LECTURE ONE

DEVELOPMENT CONCEPTS & THEORIES

Definition, Objectives and the Importance of Development Studies

Definition
Development Studies (DS) also known as “International development or International Development Studies” is
multi- and inter-disciplinary field of study rather than a single discipline; multi-disciplinary means combining or
involving the disciplines of many or different branches of learning professional specializations. While
interdisciplinary means the subject matter draws knowledge, theories, etc from other field of studies like
sociology, environmental science, Political science, History, Community Development, Demography, etc.

Objectives of DS as Discipline
 DS seeks to understand the relationship between social, economic, political, technological, ecological,
cultural and gendered aspects of societal change at the local, national, regional and global levels.
 Development Studies, as an academic field of study, is also characterized by normative and policy concerns
about inclusive and sustainable development. It aims to contribute to possible solutions to societal problems
and is increasingly applied in focus and engaged with policy and practice.
 Development Studies is sensitive and aims to examine societal change using historical, comparative and
global perspectives. It aims to take into account the specificity of different societies in terms of history,
ecology, institutions, culture, knowledge, technology, etc. It further examines how these differences

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 can – and often should do – translate into varied local responses to regional or global processes and
varied development strategies.
 Development studies aims to cover an expanding range of concerns. Current concerns include poverty,
inequality and exclusion, environmental sustainability and climate change, global governance; armed conflict
and violence, urbanization, rural development, migrations, health, education, gender equity, pandemics such
as COVID-19, etc.
 DS aims to equip students with knowledge and skills to be able to analyze the past, current and future issues
in development
Importance of Development Studies Discipline for students
The ability to learn concepts and theories of development
DS enables students to learn the concepts and theories of development and its applicability in developing
countries and to understand the current agenda of development nationally and at global level
Develop problem solving and critical thinking capacity
DS helps to develop problem solving and critical thinking capacity for individual student. It helps students to
become skilled in analysis and problem solving through connecting theories and real-world problems. In writing
an argument to support their views students learn to critically evaluate and edit their own work.
It creates creativity
DS creates ability to connect and reach conclusion as key point in the social research
Multidisciplinary Approach

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 Development studies bring knowledge from Anthropology, Sociology, Economics, History, and other disciplines.
This creates ability for skill student to see big picture in solving problems or in concluding solution.
1.3.5 It Develop Research Skills to Students
Development Studies help students to conduct research using a variety of approaches, like gathering information
through participant observation, interviewing or conduct surveys. Students may also critique the different a
almost a synonym for improvement from one stage to another,

 In the direct post-war period, development was usually defined in terms of economic growth focuses on
the Growth National Products (GNP). It was argued that economic growth would lead to a trickle-down
effect, meaning that economic growth was a necessary conditions and requirement for social
improvement.
 Development as economic growth too often commodity output as opposed to people is emphasized
measures of growth in Growth National Products. However, there are differences between human
development and economic growth as the country can have economic growth/development but still
majority of the population remain poor, unemployed, poor health services and high inequality gap.

The modern scholars of development criticize the idea of economic growth as direct related to development.
They focus indicators such as social indicators such as welfare and poverty which result to create UN’s Human
Development Index (HDI) include life expectancy, education and income.

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  They argue that development is not purely an economic phenomenon but rather a multidimensional
process involving reorganization and reorientation of entire economic and social system. Development is
the process of improving the quality of all human lives with the quality important aspects.
 United Nation (UN) documents emphasis on “Human Development” measured by life expectancy, adult
literacy, access to education as well as people’s average income. The concept of human development
incorporates all aspect of individual well-being from their health status to their economic and political
freedom.

 According to the Human Development Report (1996) published by United National Development
Program (UNDP), Human development is the End- economic growth as Means. Economic growth by
increasing a nation’s total wealth and enhance its potential for reducing poverty and other social
problems.

Therefore, the governments have to ensure balance between economic growth and human development to ensure
sustainable development.

- Conditions for enabling economic growth incudes:

1. People knowledge and skills (human capital)
2. Efficient use of natural resources i.e land, mines etc.
3. Stable government and good governance
4. Sound Economic Policies

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 - Conditions for enabling human development includes:
1. Good health services
2. Education services
3. Employment opportunities
4. Democracy and participation
5. Environment protection

Kholi (2005) provide for political dimension of development by focusing on democratization process. The
country will only be considered as develop based on the extent it provide participation and involvement of
citizens as a major stakeholders in development process. The government should secure property rights and
favorable investment climate generating higher economic growth.

OBJECTIVES OF DEVELOPMENT
According to Todoro and Smith (2005) provide for major three (3) objectives of development as follows:
1. Raising people’s living levels i.e. incomes and consumption food, shelters, health services and education.
It aimed at increasing the availability and widens the distribution of basic life sustaining good.

2. Creating condition conducive to the growth of people’s self-esteem through the establishment of social,
political and economic which promote human dignity and respect i.e. construction of roads and peace.

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 3. Increase people’s freedom to choose by enlarging the range of their choice’s variables. Freedom of
movement, trade, association, political participation. It aimed at expand the range of economic and social
choice available to individual by freeing them from servitude and dependence not only in relation to other
people and non-state but also to the force of ignorance and human miserly.

DISTINCTION BETWEEN DEVELOPED AND UNDERDEVELOPED COUNTRIES

The following features distinguish developed and underdeveloped countries:
1. 3rd world countries’ economies are distinguished from developed economies on the basis of per capital
income. Those countries with less than 500000 dollar per year considered as underdeveloped countries

2. The difference is underequipped with capital relation to its population and natural resources. The rate of
growth of employment and investment behind the rate of growth population

3. Industrial development. Developed countries possess high level of industrial development particularly
mafucturing industries

4. Developed countries characterized by high technology compare to third world

5. Developing countries are characterized with poor provision of social services such as education, water
and health services

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 6. Stable government is main characteristic of developed countries with high adherence to principles of
good governance.

7. Standard of living of the people including their income, food and other basic needs.

THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

A theory is a set of interrelated statement that provide an explanation for chain of invents, it is a way to binding
together a multitude of fact so that may comprehend them all at once (Kelly, 1955). A theory serves as a guide to
certain action by formulating a theory, one attempt to make sense of experiences. A theory as interconnected
logical system of concepts that provide a framework for organizing, understanding and observation of social
facts. Theories allows us to understand and predict the behaviour of some aspects of the world. In discussing
development theories, there are various theories that try to explain the ways society develop from one stage to
another. These theories provide for the strategies to be used to improve economic situation of a given countries.
- There is major three (3) theories of development namely:
i. Modernization Theory
ii. Dependency Theory
iii. Marxist Theory

MODERNIZATION THEORY
It is a transformational process which enables traditional societies to become modern societies. This theory can
be related to the theory of evolution that human is moving from the primitive to more advanced state.

- The theory aimed to clear the problem of development in term of the need to transform the backward
“traditional” of the 3rd World countries economy into modern economy. i.e. encourage import
substitution, foreign aids, technology and others.

- The theory state that, given the relatively low level of new capital formation in most of the 3 rd world
countries, they requires massive capital investment through foreign aid for them to develop.
- The theory advocate (supports) that the source of underdevelopment in poor countries is internally
oriented than external ones. These include corruptions, good governance and political instability.
- Modernization is associated with the development aid from developed countries. This idea borrowed
from the Marshal Plan of the post World War II. The Programs such as Structure Adjustment Program
(SAPs), Millennium Development Goal (MDGs), PSRP, LGRP are the product of modernization theory.

- Modernization theory is an irreversible process, once started modernization cannot be stopped.

- It is evolutionary change and not revolutionary change as dependency theory. It will take years and
generation to complete.

NURKE’S VICIOUS CIRCLE OF POVERTY

The vicious circle of poverty introduced by Prof. Ragnar Nurkes, wrote a book in 1952 analyze the cycle of
poverty and possible way to break the deadlock. According to poor “the country is poor because is poor”.
 Vicious Circle it is a situation in which one problem causes another problems that then cause the first
again, so that the whole process continue to be repeated.

 According to Ragnar poor countries will never developed without the assistance of the developed
countries. They have to get resource from outside.

 He suggests that poor countries invest in human capital

 Transfer of technology from developed countries to poor countries is essential.

 A country/society in developing countries characterized with low income, and therefore, due to low
income have both low level of saving and level of consumption.

 The low level of savings mean that the country possesses low level of investment due to lack of capital

 Low investment in turn means little ability of that country to expand to its productive capacity.

HOW TO BREAK VICIOUS POVERTY CYCLE

1. Proper use of Natural Resource: Proper use of natural resource increase the production and per capital
income
2. Establish for Self Reliance Policy to reduce dependency from developed nations
 3. Encourage private sector development: private sector will increase the rate of investment
4. Application of capital must be made to a wide range of different industries
5. Increase saving: the government of less developing countries should provide incentives to encourage the
rate of saving.
6. Reduction of Import: The country should produce substitute in order the country to save foreign
exchange.
7. Invest in Technology

8. Control Population in order to balance the population and available natural resources.

WEAKNESS OF RAGNER THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT

1. The theory ignores the root causes of underdevelopment of the poor nations such as colonialism.

2. The theory creates the dependency economy to the developing world. The theory creates an environment
for massive investment and balance of growth.

3. The theory ignores current and ongoing exploitative relation between developed and developing countries

ROSTOW’ STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

The theory introduced by Walt Rostow in 1960s who postulate various stage of development with his famous
book “The Stage of Economic Growth”. Rostow argued that for any country to achieve economic growth
must pass through five (5) stages.
This model assumes that country is able to develop economically by focusing on resources that are short
supply in order to expand beyond local industries to reach global market (Todaro, 2005). It is evolutionary
theory of development

 Traditional Society Stage:

The first stage is known as traditional society which is associated with the country that has yet developed.
The investment level is less that 5 per cent of national income
- Majority of the population under this stage engaged in substance agriculture

- The society is characterized by using barter system as the system of monetary are not developed
- The manufacturing sectors and industries in traditional society grow by limited by inadequate scientific
knowledge (low productivity)
- The society characterized massive concentration of political power in the hand of land owners
- The social structure is feudalistic in nature

 Pre-condition for Take Off Stage:

This is second stage of development as proposed by Rostow, under this stage the country undergo a process
of change for building up of condition for growth and take off. Under this stage society characterized by
specialization, production of surplus good. The investment level is above 5 per cent of national income
- The change in this stage, the society and the economy are fundamental in nature in the political structure
and production technique.
 - Trade and other commercial activities are broadened to reach not only local market but also international
market.
- It is characterized by massive development of mining industries
- Increase in capital use in agriculture and become commercialized
- Invest in transport infrastructure is developed to support trade
- The stage encourages saving and investment and entrepreneur emerge.
- The economy shift from agrarian to industrial or manufacturing industry

 Take Off Stage:

Sometime is commonly known as economic take off Stage. It characterized by dynamic economic growth
which is due sharp stimulate of economic, political and technological in nature.
- It is characterized by self-sustained economic growth
- Industrialization increase and increase and economy switches from agriculture to manufacturing. Decline
in the number of employees in agriculture sector
- New political and social institution are involving to support industries
- Dramatic technological development in both industry and agriculture
- Significant increase in investment
- Increase urban population due to industrialization
Note: Once the country take off will take as long as fifty (50) years to hundred (100) years to rich to maturity as
it was the case of industrial revolution.
 Drive to Maturity Stage:
This stage of development concerned with the extension of modern technology over other sectors in the
economy/society.
- This stage refers to the period when a country has effectively applied the range of modern technology to
bulk of its resources.
- At this stage economy diversifies into new areas and become self-sustain
- Economy find its place in the international economy (imported good began to be produce locally. i.e. cars
- Less reliance on import much emphasis in export

 High Mass Consumption Stage:

- The leading sector in the society shift toward durable consumer goods and services. According Preston
(1988) it is characterized by high output levels. At this stage the economy gears not mass production and
service sector becomes increasingly dominating.
- Under this stage characterize by high mass consumption of consumer durables
- Increase in employment in the service sectors
- Highly increased in per capital income
- At this stage the society is able to choose between concentrating on military and security issue. A good
example is United State of America
- Equality in welfare issues or developing luxuries for its upper class
CRITIQUE TO ROSTOW STAGES THEORY
1. The theory failed to emphasize that developing countries are politically and economically diverse
(Haynes, 2008). They can’t follow similar stage in development.
2. Critique by dependency theorist that, wealthy nation exploits the poor countries and remain them
underdevelopment.
3. The theory focus only on internal causes of underdevelopment and reject external factors
4. The theory is criticized for failing to consider the poor as center peace in poverty reduction initiatives.
Ignoring the involvement of poor countries. Example to introduction of SAPs
- Eliminate traditional values in development process.
5. Theory failed to recognize the creativity and initiative of the African (Western Oriented). Ideas of
modernization impoverished African by create economy dependency.

DEPENDENCY THEORY
Dependency theory of body of social science theories, it contends that resources flow from a periphery of poor
and underdeveloped countries to a core of wealthy states. It enriches the latter at the expenses of the former.
Note: This theory evolved around 1950s as reaction to some earliest theories of development such as
modernization theory. But to large extent, this theory was popular in 1960s and 1970s as reaction to the earliest
theories such as modernization. The modernization held that all societies progress through similar stages of
development. Development countries were in situation that is similar to that faced today’s underdeveloped
countries.
They argue that for poor nations to develop, poor countries need investment, transfer of technology, integrate
into world market.
 Therefore, dependency rejects these ideas. Dependency argued that underdevelopment countries are not
merely primitive version of developed countries; rather they have unique features and structure of their
own. They are just weaker members in a World Market Economy.

TYPES OF DEPENDENCY
There is major two (2) main stream of dependency theory.
i. The Structural Stream: These streams include Prebisch, Hans Singer, Furtin and Smir, they argued that
peripheral – central relation is a major causes of underdevelopment in poor countries.
- They argued that this relationship affects negatively self – sustain in poor countries and makes them to
depend on rich countries.

- Hans Singer & Prebisch observed that the terms of trade for poor countries, relative to the developed
countries had deteriorated over time. Example, developing countries are able to purchase fewer and fewer
manufactured goods from the developed countries in exchange for a given quantity of the raw material
export. (Unequal trade between developed and poor countries – western countries to control prices for the
products produced.
- In world system, poor countries become only raw material producer of cotton, sisal, coffee, therefore,
provide inputs for advanced nation.
 Singer – Prebisch an Argentinian economist at the UN Commission for Latin America (UNCLA) Suggest
that underdeveloped nation must employ some degree of protectionism in trade if they were to inter a
self sustaining development path. They advocated for regional integrations and unity among poor
countries.
 They argued, in opposition to free market and suggest that underdeveloped countries need to reduce
their connection with the world market & pursue their own path.

 They encourage for Import Substitution Industrialization (ISI) and not a trade and export orientation.

- The theory focuses on the “Centre – Periphery”/North – South relationships. It state that poor states are
impoverished and rich states are enriched by the way poor states are integrated in the world system.

- They argued that the major cause of underdevelopment in external oriented. It ignores institutional
structure such as corruption, unproductive land holding, concentration of wealth, poor political system as
the cause of underdevelopment.

ii. The Marxian Theory: This stream includes Gunda Frank, Baran, Swezy and others. Paul Baran in 1957
wrote a book “The Political Economy of Growth”.

- They argued that development and underdevelopment are two aspects of economic structure.

- They show the link between the economy and power, the way international economy influence or
constrained the development process of National economy.
 - It argued that it is difficult for wealth nations/states to develop poor nations, therefore underdeveloped
nations would have to create their own economic path (Regional Integrations)

- Monopoly capitalism had vested interest in maintaining backwardness and dependence in the periphery.

