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Republic of the Philippines
CAMARINES NORTE STATE COLLEGE

F. Pimentel Avenue, Brgy. 2, Daet, Camarines Norte – 4600, Philippines
College of Arts and Sciences
HIST 114 (FINALS) Period: 1st Semester AY 2020-2021

Subject Instructor: GINA J. ESTRADA, MAed Course, Yr & Block:
Learning Materials: Time Allotment:
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Chapter 19: Nationalism in the Middle East
By the year 1700, three Muslim empires were dominant in Asia: the Mogul in India, the Safavid in Persia, and
the Ottoman in Turkey. Both the Mogul and Safavid empires were subdued by European powers. European
colonization also weakened the Ottoman empire. By the year 1900, the European had dominated the Muslim
world.
Rise of Nationalism
Much of the Middle East was once part of the Ottoman empire, which at its height stretched from the Danube
River to the Persian Gulf. Ottoman power started to decline in the year 1900. After the empire’s defeat in World
War I, it lost all its Middle East territories except Turkey. Nationalism became a powerful force in the former
Ottoman lands.
During the First World War, the peoples of the Middle East supported the Allied Powers against the Ottoman,
hoping that victory would bring them independence. When the war ended, the League 'of Nations placed most
of the Arab lands under the mandates of Great Britain and France. The Arab nationalists felt betrayed and
demanded independence from foreign control. Nationalist movements in the Middle East developed among
Arabs, Turks, Persians, and Jews. Each group wanted its own independent country. Often, the nationalist goal of
independence was accompanied with a desire for modernization.
Arab Independence
The Arabs felt that the mandates were poor substitutes for independence. In the years that followed, Arab
hostility toward European rule grew. The British recognized Transjordan as independent in 1928. Iraq became
independent in 1932. But military influence continued in both countries as protection for Britain’s strategic
interests there. Meanwhile, the collapse of the Ottoman empire in 1918 brought independence to several states
in the Arabian peninsula. The most important was the newly created kingdom of Hejaz. Its ruler was Abdul-
Aziz, more popularly known as Ibn-Saud. Ibn-Saud conquered the warring Bedouin tribes and controlled nearly
all of the peninsula by 1926. In 1932, he changed the name of the kingdom to “Saudi Arabia.”
At that time, Saudi Arabia was so poor and barren that foreign investors avoided the area. Its only income came
from earnings derived from the annual pilgrimage to Mecca by Muslim devotees.
In 1933, American prospectors searched for oil in eastern Arabia. After five years of diligent search, they struck
oil in Jabal Dharan. The fortunes of the Saudis turned; the amount of oil stored in Saudi deserts was estimated
to be one-third of the world’s reserves! The country became the richest in the Middle East, with earnings
reaching US $120 billion in 1980.
Nationalist Movement In Turkey
One of the earliest nationalist movements in the Middle East was the “Young Turks,” which sought to take
control of the Ottoman empire. During World War I, the Turks fought with the Germans against the Allies. By
the end of the war in 1919, victorious Britain and France divided most of the Ottoman provinces in Arab lands
between themselves and encouraged the Greeks to reclaim Anatolia. The Greek army landed at Izmir on the
Aegean coast and began to move eastward. As Ottoman forces could not resist them, Mustafa Kemal, a
Turkish military hero and member of the Young. Turks, formed a nationalist army. By 1923, the nationalists
had defeated the invaders, overthrown the last Ottoman sultan, and declared Turkey a republic. As Turkey’s
first president, Kemal took the name Ataturk-“Father of the Turks.”
Ataturk believed Turkey should be modernized. His first move was to separate the government from the Islamic
religion and its traditions. He eliminated government positions held by the caliph and took control of the
educational and legal systems from religious leaders.
Ataturk instituted other reforms that broke with Islamic traditions. He outlawed the fez, the traditional male
headgear, and required men to wear the European broad-brimmed hat. He also urged women not to wear veils.
Today no fezes or veils can be seen in the streets of Turkish towns. Ataturk replaced the Arabic script with the
Roman alphabet and began a full-scale attack on illiteracy. Turkey adopted the Swiss civil code to replace
Islamic law in the areas of family life and interpersonal relations. Women were granted equal rights with men,
including the right to vote and hold office. Ataturk outlawed polygyny, the practice of having more than one
wife at the same time. All Turks were required to choose a family name.
Ataturk called for strict separation of religion and politics. He felt that the conservatism of Islam would retard
his efforts at reform.
Ataturk was also determined to do away with Western control of industry and trade. He established state banks,
agricultural training, and cooperatives. It was unfortunate that many of Ataturk’s reforms were only starting to
take hold when he died in 1938.
Modernization of Iran
Great Britain and Russia dominated Persia (name of Iran until 1935) during the Age of Imperialism. The two
nations shared control of Persia’s government and commerce, with Britain controlling the nation’s oil fields.
Reza Khan, an army commander, overthrew Persia’s government in 1921. After four years, he deposed the Shah
(Persia’s traditional leader), took over the Crown and assumed the name “Reza Shah Pahlavi.’
Reza Shah was an admirer of Ataturk; so, he also launched a program of modernization for Persia. His major
goal was to strengthen the nation and free it from foreign control. He promoted the building of roads and
railroads, improved the postal system, and developed programs to bring about industrial and agricultural
growth. In 1935, the country returned to its former name, Iran, which means “Land of the Aryans.”
The Arabs and the Jews
The Jews, or Hebrews, are of Semitic descent. Racially, the Arabs and the Hebrews are cousins because both
trace their ancestry to Patriarch Abraham; but one of the most bitter conflicts of modern times was between
these two people-the Jews and the Arabs. The Jews were intent on building a solid foundation for their “national
home,” while the Arabs felt a threat to rights they had acquired over thirteen centuries of residence on Palestine
soil.
Jewish National Movement. After the defeat of the Jews by the Romans sometime in 70 A.D., the Jews were
dispersed to different parts of the world-a people without a country. This period of dispersion is known in
Jewish history as the ‘Diaspora.’ The Jews, however, did not lose hope that someday they would be able to
return to Palestine. They never renounced their claim to Palestine as their homeland.
The harsh laws against the Jews by the anti-Semitic governments, and the miserable conditions of the Jewish
ghettoes in Russia, Hungary, Romania and Poland sparked the rise of Zionism at the end of the 19th century.
Zionism is a worldwide movement to restore the Jewish state in Palestine. It was founded by Theodore Herzl, a
Budapest- born Jewish lawyer.
With the financial assistance of rich Jews in Europe and Ametida, thousands of Jewish immigrants ere
transported from different countries to Palestine, where they were given lands to cultivate. Before the outbreak
of World War I, the Jewish population in Palestine had increased to around 100,000.
Although the Arabs made up the larger part of the population in Palestine, they were alarmed by these
developments. They viewed the Jews as ‘intruders” and feared possible economic and political domination. A8
refugees fled from Nazi Germany in the 19303 and Jewish immigration increased, the Arabs began to use
guerrilla warfare to stop immigration. The British tried, but failed, to bring peace to the area.
Failing to stop the hostility between the Arabs and the Jews, Great Britain brought the case to the United
Nations in 1947.
The Jews presented their arguments to the UN in support of their claim for a Jewish state. They insisted that
Palestine had been their land until the Romans drove them out. They had suffered persecutions and would never
be safe until they had a country of their own. The Arabs on the other hand argued that Palestine had been an
Arab land for centuries and that its population was predominantly Arab.
The UN evaluated the arguments of both sides and found both claims valid. The final decision was the partition
of Palestine between the Jews and the Arabs. The Jewish leaders quickly accepted the plan. Thus, in May 1948
the new Jewish homeland, called Israel was set up in Palestine after the British announced their withdrawal
from Palestine.
The Arabs on the other hand did not accept the UN plan and refused to recognize Israel. As a result, no Arab
state was set up in Palestine.
Chapter 20: Indian Reactions to British Colonialism
India was a British colony in the 19th century. But though the colonizers established several new schools and
universities, their many oppressive policies catalyzed the development of a strong nationalist movement in India
demanding reforms in the bureaucracy.
A small but educated group of Indians made representations to the British government about Indian welfare,
particularly the appointment of Indians to important government posts. This movement was further stimulated
in 1858, when the British government assumed direct responsibility for the government of India.
During World War I, Mohandas Gandhi became the leader of the Indian nationalists. Gandhi’s crusade against
British colonialism was unique, and different from the wave of anti-colonial struggles that occurred in Asia in
the early part of the 20th century. He used boycotts and other forms of nonviolent resistance against British rule.
This strategy was apparently more effective, for during the 1930s, Britain granted India a limited amount of
self-government.
Growth of Indian Nationalism
While it is true that the British introduced modern Western technologies into India, they also enforced harsh
policies that adversely affected the country’s economic and social order. The British government had a
monopoly on salt and strictly implemented the imposition of a “salt tax.” Not-only did the British ban the
Indians from mining salt; they taxed those who bought it, as well. The British also introduced changes in the
country’s traditional economic structures-a move that gave rise to underdevelopment in India.
The nationalists argued that ancient India was once the greatest manufacturing and commercial region in the
world. Its present poverty resulted from exploitation by foreigners. Nationalists believed that the British ruled
India to benefit themselves. They pointed out that cheaper, imported British manufactured goods had ruined
India’s handicraft markets while providing new markets for British industries in India. Indians bought
inexpensive British cloth rather than the handwoven goods of India. India’s wealth was drained, the nationalists
argued, to Britain to pay for its foreign government and army in India.
Nationalists felt that India’s potential wealth must be developed for its own benefit. They asked Indians to
boycott foreign goods and use only Indian-produced goods. They felt that Indians should help themselves by
organizing savings banks which would pool savings and make loans to Indian businessmen. These economic
change proposed by the nationalists were all meant to improve Indian life.
The Indians could not accept the abolition of many of their customs and traditions, like suttee, thuggi, and
slavery. Indian nationalists felt that the ancient Hindu culture must be restored and combined with the modern
knowledge and political institutions introduced by the British. They called for a return to Sanskrit and a reliance
upon Hinduism to improve the morality of the people.
The British made the Indians feel that they were an inferior race, and this discrimination further widened the
gap between them. Even educated Indian Brahmans in government service were discriminated against. They
were not given a chance to hold important government positions.
The situation was worsened by a famine that struck the land. The Indians rebelled in their hearts and the seed of
nationalism began to flourish. Farmers launched pocket revolts and many nationalistic organizations were
formed. The Indian nationalists acquired information on alternative systems of government and economy, as
well as the importance of self‘ government. Unknown to the British, they themselves opened the eyes of the
Indians by introducing to them the ideas of the West. Educated Indians were thus made aware of the real
situation in their country and formed the first group of nationalists in India.
The Indian nationalists had varied reactions to British colonial rule. These -were manifested in: (1) the revival
of Hindu thought and traditions; (2) moderate nationalism; (3) militant nationalism; and (4) the establishment of
the Muslim League. Hindus participated in the first three, while the fourth was a Muslim initiative.
Nationalist Swami Dayanand Saraswati urged the reading of the Vedas, sacred text of the Hindus, to serve as a
guide for daily life. This suggestion was a reaction to the entry of Western points of view that threatened to
replace traditional Hindu customs and beliefs.
Ba] Gangadhar Tilak led the militant nationalists. In a newspaper that he himself published, Tilak expressed his
approval of the use of force to compel the British to listen to Indian demands for reform. Not long after this, the
nationalist movement in Bengal conducted several bomb attacks that caused the destruction of much property
and the death of a number of British nationals. The militants were active from 1905 to 1914.
The Indian National Congress
In 1885, Allan Octavian Hume, a retired Indian civil servant and a man of great Vision, formed a body known
as the Indian National Congress.
The Congress served as a political debating society where Indians could discuss their problems. Its members
came from every part of India, and from many religious groups and castes. Annie Besant (1847-1933), an active
member of the Theosophical Society, was the first woman elected president of the Congress.
Octavian Hume actively consulted with many Indian leaders. He encouraged them to establish a political party
“with sufficient power of self-sacrifice, sufficient love for and pride in their country.” Two years later, as a
response to Hume’s call, 72 delegates from all over India, composed chiefly of lawyers, schoolteachers and
newspaper editors, gathered in Bombay to join the Congress. They presented a set of resolutions demanding
greater political participation in government and wider consultations from all sectors of Indian society. For three
days, the delegates aired their grievances against the British, but ironically in the end, they affirmed their loyalty
to Great Britain.
Under the leadership of a moderate nationalist, Gopal Gokhale, the Congress asked for reforms which included
greater Indian participation in the executive council, recruitment of natives in the army, employment of Indians
in the civil service, and reduction of the salt tax The Congress favor with the British when it began striving for
self-government.
The Muslim League
Many Muslims feared the Indian National Congress because the great majority of its members were Hindus.
They believed that if the Congress became powerful, it would keep them politically weaker than the Hindus. To
protect their own interests, the Muslims organized the Muslim League in 1906 under the leadership of Ali
Jinnah. The League’s leaders called for separate elections in which Hindus would vote for Hindus and Muslims
for Muslims with a certain number of seats reserved for each group in the national legislature. This demand was
granted by the British in 1909.
Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan became the most influential member of the League. He founded the Mohammedan
Anglo-Oriental College (now called Aligarh University) in Aligarh. Numerous Muslims who attended this
school later became doctors, lawyers, teachers, and politicians. He hoped its graduates would provide leadership
for India’s Muslims. Sayyid at first favored cooperation between Hindus and Muslims, but he later opposed it
because Hindus outnumbered Muslims.
India After World War I
The Indian people supported Great Britain in World War I (1914-1918). In return, Britain promised India a
major role in its own government. In 1919, the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms greatly increased the powers of
the provincial legislatures. The British also increased the number of Indians that could be elected to the central
legislature. However, the Viceroy and the governors could still veto any bill.
The Indians did not believe the reforms gave them enough powers, and their violent protests increased. The
British government reacted by passing several restrictive laws, one of which was a ban on all political meetings
and rallies. The hated Rowlatt Acts was passed. These laws provided that a terrorist suspect could be
imprisoned without trial or tried secretly without a lawyer. This violated British legal procedures and aroused
anti-British feeling among Indian nationalists. After riots broke out, the British banned all public meetings. On
April 13, 1919 thousands of people attended a political meeting at Amritsar, in the Punjab. Upon orders of a
British general, Brig. Gen. Reginald Dyer, British soldiers fired at the peacefully-gathered crowd. According to
reports, 379 were killed and 1,137 were wounded. This coldblooded slaughter of unarmed civilians changed
Gandhi’s attitude towards the British. The British government made a formal apology, but this did not change
the determination of the nationalists to tight for independence.
At this point, Gandhi called for a nationwide boycott. Protesters left their offices and refused to pay taxes.
British soldiers and policemen dispersed crowds with clubs and rifles, but demonstrators and protesters did not
retaliate; they just tried to protect themselves from being hit.
The Rise of Gandhi
Mohandas Gandhi took up law in London and practiced his profession in South Africa from 1893 to 1914..In
South Africa, he witnessed the racial discrimination practiced by the white South African government against
the Asian: and the blacks. In an effort to protect the interests of Indian workers in South Africa, he developed
non-violent techniques to fight injustice. But while he resisted the policy of the British in South Africa, he
remained loyal to the British government. When he returned to India in 1915, he even urged the Indians to
support the British in World War 1.
After the war, Great Britain granted only minor reforms in the Indian government. It was then that a very much
disappointed Gandhi launched his passive resistance movement against British rule.
