GENERAL BIOLOGY

CELL THEORY
 Cells when combined together, perform functions necessary to life.

Functions of Cell:
Regulation of the Internal Environment:
Homeostasis – An organism’s ability to keep a constant internal state.
- Involves constant adjustments as the internal and external conditions of the cell
continuously change.

Acquisition and Utilization of Energy

Chemical Energy – It is stored in the bonds present in food molecules, and it will be converted
S by the cells into more usable forms.

Responsiveness to their Environment

Responsiveness – A cell must first be able to determine the changes that have taken place before
f deciding the necessary responses that will ultimately result in the maintenance.

 Perspiration – Serve as the cooling system to remove excess heat in the body.
 Normal temp – 37
 A tanned skin means more pigment is released in the area to impart protection to the
underlying cells especially UV radiation that can damage DNA

Protection and Support

 Immune cells impart protection against pathogens and other foreign bodies that may enter
general circulation.
 SCIENTISTS WHO CONTRIBUTED TO DEVELOPMENT OF
CELL THEORY

Zacharias Janssen (1585-1632) – Invented the primitive microscope.

Robert Hooke (1635-1703) – Observed cork cells under a microscope.
Francesco Redi (1626-1697) – Disproved the spontaneous generation theory.
Anton Van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) – Observed microorganisms by using his own
Hhhhhhhh practical microscope.
Matthias Schleiden (1804-1881) – Proposed that all plants are made up of cells.
Theodor Schwann (1810-1882) – Proposed that all animals are made up of cells.
Rudolf Virchow (1821-1902) – Proposed that all cells come from pre-existing cells.

Principle 1: Every living organism consists of one or more cell.

Principle 2: The cell is the fundamental unit of life.
Principle 3: Cells come from pre-existing cells.
Components of the Cell: Major Parts of the Cell
 Our cells also rely on biomolecules that provide shape and rigidity to them. In addition,
our cells manage to become selective to the molecules that will move through it.

 The cell has three major divisions: The plasma membrane, the cytoplasm, and the
nucleus.
 The cell consists of both membrane and non-membrane-bound organelles.
Plasma Membrane
- The cell’s primary barrier.
- Separates the cytoplasm from external environment.
Comprises the following: phospholipids, cholesterol, glycolipids, glycoproteins, and membrane
ffffffff proteins.
Structure:
Phospholipids consists of:
 Head region
- Phosphate group
- Hydrophilic
 Tail region
- Two fatty acid chains
- Hydrophobic
 Two phospholipid layers
- Phosphate heads face the cytoplasm and the cell’s exterior.
- Fatty acid tails are sandwiched
 The fluid mosaic model describes membrane structure.
- Mosaic of different molecules such as proteins, sugars, and cholesterol.
- Fluidity due to its natural viscosity.
 Membrane fluidity is determined by:
- The “kinks” in the fatty acid tails of the phospholipids.
- The “cholesterol” molecules which act as regulators of fluidity.
Roles of Lipid Bilayer:
 Selective permeability is an important property of the lipid bilayer, in which it only
allows certain molecules to move into and out of the cell.
Roles of Membrane Proteins:
 Transport proteins in the membrane may either be in the form of carrier proteins or
channel proteins.
Cytoskeleton
- This consists of network of protein fibers that gives the cell its structural
framework.
- The cytoskeletal elements can be observed by using fluorescence techniques.
- In addition to providing a structural framework to the cell, the cytoskeleton also
serves other functions such as movement of organelles, macromolecules, and
chromosomes.
Microtubules:
 These consist of helically arranged globular proteins called tubulin.
 A microtube is a helix of a-tubulin and β-Tubulin subunits.

Microfilaments:
 They help facilitate cell and organelle movement.
 They can help change the shape of the cell.

Intermediate Filaments:
 Helps maintain cell shape
 Anchors the nucleus
 Intermediate filaments provide structural integrity to the plasma membrane

Cytoplasm - This is where all different subcellular structures are suspended.

Cell Wall
- Most bacteria have cell wall made up of peptidoglycan.
- The cell wall in some fungi consists of chitin.
- Is a rigid structure that surrounds the cell membrane.
- It helps maintain the shape of cells and prevent them from bursting.

Components of the Cell II: Subcellular Organelles

Endosymbiotic theory
- Double membrane of mitochondria & chloroplasts
- Large eukaryotic cell engulfed prokaryote
- Mitochondria & chloroplasts have their own genetic material
- Result of invagination

Organelles of the cell are divided into three groups:

 Genetic control of the cell (nucleus and ribosomes)
 Endomembrane system (endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi bodies, lysosomes, peroxisomes,
and vacuoles)
 Energy houses (mitochondria and chloroplast)

Structure of the Nucleus

- This is a prominent, usually oval structure in a eukaryotic cell.
- It is located in almost the center of the cell.
Parts of the Nucleus
- Nucleoplasm is the semifluid matrix
- Nuclear envelope separates the nucleus from the cytoplasm
- Nuclear pores permit the passage of ribosomal subunits and mRNA out of the
nucleus into the cytoplasm.

Function of the Ribosomes

- Ribosomes are the organelles that use instructions from the nucleus, written in
mRNA, to build proteins.
Free and Bound Ribosomes
- Free ribosomes are found in the cytosol.
- Bound ribosomes are attached to the outside of the endoplasmic reticulum or
nuclear envelope.

Two types of Endoplasmic Reticulum

- Rough ER have thousands of ribosomes attached to the outer surface which
gives this organelle a “rough” appearance. Their main role is to produce
proteins.
 - Smooth ER does not have attached ribosomes. This organelle produces.
Function of the Golgi Bodies
- These serve functions similar to a warehouse and processing center, processing
products of the ER.
Function of the Lysosomes
- Lysosome contains active hydrolytic enzymes.
- Food vacuole fuses with lysosome.
- Hydrolytic enzymes digest food particles.
- Lysosome fuses with vesicle containing damaged organelles.
- Hydrolytic enzymes digest organelle components.
Function of Peroxisomes
- These contain enzymes and serve as metabolic assistance to organelles and
specialize in synthesizing & breaking down lipids.
Function of the Vacuoles
- These serve as a storage of water, organic, nutrients, variety of salts, sugar &
some weak acids.

Mitochondrion – This is known as the “powerhouse of the cell”.

Chloroplast – This is unique to plant and algae cells.
- This organelle perform photosynthesis.

Summary:
- Eukaryotic cell houses DNA in a nucleus.
- Nuclear pores allow the exchange of materials through the nuclear envelope.
- Smooth endoplasmic reticulum synthesizes lipids while the rough
endoplasmic reticulum synthesizes proteins.