The Basic the Grounds of Dependency Theory

 Poor national provide natural resources & cheap labour to strong states. Poor nation are in disadvantage
in their market interact with wealth nations.
 Wealthy nations actively perpetuate a state of dependence by various mean such as financial aids,
technological assistances, scholarships, foreign capital flow and others.
 Wealthy nations actively counter all attempts made by dependent nations to resist their influence by
means of Force/war (USA invade Iraq), Economic sanction (Libya)

THE CENTRAL INTENTION OF DEPENDENCY THEORY

i) Underdevelopment is a condition fundamentally different from undevelopment. Undevelopment refers to
the condition in which resources are not being used. i.e minerals and land not actively cultivated/
ii) Underdevelopment refers to the situation in which resources are being actively used but in a way benefit
the dominant states and not the poor.
iii) The theory argued that poor countries they are not poor because they lagged behind the scientific
transformation but they are poor because were coercively integrated into the capitalist economic
system.
 iv) Dependency theorist rely upon a belief that there exists a clear “National Economic Interest” which
articulated by rich countries. The rich interact with the poor to gain the national interest as advocated
by realism theory of international relations.

v) The power elites in dependant sates maintain dependant relationship because of their own self interest of
dominant states.

vi) Underdevelopment is completely different phenomena from non-development. At some time, the current
developed states were undeveloped. The major problem poor countries fail to exploit their
economical potential.

vii) Dependency relationship maintained through a complex network of political, cultural and economic
means and sometimes military measures. Example the overthrow of Saddam Regime by USA and
United Kingdom

COMMON FEATURES SHARED BY ALL DEPENDANCE THEORIES

i) Dependency theory characterized by the international system which comprise of two sets of states.
Example dominant/dependency, center/periphery, metropolitan/satellites

ii) Both definitions have in common the assumption those external forces of singular importance to
the economic activities within the dependent states.
  External forces include Multi National Corporations (MNSs), international market, foreign
assistance manifest the interest of rich countries.

iii) All indicate that the relation between dominant and dependent states statics are dynamics. The
relationship is always is proceeding process such pre-colonial period, colonial period, imperialism
and globalization.

CRITICISM OF DEPENDENCY THEORY

 The theory ignore internal factors for underdevelopment such as corruption, political instability and
others
 To improve domestic market by substuting imported manufactured goods with domestic one.
 The countries on the periphery of development are not destined to stagnation. So dependency theory is an
incomplete & inaccurate description of the social-economic condition of LDCs.
 There are many dependent countries on the periphery which adopted modernization change their
economic structure and achieve rapid economic development. Example, India, North Korea, Taiwan

 This theory has no relevance to many nations which are neither in the periphery nor in the centre such as
China, South Africa. They are called Semi-periphery Countries

 The nationalization of key sectors of the economy and do not give to foreigners.

 Full utilization of natural resources for the benefit of poor countries.

 Note: With economic growth of India and other five (5) Tigers of Asia dependency theory has lost its
validity.

TYPES OF DEPENDENCY

There is major two (2) main stream of dependency theory.

i. The Structuralism Stream/ Structuralism Theory

includes Prebisch, Hans Singer, Furtin and Smir, they argued that peripheral – central relation is a
major cause of underdevelopment in poor countries.
 They argued that this relationship affects negatively self – sustain in poor countries and makes them to
depend on rich countries.

 Hans Singer & Prebisch observed that the terms of trade for poor countries, relative to the developed
countries had deteriorated over time. Example, developing countries are able to purchase fewer and fewer
manufactured goods from the developed countries in exchange for a given quantity of the raw material
export. (Unequal trade between developed and poor countries – western countries to control prices for the
products produced.
 In world system, poor countries become only raw material producer of cotton, sisal, coffee, therefore,
provide inputs for advanced nation.

 They theory focuses on the “Centre – Periphery”/North – South relationships. It states that poor states are
impoverished and rich states are enriched by the way poor states are integrated in the world system.

 They argued that the major cause of underdevelopment is external oriented. It ignores institutional
structure such as corruption, unproductive land holding, concentration of wealth, poor political system as
the cause of underdevelopment.
 Is a development theory which focuses on structured aspects which impede the economic growth of
developing countries. Structuralists argue that the only way third world countries can develop is through
action by state.
 Pioneers of this theory include; Furtado, Raul Prebisch; Dudley Seers, O Svaldo Sunkel, Anibal Pinto.
The theory was developed in 1950s and lays its foundation in Latin America. In his analysis of the
developing countries, Furtado (1964) argues that underdevelopment is discrete historical process through
which developed economies have not necessarily passed. His proposition that the developed and
underdeveloped countries are linked by a series of asymmetric relationships, which reproduce the
inequalities of the capitalist system, represented a key departure from the then prevalent evolutionist and
diffusionist modernization and stage theories of development, as well as from Orthodox international
trade theory. For Furtado (1965) the main distinguishing feature of underdeveloped countries is the
existence of pre-capitalist sector.
 The unit of analysis is the transformation of a country’s economy from mainly subsistence agriculture to
a modern, urbanized manufacturing and service economy.
 Policy prescriptions resulting from structuralist thinking include major government intervention in the
economy to fuel the industrial sector, known as Import substitution Industries (ISI). This structural
transformation of the developing countries is pursued in order to create an economy which in the end
enjoy self–sustaining growth.
 This can only be reached by ending the reliance of the underdeveloped countries on export of primary
goods (agricultural and mining produce), and pursuing inward-oriented development by shielding the
domestic economy from that of the developed economies.

 Trade with advanced economies is minimized through the erection of all kinds of trade barriers and an
over valuation of the domestic exchange rate; in this way the production of domestic substitutes of
formerly imported industrial products is encouraged.
  This logic strategy rests on the infant industry argument, which states that young industries initially do
not have the economies of scale and experience to be able to compete with foreign competitors and thus
need to be protected until they are able to compete in the free market.


ii. The Marxian Theory: This stream includes Gunda Frank, Baran, Swezy and others. Paul Baran in 1957
wrote a book “The Political Economy of Growth”.

 They argued that development and underdevelopment are two aspects of economic structure.

 They show the link between the economy and power, the way international economy influences or
constrained the development process of National economy.

 It argued that it is difficult for wealth nations/states to develop poor nations, therefore underdeveloped
nations would have to create their own economic path (Regional Integrations)
 Monopoly capitalism had vested interest in maintaining backwardness and dependence in the periphery.

The Basic Premises of Dependency Theory

 Poor national provide natural resources & cheap labour to strong states. Poor nations are in disadvantage
in their market interact with wealth nations.

 Wealthy nations actively perpetuate a state of dependence by various mean such as financial aids,
technological assistances, scholarships, foreign capital flow and others.

 Wealthy nations actively counter all attempts made by dependent nations to resist their influence by
means of Force/war (USA invade Iraq), Economic sanction (Libya)

THE CENTRAL PROPOSITION OF DEPENDENCY THEORY

 i.Underdevelopment is a condition fundamentally different from undevelopment. Undevelopment refers to the
condition in which resources are not being used. i.e minerals and land not actively cultivated

Underdevelopment refers to the situation in which resources are being actively used but, in a way
benefits the dominant states and not the poor.

ii. The theory argued that poor countries they are not poor because they lagged behind the scientific
transformation but they are poor because were coercively integrated into the capitalist economic system.

iii.Dependency theorist rely upon a belief that there exists a clear “National Economic Interest” which articulated by
rich countries. The rich interact with the poor to gain the national interest as advocated by realism theory of
international relations.

iv.The power elites in dependant sates maintain dependant relationship because of their own self interest of dominant
states.

v.Underdevelopment is completely different phenomena from non-development. At some time, the current
developed states were undeveloped. The major problem poor countries fail to exploit their economical potential.

vi.Dependency relationship maintained through a complex network of political, cultural and economic means and
sometimes military measures. Example the overthrow of Saddam Regime by USA and United Kingdom
COMMON FEATURES SHARED BY ALL DEPENDANCE THEORIES

i. Dependency theory characterized by the international system which comprise of two sets of states.
Example dominant/dependency, center/periphery, metropolitan/satellites

ii.Both definitions have in common the assumption those external forces of singular importance to the economic
activities within the dependent states.

 External forces include Multi National Corporations (MNSs), international market, foreign
assistance manifest the interest of rich countries.
 iii. All indicate that the relation between dominant and dependent states statics are dynamics. The
relationship is always is an going process such pre-colonial period, colonial period, imperialism and
globalization.
CRITICISM OF DEPENDENCY THEORY

 The theory ignores internal factors for underdevelopment such as corruption, political instability and
others

 To improve domestic market by substuting imported manufactured goods with domestic one.

 The countries on the periphery of development are not destined to stagnation. So dependency theory is an
incomplete & inaccurate description of the social-economic condition of LDCs.

 There are many dependent countries on the periphery which adopted modernization change their
economic structure and achieve rapid economic development. Example, India, North Korea, Taiwan
 This theory has no relevance to many nations which are neither in the periphery nor in the centre such as
China, South Africa. They are called Semi-periphery Countries
 The nationalization of key sectors of the economy and do not give to foreigners.

 Full utilization of natural resources for the benefit of poor countries.

Note: With economic growth of India and other five (5) Tigers of Asia dependency theory has lost its validity.

Neo-Classical Theory

The neoclassical perspective represents a modification and further elaboration of modernization theory. However,
in contrast to modernization theory, neoclassical theorists see development as the outcome not of strategic state
condition but of the action of market forces.
The theory of Neo-classical development became popular in the 1980s with the emergency of conservative
governments throughout Western Europe and the United States (Todaro, 2002). Furthermore, the failure of so
many developing countries to achieve higher standards of living led economists to develop new theories about
growth and underdevelopment.

Neoclassical theory is also known as Market Fundamentalism or neo liberal perspective. According to this
theory economic growth is directly related to free trade and countries should follow policies of deregulation,
privatization, and liberalization in order to achieve desired economic growth (Addison, 2000).
The neo-classical theory is based on the idea that free markets will create competitive environments in which
producers will have incentives to engage in the global market place (Schoept,2000). Often implemented under
Structural Adjustment Programs, or the re- named Poverty Reduction Strategies, from the World Bank or
International Monetary Fund.
Neoclassical emphasizes the beneficial role of free markets, open economies and the privatization of the
inefficient public enterprises. Its recommended strategy for development is to free markets from state control and
regulation, so that capita, goods and services can have total freedom of movement and there can be greater
openness to international trade. This is the basic blueprint for what has been termed good governance. The
notion of good governance has been elaborated in part through a component of neoclassical counterrevolution
called New Institutionalism. The basic premise of this perspective is that development outcomes depend on
institutions such as property rights, price and market structures, money and financial institutions, firms and
industrial organizations, and relationships between government and markets.
The essence of good governance is to ensure the existence of these institutions and their proper role and
functioning as seen from the perspective of neoliberal theory. According to Neoliberal thought, good governance
requires freeing the market from the state control and regulations; reducing government expenditures for social
services like education and healthcare; maintaining roads, bridges, the water supply, and so forth; selling state –
owned entreprises, goods and services (including banks, key industries, railroads, toll highways, electricity,
schools and hospitals) to private investors.
 The central idea claim is that the failure to develop is primarily the result of too much government intervention,
poor resources distribution due to unfounded pricing policies and regulation of the economy.

Challenges/weaknesses of the Theory.

i.Many LDC economies are so different in structure and organization from their Western counterparts that the
behavioural assumptions and policy precepts of traditional neoclassical theory are sometimes questionable and
often incorrect.
ii.LDCs, there are many externalities of production and consumption that may or may not exist in developed
economies to the same degree.
iii.At the core of the neoclassical is reliance on the market. But some markets do not operate on the same scale
in LDCs, nor do they exhibit the same characteristics.
iv.Another major limit of neoclassical theory is their focus on economic growth first, followed by human
development. In countries of Sub-Saharan Africa, where diseases like HIV/AIDS and Malaria, high illiteracy
rate are major challenges, focusing on increasing GDPs will not have major impact on economic development.

Strength/usefulness of the Theory.

Despite the presented challenges about the theory, but the theory is still useful in the following ways:

i. The theory has successful shown the role of the state (government) in the World of free market economy.
ii.The theory managed to identify and realize the role of private sectors in achieving quick economic growth
of any country.
iii.The theory also encourage competition among the entreprises in the global market through international trade
in which the world market is ensured with quality products and services.
iv.Furthermore, the theory puts emphasis on conducive environment that can encourage business growth and
prosperity of the investors.
Sustainable Development Theory
Literally, sustainable development (SD) simply means “development that can be continued either indefinitely or
for the given time period (Dernbach, 1998).

Brundtland Commission Report (Schaefer & Crane, 2005) the report defines SD as “development that meets the
needs of the current generation without compromising the ability of the future generation to meet their own
needs”.

It provides mechanism through which society can interact with the environment while not risking damaging the
resources for the future. Thus, it is a development paradigm as well as the concept that calls for improving living
standards without jeopardizing the earth’s ecosystems causing environmental challenges such as deforestation,
water and air pollution that can result in problems such as climate and extinction of species.
SD calls on the need to move away from harmful socio-economic activities and rather engage in activities with
positive environmental, economic and social impacts.

SD aims at achieving social progress, environmental equilibrium and economic growth (Grossling-
Goidsmiths,2018)

According to Pigru (1920), historically SD as a concept, derives from economics as a discipline. The discussion
regarding whether the capacity of the earth’s limited natural resources would be able to continually support the
existence of the increasing human population theory in the early 1800s (Dixon and Fallon, 1989. The idea of
sustainable development can also be traced from the industrial revolution which had a significant impact on the
environment and the social balance, ecological and social crises took place in the world. These events arose
awareness that a more sustainable model was needed.
Human population grows geometric progression while subsistence grows arithmetic therefore if measures are not
taken to check the rapid population growth, exhaustion or depletion of natural resources would occur. In 1968
the ecologist and philosopher Garret Hardin wrote an essay entitled “Tragedy of the common”. He argued that if
individuals at independently, rationally and focused on pursuing their individual interest, they would end up
going against the common interests of their communities and exhaust the planet’s natural resources. In this way
human free access and unlimited consumption of finite resources would distinguish these same resources. Hardin
believed that since man is compelled to procreated unlimitedly the earth resources would eventually get over
 exploited. To his eyes, mankind needed to radically change its way of using common resources to avoid a
disaster in the future-this would be the way to keep on sustainable development track.

Yet, despite this, ‘sustainability’ remains an open concept with myriad interpretations and context-specific
understanding. One particular prevalent description of ‘sustainability’ employs three interconnected ‘pillars’
(Basigo 1994; Pope etal. 2014); Gibson 2006 encompassing economic, social and environmental (or ecological)
factors or goals. It should be noted that theses competing terms are used interchangeably, and our preference for
pillars is largely arbitrary. This tripartite description is often but not always, presented in the form of three
intersecting circles of society, environment and economy, with sustainability being placed at the intersection.
Sustainable development has become a fundamental strategy to guide the word’s social and economic
transformation. However, in the process of practice, there are still misinterpretations in regards to the theory of
SD.
Based on the experience of MDGs, the UN adopted in 2015 (68) SDGs, incorporate six elements: dignity, human
beings, the planet, prosperity, justice and partnership. SD put forward specific goals such as combating climate
change, conserving and sustainability using the oceans, seas and marine resources etc.

Criticism of the Theory.

i.The theory encourages the current generation to utilize the available resources without compromising the future
generation needs ignoring the fact that many people are struggling to meet their needs thus, it’s hard for them to
start thinking about the next generation.
ii.Population increases geometrically, while food production increases arithmetically. Under this paradigm, human
would eventually be unable to produce enough food to sustain themselves thus destruction of available resources
will be inevitable for human beings to obtain their needs.
iii. The theory does not consider the absolute poverty situation among people.
iv. Over exploitation of the available resources is due to technological advancement and industrial demands.
 Strength/usefulness of the Theory.

i. The theory promotes resources conservation (mitigating and adapting to climate change)
ii.The theory put into consideration the next generation thus help to ensure the next generation to meet their needs.

Post–development Theory

It holds that the whole concept and practice of development is a reflection of Western-Northern hegemony over
the rest of the world.
Post-development though arose in the late 1980s and early 1990s out of criticisms voiced against development
projects and development theory, which justified them.

The scholars for this thought are; Escobar, Kothari, Alvares and others. They generally call for new paradigms,
models and theories which can suit and meet development of the developing countries’ context.

Development institutions have used the terms ‘poverty’, ‘hunger’ and ‘women’ to benefit the Global North at the
expense of the Global South. Development discourse is used to justify policy and intervention in the Global
South. Escobar suggests that we need to ‘unmake and unlearn development (Escobar, 1995:223), calling for
practitioners and thinkers to find alternatives to the discourse of development.
Post development theory in that line is also called ‘Alternative development’ concerned with alternative
practices of development- participatory and people centred- and with redefining the goals of development.

Post development theorists point out that the way we act and the way we see the World are internally connected.