Gandhi’s Peaceful Political Method. Gandhi was a deeply religious man who believed that the realization of
God came from service and sacrifice. He turned Hindu attitudes of personal spiritual freedom into tools for
political and social change. He was confident that ahimsa or nonviolence was the best way to win over an
opponent. This would need self-control, patience. sympathy, and suffering. To end the “injustices” of British
rule, the nonviolent resister was prepared to be beaten, arrested, and imprisoned. He believed that these
unselfish actions would help to change the ruler’s heart. Gandhi preached that “suffering Opens the eyes of
understanding.” According to Gandhi, no force could prevail against love and truth. He believed that through
“soul force” or satyagraha, they could attain swaraj or self-rule for India.
Civil disobedience and boycotts were Gandhi’s weapons against British rule. (Civil disobedience means
nonviolent resistance to laws and acts that are thought unjust). Non-violent protests took the form of boycotts in
which the people stopped all work and dedicated the day to fasting and praying. Gandhi also urged the Indians
not to buy British clothes but to wear Indian homespun cloth. He also asked his followers not to pay taxes and
to use Indian languages instead of English. In short, Gandhi encouraged the Indians to resist and protest without
resorting to violence.
The Salt March. One of the laws which Gandhi considered an act of exploitation by the British and an insult to
the dignity of the Indians was the “Salt Act,” which provided for a government monopoly of the manufacture of
salt, levied a tax on its sale, and prohibited Indians from making it themselves. On March 12,1930, Gandhi,
accompanied by 78 men and women, set out on a 320 kilometer trek on foot to the sea. There, they planned to
make salt from sea water in disobedience of the Salt Act and in direct defiance of the government.
From Ahmedabad, where the march started, it took the participants 24 days to reach the Gulf of Cambay. The
procession became a triumphant march. In every settlement that they passed, hundreds abandoned their work
and joined the procession until the original band of 78 swelled to several thousands by the time the sea was
reached.
“We are marching in the name of God,” Gandhi told the villagers as his party rested for the night. Prayers were
said and the Mahatma explained why he was determined to defy the Salt Law. On April 6, Gandhi waded into
the sea, and bathed and purified himself in the Hindu custom. He then picked up some salt which had been left
by the waves on the beach. By this act, he had defied the Salt Law. The news spread all over India and the rest
of the world.
The Salt March aroused the Indians to a revolutionary high. Massive demonstrations and rallies followed,
particularly when Gandhi was arrested and jailed. The British could no longer stop the acts of civil
disobedience.
But for all the enthusiasm it initially generated, the civil disobedience campaign launched by Gandhi achieved
only limited success. It did not give India immediate independence, but it led the British to give the Indian
people more political power. The Government of India Act of 1935 created a new Indian constitution which
gave the Indian provinces self-government. It also provided that all cabinet members should be Indians who
would control all matters except those relating to defense and foreign affairs. However, full independence for
India was not granted until 1947.
Chapter 21: Chinese Nationalist Movements
China was never a European colony; but the last ruling dynasty, the Manchu, was weak and corrupt. Its rulers
were forced to make many concessions to imperialist nations. These conditions led to the growth of a nationalist
movement.
In 1912, the Nationalists overthrew the Manchus and established a republic. The leading nationalist was Sun
Yatsen. He was succeeded in 1925 by Chiang Kai-shek, who tried to unify the country. After 1927, he and the
Chinese Communists, led by Mao Tsetung became bitter enemies. The two sides fought a civil war, which
ceased temporarily after 1937 when they united to fight against Japanese invaders.
A disastrous war with Japan in 1894 and 1895 forced the Chinese to recognize Japan’s control over Korea.
China also had to give the Japanese the Island of Taiwan, which China had controlled since 1863. France,
Germany, Great Britain, and Russia then forced the crumbling Chinese empire to grant them trading rights and
territory. The division of China into a number of European colonies appeared likely. But the Chinese people had
begun to develop strong feelings of belonging together as a nation. This growth of nationalism helped prevent
the division of the country. In addition, the United States wanted China to remain independent. In 1899, the
United States persuaded the Western powers to accept the Open-Door Policy, which guarantee the rights of all
nations to trade with China on an equal basis.
The Boxer Rebellion
The Chinese bitterly resented how foreign nations were dividing up their country. By the 18903, a great number
of Chinese were violently opposing the spread of Western and Christian influences in China. Chinese rebels
formed secret societies to fight these influences. One of the most strongly anti-foreign groups was a powerful
secret society called “The Righteous and Harmonious Fists," whose members were called “Boxers.”
The Chinese had genuine grievances. Imported foreign goods had destroyed local industries, while railroad and
mining development upset their grave sites.
The Boxers began their rebellion in June 1900. They destroyed railroads, burned bridges and churches, killed
Chinese Christians, and destroyed foreign-owned properties. They besieged the foreign legations in Peking and
killed the Europeans. The Empress Dowager and her court secretly supported the Boxers, hoping the foreigners
would be expelled.
The foreign legations were continuously besieged for 55 days until an allied army of Japanese, Americans,
British, French, Italians, Russians, and Austrians rescued them. Three hundred foreigners died during the
rebellion, while Chinese casualties numbered 15,000. The Boxers were defeated. The victorious foreign troops
looted Peking.
On September 7, 1900, the Peking Protocol was signed with the following provisions:
1. Payment by China of a total indemnity of $333,000,000 to the foreign powers
2. Punishment of the Boxers
3. Revision of commercial treaties which China had previously signed with the foreign powers
4. Destruction of Chinese fortifications between Peking and the sea
5. Introduction of reforms in the Chinese government
After the Boxer Rebellion, the Empress Dowager Tzu Hsi family began a vigorous Westernization campaign.
She sent promising young men to college in America, Europe, and even Japan. The old Confucian civil service
examinations were abolished and, in their place, modern Euro-American science and political theory and
practice became the bases for civil service examinations. The Manchus established modern schools and sent
students abroad to study. They also organized and equipped a Western-style army. In addition, the Ch’ing court
reorganized the central government, promised to adopt a constitution, and permitted the provinces to elect their
own legislatures.
The Manchu reforms came too late to save the dynasty.
In 1908 Tsu Hsi and her son, Emperor Kuang-hsu, died, leaving the throne to the dowager’s three-year-old
nephew, Hsuan Tung. The father of the new emperor was not in favor of the Westernization program; and in
1911 a revolution broke out in southern China. forcing the young emperor, the last of the Manchu line, to
abdicate. One republic was established at Nanking, under Sun Yat-sen, and another at Peking, under Yuan Shih-
kai, who ruled virtually as a dictator.
Sun Yat-sen and the Republic
Young Chinese who resented foreign influence organized secret societies to fight it Among these nationalists
was Sun Yat Sen
Sun Yat sen was born of a peasant family m Guangdong province. One of his brothers emigrated to Hawaii and
became well-off. He invited Sun to live with him in Hawaii, where Sun studied in a British missionary school
and eventually converted to Christianity. Later, he studied medicine and practiced for a time in Hongkong and
Macao.
Like many other Chinese intellectuals, he got involved in Chinese politics. He was concerned with the events in
China and the social decay that had occurred. He resented the Manchus for having made humiliating
concessions to the imperialist powers and plotted military training. These cadets went back to China and on
October 10, 1911, led an uprising against the Manchus.
This event was called the 1911 Revolution (Double Ten). It ended Manchu rule and brought the imperial system
to an end. Sun then returned to China and struggled against various reg10nal leaders who wanted power for
themselves. After a long conflict, Sun was elected president of China in 1921 and made plans to unify the
country. He was not able to get aid from the Western powers, whom he had criticized for their imperialistic
ambitions in China. 80 Sun turned to the Soviet Union for help. The Soviets sent him money, arms and advices.
Despite all Sun’s efforts, he succeeded in establishing a government only in the south, at Canton. When Sun
died in 1925, powerful regional leaders their overthrow. In 1895, he led an uprising that failed, forcing him to
flee the country.
Abroad, Sun continued to elicit support for his cause. For 16 years, he worked among Chinese communities
abroad to organize the Kuomintang, or Nationalist People’s Party. He advocated a Western type of democracy
patterned after the government of the United States, whereby government officials were elected. In Japan, he
was fortunate to meet young cadets sent by their provincial commands to undergo still controlled the rest of
China, including the capital city of Peking in the north.
However, Sun was a source of inspiration to his followers. Sun’s writings became guides for reform. One boom,
Three Principles of the People, became a guide for the Kuomintang. It called for nationalism and freedom from
foreign control, government by the people, and for the people, and economic security for all Chinese.
The Rise of Chiang Kai-shek
Sun’s place was taken by Chiang Kaia shek, a young military officer. In 1926. Chiang led his army northward
from Canton toward Peking in hopes of uniting China. But soon Chiang feared that the Communist wing of the
Kuomintang was becoming too strong.
In 1927, his forces began a bloody purge of the Communists and killed many of them. A small group of Chinese
Communists led by Mao Tse-tung survived. From that time on, the Nationalists and the Communists became
bitter enemies.
In 1928, however, Chiang succeeded in taking Peking and uniting China. The Western powers recognized
Chiang’s government as the official government of China. But to increase his popular support, Chiang had to
begin removing the special privileges that foreign countries had forced China to give them.
The New Government Faced Many Problems. One problem was growing dissatisfaction among the Chinese
people over lack of reform. A second was Japanese aggression against China in 1931 and a full-scale invasion
in 1937. A third was an unsuccessful attempt by the Communists in 1931 to set up a Chinese Soviet Republic in
southeast China. In 19341935, Mao, in defeat, led 90,000 Chinese Communists on the Long March. This 6,000-
mi1e (9,600-kilometer) retreat headed to Yenan, in north central China. Only half of those who started out
survived the Long March. In Yenan, the Communists won the support of the peasants and continued to tight
Chiang’s armies. When the Japanese invaded China in 1937, the Communists and Nationalists stopped their
civil war and united against the Japanese. But the differences between the Communists and the Nationalists
were too deep to make the alliance last. When the Japanese were defeated, civil war broke out again.
Chapter 22: Westernization and Expansion of Japan
In the previous chapter, we learned of the opening of Japanese ports to the world after more than 200 years of
seclusion. The Shogun lost the confidence of many Japanese when he granted trading rights to the West. Many
samurais found an opportunity to gain greater power, so they participated in politics to reform Japan. Some of
them even planned to reinforce the seclusion policy but, militarily, the country was too weak to expel the
foreigners. Several daimyos, through earlier contact with foreigners, purchased modern arms and strengthened
their military units. They supported the restoration of imperial rule in order to modernize the nation and
safeguard it against the West. Daimyos from western Japan plotted to overthrow the Shogunate and restore the
emperor to power. In 1867, troops of the daimyo forced the Shogun to resign. On January 3, 1868, the daimyo
had Emperor Mutsuhito, then a teenager, officially announced the return of unperial rule.
Meiji Period (1867-1912)
In 1868, Japan's capital was moved from Kyoto to Edo, which was renamed Tokyo. Emperor Mutsuhito
adopted as his title Meiji, meaning “Enlightened rule .” During the Meiji period, Japan developed into a modern
industrial and military power. Most of the work of Meiji government was actually carried out by the daimyo
who had overthrown the Tokugawa shogunate. But the emperor became the symbol of the new age. Under the
new set-up, feudalism in Japan eventually ended. In 1869 the dairnyos of Choshu, Satsuma, Hizen, and Tosa in
Southwest Japan offered their possessions and men to the emperor in order to strengthen the centralized rule of
the crown and end the internal divisions caused by feudalism. Gradually. the other daimyos did the same. With
the restoration of the emperor. Japan net out to modernize itself.
Reorganization of the Government
One of the outstanding achievements of the Meiji restoration was the reorganization of the government. The
process continued until the adoption of the Constitution of 1889. The author of the Constitution, Hirobumi Ito,
was purposely sent to the West to study different constitution models. He was impressed with the institutions of
Germany, so he came up with a constitution patterned after the German model. In 1889, a commission headed
by Ito promulgated a constitution for Japan.
The Constitution of 1889 spoke of the Emperor as “sacred and inviolable.” As head of the empire, he was given
the following powers: (1) to promulgate imperial edicts which had the force of law; (2) to call and dissolve
Parliament; (3) to declare war or make peace; (4) to grant honors and titles of nobility; and (5) to propose
amendments to the Constitution. In practice, these various functions were performed through his ministers.
The Constitution also provided for the creation of the imperial Parliament or Diet, which consisted of two
chambers-the House of Peers as the Upper House and the House of Representatives as the Lower House.
Westernization of Japan
In the process of transformation, Japan adopted an educational system patterned after Western models. In 1872,
a law was passed which became the basis for compulsory primary education. Both the government and private
sectors took charge of primary, secondary, and collegiate education. Foreign teachers were hired. The curricula
were combinations of Western and Japanese subjects. Western science and technology were studied Western
books on science, politics, history, and literature were translated into Japanese in order to keep abreast of the
times. Japanese scholars were sent abroad to study Western arts and sciences.
The army and the navy were also modernized along European lines. Compulsory military training patterned
after the German system was introduced. The Gregorian calendar and the Western decimal system were
adopted. Christianity and other religions were tolerated, although Shinto was made the state religion.
The adoption of things Western was due to patriotic pride and a desire not to be backward as a nation. Basically,
however, the Japanese mind was only slightly changed; the Japanese still adhered to the ethical, spiritual, and
social values of their ancestors.
Economic Revolution
Economic changes took place during the Meiji era. The industrial and commercial techniques of the West were
adopted. Factories were erected, railways and telegraph lines were built, steamships were constructed, foreign
trade grew, and currency and banking were developed according to Western patterns.
In accomplishing this economic revolution, the State involved the private sector. It developed model industries,
then turned them over at a low price to some of the giant financial houses. As a result, some families became
prominent in industry, banking, and commerce. By the 1920’s, the economy was controlled by the Zaibatsu.
huge corporations owned by single families. Of these, the wealthiest and most powerful were’the Mitsuis and
the Mitsubishis, the Sumitomos and the Yosudas. They operated banks, factories, mines, trading companies and
other businesses.
To strengthen the nation, industries which would assist the army and the navy and compete with foreign
products at home and abroad were given primary attention. Arsenals, foundries, and shipyards were built.
Cotton mills, paper mills, chemical works, and factories producing glass and cement were established. After
1895, Japan hastened its industrial development.
The Expansion of Japan
Alongside Japan’s reformation were its efforts to expand its holdings abroad. It started implementing its
expansionist policy in the 18703 by acquiring islands north and south of it, including the Korean peninsula.
Equipped with a strong naval power, Japan found herself ready to compete with China and Russia for
supremacy over Korea.
In July 1894, Japan went to war with China over control of Korea, which had been ruled by China for hundreds
years.
In the first Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895) Japanese warships sank a vessel carrying 1,200 Chinese soldiers on
July 25, 1894 near Korea. Using modern weapons and Western military tactics, the Japanese easily destroyed
China’s land and naval forces.
The war was ended by the Treaty of Shimonoseki. The treaty, signed on April 17, 1895, provided for the
turnover of Formosa, Pescadores, and Liaotung Peninsula to Japan by China. It also granted Korean
independence, thus leaving the country open to Japanese influence. With the intervention of Russia, Germany,
and France, Japan was forced to return the Liaotung Peninsula to China.
Alliance with Great Britain
Great Britain was impressed by Japan ’s military, political, and economic achievements. In 1894, it agreed to
surrender its extraterritorial rights in Japan. Other Western powers followed suit. By 1899, Japan had become
the first Asian country to get rid of extraterritoriality. In 1902, Great Britain signed a military agreement With
Japan called the Anglo-Japanese Alliance. The agreement provided that Great Britain would be neutral in case
of war between Japan and another power, but would come to Japan’s aid should other powers enter the war
against Japan.
Russo-Japanese War (1904-1 905)

