. Other as yet unidentified modes of action, such as stimulating immune responses in the
gut.
Acidifiers (organic acids)
Acidifiers are chemical products added to the feed to decreases the pH in the gut, thus
improving digestion in the stomach. Citric and fumaric acids have been the primary acidifiers
tested.
Antibloating Agents
Surface-active agents prevent the formation of stable foam by preventing development
of bubble membranes. Frothy bloat is associated with consumption of lush, legume pasture,
and the rapid release of fermentable carbohydrate and soluble protein in the rumen. Poloxalene
is marketed as a bloat-guard.
Salivation Inducers (sialgogues)
These are substances that increase the production and secretion of saliva. Slalframine
and other sialagogues appear to have potential as additives to alter rumen fermentation to
favorably influence animal performance.
Defaunating Agents
Defaunation is a process of treating a ruminant to eliminate its rumen protozoa. This
can be accomplished with a number of chemicals, including copper sulfate and nonionic
detergents.
Metabolism Modifiers
Hormones
Hormones are substances used to alter metabolism in the body
Beta-Adrenergic Agents (Repartitioning Agents)
These are noepinephrine (noadrenalin)analogs that stimulate B-adrenergic receptors.
They are called repartitioning agents because they result in a repartitioning nutrients from fat
to protein synthesis, causing increased muscle mass and decreased body fat. Clenbuterol,
cimaterol, and ractopamine are examples of these compounds.
Growth Promotants
Antibiotics
Antibiotics are natural metabolites of fungi that inhibit the growth of bacteria. Their
discovery is credited to Alexander Fleming of Great Britain, who noted that bread molds
produced a substance that inhibited bacterial growth (penicillin). These findings lead to the
practice of feeding subtherapeutic levels of antibodies as growth promotants to poultry and
swine. Subtherapeutic doses are lower than therapeutic levels used for treatment of disease;
prophylactic doses are used for disease prevention. The most commonly used antibiotics are:
bacitracin, bambermycin, chlortetracycline, erythromycin, lincomycin, neomycin,
oxyteracycline, oleandomycin, penicillin, streptomycin, tylosin, flavomycin, and
virginaimycin.
Chemotherapeutic Agents
Arsenicals are organic compounds containing arsenic, such as arsinilic acid, sodium
arsanilate, and roxarsone. Arsenicals have a growth promoting effect similar to that of
antibiotics. An antagonism may exist between arsenicals and copper sulfate; when growth-
promoting levels of each are combined, growth depression is often observed.
Nitrofurans are synthetic compounds with antimicrobial activity. Nitrofurans inhibit
bacterial reproduction; their primary use as feed additives is in controlling enteric diseases.
Furazolidone has growth promoting activity in poultry and swine.
Sulfonamides are derivatives of sulfanilic acids. Sulfonamides have broad -spectrum
bacteriostatic effects (bacteriostats inhibit bacterial reproduction). They are also effective
against protozoa that cause coccidiosis, and some viruses. Sulfaquinoxaline has been
extensively used in poultry as a coccidiostat. Sulfonamides are competitive inhibitors of
vitamin K and may induce a deficiency of the vitamin if low vitamin-K diets are used.
Carbadox is a synthetic antimicrobial compound that is similar in action to antibiotics.
It is extensively used in swine diets for its growth promotional effects.
Copper sulfate is an effective substitute for antibiotic and probably has similar mode
of action. Copper sulfate produces a 5 to 10% improvement in growth and a 4 to 8%
improvement in feed conversion. There is often a favorable effect in reduction of energetic to
enteric disease.
Saponins, steroid saponins in Yucca, a desert plant have been sold commercially as
Sarsaponin, as agent to improve animal performance.
ADDITIVES THAT MODIFY ANIMAL HEALTH
Drugs
A variety of drugs may be added to the feed for the treatment and/or prevention of
disease or internal parasites. Some of the drugs commonly used in feeds include worming
agents (phenothiazine, dichlorovos, piperazine) and coccidiostats.
Environmentally Active Substances
These products are primarily used for the control of ammonia. Ammonia is an irritating
and toxic gas, which is released by mammals or birds, respectively. Ammonia impairs mucus
flow and cilia action in the nasal passages and trachea, reducing resistance to respiratory
infection. Animal productivity is reduced when detectable levels of ammonia are present in the