Post development theory is a compelling and controversial field of thought in contemporary development studies.
It gained prominence in 1990s, when it sparked fierce debate, but its influence has since waned somewhat.
 Criticism of the Theory.

i.The critique offered by post development thinkers went beyond other critical engagements with development
theory, in that it sought to reject, rather than reform, development. The critique was strongly informed by
concerns about Westernization and by an associated desire to validate, protect, and revive non- Western ways of
life.
ii.Furthermore, post development theorists adopt a critical stance toward globalization, seeking to defend the local
against the global. Critiques have been made on the reluctance or inability to move beyond critique in order to
clearly outline possible alternatives to development.
iii.Post development perpetuates cultural relativism. The idea that cultural beliefs and practices can be judged only
by those who practice them.
iv.Post development is seen to empower anti-modern fundamentalists and traditionalists who may hold non-
progressive and oppressive values.

Usefulness/strength of the Theory

i.The theory increases knowledge on the multidisciplinary meaning of the term ‘development’ that it is more
contextual. Thus, calling upon an alternative development model for the LDCs and redefining the term.
ii.It poses a challenge to development scholars to rethink and review the term considering the fact that the term
has been harm to the LDCs compared to the developed countries.
iii.The theory also has managed to show how the global South is exploited by the North global by using the term
‘poverty’ ‘hunger’ and ‘women’ to benefit.

Basic Needs Model/theory

A Basic Needs (BN) model to development is one which gives priority to meeting the basic needs of all the
people. The actual contents of BN have been variously defined: they always include the fulfilment of certain
standards of nutrition, (food and water), and the universal provision of health and education services. They
 sometimes also cover other material needs, such as shelter and clothing, and non-material needs such as
employment, participation and political liberty.

The idea of making the meeting of certain fundamental human needs a development of priority is not a recent
idea nor a sophisticated on; it stems from the simple view that development should be concerned with removing
absolute deprivation, as a first priority.

Major Arguments/assumptions or statements of the theory include the following:

The model/approach posits that once the basic needs of all members of a society for food, health, education,
housing, and employment are fulfilled, internal development of the country will be automatically generated.
To meet the nutritional and employment needs, land reform and democratization of rural areas must be achieved.

Rural residents must be encouraged to become self-reliant.

Labour intensive public works projects must be emphasized and small business enterprises encouraged.

Self-help housing efforts should be promoted.

Medical education must be oriented toward the needs of the poor.

Criticism of the theory.

i.The goals of the approach have been widely discussed, but little serious attention has been given to determining
the national policy needed to implement this approach.
ii.This idea finds rhetorical echoes in the speeches of almost every statesman in developing countries and every
preamble to a development plan. But when it comes to translating the idea into action –into plans, policies and
projects-the achievements of BN becomes more complex, both in terms of identifying the appropriate measures,
and the terms of mobilizing the required political will.
iii.Critics of the basic needs approach have often stated that such an approach sacrifices savings, productive
investment and incentives to work for the sake of current consumption and welfare.
iv. The theory treats development as a smooth path whereby such basic needs can be obtained.
 Strength/usefulness of the theory.

i.The theory has successfully pointed out some aspects which when met in the society development can easily
obtained since such aspects promote stability in any society. Human needs aspects like nutrition, (food and water),
and the universal provision of health and education services, employment, shelter etc are essential in maintaining
peace of a society.
ii.The theory provides basis for policy makers on what human needs to consider forth when formulating different
policies that affect lives of many people.
iii.It appreciates the importance of removing absolute deprivations for easy development and meeting people’s
needs.
Human Development Theory

The theory emphasizes on human as a centre of development. True development should be people centered and
ensure availability of different life variables. The theory developed as a response to the almost exclusive
development makers had given to economic growth and stabilization, it came out of long sequence of proposals
reading to the social ills resulting from this emphasis, which included high levels of poverty, deficient education
and health services, high inequality and unemployment.

The United Nation Development Programme defines human development as “the process enlarging people’s
choices,” said choices allowing them to “lead a long and health life, to be educated, to enjoy a decent standard of
living,” as well as “political freedom, other guaranteed human rights and various ingredients of self-respect
(HDRO 1990).

Development concerns expanding the choices people have, to lead lives that they value, and improving the
human condition so that people have the chance to lead full lives.

Thus, human development is about much more than economic growth, which is only a means of enlarging
people’s choices. Fundamental to enlarging these choices is building human capabilities-the range of things that
people can do or be in life. Capabilities are “the substantive freedoms (a person) enjoys lead to value.
Human development disperses the concentration of the distribution of goods and services underprivileged people
need and centre its ideas on human decisions. By investing in people, we enable growth and empower people to
pursue many different life paths, thus developing human capabilities. A person, therefore needs both resources
and the ability to use them to pursue their capabilities.

The notion of human development influenced development theory in at least two ways. First it clarified the
inadequacy of theories that focus on the whole nations or societies and that use macroeconomic factors to
explain differences in development conditions and to measure development. These theories cannot predict
whether the wealth and material well-being generated nationally are widely enough distributed to provide the
conditions for human development. Second, the notion of development reemphasizes the importance of the state.
It assigns the state a major role in protecting and advancing sustainable human well-being and argues the need
for just socially oriented state policies that neoliberalism proscribes- policies that improve the access of all
people to human resources investments, productive assets, credit facilities, information flows, and physical
infrastructure and protect the legitimate interests of producers, consumers workers, and vulnerable groups in
society.

Basic Assumptions of the Theory

 Development must put people at the centre of its concerns.

 The purpose of development is to enlarge all human choices, not just income.
 The human development paradigm is concerned both with building up human capabilities (through
investment in people) and with using those human capabilities fully (through an enabling framework for
growth and employment)
 Human development has four essential pillars, equality, sustainability, productivity and empowerment. It
regards economic growth as essential but emphasizes the need to pay attention to its quality and
distribution, analyses at length its link with human lives and questions its long-term sustainability.
 The human development paradigm defines the ends of development and analyses sensible options for
achieving them.
 Human development focusing on well-being and agency.
  In human development, people are both the ends as well as the means to development. Empowerment is
about processes that lead people to perceive themselves as entitled to make life decisions. It is about the
freedom to make life decisions in matters that affect their lives.

NOTE: read more on strength, weakness (critics) and relevance of each theory.

REFERENCE BOOKS:

 Addison, Tony. (2002) “Structural Adjustment” In Handbook on Development Policy and Management,
eds.

 Amin, S (1976) Unequal Development: An Essay on the Social Formations of Peripheral Capitalism,
New York, Monthly Review Press.

 Cassen, Roert , H.(1976) Population and Development: A Survey, World development (October-
November)

 Escobar, A (1995), Encountering development: The Making and Unmaking of the Third World. (eds).
Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press.
  Furtado, C. (1964) Development and Underdevelopment: A Structural View of the Problems of the
problems of the developed and Underdeveloped countries. Berkeley, C A: University of California Press.

 Human Development Report (HDRO) (2001). “Addressing Social and Economic Disparities” UNDP.

 Kothari etal (2019) Pluriverse: A Post development Dictionary. New Delhi: Tulika Books and Authors
upfront.

 Morawelz, David (1978) Basic Needs Policies and Population Growth, forthcoming.

 Todaro & etal (2002) Economic Development: Boston: Addison.

 T.R. Malthus (1960) On Production. G. Himmelfarb, editor, New York: Modern Library.
 United Nations. The Future We Want: United Nations: New York, N, Y USA, 2012.
 World Commission On Environment and Development. Our Common Future: Oxford University Press:
Oxford, UK 1987.

REFERENCES:
 1. Amin, S. (1976). Unequal Development: An Essay on the Social Formations of Peripheral Capitalism,
New York, Monthly Review Press.

2. Stiglitz, J. (2002). Globalization and Its Discontents, W.W Norton & Company Ltd

LECTURE TWO
CLIMATE CHANGE • WHATIS
CLIMATE CHANGE?
• Climate Change can be defined as a long – term shift in weather conditions identified by change in
temperature, precipitation, wind and other indictors.
• OR
Climate change is the shift in climate patterns mainly caused by greenhouse gas emissions from natural
systems and human activities.
• Climate change is currently a global phenomenon and requires global efforts to reduce it as its impact cut
across different countries regardless of its borders.
Contribution of the major greenhouse gases to global warming
.
 FACTORSTHAT INFLUENCE THE CLIMATECHANGE

• The factors that influence the climate change are associated with their contribution to the emission of greenhouse gases into the

atmosphere. These factors can be categorized into two as follows:

vHuman Factors: which is largely caused by burning fossil fuel and conversion of land for agriculture

vIndustrial Activities: The industrial activities that our modern civilization

vAgricultural Activities: Poor agriculture farming and burning fossil result to greenhouse gases
vTransport Sector:The transport facilities such as plane, buses and old cars contributes to the emission of greenhouses gases
vMining Activities
 Natural Factors

These are natural factors that are external to the climate system, it includes:
vVolcanic Eruption
vChange in Earth Orbit and the Sun
vThe amount of energy coming from the sun. vOcean changes
 IMPACTS OF CLIMATECHANGE

vSpread of Diseases: To large extent climate change contribute to respiratoryinfections, tropical diseases such as malaria.

This has great impact to underdeveloped countries.

vNegatively affect agriculture production: Climate change results to the change the pattern of rainfall. Most developing countries

that largely depend of seasonal rainfall for farming are largely affected by climatechange.

vNatural Disaster: Such as “Katrina” in United States, “Tsunami” in Sri Lankaetc.

vIncrease World Temperature:On average, Earth will become warmer. Some regions may welcome warmer temperature
vWarm the Oceans and Melt Glacier: A stronger greenhouse effect will warm the oceans and partially melt glaciers and other ice,
increasing sea level. Ocean water also will expand if it warms, contributing further to sea level rise.
 NATIONAL STRATEGIES TO ADDRESS CLIMATE CHANGE
• Environmental awareness campaign
• Strengthen governance of climate change, that is, policy, legislation and institutional frameworks
• Monitoring and evaluation of the climate change through research
• Identifying and promoting diversity of energy sources including non-traditional sources
• Promoting and supporting levels effective land use planning at all
• Promoting modern and efficient production technologies
 Cont…
• Investing and promoting appropriate water management technologies
• Promoting and facilitating water recycle and reuse • Promoting sustainable long use planning
• Enhancing control of forest fire, diseases and pest breakout

• Enhancing conservation of forest biodiversity and control of invasive species

• Identifying suitable crops for new agro ecological zone
• Promoting use of appropriate technologies for production, process, storage and distribution

• Promoting integrated planning appropriate technologies development and use of in infrastructure designing,

development and use of appropriate technologies.

 .

Dealing with Climate Change:

Mitigation and Adaptation

Climate change

Impacts

Mitigation
Adaptation

Responses
 CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION STRATEGIES
• Mitigation is defined as any anthropogenic interventions that can
either reduce the sources of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (abatement) or enhance their sinks (sequestration).
• Climate change mitigation reduce or prevent emission refer to the efforts to of green house gases.
• Mitigation can mean using new renewable energy, making older energy efficient. technologies and equipment more
 Scope

• Includes energy demand and supply, forestry, agriculture, rangelands and waste management.
• Includes analysis of the impact of options on the macro-economy.
• Considers policies and programs that can encourage adoption of mitigation technologies and practices

1.35
 BROAD APPROACHES TO MITIGATE CLIMATE CHANGE

• Three broad approaches;

– Infrastructure/asset based responses,
– Technological/process optimization responses and – Systemic/behavioral responses

(1) Infrastructure/asset based responses

– Require physical changes to existing assets or infrastructure e.g. buildings, planting conservation
– improving communication by roads, rail especially in rural areas to improve accessibility and access to markets
– expansion and improvement of irrigation infrastructure
BROAD APPROACHES TO MITIGATE CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACT RISKS

• Technological/Process Optimization Responses

– measures that require adoption or use of different technology, process or input to mitigate climate change impacts
• Improved fertilizer application
• Wider use of technology to improve the effectiveness of irrigation
• Improve and intensify irrigation technology
 BROAD APPROACHES TO MITIGATE CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACT RISKS

• Systemic/Behavioral Response
– Measures that involve behavioral change or coordinated systematic response
• Measures to protect from flood risks including awareness campaign for local communities/ residents in cities, towns and
villages.
• Tools to assess homes, individual risk profiles,
• Self assessment of risks of flooding based on location

– Take into account measures that are already being implemented to promote economic development but would also strengthen
climate resilience. For example irrigation policy (there is already an irrigation master plan in place)
 Mitigation Measures

Reduction of activities.
New alternatives: technologies, behaviors, sources of energy.
Sequestration (capture)/removal of atmospheric carbon dioxide: forests (tree and plants), soil, ocean, and underground
CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION AND MITIGATION

• Adaptation Strategies in Agriculture and Food Security – Use of improved crop

varieties,
– Pest risk analysis and improvement of pest management techniques – Breeding crop and livestock for drought
and pest tolerance,
– Strengthening early warning systems, – Research on pest
resistant varieties,
– Improved assessment tools for forecasting migratory pests including Integrated

c r o p a n d p e s t mweaatnhear gdaetam, weeanthter forecasts, and other

– Be tt e r u se of c lim at e an d

– Im mproavnedasgoiel amndewnattertcooonslesrv,ation measures – water harvesting

• Generally
– Design sustainable crop production and farming systems reflective of climate
c h a n g e s c e n a r io s
– In cr ea se C s eq ue st ra ti on o n f arms
• Reduced tillage (minimal cultivation),
• High carbon crops (fruit or nut orchard, vines, tea, coffee) and • Agroforestry (interaction of agriculture
and trees)
 Mitigation Plans

• Implementation of the Clean Development Mechanism to reduce the emission of GHG ( identify mitigation options for the
transportation sector).
• An increment of the forestry and cultivated areas (sequestration) and better management of forests and soil (preservation of the
capital of carbon)

Source: CONAMA, Primera Comunicacion Nacional, CONAMA, Santiago, 1999

 The need for adaptation

Mitigation will not work. So it is necessary to organize in order to take advantage of the new opportunities (longer
growing season) and avoid some of the negative impacts (extreme weather variability, drought).
CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION AND MITIGATION

• Adaptation Strategies in the Health Sector

– Prevention, control and treatment of Malaria, Dysentery, Cholera, Meningitis and Typhoidand phyto-medicine
programmes,
– Establishment of and strengthening community awareness programmes on preventable major health hazards,
– Establishment of health & climate collaboration & synthesis programs,
– Well coordinated early warning system and emergency measures, at national, regional and district level and
– Provision of efficient equipment to assist early diagnosis in health centres and availability of sufficient trained staff at all
health facilities.
– Map areas susceptible to climate change impacts
– Build capacity in the area of climate change and health, establish and develop emergency preparedness and response
capacity
– Develop database and monitoring system on climate change and indicators of health impacts
– Identify priority prevention and mitigation measures including mitigation plans
– Strengthen focused disease control program for prevention and treatment of climate sensitive diseases.
– Promote simple and cost effective technologies to prevent diseases including household level water treatment and
safe storage facilities
 CLIM ATE CHANGE ADAPTATION AND
I I I I
MITIGAT ION
I
• Adap–tatipro
• t ti
on atect
nd Mio
itigation
n of Strateg
existing iti ti tr t
ies in Forestry •Mitigation options:
forests;
– afforestation, reforestation, and forest productivity improvements; – revegetation of degraded lands by tree /shrub
planting, and
s
• Address the causes of deforestation and forest degradation:
– provide affordable and sustainable alternative energy sources gas, biogas and improved utilization of fuel wood
and bio-fuels
– avoid shifting cultivation through conservation tillage, use of fertilisers and manure, and agroforestry
– establish woodlots to meet timber demand
• Strengthening community based forest management practices
• Assess impacts of Climate change on the forestry sector

4
4
 Adaptation Plans

• The development of vulnerability and adaptation studies in areas such as:

a. replacement of crop varieties; b. changes in planting dates;
c. impact of climate change on desertification;
d. impact of heat conditions on native forest species; e. pest and disease control;
f. design and implement early warning systems • .
 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN POPULATION GROWTH, POVERTY AND CLIMATE CHANGE

i) High fertility can be envisioned as contributing to the poverty of households through several mechanisms: health and
educational needs of large numbers of children generally reduce household savings rates and reduce investments in
production activities something that leads to decrease of household income
ii) Population growth may lead to land scarcity including causing land to be infertile due to maximum utilization of land a thing that
lead to land degradation hence cause poverty and climate change
 Cont…
iii) Population growth lead to deforestation a thing that will lead to disappearance of natural
resources like natural vegetation etc. Hence increase of poverty and influences climate
change
iv) Population growth lead to water and air pollution which results to scarcity in rainfall as
caused by climate change, hence poverty.
 LECTURE THREE

CONCEPTS OF GLOBALIZATION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

Introduction
The concept of globalization is not a new phenomenon to the people around the world. It is
common to hear a person claim the children are nowadays misbehave simply because of the
increasingly globalization. There is no single/universal definition of what is globalization.
Globalization is currently a popular and controversial issue though often remaining a loose and
poor define concept. In a modern development is very difficult to separate between globalization
and development. The globalization process may faster or hindering development processes.
Therefore, the study of globalization and its impacts to development is essential. Globalization is
a powerful real aspect of the new world system and it represent one of the most influential force in
the determining the future course of the planet. It increases the worldwide trade and exchanges in
an increasingly open, integrated and borderless international economy. The process increases
openness in the international economy, integrate the world market and move toward borderless
world by increasing global flows. This chapter explains different aspects of globalization, causes,
theories, consequences as well as implication of Chinese investment in Africa.