Japan’s success in the Sino-Japanese War further encouraged her to clash again with another big but weak
country, Russia. The Japanese leaders feared that they could not protect their interests in Korea against Russia,
whose Trans-Siberian Railway signaled a greater Russian role in northeast Asia. The Japanese also sought
economic opportunities in Manchuria, an area the Russians also wished to control. The Japanese resented
Russia for keeping them out of Manchuria, which was rich in mineral resources.
When Russia refused the Japanese proposal for Russian control of Manchuria return for Japanese control of
Korea, Japan attacked the Russian fleet stationed at Port Arthur without warning. apanese troops took over Port
Arthur, then advanced into Manchuria and captured Mukden on March 10, 1905.
Czar Nicholas II sent the Russian fleet to the Far East. The Japanese navy under the command of Admiral Togo
defeated the Russian fleet in the Battle of Japan Sea on May 27-28, 1905. Because of this naval victory,
Admiral Togo was called the “Father of the Japanese Navy.”
Through the efforts of US President Theodore Roosevelt, Japan and Russia signed the Treaty of Portsmouth on
September 5, 1905 at Portsmouth, New Hampshire. Its main provisions were the following: (1) Russia
acknowledged Japan’s interests in Korea; (2) Russia transferred to Japan all her rights in the Liaotung
Peninsula, including Port Arthur; (3) Russia ceded the southern half of Sakhalin Island to Japan; (4) both Russia
and Japan recognized China’s sovereignty in Manchuria; and (5) no war indemnity would be paid by either
nation. The Russo-Japanese War established Japan as a world power.
Japan Annexes Korea. The Russo Japanese War established Japan as a world power. It was part of Japan’s
imperialist design to take over Korea. In 1910, Japan annexed Korea and ruled over it until 1945. She ousted the
last Korean king, Yi Chuk, from the throne and called the country -“Chosen”. The Japanization of Korea thus
began.
Japan and the First World War
As an ally of Great Britain, Japan declared war against Germany August 23, 1914. However, this used as an
opportunity to gain gr power in China. She captured Kiaochow, a German-leased territory in Shantung, and
seized the German colonies in the North Pacific-the Carolines, Marshalls, and Palau. Japan pressed ”Twenty-
one Demands” on China which would have given Japan control of the Chinese police and arsenals and,
indirectly, of the Chinese government. China resisted, but Japan managed to secure many economic concessions
from her.
When the war ended, Japan was represented at the Versailles Conference, which discussed the peace terms with
Germany. For her participation in the war, Japan gained the following: (1) official recognition as a world power,
(2) acquisition of German rights to Shantung despite China’s opposition, and acquisition of the German
colonies in the North Pacific; (3) recognition of Japan’s naval power; and (4) membership in the League of
Nations.
The Rise of Extreme Nationalism in Japan. The 1930s saw the emergence of nationalistic groups who
declared themselves guardians of Japan’s “unique” heritage-her divine origin, divine emperor, and her destiny
to rule others. These extreme nationalists resented the Western influences in their country and scorned
parliamentary politics. They favored direct political action against the emperor’s “enemies”. P
Economic Depression Increases Nationalism. Like other nations, Japan suffered from the worldwide depression
which started in 1929. To secure new markets for her surplus products and additional lands for her growing
population, Japanese militarists, with the financial help of the Zajbatsu, planned the conquest of Manchuria.
Manchurian Incident. Radical officers in the Manchurian army blew up a section of the Japanese-controlled
South Manchurian Railway in Manchuria. Acting on its own, the Japanese army used this as an excuse to seize
the Chinese garrison and seized the city of Mukden. China appealed to the League of Nations but Japan ignored
the League’s advice to stop aggression. She went on with the conquest of Manchu~ ria and created a puppet
state called Manchukuo. Henry Pu Yi, last Manchu emperor, was made ruler of Manchukuo. In 1933, Japan
withdrew from the League of Nations and her armies continued their military operations.
The Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945). The Japanese were also interested in gaining control over China
because of its mineral resources and because it was a good market for their products. In 1937, Japan provoked
another incident near the Marco Polo bridge, not far from Peking. The Japanese began hostilities, thereby
causing an undeclared war between the two nations. This was called the “China Incident.”
By 1938, the Japanese were in control of the coastal areas, major cities like Peking and Tientsin, and the
railroad lines, but they were continually harassed by Chinese guerillas. General Chiang Kai-shek had moved his
capital to Chungkjng and continued to resist the Japanese.
Japanese life was very much affected by these military activities. Factories began producing war materials at
top speed. All military forces were placed under alert at all times. Political parties were abolished in 1940 and
replaced by the Imperial Rule Assistance Association. Under the IRAA, schools, universities, press and radio
were organized to unite behind the government and support its “imperial objectives.”
World War II in the Pacific. While the Japanese armies were over running China, World War II broke out in
Europe on September 1, 1939 with the invasion of Poland by Germany. While Great Britain, France. and the
Netherlands were deeply involved in the war against Nazi Germany, Japan signed the Tri-partite Pact with
Germany and Italy on September 27, 1940, thus creating the Berlin-Rome Tokyo Axis. The Axis powers
committed themselves to aid any member who was attacked by another power. This move gave Japan a free
hand in East and Southeast Asia to advance her own “new order in Greater East Asia.” In 1941, Japan seized
Indochina.
The United States did not approve of Japan’s seizing Hainan and the Spratley Islands and the landing of
Japanese troops in Indochina. As a counteraction, US President Franklin D. Roosevelt ordered the freezing of
all Japanese assets in the United States and the stopping of trade with Japan. In the summer of 1941 the
Americans, British, and Dutch ceased all trade relations with Japan and denied it vital oil supplies.
On December 8, 1941 (Asia time) Japanese planes conducted a sneak attack on the US naval base in Pearl
Harbor, Hawaii and destroyed a substantial part of the American Pacific Fleet. The attack caught the US by
surprise. The following day, it declared war on Japan.
The Japanese actually had no plans to invade Hawaii or the United States. They had expected the US to give up
the fight and negotiate a settlement which would leave Japan in control of East and Southeast Asia. But they
were mistaken, for the US was determined to crush them.
By May 1942, Japan had conquered Hong Kong, Malaya, Singapore, Thailand, Burma, the Philippines, Guam,
Wake Island, and Indonesia. But the Philippines bravely resisted the Japanese invaders in the famous battles of
Bataan and Corregidor. This upset the Japanese military timetable and gave the Americans ample time in
Australia to complete their war preparations.
In June 1942, Japan lost four aircraft carriers at the Battle of Midway. This event stopped further advance by the
Japanese. In August, the US began its island campaign with the invasion of Guadalcanal. The Japanese fought
furiously in Saipan, Guam, Iwo Jima, and Okinawa but were defeated. flowing from island to island, Gen.
Douglas MacArthur’s forces fought their way through the Solomons and the Moluccas toward the Philippines.
On October 20, 1944, MacArthur landed in Leyte to fulfill his promise-“I shall return.” By July 1945, combined
US and Filipino forces had liberated the Philippines.
End of World War II in the Pacific. During the latter part of 1944, US B-29 bombers had started their raids
on Japanese cities. By the middle of 1945, Japan was suffering from massive US air attacks and naval
bombardments. Thousands of Japanese were killed and wounded in these attacks.
On July 26, 1945, Great Britain, China and the United States issued the Potsdam Ultimatum calling on Japan to
surrender, but Japan chose to continue the fight despite the threat of continuous heavy bombardment. Then, on
August 6, 1945 the first atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima; three days later, on August 9, a second atomic
bomb was dropped on Nagasaki. At the same time. Russia declared war on Japan, followed by its invasion of
Manchuria. Japan had no recourse but sue for peace.
On August 15, 1945 Japan surrendered unconditionally. On September 2, she signed the documents of surrender
aboard the battleship USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay. Gen. Douglas MacArthur, supreme commander of the allied
forces in Japan, presided over the historic ceremonies.
American occupation followed. The Japanese empire was reduced to the four main islands of Honshu, Kyushu,
Shikoku, and Hokkaido. Japan was stripped of its armed forces. War trials were held for those accused of
plotting out the war and perpetrating crimes against humanity.
Chapter 23: Southeast Asia After World War II
By the end of the 1800s, much of the Southeast Asian region was under the control of foreign powers. Thailand
(formerly Siam), though unconquered, had to sign trade treaties with Great Britain and France in 1855 to keep
these two countries from taking over. In 1858, France started sending troops into what is now Vietnam and
proceeded to create a federation of states called Indochina (Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia). Earlier in the century,
Great Britain had gained control over Singapore; and by 1886, Burma was under British rule. In 1898 Spain
ceded the Philippines to the United States as a result of the Spanish-American War.
From the beginning, the peoples of Southeast Asia has resented foreign domination. Dissatisfaction with
colonial administration grew and eventually, nationalist movements emerged. Japanese occupation of the region
during World War II increased the people’s desire for independence.
However, in many Southeast Asian countries, it took several years of violent struggle before independence and
unity could be achieved.
Indochina
Less than ten years after the end of World War II, the old French colony of Indochina ceased to exist. By 1954
Laos and Vietnam had become independent, and Vietnam had been divided into a communist North and a non-
communist South. A few years later, North Vietnam began a campaign to bring all of Vietnam Under
communist rule. The United States actively intervened to prevent that from happening.
The Rise of Two Vietnams. In 1954, peace talks were held at Geneva, Switzerland to discuss the problems of
Indochina. Representatives of North Vietnam, South Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, France, China, Great Britain,
the United States, and the Soviet Union attended the conference. They came up with an agreement known as the
Geneva Accord, by which France granted independence to Laos and Cambodia while Vietnam was temporarily
divided into North and South Vietnam at the 17th parallel-the North to be controlled by Ho Chi Minh’s
government and the South to be headed by the noncommunist. Both sides agreed to hold elections in 1956 to
unite the country.
South Vietnamese leaders were against a divided Vietnam because of two reasons: (1) North Vietnam was
richer in industry, minerals, and agricultural lands; and (2) the division put the majority of Vietnamese under
Communist rule; thus, the Communists would surely Win the 1956 elections. In view of these reasons, South
Vietnamese leaders refused to sign the Geneva Accord.
The Vietnam War (1956-1975). Both the North and the South disregarded the Geneva Accord of 1954. Ho Chi
Minh of the North did not withdraw the Viet Minh troops from South Vietnam and Ngo Dinh Diem of the South
did not hold free elections to determine the kind of government the people would like to have. What he did was
to proclaim the Republic of Vietnam on October 26, 1955.
The South was determined to defend the region against Communism, while the North had pledged to unite the
country under Communist rule. The North Vietnamese soldiers recruited and trained South Vietnamese men
Who Were pro-communists and formed a force called Vietcong. The Vietcongs launched a campaign of
sabotage and terrorism throughout South Vietnam. Public officials and citizens who Were non-Communists
were terrorized. The South Vietnamese troops retaliated by arresting supporters of communism and killing the
Vietcongs whenever they encountered them.
By 1956, the war was on between North Vietnam and South Vietnam.
US Participates in the War. The United States felt obliged to prevent the spread of communism in Asia. As
early as 1954, the US had initiated the establishment of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization, or SEATO. The
SEATO members had pledged to combat communist aggression in Southeast Asia. Thus, when President Ngo
Dinh Diem of South Vietnam appealed for help, the US immediately took action.
Dwight Eisenhower, then US President considered South Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia
and the Philippines as a row of dominoes, such that if South Vietnam fell to the Communists, the rest would
follow. This geopolitical metaphor was popularized by American journalists as the “Domino Theory.” Backed
up by this theory, the US supported South Vietnam by sending combat troops, armaments, planes and warships,
thereby involving herself actively in the Vietnam War.
US Gradually Withdraws from the War. As war casualties grew in number, the Americans, particularly the
students, started to oppose US involvement in Vietnam. Peace negotiations began in Paris in 1968, and in 1969,
President Richard Nixon ordered the withdrawal of American troops from Vietnam. However, US forces
remained in the country until an agreement to end the war and restore peace was signed in 1973. A neutral four-
nation team supervised the ceasefire, the withdrawal of US troops, and the release of American prisoners.
End of the War. The South Vietnamese found it difficult to sustain its defense without the support of the
United States. But the war still went on two years after the US had withdrawn its combat troops. The South
Vietnamese suffered heavily during this period. In 1975, Saigon, the capital city of South Vietnam, fell to the
North Vietnamese, paving the way for South Vietnam’s final surrender.
Ho Chi Minh’s dream to unite Vietnam under Communist rule thus became a reality. A provisional
revolutionary government was established in Saigon, which was renamed “Ho Chi Minh City” in honor of the
“Father of Vietnamese Independence.”
On April 25, 1976, elections were held simultaneously in North and South Vietnam for delegates to the
National Assembly-249 from North Vietnam and 243 from South Vietnam. The inaugural session was held in
Hanoi on June 24, 1976. During this session, the National Assembly adopted the official name for the
country-“Socialist Republic of Vietnam.”
Cambodia
Cambodia, once part of Indochina, had been independent since 1953 under Prince Norodum Sihanouk. It got
involved in the Vietnam War when Prince Sihanouk permitted the North Vietnamese and the Vietcong troops to
use Cambodia as an escape route and as a base for military operations against South Vietnam. In 1969, the
United States bombed these bases and, a year later, even supported the overthrow of Sihancmk by Lon Nol, an
anti-Cormnunist.
Lon Nol allowed the United States and the South Vietnamese to attack the Communist sanctuaries in Cambodia.
It was a successful operation that resulted in the demolition of the North Vietnamese and Vietcong bases.
Afterwards, the American troops returned to South Vietnam; but the South Vietnamese stayed to help Lon Nol
fight the Khmer Rouge, Cambodia’s communist guerrillas.
Cambodia Becomes Communist. In October 1970, Lon Nol proclaimed the abolition of the monarchy and the
establishment of the Khmer Republic, with himself as president. The Khmer Rouge Opposed the new
government and fought for the restoration of Sihanouk into power. Civil war broke out, with North Vietnam and
China helping the Khmer Rouge. On the other hand, Lon Nol was assisted militarily and financially by the
United States.
However, even with US support, the armies of the Khmer Republic were defeated by the Communists. By 1973,
the Communists had already occupied the greater part of Cambodia and in 1975 ,Lon N01 and his family fled
Hawaii together with other high officials. A week after the escape, the capital city of Phnom Penh fell into the
hands of the Khmer Rouge.
Cambodia was declared a Communist nation under the leadership of Pol Pot, and was renamed Kampuchea.
For a while, Sihanouk was restored to power as chief of state for life; but after a year, in 1976, the Communist
Party deposed him and had him placed under military custody.
The rule of Pol Pot was harsh. Thousands of people were brutally massacred. It was estimated that about a sixth
of the total population were killed outright by Pol Pot’s government. About a million or more people died of
hunger and disease as a result of government actions and policies.
Laos. Formerly a part of Indochina, Laos gained its independence from France in 1954. During the conflict
between Communists and non-Communists in the region, the king of Laos remained neutral. In 1964, however,