environment on a chronic basis and the health of workers is compromised.
Zeolites may reduce ammonia to a minor extent when fed to poultry, and are more effective
when spread directly on the litter or beneath the cages.
Sarsaponin in the feed has beneficial effects and is more effective when applied to the excreta
directly.
ADDITIVES THAT MODIFY CONSUMER ACCEPTANCE
Xanthophylls are red and yellow carotenoid pigments that are important in poultry nutrition
because they are deposited in egg yolk and body fat, producing the yellow pigmentation of
eggs and skin and shanks of broilers.
Sources are: Alfalfa, Yellow corn, Marigold petal meal.
 MODULE 7
FEED PREPARATION AND PROCESSING
Feed Preparation
Not all methods of feed preparation are applicable to all ingredients. The choice of any method
varies from one ingredient to another. The problem is to find the method of preparing the feeds
which uses the available equipment and the most economical.
Chopping
Chopping facilitates the drying of feeds specifically tubers. Chopping reduces feed
wastes particularly for forages and improves consumption of coarse stems and stalks.
Drying
Drying reduces moisture in feedstuffs. Moisture content in feeds should be 12% or less.
Drying under the sun is the most economical. During wet season shelf dryer or artificial heat
dryer may be used although this involves investment on equipment and energy cost.
Grinding
Grinding reduces particle size by impact, shearing or attrition. It increases the value of
grains because some grains have very hard seed coat. When other concentrates are to be mixed
with ground grains it is important to have the same size for uniformity in mixing.
Soaking
Soaking should be done when the grain becomes hard during storage and the animal
has difficulty in chewing. Soaking is not usually practiced except in very hard grains, which
are not mechanically processed. Soaking for several hours to feeding increases its digestibility
particularly for old animals.
Cooking
The beneficial or detrimental effect of cooking depends largely on the feed ingredient
and the amount of heat applied. In some beans, cooking or heating increasing the availability
of protein. Cooking is not practical for other concentrates feeds like corn, other cereal grains,
and their by-products.
Feed Processing
Feed mixing
Various types of feed mixers are used to produce a homogenous batch of feeds. The
raw materials should be ground to a similar particle size to avoid separation after mixing. The
efficiency of mixing can be influenced by the order of adding ingredients. Ingredients that
make up the major part of the feed should be added first, followed by liquid material. Small
quantities, such as vitamins and trace mineral preparations, should be added as premix, in
which the material is premixed with some of the mixed feed before being added to the mixer.
With vertical mixers, any ingredient making up less than 2.25% of the total batch should be
premixed. A level of 1% is acceptable in a horizontal mixer.
Pelleting
Pelleting is a process of compressing mash feeds with the aid of live steam to produce
small chunks or cylinders of feed. Pelleting mashes have advantages: feed is less dusty;
ingredients are not shifted out of the mixture; feed wastage is decreased and density of the
ration is improved and the animals cannot select/ choose ingredients. Animals consume more
of a pelleted ration than the same ration in mash form. Regardless of the types of feeds, pelleted
feeds should be given after the starter period of the animal.
Crumbling
Crumbling is the process of grindling pellets into a coarse granular form. Crumbles may
be used during the starter and growing stages of the animal.
Ensiling
Ensiling is the process of fermenting forage material in a container called a silo under
anaerobic condition. The product of ensiling is termed silage. Silage may be made from any
farm by-products such as sugarcane tops, sugarcane bagasse, corn stalks/stover, rice straw,
pineapple peel and sorghum. The crops at the time of ensiling should have about 35% DM.
 MODULE 8
FEED FORMULATION
The objectives in feed formulation are to compound diets that would met the animals
nutrient requirements and to provide the maximum or optimum economic returns to the
livestock raiser.
Requirements
In formulating animal rations, the following information is required:
1. Nutritional requirements of the animal
• BAI Nutrient Standards for Commercial Mixed Feeds
• U.S. National Research Council (NRC) requirement tables. These are available
by species.
• BAI, UPLB/UPCVM/PCARRD Research and Extension Publication