1. Define globalization
2. Explain causes of globalization
3. Explain theories of globalization and their implication in developing countries
4. Explain consequences of globalization in developing countries
5. Explain implication of Chinese investment in Africa

Definition of globalization
The definitions of globalization are very diverse; the majority shares the basic premise that
‘globalization’ involves the increasing interconnectedness of different parts of the world, such
that physical distance becomes less of a barrier to exchanges and movements of ideas, goods,
people and money (Willis, 2011).

 Globalization is a process of interaction and integration among the people, companies,

and governments of different nations, driven by international trade and supported by
information communication technology (ICT).
  Globalization results from the removal of barriers between national economies to
encourage the flow of goods, services, capital and labor around the world.
 These growing linkages have been made possible because of developments in technology,
transport and communications. Because of these developments, economic, political, social
and cultural activities and processes which would have been limited to a smaller scale
can be more easily experienced at a larger scale. This does not mean that everything.
Globalization’ has entered into the development discussions of many governments; either
because it is regarded as an opportunity to promote growth and poverty alleviation

According to Carney (2002), redefine globalization as redefines the relationship between

territoriality and authority, shifting authority from the level of state to supranational (such as IMF
& World Bank) and sub national units.
Globalization is the process that encompasses the causes, course, and consequences of
transnational and trans-cultural integration of human and non human activities (Jones, 2010)

Larsson (2001) define globalization as the process of world shrinkage of distances getting shorter,
things moving closer. The globalization increases trade liberalization which reduces trade
protection and movement of people easer.

According to Njunwa (2010) defined as a process that, based on international strategies aims at
expand business operation on worldwide (global) level.

According to Friedman (1999) globalization defined as an increasing and deepening interaction

between individual & organization across the global.

Other scholars of development scholars define the concept of globalization in a negative way.
They focus on the negative impact of globalization to the development of the third world
countries.

According to Khor (1995) stated that “Globalization is what we in the third world have for several
centuries with the name of colonialism”. As Kwame Nkrumah refers imperialism as the highest
stage of colonialism, therefore, there is no difference between imperialism and the current
globalization.
According to Steingard (1995) define globalization as an ideological construct devices to satisfy
capitalism’s need for new market and labour source and propelled by uncritical “Sycophancy” of
the international academic business community.

Generally, globalization creates interconnectedness and interdependence, this cause increasing

movement of goods, services, people and information, as well as international agreements for
environmental protection and human rights. Globalization has great potential in terms of poverty
alleviation, but that a positive outcome is not guaranteed: (Willis, 2011)

Characteristics of Globalization
According to Katri (2015), described globalization to have the following characteristics: -
1. Mindset and Not a New Economic Theory
Globalization is basically a Mindset and not a new economic theory. It is not an economic theory
to enhance business and trade but is basically a mindset that is ready to summarize the whole
universe into its scheme of things; a mindset that is broader and open to receive all ideas and takes
the whole globe as an area of operation.
2. Open Market Opportunities (Trade Liberalization)
It is often feared that the implementation of globalization will open up our domestic economy for
foreign competition, thereby endangering economic progress & survival of local firms. While it
does open our markets for entry of multinationals, it also opens all other markets in the whole
world for our products & services too
3. Interdependence (Interlinks)
As far as history is concerned there is no country which is independent in all aspects such as
social, economic, political, and cultural and technology. Each country depends on another
regardless of its wealth, poverty or technological advancement. With the advent of Globalization,
it has been understood that no country can be said to be totally independent, not needing anything
from any other countries. Hence, a culture of interdependence has been established and
maintained between nations.
4. Caring and Sharing of Common Problems
The world today is more united and concerned about common problems being faced by the people
such as global warming, terrorism, or malnutrition, COVID-19 etc. Natural disasters faced or
atrocities encountered at any part of the world attract immediate attention all over.
5. Technology in Service of Mankind
The world would not have shrink into a small global village without the support of technological
innovations like Computers, Internet, Telecommunication, and E-Commerce among others. Thus,
technology has proved to be the major source of the concept of Globalization, and for bringing
people nearer.
6. Inevitable and Irreversible
There have been attempts by fundamentalist forces all over the world to oppose and stop the
process of Globalization over past quarter century. Despite of their efforts to stop it political
ideologies, the ruling parties have gone ahead with implementation of Globalization policies.
7. Link with Politics and Economics
Political ideologies and relations between nations have determined the fate of people over
centuries but with economics being subservient to politics. However, in the new era, it is the
economics, employment generation and public welfare that determine the need and strength of
relations between nations.
8. Raised Standards of Living
With consumers having more choice to pick quality items at right price, and with no boundary
restrictions on flow of goods and services, the markets have turned from Sellers to buyers. This
has helped in raising the standard of living for vast populations across the world. It has also raised
aspirations among people to upgrade their lifestyles.
9. Winning Competitive Advantage
The global level opportunities available to all the countries, the field is wide open for the excellent
companies, products and people from any remote part of the world to showcase their excellence
and win over markets and contracts. There is pressure on everyone to continuously improve to
meet the raised bar of expectations.
10. Financial Flow
Rapid integration of financial markets is the most dramatic element of globalization. In the past
the world lived with a system of separate financial markets. The increase in capital flows from on
to another was greatly boosted by the revolution of ICT. This made possible the improved and
speeder knowledge of foreign markets, the development of financial transactions and emergence
THE FOCUSES OF GLOBALIZATION
The globalization focuses on the following areas/issues:
 Growth of capitalist market economic worldwide and reduce barriers to trade and
investments. i.e. increase Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) and capital flow
 Growing interconnection between firm/companies, government and individual worldwide.
i.e. use of internet buying used car in Japan
 Advancement in information & communication technology and transport
 Globalization is irreversible process, once it started you can stop it
 Qualitative change in organizations and societies as consequences of new global
interactions.
 Political development, including democratization and good governance
 Social development including western civilization worldwide, the concept of “Clash of
Civilization”? By H. Torrington.
 Note: Globalization increase economic openness, growing economic interdependence and
deepening economic integration between countries of the world.

THEORIES/VIEWS OF GLOBALIZATION
Various theories/perspectives try to explain on the concept of globalization and its relation to
social, economical development. As we discussed earlier, the interpretation of the concept of
globalization is complex, and has different perception/views. Some perceive it positively while others
perceive it’s negatively.

The following are major perspectives:

1. HYPERGLOBALISTIC PERPECTIVE

Some time is commonly known as Liberal perspective, famous scholars of this approach is
Olimae J and Thompson. Hyper globalist argued that what distinguishes the present era from
the past, is the existence of single global economy transcending and integrations the world’s
economic region.
 It is approach which sees globalization as new epoch of human history
 This new approach is characterized by the declining relevance & authority of National –
State control.
 Demise the role of government/state. It aimed at de-nationalization of strategic economic
activites.
 According to them, globalization encourage for Non-state actors in development process.
Such as MNCs, TNCs such as Coca Cola, Tigo, Barrick Ltd.
 Transnational governance organization become increasingly important and national
government loose influence. i.e. people can buy car via internet without government
involvement.
 This perspective hold, the autonomy and sovereignty of nation-states have been eclipsed
by contemporary process of economic globalization.
Note: SAPs asked the government to exclude from service provision, trade and others
economic issues

2. SCEPTICAL PERSPECTIVE
It is more much cautious about the revolutionary character of the globalization (Thompson,
1999)
 View current international processes as more fragmented and regionalize than
globalization. Dismissing the ideas of the unified global economy, the skeptical position
concludes that the world is breaking up in several major economical and political blocs.
 Under these political blocs different forms of capitalism continue to flourish.
 According to them “the golden age” of globalization occurred at the end of 19th century
but now is regionalize
 This perspective is commonly known as Realist approach & always against globalization.
 It criticize that, the growth of MNCs/TNCs does not mean that National State are no
longer relevant for governing the flow of economic benefits
 It criticize hyper globalist as Political Naïve since it underestimate power of National
government in regulate international economic system.
 Argue that, Multinational Corporation (MNCs) is still tied primary to their home states or
regions and financed by state. i.e in Arab nations most of MNCs has direct link with USA
government.
 According to this view, states exploit the developing countries with an umbrella of
globalization and gain the national and economic interests.
 3. TRANFORMATIONAL APPROACH
This approach is fundamentally differing with other two perception based on the followings:

i. There is no single cause (that is the market or economic logic) behind globalization

ii. The outcome of processes of globalization is not determined

 It argues that world in which development in one region can come to shape the life
chances of communities in distant parts of the globe.

 Globalization has contributed to remarkable politicization of social life whilst also creating
new modalities and institutional arenas through which it’s imperative are contested.

Note: Hyper globalist believe that power of national state is wining, Skeptic argued that the power
of national government is growing, Transformational, however, view the nature of national state
as changing (being reconstructed & restructured).

 The transformation list, range of factors influencing processes of globalization is much

greater than the outcome are much less certain.

 Globalization is a central driving force behind the rapid social, political and economical
change that reshaping modern societies and world order.

IMPACTS OF GLOBALIZATION
Globalization has adverse effect to both developed and developing countries, the process either
negatively or positively effects social, economical and political situation. In discussing the
impacts, we will focus on its impact to North and South.

ITS IMPACTS TO GLOBALIZATION TO THE NORTH

 Access to New Market: A Globalization process to large extent positively helps the
developed countries to get their market in developing countries. Example, China sells a lot
of product in Africa. – Globalization leads to free trade between countries
 Foreign Direct Investment (FDI): Through FDI developed countries invest their capital
in other countries such as Tanzania. Example, Barrick Mining Company Ltd, Tigo
  Economic Growth: Through free trade and foreign direct investment result to income and
economic growth.

 Transfer of Technology: through globalization, developed countries sell their technology

to developed countries. Such as cars, computers, mobile phone

 Increase employment rate: Through FDI, transnational organizational and INGOs,

citizens in developed countries got employment in developing countries.

 Address global problems such as Nuclear weapons, climate change etc.

 Cheap Labour from developing countries i.e. local experts paid very low compare to
outsiders. Tigo Company Limited employ an individual and give cars

 Migrant problems – the developed countries have faced migrant problems from Africa
IT’S IMPACTS OF GLOBALIZATION TO THE SOUTH
and Asia due to beliefs that the globalization has made DCs to shine in economic, social
The globalization process impacts negatively and positively in development process.
and technological advancement. Youths are migrated to Europe to search green pastures
According to former UN Secretary Kofi Annan’s Millennium report argued that
the state which has disturbed the economy of some western countries
“Globalization is an extra ordinary powerful force offering both unique challenges and
opportunities for developing countries”.

1. POSITIVE IMPACTS OF GLOBALIZATION

 Increase economic development: The East Asia Tiger (Taiwan, China, North Korea,
Philippines and India) gained economic development from globalization processes.
 Technological transfer and technological innovations: The developing countries
adopting positive technology from west and used it for economical development. i.e.
agriculture machines, industrial machines, internet
 Financial Aids and Loans: Through Globalization process, international financial
institutions such as IMF, World Bank provide financial assistances via grants or loans for
development projects.
  Democratization process: Globalization opened the door for democratization, free and
fair elections, etc.
 Free Movement of People: Globalization allows for movement of labour. Many people in
developing countries are now working in developed countries in USA, UK and
international experts are now working in development countries.
 Maintenance of Political Stability: via globalization helps in peace making processed in
developing countries especial through mediation. International Court of Justice protect
rule of law, and democratization.
1. Economic Growth
Global communities’ economic development process aims to catalyze sustainable and inclusive
economic growth by strengthening the capacity and integration of economic actors to effectively
pursue market-based opportunities. Development at societal level does not have a meaning if it
does not happen at individual and community level the reason why some countries have high per
capital income while the majority of its people are living in extreme poverty with high rates of
unemployment and inequality.
2. Comparative Advantage and Free Trade
Kearny’s (2001) survey of globalization opted for economic criteria accounting for 90 percent of
the globalization phenomenon, allocating the difference to political, cultural and environmental
criteria. Such an integrated market is understood to operate on the principle of laissez-faire
capitalism, in which barriers between states, such as tariffs, no longer exist. Therefore, the process
of minerals extraction has contributed to the growth of community social services such as water,
schools and health centres. There are many companies which have been investing in natural
resources such as mining companies at Mwadui, Geita, Nzega and Kahama gold mining. Presence
of these foreign companies enables Tanzania to utilize resources hence growth of trading centres
and urbanization.

3. Growth of Agricultural Sector

Globalization has influenced the expansion and provision of agricultural subsidies from
government to peasants where production to some both cash crops and food crops increased. The
increase of production it is one step towards agricultural revolution (agrarian) in rural areas if
other factors of production will rise as well.
4. Expansion of Markets for Various Goods and Services (Market Economy).
The peasants have a great room to negotiate with buyers under cooperative societies and choose
agricultural crops to be produced under contract basis different from the past years where
productions were made with unknown buyers. For example Kagera Cooperative Union (KCU
LTD -1990) due to globalization has changed from conventional buyers to Organic coffee buyers.
This is possible because before production market research comes first in order to know
consumers and their consuming behavior.
5. Growth of Information and Communication Technology
Globalization has resulted to quick communication and spread of the information with other
people in other parts of the world through telephone lines. For example, in the case of Tanzania
today there is very little difference between communities living in rural and urban areas in having
information spread rapidly through mobile networks, internet services and social media.
6. Increasing Efforts for Fighting with Rural Poverty
Due to diffusion of globalization in Tanzania, efforts are made to ensure the rural community
prosperity. Increasing social services such portable water, roads, schools, health services is the
contribution of globalization to development in Tanzania.
7. The Advancement of Transportation System,
Up to the early of 1980’s the level of development of Transport system was poor compared to
current situation. This accelerates the fast movement in different areas at all times. Globalization
is the step forward to development especially in third world countries including United Republic
of Tanzania and elsewhere.

2. NEGATIVE IMPACTS

 Deindustrialization Process: The most profound consequences of SAPs & liberalization

in Africa is weakening of manufacturing sector. (Depend on imports)

 Marginalization of African Economy: prices determine by West by North. Inequality in

global economic structure affect the South, transfer several 100 of dollars of economic
resource to the North annually in terms of trade loose, debt serving and profit outflow.
  Increase the gap between the poor and rich countries: World Bank (2006) the income
between rich and poor countries increased. Poor people/countries falling to compete with
North. I.e. LDCs only share 0.4% of global export & 0.6% of importation.

 Slow growth, poverty & development: due to globalization Word Bank argued that
process increase poverty in Africa which estimate that 384 million of people from Africa
live in absolute poverty (more than half of population)

 Political instability: example in middle east, DRC – Congo fighting over resources.

 Increase environment problems: Due to FDI and invest in developing countries result to
air pollution, land degradation etc

Unfair Trade Contracts

It is created a room for inequality through signing unfair but legal contracts between the
Developed and developing countries. Tanzania being as a case study through globalization the
country has experienced growing mining sector whereby foreign companies invested a lot in
mining sector since 1998. Due to ignorance and shortage of skills in field of minerals Tanzania
was getting a loss for the investments made through globalization. Most of the contracts signed
are in favour of foreign investors. For example the investigation of Acacia Mining Company
made by Tanzanian government 2017 has revealed that Nation has lost a lot of wealth due to
ignorance, shortage of skills, lack of nationalism and inexperienced personnel in the field of law
and minerals.

According to Osoro Report (2017, p.31-32) famous as “Makinikia” it was calculated that from
1998 to 2017 the country lost between 68,590,557,522,621 to 108,461,211,808,955 Tanzania
Shillings. In comparison according to National Budget of 2017/2018 the country was expected to
collect and spend 31,711,986 million shillings therefore it can be concluded that the country has
been losing almost national budget annually through unfair contracts resulted from globalization.
By signing unfair but legal contracts between developed and developing countries have lead
negative results especially in developing countries. The North has become the winner and South
the great looser.