Laos was troubled by civil war involving three factions: the pro Westem forces under Prince Boun Oum, the
neutralists under Prince Souvanna Phouma, and the communists called Pathet Lao under Prince
Souphanouvong.
To protect Laos from communism, the United States supported Prince Boun Oum; still, the Pathet Lao forces
could not be crushed. To settle the Laotian crisis, an international conference attended by 14 nations was held at
Geneva in the early 19608. During this conference, the three princes agreed to form a coalition government for
Laos with Prince Phouma as premier and Princes Boun Gum and Souphanouvong as deputy premiers. It was
further agreed that the attendant nations would respect the neutrality of Laos.
Vietnam War Spreads to Laos. Laos, enjoyed a brief period of peace after the Geneva Conference of 1962,
but this peace was disturbed when the Vietnam War intensified. The existence of a network of jungle trails (the
Ho Chi Minh trail) passing through Laos enabled the North Vietnamese to send arms and supplies to the
Communists in South Vietnam. The Laotian section of this trail was heavily guarded by North Vietnamese
troops.
The United States bombed the Ho Chi Minh trail to prevent the flow of Communist supplies. It also sent
military assistance to Prince Phouma, who was threatened by Pathet Lao guerrillas.
In 1971,US-assisted South Vietnamese troops invaded southeastern Laos in an attempt to cut the Ho Chi Minh
trail, but they were defeated by the North Vietnamese.
Laos Becomes Communist. The defeat of the American-supported South Vietnamese invaders inspired the
Pathet Lao forces in their tight against the Laotian government. As the Pathet Lao continued to gain ground,
Prinqe Phouma met with his half-brother Prince Souphanouvong, leader of the Pathet Lao, to avoid further
destruction of the country. The two entered into a ceasefire agreement in February 1973.
In September 1973, the government and the Pathet Lao forces signed a peace agreement providing for the
creation of a new coalition, retaining with Phouma as premier and making Souphanouvong president of the
Political Council. The agreement also provided for the retention of the monarchy, with limited powers, and the
withdrawal of all foreign troops from Laos.
By 1974, civil war in Laos had ended and the Pathet Lao leadership recognized the coalition government under
Phouma. However, in December 1975, the Pathet Lao forces dissolved the coalition government, abolished the
monarchy, and proclaimed the Democratic People’s Republic of Laos under the leadership of Prince
Souphanouvong. The Communists established their capital at Vientiane.
The Philippines
The United States ruled the Philippines as a colony for nearly 50 years. The Americans, even at the start,
promised to restore Philippine independence as soon as the Filipinos learned to govern themselves. After a brief
military rule, a civilian government was established in Manila with an American governor-general. Gradually,
the Americans Filipinized major political positions in the country.
Filipino nationalists lobbied the American Congress for the passage of a law granting independence to the
Philippines. Through the efforts of Manuel L. Quezon, the US Congress passed the Tydings-McDuffie Law,
which provided for a ten-year transition period of semi-autonomy-the Philippine Commonwealth-after which
independence would be granted. Thus, in 1935, the Commonwealth government was inaugurated with Manuel
L. Quezon as president and Sergio Osmefia as vice president.
The Philippines and the Second World War. Japanese military forces occupied the Philippines from 1942-
1945. A puppet government, the Second Philippine Republic, was established with Dr. Jose P. Laurel as
president. But the Filipinos continued to launch guerrilla attacks against the Japanese. There were two groups of
guerrilla forces: One was composed of USAFFE (United States Armed Forces in the Far East) soldiers who
were able to escape after the fall of Bataan; the other group was a peasant organization in Central Luzon which
became a resistance force against the Japanese. This was the HUKBALAHAP (Hukbo ng Bayan Laban sa
Hapon), whose members were called Huks. Both groups helped clear the road for American forces who sought
to liberate the country from the J apanese.
In October 1944, General Douglas MacArthur landed in Leyte with his forces. On July 5, 1945 the Philippines
was completely liberated from the Japanese. The Philippine Commonwealth was restored, with Sergio Osmefia
as president. He succeeded Manuel L. Quezon, who had passed away at Saranak Lake, New York.
Third Philippine Republic. The last Commonwealth elections were held on April 23, 1946. Manuel A. Roxas
was elected president and Elpidio Quirino, vice president. Two months after the election, on July 4, 1946,
Philippine independence was proclaimed, making Roxas the first president of the Third Philippine Republic. In
his inaugural address, he clarified the bases of the country’s policies: (1) the rebuilding of the economy that was
destroyed during the war; (2) devotion to the “ideals of an indivisible peace and an indivisible world”; (3) close
cooperation with the United States; and (4) the restoration of the rule of law.
To help the Roxas administration rehabilitate the country, the United States Congress passed the Tydings
Rehabilitation Act, which provided for an outlay of $620,000,000 to be given to those who suffered damages
during the war. However, a condition was attached to the payment of war damagesno amount in excess of $500
would be given unless and until an agreement was reached regarding trade relations between the two countries.
The effectivity of the Rehabilitation Act was conditioned by the amendment of the Philippine Constitution in
such a way as to give parity rights to the Americans.
Parity rights would give Americans equal rights with Filipinos in the exploitation and development of the
country’s natural resources. Six congressmen from the Democratic Alliance, headed by peasant leader Luis
Taruc, was against the granting of parity rights to the Americans. Roxas then became apprehensive that
Congress may not get the necessary three-fourths majority to amend the Constitution. Upon Roxas’ instigation,
Congress passed a resolution unseating Taruc and his colleagues from Congress. The ground for expulsion was
the alleged electoral fraud and terrorism conducted by the HUKBALAHAP in Central Luzon, which resulted in
the election of the aforementioned Democratic Alliance candidates. Denied access to political life, the Huks led
a rebellion in the forests of Luzon.
In the plebiscite of 1947, the Filipino people ratified the amendment to the Constitution granting parity rights to
the Americans, despite the warning given by Filipino nationalists like Claro M. Recto and Jose P. Laurel. But
contrary to Roxas’ dream, the country remained as poor as ever in the years that followed.
Since Roxas’ time, one of the major problems of the country has been peasant unrest. The agrarian problem has
indeed been the root cause of insurgency in the Philippines. As of this writing, there is still a need for a sincere
and more comprehensive land reform program.
Martial Law and the Marcos Dictatorship. Ferdinand E. Marcos was the sixth president of the third
Philippine Republic. During his second term, the Philippines was racked with violent student demonstration,
and internal strife with the Communist New People’s Army (NPA) and the Muslim rebels (MNLF) in the south.
On September 21, 1972, President Marcos declared martial law and pushed through a new Constitution in 1973
which prolonged his stay in power. The new Constitution provided for a parlia. mentary system of government
with a prime minister as the head and the president as ceremonial head. Both were to be elected by a National
Assembly from among its members. However, this was not implemented; instead, Marcos continued to rule
under martial law powers until 1981. He jailed his political rivals, dismissed Congress, silenced media critics,
and ruled as a dictator under what he called “constitutional authoritarianism.”
In the presidential election of 1981, Marcos won over Alejo Santos and Bartolome Cabangbang. The people
soon became disenchanted with his administration, which grew more corrupt as it became more powerful. The
First Lady, Imelda Marcos, held no less than seven political positions. Marcos’ relatives and cronies
monopolized economic opportunities in the country.
On August 21, 1983,-Marcos’ political rival, former Senator Benigno “Ninoy” Aquino, Jr., was shot dead at the
Manila International Airport on his return from three years of self-exile abroad. The whole country was shocked
by the incident and the people became even more restless.
The government called for snap elections on February 7, 1986. Ninoy’s widow, Corazon C. Aquino, ran against
Marcos. Both claimed victory but the Batasang Pambansa pronounced Marcos the winner. The Catholic Church
of the Philippines declared the Marcos government illegitimate because of the alleged massive cheating during
the presidential polls. Mrs. Aquino initiated a nationwide boycott and civil disobedience movement as a sign of
protest.
People Power Revolution. On February 22, 1986, Defense Minister Juan Ponce Enrile, Constabulary Chief Lt.
General Fidel V. Ramos, and other military officers broke away {mm the Marcos camp and prepared to tight
Marcos and his loyalist forces. The Church and prominent leaders of Manila called on the public to form human
barricades to prevent a bloody confrontation between the two camps. Millions of people responded to the call.
They barricaded the main thoroughfare of EDSA (Epifanio delos Santos Avenue) and faced fully-armed
soldiers and tanks-praying, singing, and giving flowers to the soldiers as peace offerings. These events, which
took place on February 22-25, 1986, were indeed momentous occasions in Philippine history, and would be
recorded as part of the “People Power Revolution.”
On the night of February 25, President Marcos and his party fled to Hawaii on board US Air Force planes.
While in exile in Honolulu, he was charged with plundering the country’s wealth.
Aquino Takes Over. On February 25, 1986, Corazon C. Aquino and Salvador H. Laurel were sworn into office
as president and vice president, respectively. Mrs. Aquino was the first woman president of the Philippines‘
Immediately, she restored human rights, released numerous political prisoners, and called for the drafting of a
new Constitution.
Thailand
Many changes took place in Thailand during the first decade of the 20th century. Sick of unequal treaties with
foreign nations, the government abolished the extraterritorial rights of other countries in Thailand. In 1932, an
uprising occurred which changed Thailand into a constitutional monarchy. Six years later, conservative army
officers seized control of the government and established a military dictatorship. While the king retained the
throne, he had no political power. Military leaders alternately took control of the government.
Thailand after World War II. During the early postwar years, Thailand suffered from confusion and uncertainty
in politics. After Marshall Pibun Songgrarn, who was associated with the Japanese, was overthrown in 1944,
Pridi Banomyong, the regent of King Ananda Mahidol, became prime minister. In June 1946, the young King
Ananda, who had returned to Thailand from Switzerland, was found dead in his bed from a gunshot wound. The
circumstances of his death-whether an accident, suicide, or murder-were never cleared up. The government did
not give any official explanation. Pridi’s political enemies blamed him, even without justification, In 1947, Pridi
was forced to flee the country and was later found to have established residence in Communist China.
The present king, Bhumibol Adulyadej, succeeded King Ananda. He was proclaimed the ninth monarch of the
phakri dynasty at his official coronatlon on May S, 1950.
In 1947, Pibun staged a coup d’etat and seized control of the government. After ten years of dictatorship, he was
overthrown by another military strongman, Marshall Sarit Thanarat, who became prime minister until his death
in 1963. He was succeeded by another militarist, Marshall Thanon Kittikachom.
In October 1973, students staged an uprising and demanded a new Con stitution for Thailand. Kittikachorn was
overthrown and a democratic Constitution was adopted on October 7, 1974. Elections were held on January 26,
1975 and in March of the same year, a civilian named Kukrit Pranoj became prime minister. In the national
elections of 1976, however, Kukrit lost his seat in Parliament and his brother Senin Pranoj became prime
minister.
In 1976, a new Constitution was again adopted, but King Bhumibol remained the titular monarch of Thailand.
During the 1970s, the Thai government tried to establish good relations With the neighboring Communist
countries, hoping these would not interfere with Thailand’s internal affairs.
Indonesia
In 1927, the Indonesian Nationalist Party was established. One of its members was Achmed Sukarno, who later
became Indonesia’s first president, Many of its members had been educated in Western countries. The
Nationalist Party called for a program of nont cooperation with the Dutch. The colonial rulers became so
alarmed at the success of this program that they suppressed all nationalist groups, arrested their leaders, and sent
them into exile on islands far from Java.
Struggle for Indonesian Independence. The Japanese occupation of Indonesia during World War II aroused
further nationalist activities. Sukarno and other nationalist leaders, Who were released from prison by the
Japanese, collaborated With the Japanese government to win Indonesia’s independence from the Dutch.
On August 17, 1945, two days after the unconditional surrender of Japan, the Independence Preparatory
Committee in Jakarta proclaimed the Republic of Indonesia. The committee elected Sukarno as president and
Hatta as vice president, established a temporary Constitution, organized a Cabinet responsible to the president,
and created an advisory Central National Committee of 135 members.
The Indonesians proclaimed the Pantjasila or “Five Principles” as their state philosophy: faith in God,
nationalism, humanity, democracy, and social justice. The Japanese gave their blessings to the Indonesian effort
and left arms and ammunitions with the local leaders.
Six weeks after the proclamation of the Republic, British and Indian troops arrived to accept Japanese surrender
and release the Dutch from prison. During that six-week period, the Indonesians prepared themselves for real
independence. So, when Dutch forces came to restore colonial rule, the Indonesians valiantly resisted.
Heavy fighting took place between the Indonesian nationalists and the Dutch forces. The period from 1945-
1949 was one of alternate conflict and trust between the two camps. In 1947, leaders of the Republic and the
Dutch signed the Linggadjati agreement. According to its terms, the Dutch agreed to recognize the Republic of
Indonesia as the de facto authority in Java and Sumatra. They also agreed to ensure the creation of a United
States of Indonesia with Borneo and the Great East. In turn, the United States of Indonesia would be part of a
Dutch Commonwealth to consist of the Netherlands, West Indies, and other colonies.
Within four months, the Linggadjati agreement broke down. Neither side wanted to implement it. Fighting was
renewed and the issue was brought before the UN Security Council at the instance of India and Australia. The
UN called for a cessation of hostilities. In January 1948, a second agreement was concluded between the two
parties on a United States naval vessel, the Renville. The Renville Agreement provided for the creation of a
federal United States of Indonesia, with full sovereignty to be granted by the Dutch in 1949.
But the Dutch had no intention of giving up Indonesia. In December 1948, they renewed their attacks against
the Indonesians. The Dutch quietly scattered the Republican armies. They put the top nationalist leaders,
Sukarno and Hatta, in jail.
While the Dutch gained ground in this second campaign, world opinion became more critical. In J anuary 1949,
India’s Jawaharlal Nehru convoked an Asian conference attended by 15 African and Asian delegates. They
adopted a resolution condemning the Dutch military action and calling for the transfer of all power to a United
States of Indonesia by January 1, 1950. The UN echoed the proposal.
Rise of the Indonesian Republic. With world opinion against it, the Dutch government accepted the necessity
of transferring full sovereignty to Indonesia in 1949. The terms of the transfer were discussed in a conference at
The Hague from August to November 1949. At that conference, arrangements were made to create the 16-state
Republic of the United States of Indonesia.
On December 27, 1949 the Dutch recognized Indonesian independence but insisted on a federal form of
government. On July 1950, however, this was replaced by a unitary Republic of Indonesia through the efforts of
nationalist forces. Indonesia became completely self-governing in 1954.
Malaysia and Singapore
Nationalism did not develop early in Malaya, unlike in other European colonies in Southeast Asia. One of the
factors that caused the delay was its heterogeneous population of Malays, Chinese, and Indians. Another factor
was its strong belief that the British were there to protect the interest of the colony.
Japan occupied both Malaya and Singapore during World War II. To gain the cooperation of the Malayans, the
Japanese authorities appointed them to high positions, which were denied them by the British. The Indians were