2. Nutrient composition of available feedstuffs

• Animal Feed Control Division, BAI
• BAEcon
• Local sources
In ration formulation, economy of the ration is very critical. The ration should be
inexpensive, but not to the extent of sacrificing the quality needed for in a good ration. It is not
enough to compare feeds in terms of price per kilogram of ingredient alone, energy feeds are
usually compared cost-wise on the basis of the price per kg. protein, for example:
% CP P/kg P/ unit protein

Soybean meal 43 20.00 P 8.60

Fish meal 60 22.00 13.20
Meat & bone meal 50 18.00 9.00

In the above calculation, SBM has the lowest cost per unit protein, followed by meat
and bone meal. However, SBM and M&BM are low in methionine. If the ration does not satisfy
the methionine requirement of the animal, there is a need to add synthetic methionine. Fish
meal has the highest cost per unit protein, but contains a good balance of essential amino acids.
It is also important to remember that the ration should be formulated on the basis of the
availability of the feedstuffs in the locality. Palatability and possible presence of toxic feed
ingredients should likewise be considered.
Steps to Follow
1. Consult any available texts or guides for developing rations and feeding programs for the
animal involved.
2. Prepare a listing of the requirements of all nutrients to be considered.
3. Determine the feedstuffs that are available for the program and consult available material
relative to the use of these feeds in the program planned. Remember that different feeds
may have different feed value for different classes of animals.
4. Make use of feeding standard tables in determining the nutrient requirements of the
animals. In the absence yet of local feeding standards of nutrient requirement for poultry,
swine and other animals, the recommendations of the US NRC may be used as a guide.
5. Be acquainted with the nutrient composition and the unit prices of the available feedstuf fs.
6. Decide on a suitable combination of feedstuffs so that the ration will be palatable, safe,
economical and nutritionally balanced.
7. Be acquainted with the limitation usage of some of the feeds and the usual levels of the
various in animal rations. Other feeds may be used as substitutes. A table on the use of feed
substitute may be used as a guide.
8. Check rations for other nutrients such as calcium, phosphorus and vitamins. You may need
to add concentrated sources of vitamins and mineral to complete the requirement.
9. If the ration is complete ask the following questions:
a. Have all deficiencies been corrected?
b. Are excesses present?
c. Does this appear to be the most economical combination of feeds?
d. What is the cost of the ration per kilo or ton or what does it cost to feed this animal
daily?
e. What will be needed in addition? (Free choice salt, mineral, etc.)
Least-Cost Diet Formulation
In least cost-diet formulation, the prices of available ingredients are entered into the
computer. These prices may change on a daily or weekly basis. The computer solves an array
of simultaneous equations to provide the solution for the least expensive combination of
ingredients to satisfy the requirement for each nutrient.
Computer using linear programming techniques now formulates virtually all-
commercial diets. Linear programming involves the simultaneous solution of many linear
equations to determine the optimum allocation of feed ingredients to meet an objective, which
usually is to satisfy a set of nutrient requirements. Generally, the optimum allocation means
the least expensive selection of ingredients, that is, on the least-cost basis. In essence, the
computer selects and calculates the combination of available ingredients that will meet all the
specified requirements at the lowest cost.
Diet Formulation by Hand
Diet formulation by hand refers to making possible algebraic calculation to determine
how feedstuffs of known composition can be combined together to meet specific nutrient
requirements.
The usual procedure is to select the main energy source and protein supplement to be
used, primarily on the basis of cost (as previously indicated). In the case of grains, the cheapest
source is that which has the lowest cost per kcal of DE or ME. Protein sources would be
selected on the basis of cost per unit of protein. After the two major ingredients are selected,
the quantity of each needed to make a mixture with the desired protein content is calculated.
Then the content of the other major nutrients in the diet mix is calculated, and any deficient
nutrients added in a supplement.
(The various techniques used in formulating diets for different animals will be
discussed in the laboratory part of the course).

References:
Anna Dee Fails, et al. Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals. Eight Edition. Copyright
2018.
William O. Reece, et al. Dukes’ Physiology of Domestic Animals. Thirteenth Ed. Copyright
2015.
Frank Flanders, et al. Modern Livestock and Poultry Production. 8th Edition. Copyright, 2015.
L.I. Chiba, Animal Nutrition Handbook. 2nd Edition. Copyright, 2009
Udeybir Singh Chahal, et al. Handbook of General Animal Nutrition. 1st Edition. Copyright,
2008.
Pond, Church, Pond & Schoknecht. Basic Animal Nutrition and Feeding, by 5th edition.
Copyright, 2005,
D.V. Reddy, Principles of Animal Nutrition and Feed Technology. 2nd Edition. Copyright,
2001.
Cheeke, P. R. 1991. Applied Animal Nutrition: Feeds and Feeding. Prentice-Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
Cullison, A. E. 1982. Feeds and Feeding. 3rd Ed. Reston Publishing Co., Inc., Reston,
Virginia.
PCARRD. 1987. The Philippines Recommends for Livestocks Feed Formulation.
PCARRD Technical Bulletin Series No. 64. Los Banos, Laguna.
Perry, T. W., A. R. Cullison and R. S. Lowrey. 1999. Feeds and Feeding. 5th Ed. Prentice-
Hall, Inc., Upper Saddle, New Jersey.
PHILSAN. 1996. Feed References Standards. 2nd Ed. Philippine Society of Animal
Nutritionists.
Pond, W. G., D. C. Church and K.R. Pond. 1995. Basic Animal Nutrition and Feeding. 4th
Ed. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York.

Online Sources:
https://www.academia.edu/12404360/Animal_Nutrition_Handbook
https://www.animal_nutrition_and_feeding_lecture_com.pdf
https://www.slideshare.com
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https://open.oregonstate.education ›
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