 Cultural distortion
Through the use of internet, social networks, watching television movies and various films from
either Western or the rest of the world has contributed to disintegration of African culture.
Currently there is no strong base of traditional culture for example the Masai in Arusha and
Manyara and the Hadzabe in Singida and Karatu was among of few tribes who have strong culture.
Due to globalization their cultures to some extent have been changed youth are emigrating from
rural to town for looking jobs such as watchmen, hairdressing, selling traditional herbals,
ornaments and others.
 The Rise of Selfishness and Disintegration of Extended Family
The spirit of brotherhood and sisterhood in most cases is slowly fallen apart due to globalization
in African societies particularly in urban areas. Economic hardship and the spirit of lazier fare
have resulted to selfishness among urban societies due to modernization. The African culture of
extended family is slowly if not fast disintegration due to adoption of nuclear family
 Increase of Rural-Urban Migration
The globalization has resulted into growing of cities, urban and centres such as Kahama, Mwanza,
Arusha, Geita, Dar es salaam, and Mbeya among others. Many people especially youth has
migrated from rural to urban to search for employments, business, good medication and other
sophisticated services in order to have good life. The effects of rural-urban migration is increased
of unemployed, growing of itinerant traders (such as Machingas and bodabodas), unplanned
settlements, settlements in valleys, bridges or across river’s banks, environmental degradation and
other social evils. Young generation due to globalization prefer to live in urban to work in
informal sectors such as travelling agents (wapiga debe), rather than in rural to practice
agriculture, fishing, livestock keeping and other activities.

Free Trade and Comparative Advantage

In a significant part, where developing countries do experience internal conditions in common,
this is a consequence of their external relations, and the increasing standardization of
homogenization of those relations. For many developing countries, their comparative advantage is
low wage rates which are simply selling down the cost of labour as the lowest common economic
denominator. Kingsbury et al. (2004) brings forward critics to globalization arguing that the
notion of free trade based on comparative advantage works primarily to the benefit of
industrialized countries that can take advantage of cheap labour and goods produced to
developed countries

WHY AFRICA BECOME A LOOSER IN GLOBALIZATION PROCESSES?

 Inequalities in global economic structure: The economic structure allows for more FDI
to developing countries and exploits them and attains economic benefits. It is very difficult
for developing countries to penetrate in World market.
 Have no VETO power in decision making process: International financial Institutions
such as IMF and World Bank is highly dominate by Super power nations (The Big 5) i.e.
Africa had no representative at the 1994 (Geneva – Uruguay Round of the WTO and that’s
why the agreement didn’t favour Africans.

 Marginalization of African Economy: Developing countries only become the producers

of raw materials for developed countries

 Poor technology and infrastructure: We still use outdate technology in agriculture,

production and depend from North.

 External Debts and dependent economy: The debts and grants given to African
continent come out with difficulties conditionalities such as devaluation of currencies,
privatization etc

 Political Instability: civil war and political unrest hindering developing countries to grab
the opportunities from globalization.

THE STRATEGIC IMPLICATIONS OF CHINESE INVESTMENT IN AFRICA

China’s strategic ambitions to Africa are political, ideological and military agendas and are
related to its economic engagement and are mutually reinforcing for each other. China’s
economic capacity and its willingness to use such capacity to supply to African needs puts the
foundation for Africa’s warm reception and compassionate interpretation of China’s agendas.

The political support of Chinese policies can usually be acquired through charitable offers of
Chinese aid, loans and investment. Such a compassionate perception of China and the
popularity of China’s development model due to its perceived effectiveness significantly
enhance the appeal of the Chinese style of state capitalism in Africa. China is building an image
of itself as a contributor to the peace and stability in Africa, boosting its image as a
while materializing, legitimizing and expanding its own military presence on the continent.
Chinese financial contributions have not only made these deeds possible, but also desirable for
some African governments.

China’s political, military and ideological influence become deeper and broadens the scope and
scale of China’s economic activities in Africa. As the result, Africa is increasingly tied into the
Chinese orbit. China’s financial contribution to African governments has played a significant role
in securing Africa’s support of China’s political agenda regionally and globally.

There is a popular perception in China that Africa’s support of China’s foreign policies can be
easily acquired through economic temptation and rewards. Such a transactional approach has
often uncleared the principles of international politics. Instead, mercantilism prevails. For
example, Chinese promises of economic reward or the perception of pending Chinese economic
reward have greatly shaped the alliance choice and normalization decisions of Taiwan’s former
African diplomatic allies.

Similarly, African countries that maintain close economic cooperation with China were called
upon to support China’s positions on key security issues such as the South China Sea: more than
ten African countries expressed support of China’s position on the South China Sea before the
2016 ruling according to official Chinese statement, including Tanzania, Uganda, Gambia, and
Kenya.

China’s economic statecraft in Africa has become one of the most prioritized and effective
instruments in China’s challenge to the current international order. China believes that it shares
with Africa the same agenda on defending the interests of developing countries and emerging
markets, promoting the so-called ‘‘democratization of the international relations’’ and reforming
the global governance system. In the context of the great power competition, the support China
rallies from African countries greatly enhances China’s ability to effectively compete with the
United States over the legality, credibility, and capability of the new model of international
relations that China advocates for.

China’s active promotion of its own development model in Africa also creates opportunities for
China to play a key role in the economic development plans of African countries upon witnessing
the ‘‘miracle’’ of China’s economic development

Once African countries are convinced of the need for expensive infrastructure projects to jump
start their agricultural growth and industrialization, China stands ready to provide the loans (often
backed by African natural resources) and Chinese service contractors to build the projects.

In terms of China’s overseas military ambitions, China’s evident kindness with economic lending
to Djibouti secured the consent and support from the local government for China’s military base
A number of African Governments have borrowed recklessly from China, and the terms of those
loans are frequently opaque. Irresponsible borrowing is primarily the African Governments’ fault,
but the Chinese practice of offering easy money with and other materials

Similarly, Chinese loans are frequently ‘‘tied,’’ meaning that borrowing governments must select
a Chinese company to lead the project. One report claims that 70 percent of Chinese-backed
contracts are awarded to Chinese companies

ACTIVITIES THAT CHALLENGE AMERICAN INTERESTS IN AFRICA

First, Beijing’s activity is creating influence towards, and facilitation of, illiberal governance in
Africa. This undermines the United States’ decades-long attempt to encourage the global growth
of democracy. Under President Xi, Beijing has more courageously offered its own developmental
model of limited economic freedom and oppressive government as best suited to Africa.

Second, China is establishing economic norms on the continent and using economic practices that
disadvantage United States firms. US assume Chinese companies’ prolific use of bribes to win
contracts and favors in Africa, which puts American companies at an obvious disadvantage.
African governments’ at-times irresponsible borrowing from China and the routinely unclear
nature of those transactions leaves fewer opportunities for American companies, and makes them
wary of engaging in countries with unclear debt profiles.

Third, Beijing’s influence in Africa makes it harder for the United States to achieve its national
interests on a strategically important continent. Africa touches three of the world’s eight maritime
chokepoints, abuts Europe and Asia, and has thousands of miles of Atlantic and Indian Ocean
coastline. Powers such as China, Russia, Turkey, Saudi Arabia, Japan, India, and many others
have influence on the continent. Furthermore, included in Africa’s share of the world’s mineral
reserves are 22 of the 33 mineral commodities the United States deems critical to its economy and
national

THE IMPACTS OF CHINESE INVESTMENT IN AFRICA

A. Positive Impacts
1. Economic development and growth in African countries,
The positive effects are visible, for the increase of Chinese demand Chinese for raw materials
prices allowed the improvement of trade and export incomes. The new Sino-African relations
contributed to reintroduce Africa in the international flows of the formal trade from which it
was aside for several decades. This increase in the oil incomes enabled some African countries
to implement public or economic policies Chinese Foreign Development Investment (FDI)
have improved economic growth in many African countries, because since a decade Africa's
growth is 5% on average per annum, which has placed the continent among the most dynamic
regions of the world. For example, in 2012 the growth of sub-Saharan Africa countries had
increased more than 5.4% compared to the year 2011, which was 4.9%. It should also be noted
that in 2013, South Africa had been among the top 30 (the most powerful economies in the
world), and ranked the twenty-ninth in world.
2. Infrastructure development
Chinese investment in Africa has led to a remarkable improvement of infrastructures. The
development of a given country must also go through the development of basic infrastructure
(hospitals, hydroelectric dams, roads, bridge, and so on), unfortunately during several
years this was what most African countries lacked. But in recent years, much progress has
been made in this direction, and over years African continent is equipped with basic
infrastructure. For instance, the construction of the national road connecting the two main
cities of the Republic of Congo (i.e. Brazzaville and Pointe Noire) whose the inauguration
took place at the beginning of the year 2016, the construction of a major hospital in Luanda
(Angola’s capital city), stadiums built in Sierra Leone, airports and many other administration
buildings in most countries which are recipient of these investments, etc.
All these achievements gave to African countries a new status of modernity and
improvement of basic infrastructure that they lacked in the past. It should also be noted that in
December 2011, China made a donation to Africa by building the new headquarters of the
African Union (AU), located at Addis Ababa in Ethiopia, which had cost more than 200 million
3. Social development
Chinese investments have brought positive results in different social aspects as follows: -
a) The increase of Chinese investments in Africa has resulted in competition between
Chinese investors and traditional investors (i.e. Europe and America), and the local
population benefited from it. In other words, this competition drove traditional
investors to increase the salaries of some employees, and signed employment
contracts, since some employees were hired without an employment contract, for fear of
losing their employees who may be tempted by the massive coming of Chinese
investments.
b) Chinese FDI helped Chinese products to take an important place on the continent, and
this has led to an improvement of the living conditions of local populations. Indeed,
Chinese product, i.e. "made in China" are increasingly in all stores in Africa, and
thanks to these products Africans have had easy access to products that were considered
some time ago as luxury products, such as: mobile phones, computers, air conditioners,
etc., their low prices have therefore improved the purchasing power of consumers.
Chinese investment enabled African population to have easy access to the products of
malaria (regarded as a scourge on the African continent), reducing thereby the mortality
rate caused by the latter.
c) Chinese investment in the agricultural sector, allowed some African countries to reduce
prices of food, contributing to the improvement of the shopping basket of consumers
and the reduction of famine.
d) On the education Chinese investments in Africa are also beneficial. At the education
 number of scholarship which he used to allocate to African students, and so far this
increase has continued, and that also involved the training of military officials.
e) African people are increasingly interested in Chinese culture, and many Chinese
language learning centers were established throughout the continent and in some
countries Governments have introduced the Chinese language in the school program.
Chinese leaders as well as African seem completely convinced of the mutual profits which
their countries pull of this cooperation. Whereas Africa benefits from the development of long-
term infrastructures, China enjoys an access to the oil and to the numerous natural resources of
the continent, what allows him to feed its branch of rapidly expanding industry.

B. Negative Impacts
1. Collapse of local industries and slow down of inter-African trade
a) Chinese investment in Africa has negatively affected local companies. Many Africans
have denounced the poor quality of Chinese products and estimated that their low
price is the cause of the collapse of local industries.
b) In the textile industry, South Africa apparently lost between 23 000 and 85 000 jobs. In
Ghana also, companies have to close.
c) The competition in this sector caused the slowing down of the inter-African trade,
because countries such as South Africa, Cameroon, Kenya and Madagascar lose market
shares in nearby countries due to the massive penetration of Chinese clothing on the
continent.
d) Generally, in the sectors where China and Africa are in competition, the increase of the
Chinese exports leads to a reduction in African production.
e) The increase of Sino-African trade often comes along with trade imbalance to the
advantage of China. It is particularly the case for South Africa and Nigeria which
present respectively a trade deficit towards China of 4 billion and 1.7 billion USD.

2. Socially, Chinese FDI in Africa is a serious problem. As a matter of fact, the social
rights of African workers hired by Chinese enterprises are constantly violated (underpaid,
non- compliance with labour standards, non-recognition of trade unions, etc.), and Chinese
companies do not take much social responsibility as their western counterpart do.
3. Environmental degradation with Chinese investment: Concerning the environment
protection, Chinese investments are also a problem. Environmental standards are not really
respected by Chinese companies, because they give more importance to the quest of raw
materials and the implementation of infrastructure projects (roads, bridges, railways, dams,
etc.) than to environment concerns. Most of international standards in the construction of
bridges, dams are not fully respected for the sole purpose of making more profits. It should
also be noted that most of the time Chinese companies specializing in logging do not
 respect international standards in this sector of activity, leading therefore to the illegal sale of wood.

References
Koumou, R.F.M and Manyi, W. (2016). Effects of Chinese Foreign Direct Investment in Africa. Journal of F

journal/paperinfo?journalid=171&doi=10.11648/j.jfa.20160403.15accessed on 1st
October 2021

Authenticated U.S Government Information. (2018). Implications of China’s Presence and Investment In Africa;
Willis, K. (2011). Theories and Practices of Development Second edition. London and New Khatri, J. (2015). T
from:https://
khatri/

Calabrese, L. and Tang, X. (2020). Africa’s economic transformation: the role of Chinese
investment
 LECTURE FOUR

POVERTY AND DEVELOPMENNT

INTRODUCTION
Poverty and development are intertwined concepts and each compliment another. Poverty
reduction efforts prepare the ways to achieve development and development process aimed at
improving standard of living.
 Majority of the population in southern part of Africa are living in extreme poverty and less
than a dollar per day.

MEANING OF POVERTY
Poverty is a multidimensional problem which results from a combination of economic, political
and environmental factors, and which comprises several different aspects.
Poverty is multifaceted concept and complex. In defining poverty many scholars of development
came out with various interpretations. In a simple way, there is no universal acceptable definition
of the term poverty.
 According to United Nation (1998) poverty is defined as denial of choices and
opportunities, a violation of human dignity.

 According to Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 25) define poverty

as deprive the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well being of
himself and his family.

Based on these two definitions of poverty, development and good standard of living is the right of
every one regardless of their status or continent. Every human being has right to education, safe
water, shelter, food etc.
 UNDP (2002) define poverty based on Human Poverty Index (HPI). The HPI include
measure of low life expectancy, illiteracy, lack of access to health services, safe water and
adequate nutrition.
  Poverty makes individual/country powerless and humiliated. I,e in decision making
process in UN, WB and even at family level

TYPES OF POVERTY

 Absolute Poverty: a condition characterized by severe deprivation of basic human needs

include food, shelter, it depends not only in income but also on access.
 Relative Poverty: this refer to income inequality, is defined contextually as economic
inequality in the location or society in which people live.
2.0.1 Poverty
Ikejiaku (2009) argued that, no one scientific and universally agreed definition of poverty
because, it depends on the perception of the writers, intentions, place and time. We must
first know what poverty is before we can begin to do anything to measure it and before we
can begin to do anything to alleviate (2009). The word ‘poverty’ in English has been
derived from an old French word poverte or in Latin paupertas (Ng et.al, 2013). The
origin of the concept ‘poverty’ can be traced back to the 12th century, when the word was
used primarily to refer to ‘small means or moderate circumstances (Cobbinah, et.al,
2013). Poverty is an integrated concept that has five dimensions, namely: poverty,
powerlessness, vulnerability of emergency, dependence and isolation. Living in poverty is
not only lack of money and living in a low income levels but also many other things, such
as health, low education, unequal treatment under law, criminal threat vulnerability,
powerlessness and helplessness in the face of the power to determine destination (Rohima
et.al, 2013).