also treated well; only the Chinese in both Malaya and Singapore suffered from Japanese atrocities.
When the British came back to Malaya after World War II, they encountered a newly awakened Malayan
nationalism. In 1946, Great Britain established the Malayan Union for all Malay states and the Straits
settlements of Penang and Malacca. Singapore, on the other hand, continued as a crown colony.
The Federation of Malaya. By 1945, the Malayan Communist Party, which was both anti-British and anti
Japanese, had already controlled wide areas of Malaya and had set up village communities all over the
Peninsula. The Communists resorted to terrorist activity, killing British and Chinese residents. British and
Malayan troops fought the Communist guerrillas for twelve years before they were finally Suppressed in 1960.
It was during this period of turmoil that, for the first time, the Malayans, Indians, and Chinese united to pursue a
common goal merdeka or freedom.
Great Britain was forced to accede to the libertarian aspirations of the united people of Malaya. The
independent Federation of Malaya was established in 1957. The structure of government was provided by a
Constitution which satisfied all racial groups. The powerful position of prime minister went to Tunku Abdul
Rahman, who was associated with the Alliance Party.
The Federation of Malaysia. In May 1961, Tunku Abdul Rahman suggested the formation of the Federation of
Malaysia to counteract possible Communist resurgence. After accepting certain political restrictions, Singapore,
along with the British colonies of Sarawak and Sabah, joined with Malaya to form a close political and
economic cooperation known as the “Federation of Malaysia.” The invitation was extended to Brunei, but the
Sultan decided not to join.
The union did not work out smoothly. Two years later, Singapore broke its ties with Malaya and became a
separate self-governing nation. Malaya adopted the federation’s name, Malaysia.
On August 9, 1945, under the leader ship of Lee Kuan Yew, the independence of the Republic of Singapore was
established.
Burma
Great Britain had ruled Burma as a part of India since 1886. With the growth of Asian nationalism after World
War I, Great Britain considered giving political concessions to Burma. In 1929, the Sunon Commission was
tasked to investigate the conditions in India and Burma. It recommended the separation of Burma from India
and the establishment of a representative government for Burma. In 1937, Burma was given a limited dominion
status after the Burmese electorate ratified the Burmese Constitution, which the British Parliament had prepared
in 1935.
During World War II, the Japanese army occupied Burma. The Burmese collaborated with the Japanese,
believing that the latter came to liberate them from the British. Aung San and his guerrilla fighters assisted the
Japanese in capturing Rangoon. With Japan’s blessings, Burma’s independence was declared in August 1942.
When the Japanese began committing atrocities, however, Aung San organized the Anti-Fascist People’s
Freedom League (AFPFL) composed of nationalists and Communists, and launched guerrilla warfare against
the Japanese.
Rise of the Burmese Republic. When the British returned to Rangoon after the war, prewar conditions were
restored. But the nationalist leaders could never again accept British rule. They demanded complete
independence.
The Burmese, led by Aung San, reached an agreement with the British for independence in 1947. A constituent
assembly would be elected to frame a Constitution for Burma. Aung San and his party won most of the
assembly seats. Unfortunately, on July 19, 1947 Aung San was assassinated by his political rival, U San, who
later disappeared from the Burmese political scene with the former collaborator, Ba Maw. Aung San was
succeeded by U Nu, who concluded an agreement for Burmese independence in October 1947 With the British
government.
On January 4, 1948, the Republic of the Union of Burma was inaugurated with U Nu as premier. After 63 years
of British rule, Burma had finally regained her independence. The Burmese owed much to Aung San, whom
they called “Father of Burmese Independence.”
Brunei
When the Federation of Malaysia was being formed, Brunei-which is sandwiched between the Malaysian states
of Sarawak and Sabah-was a British protectorate. During the months of negotiation for the formation of the
federation, Brunei was invited to join but the Sultan refused, as he was contented with British protection.
The Independence of Brunei. It was only in 1929 that Brunei was discovered to be rich in oil resources. It
became highly prosperous when oil production boomed in the 19508. Sultan Omar Ali, father of Sultan
Hossanal Bolkiah, launched a flve-year development program and transformed the nation into a modern,
thriving society. Sultan Ali used the oil reserves of Brunei to suppress rebellion and to build up the army and
police forces. By ‘ the time the Federation of Malaysia was being formed, Brunei could already stand on her
own.
In 1967, Sultan Ali abdicated in favor of his son, Hossanal Bolkiah. In 1968, Bolkiah was crowned as the 29th
sultan of Brunei. In 1978, an agreement was signed with the British, making 1983 Brunei’s last year as a
protectorate. Brunei became fully independent from Great Britain on January 1, 1984. Thus, Sultan Bolkiah and
the royal family gained full control of the government and the economy of the nation.
Sultan Bolkiah remains the permanent temporal, religious, and military authority of Brunei, with Islam as the
state religion. On May 30, 1985 the Brunei National Democratic Party was formed, replacing the old Brunei
People’s Independence Party. It is the only existing political group in the country.
East Timor
East Timor or Timor Leste was colonized by Portugal in the 16th century. The country remained little more
than a neglected trading post by the Portuguese until the late nineteenth century. No signiflcant investments
were made on education, health and infrastructure.
After 400 years as an impoverished outpost of the Portuguese empire, East Timor opened a stormy new chapter
in its history in 1974. In April of that year, a cartel of left-leaning generals overthrew the Portuguese dictator
Marcelo Caetano in Lisbon. The new regime made it known that it would free the remaining scraps of
Portugal’s once-extensive colonial empire: Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bassau, and East Timor. Owing to
the political instability in Portugal and more pressing concerns over the de-colonization of Angola and
Mozambique, East Timor was effectively abandoned.
In anticipation of independence, two major political parties quickly emerged in East Timor: the Timorese
Democratic Union (UDT) and the Revolutionary Front for an Independent East Timor (FRETILIN). UDT was
for self-determination in support of independent federation with Portugal while FRETILIN was for total
independence from Portugal. In January 1975, the FRETILIN and UDT formed a coalition and prepared for
statehood.
Indonesia, East Timor’s powerful neighbor, had other plans. Directed by military leaders who were determined
to control East Timor, Indonesian agents sabotaged the country’s peaceful progress toward independence. In
May 1975, Indonesian operatives, supported by the Popular Democratic Association of Timor (APODETI),
Which was in support of the autonomous integration into the Republic of Indonesia, encouraged divisions
between the pro-independence parties of East ’I‘im0r and persuaded the UDT to withdraw from the coalition. In
August, convinced that any independent East Timorese regime which included the leftist FRETILIN would not
be permitted by its Indonesian neighbors, the UDT seized power. FRETILIN fought back. Supported by the
majority of East Timorese civilians, it quickly gained control. UDT forces and their families were driven over
the border into the Indonesian West and into Australia.
Indonesia alleged that the FRETILIN party, which received some vocal support from the People’s Republic of
China, was communist. Fearing a Communist domino effect in Southeast Asia in the wake of its South Vietnam
campaign, the United States supported the pro-Western Indonesian government’s actions.
The Indonesian Invasion. Claiming that intervention was necessary to restore peace and security in East
Timor, Indonesia invaded it on Dec. 7, 1975. During the initial military offensive, a large percentage of East
Timor’s 600,000 inhabitants fled along with FRETILIN’s armed wing, known as Falintil-into the rugged
mountains in the eastern half of the island. As the war dragged on, starvation and carpet bombing eventually
forced most of the surviving population to settle in camps and towns controlled by the Indonesian military
(ABRI). Military attack, executions, starvation after crops were destroyed or abandoned, forced migration, and
disease claimed an estimated 100,000 lives in the first year of occupation alone.
The first signs of hope. During the ’80s, independence for East Timor seemed elusive. With the territory
having been off-limits to outsiders, including human-rights groups and journalists, Indonesia ruled with
impunity, and the East Timorese were left to suffer in isolation. However, Indonesia’s overconfidence in its
“victory” breathed new life into the liberation struggle in 1989. In a dramatic reversal of policy, the Indonesian
government Opened East ’l‘imor to settlers, business people, and tourists from other provinces of Indonesia, as
well as to foreign tourists. In October of that year, Pope John Paul II was allowed to visit-a significant gesture
toward East Timor’s predominantly Catholic population. During the Pope’s speech, demonstrators rushed
toward the podium and tried to brandish a pro-independence banner. A chair-throwing melee broke out as the
authorities moved in. The incident was caught on film and reported in newspapers around the world. Four
months later during the visit of the US Ambassador to Dili, demonstrators met him outside his hotel. Indonesian
police violently dispersed the protesters, reportedly killing two, and generated still more bad publicity for the
Indonesian government.
Amid growing international awareness of the situation, Western journalists began traveling to East Timor to
investigate. Meanwhile, Indonesian authorities were anxious to crush any further manifestation of dissent. In
1991, these two trends clashed in what was to be a turning point in the liberation cause.
The Santa Cruz massacre. On Nov. 12, 1991, seven Western journalist, including US citizens Allan Nairn and
Amy Goodman, witnessed Indonesian soldiers open fire on hundreds of unarmed pro-independence
demonstrators at the Santa Cruz cemetery in Dili. A British photographer actually captured the rampage on
video. Nairn and Goodman, who had tried to place themselves between the soldiers and the people, were
threatened at gunpoint and beaten. Initial eyewitness accounts claimed at least 100 people were killed;
subsequent investigation by an East Timorese organization called Peace Is Possible in East Timor identified 271
victims by name. While it failed to make headlines, the incident did not go unnoticed in the West. In 1992,
Nairn and Goodman testified about the incident before the United States Congress.
The independence movement gained further international recognition in 1996, via a far more positive route,
when long-time East Timor national liberation activists José Ramos-Horta and Bishop Carlos Ximenes Belo
were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. The committee included with the award a scathing condemnation of
Indonesia’s chronic violations of human rights in East Timor. Ramos-Horta called his people’s struggle “a
footnote to the Cold War.” Between 1997-1998, political circumstances finally began to work for, rather than
against, the East Timorese. With the Indonesian economy devastated by the collapse of its currency (the rupiah)
in 1997, riots and looting began breaking out across Indonesia in early 1998. Student demonstrators called for
the resignation of President Suharto, who had ruled the nation since 1967. As a stipulation for an economic bail-
out, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) demanded reform of the corrupt practices that had made the
Indonesian economy so susceptible to collapse. With pressure mounting from inside and out, on May 21, 1998
Suharto resigned, handing the reins of power to his vice president, B. J . Habibie.
A shocking change of heart. With Habibie fighting for his political life, and the country racked by an ongoing
political and economic crisis, the new administration began indicating that East Timor was a problem it was
ready to solve. On May 5, 1999 Indonesia and Portugal formally agreed to allow the UN to conduct a
referendum on Indonesia’s autonomy proposal. The agreement included a commit ment from Indonesia that,
should autonomy be rejected, East Timor would be “separated” from Indonesia. Under the leadership of Xanana
Gusméo, former military commander of Falintil, and president of the National Council for East Timorese
Resistance (CNRT), the Timorese people voted for independence from Indonesia in a referendum in August
1999. East Timor thus became the first new nation of the second millennium on May 20, 2002 following a
quarter century of Indonesian occupation and conflict.
Chapter 24: The Middle East After World War II
Significant changes took place in the Middle East after World War II. The establishment of the Jewish state of
Israel in 1948 led to violence as Arab countries refused to recognize Israel’s right to exist. Throughout the
1960s and 19708, the continuing Arab-Israeli conflict erupted into warfare several times.
The Middle East lies at the crossroads of the East and West. It is a volatile place because the region contains
strategic waterways and the largest oil reserves in the world. Thus, the United States and the Soviet Union often
intervened in Middle East affairs.
This chapter will discuss the conditions in the Middle East after World War II, predetermined by significant
issues like the Arab-Israeli conflict, the Suez Canal, the oil crisis, the Civil War in Lebanon, and terrorism.
The Arab-Israeli Conflict
The establishment of the Jewish state of Israel in 1948 led to disputes and wars between Israel and neighboring
Arab states. The Arabs refused to recognize Israel resulting in the Arab Israeli War.
Historical Background. In 64 B.C., the great Roman general Pompey conquered Palestine and made it a
province of the Roman Empire. About a hundred years later, the Jews-led by the fighting Zealots-began their
rebellion against Roman rule. The Jewish uprisings against Rome and the Roman massacres of the Jews lasted
until 137 A.D., when Rome finally succeeded in crushing the Jewish opposition. All Jews who survived the
Roman atrocities were either enslaved or driven out of their homeland. Those exiled were dispersed to all parts
of the world. This period, which lasted more than 2,000 years, is known in Jewish history as the Diaspora
(Great Dispersion).
Zionism. Over the years, several Jewish leaders had suggested that a national homeland for the Jewish people
be set up. In the 1890s a Budapest born Jewish lawyer and writer named Theodor Herzl started a movement in
Europe called “Zionism.” The Zionists encouraged the Jews to return to their homeland and create a state of
their own in order to escape the anti-Semitism that was common in Europe.
The movement attracted considerable support from rich Jews all over Europe and America. With their financial
assistance, thousands of Jewish immigrants were transported to Palestine, where they were given lands to
cultivate. These Zionist-sponsored migrations gradually increased the Jewish population in Palestine.
Nazi persecution of the Jews caused growing numbers to seek refuge in Palestine. However, the Palestinian
Arabs resented the increasing Jewish population. Violence often erupted between the two groups.
Partition of Palestine; In 1946, Jews made up over a third of the population of Palestine, Which was then still
under British mandate. As Great Britain could not stop the hostilities between the Arabs and Jews, it brought the
case to the United Nations in 1947.
The Jews presented their arguments to the UN in support of their claim for a Jewish state. They insisted that
Palestine had been their land until the Romans drove them out. They had suffered persecution and would never
be safe until they had a country of their own. The Arabs, on the other hand, argued that Palestine had been an
Arab land for centuries and that its population was predominantly Arab.
The UN evaluated the arguments of both sides and found both claims valid. The final decision was the partition
of Palestine between the Jews and the Arabs. Jewish leaders quickly accepted the plan. Thus, in May 1948, the
new Jewish homeland called Israel was set up in Palestine after the British announced their withdrawal from
the latter.
The Arabs, on the other hand, did not accept the UN plan and refused to recognize Israel. As a result, no Arab
state was set up in Palestine.
Outbreak of the Arab-Israeli War. The day after Israel was established, armies from seven Arab nations
(Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Iraq, Transjordan, Lebanon, and Yemen) attacked the new state.
Thus erupted the first Arab-Israeli War. To the Arabs, it was a jihad (holy war); to the Israelis, it was a war of
Jewish independence.
The Israelis were outnumbered and poorly armed, but they defeated the Arabs. The UN arranged a ceasefire in
January 1949, but no final settlement was reached.
The war had important consequences for the future. There was no Arab state in Palestine, for Israel had