By definition “poverty is pronounced deprivation in wellbeing” (Haughton &Khandker,

2009). Poverty means being extremely poor and the state of being inferior in quality or
insufficient in amount or deprivation in well-being and it encompasses various factors
including violation of human dignity whereby humans are denied from having choices and
opportunities (Ng et.al, 2013). Poverty as per World Bank’s Participatory Poverty
Assessment (PPA) includes the five (5) perspectives of the poor people themselves which
are poverty is complex and it consists of multiple components of facts, the deficiency in
 the basic need of human for example food or shelter, being exploited as they do not have a voice, are po

Measurement of Poverty
According to Haughton &Khandker (2009) identified four reasons why to measure
poverty. Poverty is measured in order to keep poor people on the agenda, to be able to
identify poor people and so to be able to target appropriate interventions, to monitor and
evaluate projects and policy interventions geared to poor people and to evaluate the
effectiveness of institutions with the goal is to help poor people. These help countries to
think systematically about how the position of poor people may be improved, and to act
accordingly, the World Bank favors the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) process.
Countries are expected to measure and analyze. Poverty is measured by comparing
individuals’ income or consumption with some defined threshold below which they are
considered to be poor. Poverty arises when people lack key capabilities, and so have
inadequate incomes or education, or poor health, or insecurity, or low self-confidence, or a
sense of powerlessness, or the absence of rights such as freedom of speech (Haughton
&Khandker, 2009). Income-poverty or its common proxy (because less unreliable to
measure) consumption-poverty. This needs no elaboration. When many, especially
economists, use the word poverty they are referring to these measures. Poverty is what can
be and has been measured, and measurement and comparisons provide endless scope for
 debate (UNDP, 2006). Lack of material or want, besides income, this includes lack of or
little wealth and lack or low quality of other assets such as shelter, clothing, furniture,
personal means of transport, radios or television (UNDP, 2006)

Poverty can be measured in both extreme and relative terms. Absolute poverty means lack
of the ability to meet fundamental human needs, for example food and shelter and its
indicator is in terms of a monetary threshold for example a poverty line of USD1 a day.
Extreme poverty may also be called as absolute poverty. Relative poverty defined as
poverty in terms of its relations to the standards that exist elsewhere in society. It merely
says that one may be considered as poor if they earn much less than other people in their
area of residence, but if compared to others in another society, they may not be considered
as poor (Ng et.al, 2013).

Other measurements of poverty as is used in Canada include Low-Income Cut-Offs (LICO)

– these are incomes set where families are spending a substantial share of their incomes on
necessities, for example 20% higher than the Canadian norm. Low Income Measures (LIM)
– this cut-off is, for example, 50% of median income adjusted for family size. Market
Basket Measures (MBM) – this cut-off is based on the cost of a basket of goods and
services sufficient for a standard of living “between the poles of subsistence and social
inclusion”. Basic Needs Measures (BNM) – this cut-off is based on the cost of a basket of
goods needed to meet the basic physical needs for long-term survival (Shillington et.al,
2009)

According to this study poverty is defined as lack of material things such as bicycles, radio,
ox-cuts, housing with no iron sheets, household with no burned bricks, households with no
bed sheets, households with no livestock such as poultry keeping, goats, pigs, donkeys and
cattle; household members whose cannot to secure services like education and health care
services; the deficiency in the basic need of human for example failure to secure food at 3
meals ratio per day and inability of household to have savings in social networks such as
informal groups.

POVERTY SITUATION IN UNDERDEVELOPED COUNTRIES

As the statistic on human development index (HDI) indicate clear that poverty in 3rd world
phenomena. Worldwide, almost the half of world population over 3 billion people live in less than
2.50 dollars a day.

 The GDP of the 41 Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPCs) is less than the wealth of the
world’s richest people combined.
 1 billion children live in poverty, 640 million live without adequate shelter, 400 have no
access to safe water, 270 million have no access to health services and 10.6 millions died
each year before reaching the age of 5.
 According to the WHO more than one in people worldwide 894 millions doesn’t have
access to safe water.

VARIOUS INDICATORS OF POVERTY

In understanding poverty we have to know various indicators of poverty as follows:
 Income to people
 Illiteracy rate
 Investment level (foreign owned or not)
 Level of dependency (grants & aids)
 Poverty gap i.e between the rich and poor
 Health service provisions (High death rate)
 Life expectancy
 Economic development such as GDP

FACTORS BEHIND POVERTY IN DEVELOPED COUNTRIES

The cause of poverty in developing countries is complex and internally and externally pressured.
But to large extent internal factors are the major factor for poverty in 3rd world countries.
1. Internal Factors
 Lack of capital: most of developing countries are facing with the problem of capital,
therefore, result to low investments and finally low income to the majority.
  Corruption and Bribery: i.e Most of the leaders are focusing on their personal interests
than national interests
 Poor Technology: In most case the technologies we are using in agriculture and
manufacturing of goods are outdated. This situation encourage for low productivity.
 Lack of Political Will: most of the governments and politicians in developing countries
are not serious in addressing the problem of poverty and development.
 Population Growth: The numbers on population are increasing without considering the
resources available.

 Lack of democracy and good governance: poor accountability and transparent.

 Poor human capital i.e high illiterate rate among the population

 Political Instability: including unstable political environment and civil wars

2. Exnternal Factors
The external factors for underdevelopment in Africa based on the following factors:
 Pre- colonial and Colonial relationship
 External debts and negative conditionalities i.e SAPs
 Economic dependency from the North
 Political Instability i.e DRC, Sudan, planting for pipette leaders e.t.c
 Unequal economic balance between the North and South i.e Market control
 Foreign Direct Investment i.e Mining sectors
 Lack of involvement in decision process i.e VETO power in UN and other International
organization such as IMF, WB and WTO

WHAT SHOULD BE DONE TO REDUCE POVERTY IN LDCs?

 To encourage external capital flow with restriction on the national interest and priorities.
 To encourage industrial development, will increase economic growth and employment.
 To promote regional economic integrations such as EAC, SADC
  To create self-reliant economy and reduce dependency from North.
 To invest in human capital i.e education
 To maintain political stability and good governances

Distribution of poverty among men and women (feminization of poverty

Feminization of poverty is a term used to explain differences in poverty levels between women
and men. It requires disaggregating data of indicators of well being showing the levels of the
indicators between men and women. Several indicators do suggest feminization of poverty. For
example, women are likely to be unpaid work in low wages job; earn less than men for the same
work; gain a similar share of the household income; are responsible for family basic needs, and
when women income is insufficient, they must substantiate effort for income.
Evidence that women are poorer than men
According to ILO/htt:/www.ilo.org), the fact that women are poorer than men is substantiated by
the following statistics:

 70% of the 1.2 billion people living in poverty are females

 Estimates over a 20 years period found the increase in numbers of poor rural women in 41
developing countries to be 17% higher than the increased in poor men.
 There are twice as many women as men among the world’s 900 million illiterates.
 Iron deficiency anaemia affects double the number of women compared to men.
 Protein energy malnutrition is significantly higher in women in South Asia, where almost half
the world’s undernourished people reside.
 Half a million women die unnecessarily from pregnancy related complications each year, the
causes of which are exacerbated by issues of poverty and remoteness.
 On average, women are paid 30-40% less than men for comparable work.
 In developing countries, only a tiny fraction of women hold real economic or political power.

Reasons for women and female headed-household (FHHS) being poor than men and male
headed household (MHHS)
1. Access to land; land remains the most important productive resources for the livelihood of
rural populations in the majority of developing countries, however, women tend to have
insecure land rights as compared to men.
2. Access to capital and credit: women and female headed households generally have less
income than men and male headed households. Moreover, they are considered by some
financial institutions to be not credit worth since most of them lack valuable assets, which are
normally needed as collaterals
3. Access to technology, training and extension services: the development of technological
innovations is largely inn areas relevant to men’s activities, while that which is concerned
with the reduction of drudgery or improvement of productivity in women’s activities at home
and in production lags behind.
4. Access to wage employment opportunities; women’s domestic responsibilities and the social
perception that these are their primary concern pose a major constraint to their entry into the
wage labour market. Moreover, employer’s own preconception of which jobs are appropriate
to women restricts the range of job opportunities made available to women. Inequality in pay
has also remained a significant problem.
5. Limited social protection; self employed women and unpaid family workers do not enjoy the
benefits of occupational safety standards, social security, and maternal and health care which
are limited to the wage labour sector.
6. Negotiating capacity and political representation: poor women workers tend to be weakly
represented at any level of political structures, and in almost any type of formal organizations
such as trade unions, and cooperatives. The public sphere is traditionally regarded as men’s
domain.
7. High age dependency ratio; in most cases female headed households have more dependants,
especially young grand children, and lack secondary income earners because most female
household heads are widow.
8. Lack of or title assistance from former partners/husbands: Chant (1997:30) asserts that poverty
levels of some female household heads are aggravated by lack of material and financial
support from their children’s fathers but cautions about the misconception that women are the
poorest of the poor, supporting her caution with the fact that women household headship does
not automatically leads household into poverty.
Poverty distribution in rural and urban areas
Most poverty is found in rural areas than in urban areas. For example, in Tanzania, the rural poor
are about 60% while the urban poor are about 39%. Reasons for rural people tending to be poorer
than urban ones are:
i. Social services, like education, health, water and sanitation, which are poorer in rural, than
in urban, areas limit human capital development in the former areas.
ii. Fewer employment opportunities, hence rural people rely mostly on rain fed agriculture,
which is seasonal and precarious.
iii. Shortage of capital for agriculture, which is their main economic activity.
iv. Poor infrastructure, notably rural roads, increase transport costs and cause other various
difficulties in accessing markets for rural people’s products
v. Rural people are poorly represented in organs that decisions affecting them. Therefore,
some decisions made at district, region and national level do not enhance their poverty
alleviation efforts.
vi. Rural people cannot press the government unlike urban people, who can demonstrate
demanding for some services from the government.
vii. High prices of goods from town and low price of rural agricultural products, resulting into
unequal exchange, thereby impoverishing rural people.
viii. Vulnerability to macro-economic shocks and plans, such as taxation and transitory food
insecurity hit harder rural people than urban ones.
Disparities on poverty among the rural people themselves
In rural areas, differences in well being levels are normally due to differences in
i. Land size and soil fertility
ii. Climate
iii. Physical infrastructure, e.g roads and electricity
iv. Participation in non- farm activities
v. Production of cash crops
vi. Use of hired labour and
vii. Ownership of livestock

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS

Meaning of SDGs
Sustainable Development Goals (MDGs) are the collection of 17 goals set by the United Nations
General Assembly in 2015 for the year 2030. The SDGs are part of Resolution 70/1 of the United
Nation General Assembly, the 2030 Agenda. The Sustainable Development Goals are:
1. No Poverty
2. Zero Hunger
3. Good Health and Well-being
4. Quality Education
5. General Equity
6. Clean Water and Sanitation
7. Affordable and Clean Energy
8. Decent Work and Economic Growth
9. Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure
10. Reducing Inequality
11. Sustainable Cities and Communities
12. Responsible Consumption and Production
13. Climate Action
14. Life Below Water
15. Life on Land
16. Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
17. Partnership for the Goals
The goals are broad based and interdependent. The 17 Sustainable Development Goal’s each have
a list of targets that are measured with indicators. Key to making the SDGs successful is to make
the data on the 17 goals available and understandable. Various tools exist to track and visualize
progress towards the goals.

LECTURE FIVE
 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
Gender refers to social constructed roles, behavior, activities and attribute that a given society
considers appropriate for men and women. In most case, gender use “Masculine” and
“Feminine” to refer women and men.
 It is an individual’s self-conception as being male or female. It is social constructed that
denotes culturally/socially determined differences between men and women.
 FAO (1993) define gender as “the relations between men and women both perceptual and
material and is socially constructed.
 Therefore, the key concept is “Social Constructed”

What are the differences between Sex and Gender?

 Sex explains biological and physical differences between women and men. But gender
explains social, psychological, historical and cultural relationships between men and women.
 Sex is determined by biological and physical conditions, including chromosomes, external and
internal genitalia, hormonal states and secondary sex characteristics. But gender is determined
through perceptions of masculine and feminine traits and roles played by women and men.
These roles have culturally been assigned to women, girls, men and boys.
 Sex is natural and cannot change under normal circumstances. But gender is not natural
Gender issues can change over time through struggle and gender relations. Gender is learnt
through primary and secondary socialization and through culture of a particular society. For
example, boys learn male gender roles by constructing toy houses and girls learn female
gender roles by carrying dolls.

BACKGROUD OF GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT

A great deal of inequality and inequity that loomed the early years of human life ultimately gave
rise to questioning the rationale of the oppressive scenarios. The questioning culminated into the
inception of gender and development science. In 1945, the United Nations Charter recognized
inequality between man and women in spheres of access to resources, decision making, access to
education and professional opportunities and earning power. In spite of recognition, the majority
of development planners did not address fully women’s position in the development process. They
assumed that what was benefiting men would automatically trickle down to women. There were
various Nation’s Conventions addressing the improvement of the position of women with regards
to the above inequalities and inequities. However, women’s position between 1950’s and 1970’s
did not change appreciably. Accordingly, from 1970’s, the United Nations decided to give more
impetus to equitable development of men and women and fairer division of labor between the two
groups. The decade 1976-1985 was named the UN Decade for Women. The main objective was to
remove or at least reduce substantially disparities between women’s and men’s positions. The
Beijing Conference that took place in Beijing China in late August and early September 1995
indicated further recognition of gender for development. About 30,000 women attended the
conference from 185 countries. The key objective was to ensure that the principles of inequality,
development and peace are translated into action for women. The main idea was to develop and
endorse strategies to eliminate gender discrimination and promote new partnership between men
and women in the 21st century. The conference participants resolved unanimously that NGOs and
government all over the world should undertake the following ten actions to implement the
conference resolutions:

 Elimination of poverty among both men and women

 Equal access to education at all levels
 Equal access to health care, including reproductive health.
 Equal access to production resources, including employment, land, capital, information and
technology
 Women’s full participation in decision making at all levels in the public and private sectors
 Women’s full legal status, including owning property, sign contracts, and receiving credit
without male co-signers
 Ending violence against women
 Acknowledgement of women’s rights as human rights
 Improving the girl-child well-being (Cloud, 1995:1-2) and
 Full participation of women in conflict resolution and peace making process

Reasons for gender being a development issues

“Human Development, if not engendered, is endangered” (Human Development Report, 1995:1)

Implicitly, this means that if women and men are not equally involved in development processes,
genuine development benefiting equally all members of a society can hardly be attained.
Therefore, development planners are urged to consider gender issues in all development plans
ensuring equal, or at least equitable, rights between men and women; regarding women as agents
and beneficiaries of change and increasing opportunities for both men and women. According to
United Nations, the fact that gender is a development issue is better explained in the light of
population, work, education, health, family issues, and human rights variables by comparing the
situation between men and women.

 Population: Women are more numerous than men e.g. in Tanzania women are 51% of the
total population. Therefore, special attention to women’s development wills the majority
of people.
 Work: Women do about two-third of the world’s work, but they get only1/10 of the
world’s income. Development plans should ensure that the number of hour’s men and
women work does not differ much, and that they get equitable share of various activities’
products.

- Women are known to play a bigger part in the triple gender roles of production,
reproduction, and community work. Women comprise an increasing share of the
world’s labor force (at least one-third in all the regions of the world, including
Northern African and Western Asia)
- Women remain at the lower end of a segregated labour market, and continue to be
concentrated in a few occupations, to hold positions of little or no authority and to
receive less pay than men. The informal sector is the larger source of employment for
women
- Self-employment, part-time and home based work have expanded opportunities for
women’s participation in the labour force but are characterized by low security, low
benefits and low income.

 Education The gender gap in primary and secondary education is significant in most
developing countries. Although the international development objectives and millennium
 development goal stipulate objectives to obliterate the gap by 2025, it will take many more
years to attain the objectives. Some countries may not even attain the objectives.

- Two-thirds of the world’s illiterate people are women. Therefore, deliberate targets to
ameliorate the proportion by specifically targeting at helping women are worth
undertaking. More women than men lack basic literacy and computer skills needed to
enter new media professions.

 Health: High maternal rates in developing countries affects many women, e.g. in
Tanzania the rate is 529/100,000 while normal rate globally is 95>_/100,000.

- Women are vulnerable to HIV/AIDS infection than men. Women now account for
almost half of all cases of HIV/AIDS worldwide. In countries with high HIV/AIDS
prevalence, younger women are at higher risk of contracting HIV than older
women. Where women sexually active at young age, they are at risk of suffering
short and long-term consequences of sexually transmitted infections, early
pregnancies and unsafe abortion

 Human Issues: More than a quarter of women in developing countries marry at legally
unacceptable young ages of 15 to 19 years. Informal unions (cohabitation) are common in
developed and developing countries in most cases results into disadvantages to women.

- Birth to unmarried women has increased dramatically.

 Human Rights: Some 26 state of the world have not approved the Convention on
Elimination of forms of Discrimination against women

Physical and sexual abuse affects millions of girls and women worldwide, but they are under-
reported. In some parts of Africa and Asia more than half of women and girls have undergone
female genital mutilation (FGM), and its prevalence is not declining in spite campaigns against it.

Women and girls are the majority of the world’s refuges, some of whom are vulnerable to sexual
violence while in refugees camps and/or during resettlement. Despite call for gender equality,
women are significant under-represented in governments, political parties and at the United
Nations

Women are majority of the very poor in the world, however, they are not the poorest of the poor
because some of them are richer than men and female household headship and being women are
not always correlated with poverty (Buvinic and Gupta, 1997:259; Chant, 1997). Therefore, good
development plans must have the objective of reducing poverty among women and men so that
both have the same standard of living as individuals and as ,member of male and female –headed
households.

GENDER CONCEPTS

 Gender roles are those behaviors, tasks and responsibilities that a society considers
appropriate for men, women, boys and girls. In some rural societies, commercial
agricultural production is mainly a male responsibility. Men usually prepare land, irrigate
crops, and harvest and transport produce to market. They own and trade large animals such
as cattle, and are responsible for cutting, hauling and selling timber from forests.
- Women and girls play an important, largely unpaid, role in generating family income, by
providing labour for planting, weeding, harvesting and threshing crops, and processing
produce for sale. Usually they are responsible for taking care of smaller animals.
- In most societies rural women have also the primary responsibility for maintaining the
household. They raise children, grow and prepare food, manage poultry, and collect fuel
wood and water.

 Gender relations are the ways in which a society defines rights, responsibilities and the
identities of men and women in relation to one another. Although women make substantial
contributions to agricultural production and household well-being, men largely control the
sale of crops and animals and use of the income. The failure to value their work limits
women’s bargaining power in economic transactions, the allocation of household
resources, and wider community decision-making.
  Gender discrimination is any exclusion or restriction made on the basis of gender roles
and relations that prevents a person from enjoying full human rights. Rural women suffer
systematic discrimination in the access to resources needed for agricultural production and
socio-economic development. Credit, extension, input and seed supply services usually
address the needs of male household heads. Rural women are rarely consulted in
development projects that may increase men's production and income, but add to their own
workloads. When work burdens increase, girls are removed from school more often than
boys, to help with farming and household tasks.
- Female farm laborers’ wages are lower than men's, while low-paid tasks in agro-
processing are routinely "feminized". Discrimination can descend into gender-based
violence, especially during emergencies when women are isolated and vulnerable. Another
form of violence is women's lack of rights to "safe sex", a major factor in the spread of
HIV/AIDS in some countries.

 Gender equality is when women and men enjoy equal rights, opportunities and
entitlements in social economic development
- For FAO, gender equality is equal participation of women and men in decision-making,
equal ability to exercise their human rights, equal access to and control of resources and
the benefits of development, and equal opportunities in employment and in all other
aspects of their livelihoods.
- A World Bank report concluded that reducing gender inequality leads to falling infant and
child mortality, improved nutrition, higher economic productivity and faster growth. For
the global community, gender equality is also a commitment, embedded in international
human rights agreements and in the United Nations Millennium Development Goals.

 Gender equity means fairness and impartiality in the treatment of women and men in
terms of rights, benefits, obligations and opportunities
FAO has placed gender equity in access to resources, goods, services and decision-making. By
creating social relations in which neither of the sexes suffers discrimination, gender equity aims at
improving gender relations and gender roles, and achieving gender equality.
 - The essence of equity is not identical treatment - treatment may be equal or different, but
should always be considered equivalent in terms of rights, benefits, obligations and
opportunities. Since male predominance in the family, public policy and institutions - not
only in rural areas, but worldwide - has long obscured women's interests and concerns, a
key strategy for gender equity lies in women's empowerment. Development must
encompass rural women's long-term needs and aspirations, their decision-making power,
and their access to and control of critical resources such as land and their own labour.
-
 Gender analysis is the study of the different roles of women and men in order to
understand what they do, what resources they have, and what their needs and priorities
are.
- FAO uses gender analysis to address differentiated access to and control over resources
and decision-making within rural communities and households. By understanding how
different members participate in and are affected by development interventions - who
stands to gain and who stands to lose - gender analysis helps planners to avoid costly
errors of the past and design programmes and projects that are effective, efficient and
equitable.

 Gender balance is the equal and active participation of women and men in all areas of
decision-making, and in access to and control over resources and services
The United Nations considers gender balance fundamental to the achievement of equality,
development and peace. To accomplish it in agriculture and rural development, action is needed
by rural communities, governments and international development agencies.

At the local level, for example, gender balance means men and women are actively involved in
decision-making bodies, including those managing community facilities and infrastructure.
Ministries responsible for rural development need to improve gender balance among technical and
managerial staff, especially in extension work. FAO strives for gender balance by employing
women among front-line staff in its development projects.

Gender mainstreaming is the globally recognized strategy for achieving gender equality
Gender mainstreaming is defined by the United Nations as the process of assessing the
implications for women and men of any planned action in all areas and at all levels. That means
making both the concerns and experiences of women and men an integral dimension of all
development efforts.

As part of its new strategic framework, FAO has made gender mainstreaming central to its
development policies and programed. The Organization's work now extends beyond "women's
issues", into areas once considered "gender-neutral", such as agricultural science and economic
policy making. Within the Organization, gender mainstreaming entails sensitizing staff to gender
issues in technical and administrative work, creating accountability mechanisms, and ensuring the
allocation of resources equal to the challenge.

IMPORTANCES OF GENDER MAINSTREAMING.

Gender mainstreaming has the following importance.

i. It brings the contribution, perspectives and priorities of both women and men to the centre
of attention in the development arena in order to inform the design; implementation and
outcomes of policies and programs i.e. gender equality”.
ii. It helps to understand the needs of men and women to better informed policy making and
eventually better government.
iii. Gender mainstreaming puts people at the heart of policy making
iv. Operational plans and activities are now designed to address needs of both men and
women;
v. Gender mainstreaming will leads to efficiency utilization of resources by both men and
women.

Principles under Gender Mainstreaming

Gender mainstreaming in development has four underlying principles;
1. Prioritizing gender equality
Gender mainstreaming tries, among others, to ascertain a gender equality perspective across all
policy areas, and it is called upon to emphasize gender equality even in law. Every policy or piece
of legislation should be evaluated from the perspective of whether or not it reduces or increases
gender inequalities.

2. Incorporating gender into politics and decision making

In order to successfully mainstream a gendered perspective in politics, language needs to be re-
evaluated and used to change the parameters of how women are perceived. Historically,
documents concerning international agreements, peacekeeping arrangements and legal resolutions
have perpetuated stereotypes that disempower women. This can be seen through the use of
language, even as simply as in the UN Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration program's
(DDR) motto: 'One man, on weapon'.

Reference of gender issues should be found in all policy areas. "There must be evidence that the
mainstream political agenda has been reoriented by rethinking and rearticulating policy ends and
means from a gender perspective. As the Beijing Platform for Action states, "women's equal
participation in political life plays a pivotal role in the general process of the advancement of
women."

Further, according to the Beijing Platform for Action "[w]ithout the active participation of women
and the incorporation of women's perspective at all levels of decision-making, the goals of
equality, development and peace cannot be achieved." Therefore, women and men should be
equally represented in any decision-making institution. Every effort should be made to broaden
women's participation at all levels of decision-making.

3. Post-conflict peace-building (PCPB)

An area of policy and decision making that will particularly benefit from gender mainstreaming is
post-conflict peace-building, also known as PCPB. Various feminist research has concluded that
men and women experience violent conflict differently and moreover, the current policies
surrounding PCPB are insufficient in addressing the disadvantaged position of women in male
dominated power structures that are further reinforced by peace-building efforts, both from the
domestic and international communities. Gender mainstreaming in PCPB would emphasize the
importance of gendered considerations of particular issues that disproportionally affect women in
post-conflict settings. This would mean that policy reflected an acknowledgment of the many
instances of wartime sexualized violence perpetrated on women, among other issues that
(primarily) women face during conflict. A major focus of the effort towards gender
mainstreaming in post-conflict peace-building policy is to lessen the international community's
inclination towards building a return to 'normal' for the post-conflict region. Much of feminist
research has found that returning to 'normal' is of little comfort for women, who were burdened
by the patriarchal systems that were in place before conflict broke out. The international
community involved in much of PCPB "tolerates high levels of violence against women in their
own societies." Policy that prioritized gender in its applications and goals would seek to build a
society where women are better off than they were before conflict broke out.

4. Shifts in institutional culture

Gender mainstreaming can be seen as a process of organizational change. Gender mainstreaming
must be institutionalized through concrete steps, mechanisms, and processes in all parts of the
organization.This change involves three aspects: policy process, policy mechanisms; and policy
actors. As explained below;
i. A shift in policy process means that the process is reorganized so that ordinary actors
know how to incorporate a gender perspective" or that gender expertise is included "as
normal requirement for policy-makers".
ii. A shift in policy mechanism involves (a) the adoption of horizontal cooperation on gender
issues across all from a gender perspective.
iii. The range of policy actors participating in the policy-making process is broadened to
include, apart from policy-makers and civil servants, gender experts and policy areas,
levels, and departments; and (b) the use of appropriate policy tools and techniques to
integrate the gender variable in all policies and to monitor and evaluate all policies.

STRATEGIES USED IN GENDER MAINSTREAMING

Good strategy for Gender mainstreaming requires the following attention;

a) Political will which involves questioning current gender relations and the structures,
processes and policies perpetuating inequality. This implies, among other things, equal
access to paid work and to economic power, and the will to adapt the structures and
processes enabling the sharing of family responsibilities and household tasks.

b) Comprehensive knowledge of gender relations i.e. the existing differences between

men and women and its extent

c) Knowledge of the administration as it involves the re-organization, development,

implementation and evaluation of policy processes, as well as information about the
qualities of the administrative system.

d) Necessary funds and human resources as implementations of various gender equality

involves reallocation of funds.

Challenges in gender mainstreaming

a) Gender is not priority in most of most of the reform process as more focus is on the
technical aspects of development.

b) Lack of technical experts as, most women are less skilled or work at lower-skilled jobs
that are easily replaced by technology. Differing working schedules of women due to
competing family responsibilities mean that women can be left out of the consultation
process unless there are strategies in place to ensure their full and active participation.
c) Gender blindness and persistency patriarchy system, which develop gender
stereotyping affecting participation of women in most of development issues.
Gender empowerment measure (GEM) it is an index that was developed by UNDP to measure
development based on three key areas: (a) a power over economic resources based on income
earned, (b) access to professional opportunities and participation in economic decision making;
and (c) access to political opportunities, and participation in political and economic decision
making. The greater the disparity in women’s participation in political and economic life and in
decision making positions, such as in the number of parliamentary seats and the number of
professional managers, the lower the GEM.

Gender Stereotype: Gender stereotype are simplistic generalization about gender attributes,
differences and roles of individual and/or groups. It involves the tendency of making gender
assumptions.
- Stereotype can be positive or negative, example, all women are weak and depend from
men for their survival or you behave like this because you are a woman
- Under stereotype one believes that an individual will behave in a particular way simply
because of his/her sex.

What are the differences between Sex and Gender?

 Sex explains biological and physical differences between women and men. But gender
explains social, psychological, historical and cultural relationships between men and women.
 Sex is determined by biological and physical conditions, including chromosomes, external
and internal genitalia, hormonal states and secondary sex characteristics. But gender is
determined through perceptions of masculine and feminine traits and roles played by women
and men. These roles have culturally been assigned to women, girls, men and boys.
 Sex is natural and cannot change under normal circumstances. But gender is not natural
Gender issues can change over time through struggle and gender relations. Gender is learnt
through primary and secondary socialization and through culture of a particular society. For
example, boys learn male gender roles by constructing toy houses and girls learn female
gender roles by carrying dolls.

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 Sex and Gender Roles

Sex roles

Sex role are universal (unchanging) characters of men and women based on their biological
capabilities. There are two main female sex roles, that is child bearing and breast- feeding under
natural conditions. Child bearing involves conception, gestation and delivery. Those are
biological reproduction roles, which can be played by both men and women.

One main male sex role is, under natural circumstances, fertilization to enable women to bear
children. Only men who are endowed with that ability can play this male sex role. Men spend
much less time than women in biological reproduction, and it does not affect much their health.
Women’s health is affected by biological reproduction. For example, when they are gestating
they may not be physically fit to perform well their normal duties. Most men participate much
less than women in physical and social reproduction. Some men tend to regard women doing
those activities as not working. Feminist proclaim recognition of the above women’s role and
lobby for more equitable division of labour so that men can do some of them thereby giving
women more time for production and community activities. This can also bring the number of
hours per day women work closer to that of men.

Gender roles

Gender roles are differences in behavior or activities that men and women play in a society.
Gender roles in societies have evolved through social, cultural, economic and political processes.
Unlike sex roles, which can be played by either men or women, gender roles are played by both
women and men. Despite this facts, various families, societies, ethnic groups. What are called
male gender roles in some ethnic groups and countries are female gender roles or neutral roles in
other ethnic groups.

For example, collecting firewood among the Haya people of Bukoba is essentially a male gender
role while it is a female gender role among the Ha people of Kigoma. In most societies female
and male gender roles are exclusively the same. For political and economic reasons gender roles
can easily change for example, for economic reasons, in hotels most cooks are men, while in

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homes women are the main cooks. Any attempt to change gender division of labour (gender roles)
should be done very cautiously lest chaos occurs in a society concurrently with the structural
functionalism theory of social change. The theory assets that a society is like a living organism
with organs performing different functions, accordingly a society has social institutions
comparable to organs of a living organism, namely the family, religion, polity, economy and
education. Culture cements the family institution together. Therefore, any changes in cultural
determined gender roles can cause chaos if done revolutionarily.

Triple gender roles

Low- income men and women are involved in triple roles of production, reproduction and
community- managing activities.

1. Productive roles

Men and women do various productive activities including salaried employment, various self
employed activities, causal work for wages, and farm production for market and/or family food.
In some countries, women’s contribution to gross domestic product (GDP) is very high, but
rarely is their actual contribution recorded separately for comparison with men’s and total
production of the whole society. Somewhere else more productive work is done by men while
women are doing more reproductive and community-management works.

2. Reproduction roles

Reproduction is giving birth to new members of a society. Reproduction is of three types as

outlined hereunder:

 Biological reproduction. This is the same as playing female and male sex roles as seen
previously. Women spent more time and energy on it than men.
 Physical reproduction. This involves labour force for cooking, cleaning, feeding babies and
doing other household chores. This role has been assigned to women in most societies,
although men can do it also. In Urban areas, especially among salaried employees, more men

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 do it than in rural areas, where patriarchy is more prominent. Men should spend more time
on than they do.
 Social reproduction: this involves socializing children by providing them with values and
skills needed in adulthood. It is mainly done by men, especially among if they spend more
time with them that their fathers do. Fathers, housekeepers, baby sisters and relatives also
help do it but, in most cases, less than the mothers do.

3. Community roles

These mainly include community management and community politics

 Community management involves taking part in activities that ensure the provision and
maintenance of scarce resources for collective consumption. They are usually voluntary and
unpaid work, such as rural road, school and dispensary construction. Sometimes men tend to
dominate the role and discourage women from taking part in it.

Gender needs

Since women and men play different gender roles, they have different access and control over
resources and face different types of constraints; it is assumed that household members have the
same needs and priorities. If planning development interventions, it is assumed that household
members have the same needs, some women’s needs may be overlooked, there are two main
categories of gender needs, viz practical gender needs (PGN) and strategic gender needs.

Practical and Strategic gender needs (PGN)

Practical Gender needs

Practical Gender needs are those that related to traditional roles that women, men and children
play in society. Practical gender needs do not address the subordinates position of women in
society; therefore they are not directly linked to women’s empowerment. According to Oxfam
(1995), activities that address practical gender ends include:

 Reducing their workload

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 Improving their health and
 Increasing their incomes.

Strategic gender needs (SGN)

Strategic gender needs are those that question the roles that women and men play in society. The
response to inequalities in decision making positions and long-term benefits (Moser, 1989)
Addressing the strategic needs of both men and women requires long-term planning, and work
with both to bring about changes in gender relations. Activities that address strategic gender
needs include:

 Achieving equality in legal rights including land tenure

 Improving access to productive resources
 Enhancing participation in decision making
 Acquiring equal opportunities in employment
 Taking up positions of power and
 Gaining the right to participate in decisions about development interventions.