occupied much of the area that the UN had assigned to the Palestinian Arabs. Transjordan took the rest of the
territory and became a part of what later on became the kingdom of Jordan. Egypt occupied the Gaza Strip
along the coast. The war also gave rise to a serious refugee problem in the Middle East.
Palestinian Refugee Problem. After the 1948 war, Israel gained control over the larger part of what had been
Palestine, including part of Jerusalem. During the war, more than 700 thousand Palestinian Arabs fled their
homes to escape the fighting and to avoid living under Jewish rule. They were forced to live in refugee camps,
suffering great poverty and hardship. They were supported largely by the UN, with little aid from Middle East
countries.
The misery of the Palestinian refugees developed into an explosive force in the Middle East. The Palestinians
became more militant. The refugees formed the Palestine Liberation Organization in 1964 to represent
themselves in working for the establishment of their own nation. Headed by Yasser Arafat, the PLO
considered itself a government-in-exile of 2.5 million Palestinian Arabs. In its desire to achieve its mission, the
PLO engaged in terrorist activities such as hijacking planes and bombing buildings in Israel.
Arab-Israel Conflict Remains Unsettled. The hostility between Israel and the Arab states was the single most
important cause of tension in the Middle East. The main objective of the Arab states was to crush Israel, while
Israel was determined to defend its people at any cost.
Third Arab-Israeli War. In June 5, 1967, thinking that Egypt, Syria, and Jordan were planning an attack, Israel
struck first. In a six-day war, the Israelis defeated the armies of the three Arab countries, captured the whole
Sinai Peninsula, the Jordan half of Jerusalem, the Jordanian territory of the Jordan River’s west bank and
Syria’s Golan Heights. Again, the UN ordered a ceasefire, which took effect on June 10.
In the next few years, no progress was made toward a lasting peace. Anwar Sadat, successor of Nasser, who
died in 1970-insisted that Egypt would agree to a peace treaty if Israel withdrew from all lands it had occupied
in 1967. Israel, on the other hand, would sign a peace treaty if the Arab states would officially recognize Israel’s
legal existence. On another hand, the PLO demanded that an independent Palestinian state be established on the
west bank of the Jordan River.
Fourth Arab-Israeli War. On October 6, 1973, Egyptian and Syrian forces launched a surprise attack on Israel
on the Jewish holiday of Yom Kippur (The Day of Atonement), the holiest day in the Jewish calendar. Both
were armed with sophisticated Soviet armaments. The Egyptians crossed the Suez Canal and assaulted Israeli
fortifications, while the Syrians penetrated the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights. The Israelis lost the first battles.
The tide turned in favor of Israel when Israeli reserve units reached the front. In the end, the Israelis were able
to occupy more Syrian territories and had crossed to the west bank of the Suez Canal.
All the oil-producing Arab countries, which had grown greatly in power since 1945, now came to the aid of
Egypt and Syria with a new strategic weapon. They imposed an embargo on the shipment of oil. They hoped
this would pressure the United States and Western European nations into demanding Israeli withdrawal from
the occupied territories. The embargo was lifted early in 1974, but producing nations now quadrupled the price
of oil. The embargo, the cutback in production, and the sudden rise in oil prices deeply affected both
industrialized and developing nations.
Meanwhile, guided by the United States, Egypt and Israel agreed to a truce, and the fighting ended. The Suez
Canal was reopened, and Israel gave up some occupied territory in the Sinai and on Syrian border. At the same
time, the PLO continued to push for an independent state and engaged in terrorist activities against the Israelis.
The Israelis retaliated with ground and air attacks on PLO camps.
The United States and the Soviet Union Become Involved. American and Soviet involvement in the Middle
East conflict only added to the complexity of the situation. In the 1960s, the Soviet Union built up a strong
naval force in eastern Mediterranean and gave Egypt large quantities of arms. Meanwhile, the United States
supported Israel With large amounts of financial and military aid. However, President Sadat became concerned
about the Soviet Union’s military presence in Egypt. In 1972 , he dramatically reversed policy and ordered all
Soviet military personnel to leave Egypt. After that, Egypt drew closer to the United States. Some other Arab
states, however, continued to rely on the Soviet Union.
The Suez Canal Crisis
The Suez Canal is the waterway between the Red Sea and the Mediterranean. Control over this waterway was
also one of the causes of conflict in the Middle East after World War II.
Historical Background. The Suez Canal had been built by a French company directed by Ferdinand de
Lesseps, but it was run by the Egyptians. Its opening in 1869 made Egypt and eastern Africa important to Great
Britain.
The modernization program of Egypt from 1805 to 1847, including the construction of the Suez Canal, was a
big financial burden to the national government. By 1875, the Egyptian government was near financial collapse.
Great Britain offered to buy half the shares of stock in the Suez Canal Company. Egypt accepted the offer
despite resistance from Egyptian nationalists, who refused European interference. To protect their economic
interests, the British took control of the waterway. By 1882, Egypt had become a British protectorate.
Egypt obtained its independence from Great Britain in 1922, but the British retained special rights in the Suez
Canal area. During World War 11, Britain maintained armed forces in Egypt to protect the Suez Canal and
important sea routes to the oil-rich countries.
Start of the Crisis. Public discontent grew in Egypt over the continuing presence of British soldiers around the
Suez Canal and Egypt’s defeat in the 1948 Arab-Israeli war. A period of instability followed. The army
overthrew the corrupt rule of King Farouk in 1952. Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser was one of the leaders of the
plot. He officially became president in 1956. His first goal was to end foreign interference in Egypt and unite all
Arab nations under his leadership. To help Egypt’s poor, Nasser sought a more equal distribution of wealth. He
promoted land reforms, increased the pace of industrialization, and developed natural resources.
He forced the British troops to evacuate the Suez Canal and started to strengthen Egypt’s military power by
opting to buy arms from Western countries. When Britain, France, and the United States refused to sell arms to
Egypt, Nasser turned to the USSR and Czechoslovakia. This action disturbed the United States and Great
Britain. The two countries thus withdrew their offer to help Egypt build a dam across the Nile River near
Aswan.
In response, Nasser ordered the seizure of the Suez Canal in July 1956. He exacted tolls on ships passing
through the Canal, saying these would be used to build the Aswan dam. He Closed the Canal to Israeli ships and
stopped ships going to and from Israel.
The flow of arms from the USSR to Egypt compelled Israel to accelerate her military preparations. This time,
Israel found two new allies-Great Britain and France-who were ready to fight Egypt because of the closure of
the Suez CanaL
Fearing an Egyptian move, Israeli armies under General Moshe Dayan, Israel’s Chief of Staff, attacked Egypt in
October 1956. France and Britain entered the war by bombing Egyptian bases and landing soldiers in the Suez
Canal zone. Israel occupied most of the Sinai Peninsula and captured the Strait of Tehran and the Gaza Strip.
The combined Israeli and Anglo-French forces were bound for Cairo when the Soviet Union, upon Egypt’s
request, demanded that the victorious forces stop the invasion. The United States and the UN persuaded the
Israelis to heed the Russian demand, to prevent the war from escalating into a global conflict. The three
countries agreed and the UN sent a 10-nation peace-keeping force to patrol the border between Egypt and Israel.
The UN forces remained until 1967, when Nasser demanded its withdrawal.
Oil Becomes an Important Factor In the Development of Nationalism in the Middle East
The Middle East remained important to the whole world because of its rich oil reserves. The world’s greatest
producers of oil are Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, Oman, and the Persian Gulf sheikdoms.
Control of Oil, a Nationalist Issue. For many years, the oil industry in the Middle East had been controlled by
foreign companies and investors. Oil profits went to foreigners, with little resistance from the oil-producing
nations who had weak and unstable governments.
The advent of nationalist movements made the Arab leaders realize that oil could be a significant source of
power. Thus, in 1960, the oil-producing countries formed the Organization of Petroleum-Exporting Countries,
or OPEC. Its members included Algeria. Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab
Emirates. OPEC started to control the price of oil. Since then, its decisions concerning oil supply and prices
have affected the economy of oil-consuming countries.
The Oil Crisis. The Arab states used oil as a strategic weapon against Israel and its supporters during the
Middle East War. The Arabs considered support for Israel as an act of hostility against them. In 1973, Arab oil
producing countries raised the price of oil, decreased production, and cut off supplies to the United States and
the Netherlands in retaliation for their support for Israel.
The oil embargo was lifted early in 1974, but the oil-producing countries quadrupled the price of oil. The
embargo, the cutback in production, and the sudden rise in oil prices greatly affected both industrialized and
developing countries of the world.
Lebanon Also a Source of Conflict
Lebanon’s peace-and-order situation was disturbed by the outbreak of civil war in 1975 and its invasion by
Israel in 1982.
Civil War in Lebanon (1975-76). Israeli commands launched counterattacks on Palestinian bases in Lebanon
after Palestinian terrorists attacked villages and cities in Israel. The counterattacks were devastating, both to the
Palestinian refugees and to the Lebanese. For this, the rightist Lebanese Christians blamed the Palestinian
guerrillas and refugees and demanded that they leave Lebanon. This move caused hostile relations between the
Lebanese Christians and leftist Lebanese Muslims who supported the Palestinians.
In May 1975, open hostilities between the two groups erupted. They engaged in bloody battles which compelled
thousands of people to abandon their homes and seek refuge on safer ground, The civil war resulted in the death
of thousands of innocent civilians.
The Lebanese Muslims and Palestinians under Arafat were supported by the Soviet Union and the Arab nations.
But despite their use of sophisticated weapons, the civil war turned in favor of the Lebanese Christians, who
were supported by the United States and other foreign allies.
To stop the war, Syria sent an army to Lebanon but was resisted by PLO guerillas. With Israeli assistance, the
Lebanese Christians launched an all-out offensive against the PLO and the leftist Lebanese. Finally, they
captured the PLO stronghold, signaling the victory of the Christians over the Muslims.
Six Arab leaders met at Riyadh, Saudi Arabia to deliberate on the Lebanon case. They all agreed to stop the
civil war and authorized Syria to head an Arab peace-keeping force organized to restore peace in Lebanon.
Israel Invades Lebanon. Israel feared the presence in Lebanon of PLO forces equipped with Soviet tanks and
heavy artillery, and the frequent raids they made on Israel’s northern border. In 1982, the Israelis decided to
invade Lebanon and destroy the PLO. Although they did not succeed in destroying the PLO. they were able to
capture PLO arms and destroy Syrian missile sites.
Israel was willing to sign a peace treaty With Lebanon, provided the PLO would be driven out of the country.
Later on, a multinational peace-keeping force ‘composed of the United States; France, and Italy supervised the
‘evacuation of the PLO. These forces stayed in Lebanon after the PLO evacuation.
Terrorism in the Middle East
Terrorism is the use of violence against persons or property to create fear and to influence government policies.
Terrorists intend to draw people’s attention to their cause. The PLO used this strategy to achieve their goals.
In October 1983, a terrorist bomb destroyed the US marine headquarters in Beirut, killing 241 Americans. A
second attack killed 58 French soldiers.
As the PLO continued to push for an independent state, it engaged in terrorist activities against the Israelis.
Some terrorists worked alone; others, in small groups. Some were trained and financed by national
governments. Libya, Iran, and Syria were among those suspected to have supported terrorism. Terrorist
incidents included kidnappings, assassinations, bombings, and hijackings.
Chapter 25: Rise of Independent States in South Asia
The outbreak of World War II in Asia jeopardized British rule in India. In March 1942, the British government
offered dominion status to India but Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, ”and other leaders rejected the proposal.
On August 8, 1942, the Indian Congress passed the “Quit India Resolution” Which demanded the withdrawal of
the British from India and the recognition of Indian independence. In response, the British kept Gandhi, Nehru
and other Indian leaders in prison. This led to so many bloody riots that in May 1944, the British Viceroy
released the aforementioned nationalist leaders.
Weakened by two major wars and no longer a great power, Great Britain could no longer afford to retain India.
Thus, she decided to grant India her independence. The original plan was for a United India, but the Muslim
League under Ali Jinnah demanded an independent state of their own. After consulting With the leaders of the
Muslims and the Hindus, Prime Minister Clement Attlee of Great Britain agreed to divide the sub-continent into
two nations-Hindu India and Muslim Pakistan. It was agreed that by August 1947, the British would leave India
and the partition would be done. On August 15, 1947, the Indians celebrated their independence.
Out of the partition two independent nations emerged: Muslim Pakistan and Hindu India. Two decades
thereafter East Pakistan seceded from Pakistan and the state of Bangladesh was born.
Partition Results in Unrest
Many Indians found themselves dislocated by the partition. While others opted to remain where they lived,
millions chose to move out and settle in the place assigned to them, as boundaries had been drawn based on the
predominance of Hindus and Muslims in certain regions of the country. Partition ignited a mass movement of
Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs who found themselves on the “wrong” side of international boundaries; as many as
twenty million people relocated, and up to three million of these were killed in bloodletting on both sides of the
new international frontier.
Gandhi was intensely disappointed by the bloody clashes between the Hindus and the Muslims. He travelled all
over India, appealing to his countrymen to stop fighting and to live peacefully as brothers. Upon returning to
New Delhi, he fasted for five days and gathered people to pray for peace. On January 30, 1948, at the end of his
fasting, he went to a prayer meeting on the grounds of the British Mansion. While praying, he was assassinated
by Nathuran Godse, a 39-year-old extremist Hindu who blamed Gandhi for the partition of the subcontinent.
Gandhi’s lieutenant Jawaharlal Nehru, became India’s first prime minister.
India Under Prime Minister Nehru
As prime minister Nehru dominated Indian affairs. He worked to establish a democracy in India and to improve
living standards in the country. He favored a state-controlled economy.
Nehru gained international recognition for opposing alliances with the great powers and for promoting
neutralism (non-alignment). He advocated nonaggression and ending atomic bomb tests. But he was criticized
when Indian forces seized Goa and Other Portuguese territories in India in 1961.
Nehru acted as spokesman for nonaligned nations in Asia and Africa. He favored admitting Communist China
to the United Nations until Chinese forces attacked the Indian border in 1962.
Nehru died in 1964 and was succeeded by Lal Bahadur Shastri. When Shastri died the following year, Indira
Gandhi, Nehru’s daughter, became prime minister.
Indira Gandhi’s Rule
In 1966, the ruling Congress party chose Indira Gandhi as prime minister of India. She was the daughter of
Jawaharlal Nehru, India’s first prime minister. With the slogan “Banish Poverty,” Indira Gandhi won the
national election in 1967. Her government followed a policy of more equal distribution of wealth by moderate
socialism. However, her programs were not very successful, and opposition to her government grew. Gandhi
tried to silence her political opponents by having them arrested. She established strict censorship of the press
and allowed no criticism of her policies. Many Indians resented her authoritarian rule, and in 1977 they voted
her out of office.
The new government leaders had no clear solutions for India’s problems. After several years 'of weak
leadership, many Indians became dissatisfied. When general elections were held in 1980, Gandhi was
overwhelmingly voted back into office.
The Birth of Pakistan

Pakistan was born after India was partitioned between the Hindus and the Muslims in August 1947. The Hindus
looked upon Gandhi as the champion of freedom, which was exactly how the Muslims regarded Muhammad
Ali Jinnah.
Just like Gandhi, Ali Jinnah took up law in London. But unlike Gandhi, Ali Jinnah was a Muslim and a lover of
Western clothes and cigars. The Muslims called him Qnoid-i-Azam, meaning “Great Leader.”
Ali Jinnah advocated a separate Muslim state for three reasons: (1) the Muslims are a homogenous people and
could therefore be a solid nation; (2) the Hindus composed the majority, hence the Muslims would be a
minority in a united India; and (3) all together, the Muslim Indians could further develop their Islamic
civilization.
Ali Jinnah’s wish was granted on August 14, 1947, when the independence of Pakistan was proclaimed at
Karachi. He became Pakistan’s first governor general. Like Gandhi, he did not live to see the emergence of his
country as a republic, for he died on September 1 l, -l948-barely a year after the proclamation of independence.
On February 29, 1956, a new constitution was adopted, creating the Islamic Republic of Pakistan. This
constitution took effect on March 23, 1956.
Military Rule in Pakistan. In 1958, the government of Pakistan came under the control of a military dictator
named General Mohammad Ayub Khan. After 1965, Ayub grew unpopular as corruption flourished. In 1969,
rioting occurred and Ayub was forced out of office. Later, a civilian was elected president.
In 1977, the military again seized power and General Mohammed Zia, became president. He set up a strict
regime of martial, or military, law. But corruption in the government continued, industrial development slowed
down, and the government debt became increasingly heavy. Most of the people of the nation continued to live
lives of great poverty.
The lndian-Pakistani Wars
Even during the British regime in India, the Muslims already hated the Hindus because the former were treated
as a minority who enjoyed less political rights and social privileges. After independence, the ill feelings
worsened when the Hindus adopted the name “India” for their republic. The Muslims regarded India as their
homeland too, but they had to adopt another name for their republic.
The strained relations between the Hindu Indians and Muslim Indians exploded into three bloody wars-the first
in 1947, the second in 1965, and the third in 1971.
The first war was caused by their dispute over Kashmir, a breathtaking and at the foothills of the Himalaya.
Kashmir produced the world’s finest shawls of silk and wool. Through the intervention of the United Nations,
the two countries ceased hostilities. The UN decided to hold a plebiscite in Kashmir to give its residents a
chance to decide whether they would join India or Pakistan. Unfortunately, the proposed plebiscite was never
held.
In 1965, President Ayub Khan renewed Pakistan’s claim over Kashmir. Again, the UN intervened by ordering a
ceasefire. This war was ended by the “Declaration of Tashkent,” signed on January 10, 1966. With this
agreement, both India and Pakistan evacuated their forces from Kashmir.
The third Indian-Pakistani War was caused by India’s support for the Bengali people of East Pakistan, who
were up in arms against the Pakistani government based in West Pakistan. Tension rose between India and
Pakistan when West Pakistan’s troops moved towards the Indian border in an effort to crush the rebelling
Bengalis. The two countries exchanged charges of border violations.
Bengalis’ Grievances Against Pakistan. Punjabis comprised the majority of West Pakistan’s population, while
Bengalis composed that of East Pakistan. East Pakistan had a bigger population than West Pakistan and
produced much of the country’s dollar earning exports; yet, the region was the most neglected by the central
government. The top positions in the government and in the military were held by Punjabis. There were only
seven Bengalis among 600 high-ranking officers in the navy. The Bengalis also resented the fact that the
nation’s capital was Islamabad in West Pakistan, which was too far from them.
The Bengalis also felt the indifference of West Pakistan when a cyclone hit East Pakistan on November 12,
1970 and the central government did little to aid them. Even the assistance extended by foreign nations was not
delivered to them on time.
In December 1970, Pakistan held elections for a new National Assembly which would draft a new constitution
for Pakistan. The Bengalis supported the Awami League (People’s League) headed by Sheik Mujibur Rahman.
The Awami League won majority of seats in the Assembly, thus giving Mujibur the chance to become
Pakistan’s prime minister.
President Yahya Khan postponed the opening of the national assembly for fear that the Awami League would
have control over the Pakistani government. Because of this, the Bengalis rose in violent demonstration,
plunging East Pakistan into chaos. Yahya Khan flew to Dacca to talk to Mujibur. He had no intention, however,
of allowing East Pakistan to break away. West Pakistani troops disguised as civilians were sent to Dacca. On
March 25, 1971 President Yahya Khan broke off his conference with Mujibur and flew back to West Pakistan.
In the evening of the same date, West Pakistani troops entered Dacca and attacked the rebelling Bengalis. Many
civilians died in the encounter.
East Pakistan Revolution. The East Bengalis fought furiously against the West Pakistani troops. On March 26,
1971 Mujibur Rahman proclaimed the independence of East Pakistan. Shortly afterward, Mujibur and other
Bengali leaders fell into the hands of West Pakistani troops and were thrown into prison.
The West Pakistani forces committed frightful atrocities on the civilian population. The world was shocked
upon hearing of the brutal killing of unarmed men, women, and children. Millions of Bengalis fled to India,
which appealed to other nations to help sustain the Bengali refugees. India was compelled to give military
assistance to the Bengalis.
Pakistan made the first move against India. Pakistani war planes went on the attack, with the intention of
crushing the Indian air force. Thus began the third Indian-Pakistani war, most of which took place in East
Pakistan.
India greatly outnumbered Pakistan in men, planes, tanks, artillery, and warships. Cut off from West Pakistan,
the Dacca defenders had no chance against the combined Indian forces and Bengali guerrillas. Lt. Gen. Asan
Ali Khan, commander of the West Pakistani army, surrendered to Lt. Gen. Jagirt Singh Aurora of the Indian
army on December 16, 1971. The fall of Dacca ended the war.
The people of Bangladesh rejoiced over this victory, singing with joy their national anthem, “Golden Bengal.”
Thus was born a new nation-Bangladesh, meaning “Bengali nation.”
The New Nation of Bangladesh. On April 13, 1971, while the East Pakistan Revolution was going on, Sheik
Mujibur Rahman’s colleagues who survived the Dacca massacre and fled across the border proclaimed the
provisional government of Bangladesh. Syed Nazrul Islam temporarily headed the government while Mujibur
was imprisoned in West Pakistan.
When Mujibur returned to Dacca, he was given a hero’s welcome. To his people, he was the “Father of
Bangladesh Independence.” in January 13, 1972 he was sworn as prime minister of Bangladesh under a
provisional constitution issued the night before.
In March 197 3, the Awami League won the first national elections and Mujibur Rahman was officially elected
prime minister.
Bangladesh faced an uncertain future. Most of its capital city and other major towns had been destroyed in the
war. With few natural resources and a large population, it had to import millions of tons of rice and wheat
yearly to feed its people.
Guide Questions:
Chapter 19
1. How did the Arabs react to the decision of the United Nations?
2. Do you justify the decision of the UN concerning the Jewish claim to the “Promised Land”? Explain your
position.
Chapter 20
1. Why did the Muslims fear the formation of the Indian National Congress?
2. Do you think non-violent resistance is an effective method of protest? why or why not?
Chapter 22
1. Trace the events that led to the Pacific War. Why did Japan destroy Pearl Harbor?
2. What forced Japan to surrender to the Allies?
Chapter 21
1. Enumerate the provisions of the Boxer Protocol.
2. Who was Sun Yat- Sen?
Chapter 23
1.Describe the Vietnamese struggle for independence.
2.Describe the condition of Thailand after World War 11.
Chapter 24
1. What was the Suez Canal crisis?
2. Do you think a permanent peace settlement is possible between the Arabs and the Israelis?
Chapter 25
1. What was the :Quit India resolution”?
2. Why has it been difficult for Muslim and Indus to live together peacefully in India? How do you think this
problem can be solved?
Prepared By:
Gina J. Estrada

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Republic of the Philippines

CAMARINES NORTE STATE COLLEGE

College of Arts and Sciences

HIST 114 (FINALS) Period: 1st Semester AY 2020-2021

Chapter 19: Nationalism in the Middle East

College of Arts and Sciences

Nationalist Movement In Turkey

College of Arts and Sciences

The Arabs and the Jews

College of Arts and Sciences

Chapter 20: Indian Reactions to British Colonialism

Growth of Indian Nationalism

College of Arts and Sciences

The Indian National Congress

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The Muslim League

India After World War I

College of Arts and Sciences

The Rise of Gandhi

College of Arts and Sciences

Chapter 21: Chinese Nationalist Movements

College of Arts and Sciences

The Boxer Rebellion

1. Payment by China of a total indemnity of $333,000,000 to the foreign powers

2. Punishment of the Boxers

4. Destruction of Chinese fortifications between Peking and the sea

5. Introduction of reforms in the Chinese government

The Manchu reforms came too late to save the dynasty.

College of Arts and Sciences

Sun Yat-sen and the Republic

College of Arts and Sciences

The Rise of Chiang Kai-shek

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Chapter 22: Westernization and Expansion of Japan

Meiji Period (1867-1912)

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Reorganization of the Government

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The Expansion of Japan

Alliance with Great Britain

Russo-Japanese War (1904-1 905)

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Japan and the First World War

College of Arts and Sciences

College of Arts and Sciences

Chapter 23: Southeast Asia After World War II

College of Arts and Sciences

College of Arts and Sciences

College of Arts and Sciences

College of Arts and Sciences

College of Arts and Sciences

College of Arts and Sciences

College of Arts and Sciences

College of Arts and Sciences

College of Arts and Sciences

Malaysia and Singapore

College of Arts and Sciences

College of Arts and Sciences

College of Arts and Sciences

College of Arts and Sciences

Chapter 24: The Middle East After World War II

The Arab-Israeli Conflict