MAJOR CAUSES OF GENDER PROBLEMS

In developing countries the problem of unequal treatment between men and men to large affect
the development process. Therefore, in order to sustainable development, these countries have to
address the problem of gender inequalities.
 Violence against women can be defined as the violence hat results in, or is likely to result
in, physical, sexual and psychological harm or suffering to women. It includes threats of
such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether in public or private life.

i. Religious factors: Both Christians and Muslims direct their followers to respect for man
than women, favour men in everything
ii. Traditions and Cultural Factors: The tradition and Culture of various societies regard
man as superior than man. i.e. regard them as instrument of refreshing

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 iii. Ignorance and Illiterate: Is another factor that influences the oppression against women.
Majority of the population are not aware of the global change in equal right for man
and women.
iv. Inferiority Complex/Superiority Complex: To large extent women feel inferior to men.
v. Economic Factors: In economic area, largely dominated by men therefore affect the
power of women in economy.
vi. Lack of Political Will: Most of our government leaders and ordinary people they are not
serious on the issue of gender violence and discrimination.

GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT PERPECTIVE

1. Women in Development (WID)

Women in development are integration of women into on-going processes of economic, political and
social growth and change.

The term “WID” was initially used in early 1970’s by the women committee of Washington, Dc
chapter of society for International Development as a part of deliberate strategy to bring the new
evidence generate by Ester Boserup and others to the attention of American policy makers. A set of
common concerns, loosely labeled “women in development or “WID” began to be articulated by
American liberal feminists, who advocated legal and administrative changes to ensure that women
would be better integrated into economic systems. They placed primary emphasis on egalitarianism and
on development of strategies and action programmes aimed at minimizing the disadvantages of women
in the productive sector and ending discrimination against them.

The WID approach usually seeks to integrate women into development by making more
resources available to them in an effort to increase their efficiency in their existing roles. Very
often this approach has increased women’s efficiency, workloads, reinforced inequalities, and widened
the gap between men and women. The perspective was closely linked with the modernization theory.

The main assumption of the theory was that expansion in education systems, economic growth, better
living conditions, wages and health services would automatically “trickle down” to women as societies
were modernized.

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WID perspective argues that there should be legal and administrative changes to ensure that women are
better-integrated into economic systems and that there should be strategies to minimize the disadvantages
of women in production and discrimination against them.

Strength of WID Perspective

For the first time disparities in women’s and men’s experiences of development and societal changes
were made legitimate for research.

Unlike the assumption of the modernization theory that the benefits of development processes would
automatically trickle down to women and the poor, WID does not believe so. Therefore, it argues
government, donors and NGOs to implement intervention programmes to adjust the imbalances in
development between men and women, including transfer of appropriate technology to lighten
women’s workload.

It advocates more participation of women in education, employment and other development processes.

Weakness of WID Perspective

 It assumes that development is a process of slow but steady linear progress.

 WID did not examine reasons for women having less well in development processes in the 1950’s
to the 1970’s; it just started by accepting the social structures that existed and focused only on how
women could be better integrated into development initiatives that were going on.
 Since WID approach was rooted in the modernization theory, it did not recognize the contribution
of more radical or critical perspectives including dependency theory, Marxist, neo-Marxist and
radical feminists’ analyses.
 The WID approach tended to be a historical (neglected history) and overlooked the impact and
influence of class, race and culture. It focused on women or gender as unit of analysis without
recognizing the important divisions and relations of exploitation that existed among women.
 The WID approach focused only on how women could better be integrated into ongoing development
activities. Instead of WID questioning the sources and nature of women’s subordination and
oppression, it focused on advocacy for more equal participation in education, employment and
other spheres of society.
 The WID approach tends to focus exclusively on the productive aspect of women’s work, ignoring or
minimizing the reproductive side of women’s lives. Thus WID projects are typical income generating

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 activities where women are thought to have particular skills or crafts and sometimes are organized
into marketing co-operatives. Sometimes welfare outlook is added to projects and women are
taught aspects of hygiene, literacy or childcare at the same time.
 With WID perspective, there is little focus on men and on power relations between women and
men. Therefore, leadership positions for women and ownership of means of development are not
normally addressed by WID.
 WID did not address the issue of exploitation as being itself a component of a global system of capital
accumulation. Therefore, it did not benefit from critical thinking in the social sciences during the
1970s.
 WID perspective assumes that gender relations will change, as women become full economic partners
in development
 Since WID perspective does not challenge basic gender relations, sometimes in projects
undertaken using this perspective, income-earned by women through income-generating activities
is appropriated by men.

2.0. Women and Development (WAD)

 Women and development are a perspective of women’s development that focuses on the relation
between women and men in the course of development.
 It started in the second half of the 1970s out of the concern that WID and modernization theory had
failed to mainstream women in development processes. It draws from the dependency theory and
Marxist feminism.
 WAD perspective is based on the argument that women always have been part of the development
processes and that they did not suddenly appear in the early 1970s as the result of a few scholars
and agency personnel. However, it asserts that the more integration of women in development
processes that WID proclaims is to maintain the economic dependency theory of the Third World,
especially Africa countries dependency on the industrialized countries thereby sustaining the
international structures of inequality.
 WAD assumes that women’s position will improve when international structures become more
equitable.
 It also argues that the under-representation of women in economic, political and social structures can
be solved by carefully designed interventions strategies rather than by more fundamental shifts in
the social relations of gender

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  The main focus of WAD is relationship between women and development processes rather than
purely on strategies for integration of women into –ongoing development programmes.

Strength of WAD

 Besides recognizing integration of women in development processes, WAD advocates regulation

of relationships between women and development processes for more equitable development of men
and women.
 WAD also recognizes that men who do not have elite’s status also have been adversely affected by
inequality within the international system.
 WAD analyses more critically than WID women’s position in development processes.
 WAD encourages analyzing problems of women vis-a-viz those of men since both of them are
disadvantaged within the oppressive global structures based on class and capital.

Weakness of WAD

 Although it is aware of non-elite men being marginalized by international system, it does not give
due attention to social relations of gender between men and women.
 Like WID, in projects design and implementation, WAD tends to group women without taking
strong analytical note of class, race or ethnicity division, which may heavily influence social
status.
 WAD fails to analyze fully relationship between patriarchy, various modes of production and
women’s subordination.
 WAD, like WID, focuses more on productive aspect of women’s work, ignoring or minimizing
the reproductive side of women’s lives, therefore, intervention strategies have tended to
concentrate on the development of income-generating activities without taking into account the
time burdens that such strategies place on women.
 WAD focuses on women’s condition within the structures of international and class
inequalities but fails to analyze them from cultural point of view and patriarchy.
 Tasks performed in the household, including reproduction and household chores are not
assigned any economic value.

Gender and Development (GAP)

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  Gender is a perspective that focuses on social, economic and cultural relations between men
and women. It determines how women and men participate, benefits from and control
development projects and resources.
 The GAD approach emerged in the 1980s as an alternative to the earlier WID focus. It finds its
theoretical roots in socialist feminism and has bridged the gap left by modernization theorist by
linking the relationship of reproduction and taking into account all aspects of women’s lives.
Socialist feminist has identified the social construction of production and reproduction as the
basis of women’s’ oppression and have been ascribed to both women and men in different
societies.

Strength of GAD

 GAD has bridged the gap left by modernization theorists by linking the relations of production
to the relations of reproduction and taking into account all aspects of women’s lives.
 GAD analyzes systematically why women have been assigned to inferior and or secondary
roles. It also includes issues of patriarchy in the analysis.
 GAD is not concerned with women per se but with the social construction of gender and the
assignment of specific roles, responsibilities and expectations to women and to men.
 In contrast to the emphasis on exclusively female solidarity that is highly prized by radical
feminists, GAD perspective welcomes potential contributions of men who share some concern for
issues of equity and social justice.
 GAD analyzes the nature of women’s contribution in the context of work done both inside and
outside the household and values family maintenance work performed by women.
 GAD, like socialist feminism, analyses the public and private spheres of women and
assumption on which conjugal relations are based.
 GAD emphasizes on the participation of the state in promoting women’s emancipation and
providing them with social services, especially childcare, healthcare, education and water.
 GAD sees women as agents of change rather than passive recipients of development assistance
and stresses the need for women to organize themselves for more effective political voice.
Research with GAD perspective focuses on women’s legal rights, including reforms of
inheritance, land laws, customary and stator legal systems and the tendency of these to have
been manipulated by men to the disadvantage of women.
 GAD supersedes WID by questioning assumptions of current social, economic and political
structures.

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  GAD does not lend itself easily it integration of women into on-going development processes;
it demands first a degree of commitment to structural changes and power shifts that is unlikely
to be found in either national or international agencies
 It also challenges socialist countries that advocate class-less societies but fails to show much
interest in reforming gender imbalances.

Weakness of GAD

 It does not analyze much the importance of greater female participation in all aspects of social,
political and economic life.
 It discourages integrations of women in on going development programmes if power relations
are not regulated in favor of women. By doing so some women and men may be denied
development opportunities.
 Their attack on power relations may affect both men and women.
 Full articulation of Gad perspective in international development agencies has been difficult and
projects that have been designed from GAD perspectives are very few.
 It has been criticized for emphasizing the social differences between men and women
while neglecting the bonds between them and also the potential for changes in roles.
 Gender and development does not dig deeply enough into social relations and so may not
explain how these relations can undermine programs directed at women.
 Gender and development perspective is theoretically distinct from Women in
Development (WID) but in practice, a program seems to have the element of the two.
Whilst many development agencies are now committed to a gender approach, in practice,
the primary institutional perspective remain focused on a WID approach.

Summary: Basic differences between WID and GAD Perspectives

Attribute Women in Development Gender and development

(WID) (GAD)
1. Approach Views women as a problem Views women as active
to development actors in development
2. Focus Women Relation between men and
women
3. Women/gender Exclusion of women from Un equal relations of power
problems addressed development processes that prevents equitable
development and women’s
full participation
4. Goals More efficient and effective Equitable and sustainable
development development with women
and
men as decision-makers
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 5. Solutions to the Integration of women into Empowering the
problems existing development disadvantaged and women
processes and transform unequal
relations
6. Strategies of the  Women’s projects  Address practical
perspective  Women’s components gender needs
integrated projects determined by women
 Increase women’s and men
productivity/  Address women’s
income/ability to look strategies needs
after household

GENDER BASED VIOLENCE

Gender violence is “any harmful act that is perpetrated against a person’s will and that is based
on socially ascribed (gender) difference between male and female (IASC, 2008). Gender
violence takes any forms including physical, sexual, psychological and economical violence such
as insults, slapping, sexual, beating e.t.c
 Women and girls are highly affected by gender based violence and suffer from both
physical and non physical violence. WHO (2005) recommend that 15 per cent on women
reported that their first sexual experience was forced/raped.
According to Owisu (2016) gender violence is the international use of physical force and power,
threatened or actual, against oneself, another person or against a group or community that either
results in or has a high like hood of resulting into enjoy or death.
DETERMINATS OF GENDER VIOLENCE
 Biological factors: masculinity
 Religious and traditional factors: tend to favour women over men such polygamy, Mara
region women prefer beaten by their husband
 Poor economic position of women negatively accelerate violence against women
 Community awareness on gender issues
 Ignorance and illiterate
 Poor enforcement mechanism
 Inferiority complex
 Regular alcohol consumptions

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 TANZANIAN’S GOVERNMENT INITIATIVE TO ADRESS GENDER BASED
VIOLENCE
The government of Tanzania realized that gender based violence is among the serious problem
that cause the suffering to women and girls. To address this problem the government doing the
following initiatives:-
 The government established and rectified various treaties that protect against women
oppression and violence. i.e review and repealed discriminatory laws, Marriage Act, No
5, of 1971
 The government empowers women financially through small financial schemes such as
VICOBA and financial schemes. i.e. President Trust Fund
 The government in partnership with civil societies such as TAMWA/TAWLA provide
legal assistance to women
 The government provide training and awareness of gender based violence to both men
and women
 Increase punishment for those who conducted gender based violence i.e sentence for 30
years for those who rape
 To reduce the level of illiterate among women, the government initiated for girls
education. Example, primary school attendance increased from 60 per cent to over 83 per
cent between 2000/2001 to 2010/2011.
 Establish special desk in every police station “Dawati la Jinsia” in order to deal with
women oppression
Policy approaches to women’s projects in third world countries
Since the 1950s there has been a proliferation of policies, programmes and projects designed to
help low-income women of the third world. The projects have included credit and saving
schemes such as Self Employed Women Association (SEWA) of India and Tanzania. Women in
Self Employment (WISE) of Ethiopia. Others are Equal Opportunity Trust Fund, Women’s
Development Fund, and Presidential Trust Fund of Tanzania. Some programmes have targeted
income generating activities (IGA), educational health for women, women and environment and
other issues. The commitment of governments and NGOs to help women through such projects
is improvement on the modernization-oriented and gender-blind approach of the 1950s. However,
there are still problems, mainly due to stereotype assumptions about what women’s roles are and
should be. As a result, some of such projects often fail to help the women promisingly. The

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former policy approaches were welfare, equity, and antipoverty approaches. The current
approaches are efficiency and empowerment approaches.
1. Welfare approach to third world women development
 It was the first world welfare programme to target at helping women as a vulnerable group
after the Second World War. It was a residual model of social welfare under colonial
administration. It was conceived as a modernization process to accelerate economic
development.
 It was popular during the 1950’s to the 1970s
 Its purpose was to bring women into development as better mothers. Relief aid was provided
directly to low-income women whose roles as wives and mothers were seen as those
primarily concerned with their families’ welfare.
 Women’s needs met were practical gender needs, relating particularly to food aid,
malnutrition and family planning
 Leadership in the approach was purely patriarchal.
 The major weaknesses of the approach were that it focused on motherhood (reproductive
roles) as the most important aspects in development, and treated women as passive
beneficiaries of development plans without their input of ideas.
 One of the major strength of the approach is that it helped economic reconstruction after the
Second World War
2. Equity Approach
 It was designed to fight against patriarchy, exploitation, subordination and oppression of
women that were characteristic of the welfare approach. It was influenced by the first world
feminists, especially Ester Boserup who in 1970s, wrote a book titled “ Women’s role in
Economic Development” it was formulated after studies showed that although women were
main contributors to the basic productivity of their communities, especially in agriculture,
their economic contribution was not normally reported in national statistic and in
development projects. ( Boserup, 1970s cited by Moser, 1991:163)
 It was popular during the UN Decade for women ( 1976-1985)
 The purpose of the approach was to help women gain equity in the development process.
 Women’s needs met were strategic gender needs in terms of triple roles directly through
state top-down intervention, giving political and economic autonomy by reducing inequality
between men and women.
 Leadership in the approach was top- down to reduce inequality
 The approach was criticized as having been engineered by western feminist basing on
circumstances of their of their countries, which differ from those of the third world
countries. Therefore, governments of the third world did not take the approach seriously.
 One prominent good thing with this approach is that women were seen as active participants
in development and efforts were made to mainstream them in development activities.
3. Anti-poverty approach

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 It originated from the failure of WID to address the issue of income inequality between men
and women. It is linked to redistribution with growth and basic needs
 It was popular from the 1970s. it is popular but with limitations
 The purpose of the approach is to ensure that the poor women get more access to resources
to increase their production and improve their living standards. Their poverty is seen as a
problem of underdevelopment, not subordination, hence efforts are made to enable them to
participate actively in development activities.
 Women’s needs met are practical gender ones in productive role to earn income, especially
in small- scale income generating activities (IGA) and increasing their access to resources,
including credit.
 Leadership in this approach is consultative but with values that reinforce patriarchy and
women’s subordination.
Weakness of the approach
 Poor women are isolated as a separate category with some tendency to recognize only their
productive role.
 Loans provided are small and activities sponsored are those done traditionally by women in
lieu of introducing new activities which are more lucrative.
 Projects are designed ignoring fundamental conditions to ensure viability, e.g access to
easily available raw materials, guaranteed markets and small-scale production capacity; and
 Women reproductive roles tend to be ignored, eg. Assuming that they have free time while
biological, physical and social reproduction is consuming their time. This results into their
working linger time
Strength: IGAs done using credit help women reduce poverty.
4. Efficiency approach
It is the predominant approach
 Originated from the deterioration of the third world economy, which led planners to realize
women’s key role in production and the necessity to involve them.
 The main assumption of the approach is that increased participation of women in economic
activities significantly leads to equity and economic growth.
 Is popular since the post 1980s period and is currently the most popular approach, which is
used by the UK Department for International Development (DFID) and the United States
Agency for International Development ( USAID)
 Its purpose it to ensure that development is more efficient and effective to bring more
equity through women’s participation.
 Needs met are practical gender ones in the context of declining social services by relying
on all the three roles of women and elasticity of women’s time
 Leadership in this approach is consultative seeing to be resourceful.
Criticism against this approach

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  Although theoretically women have been recognized as essential to the success of the
total development efforts, some development agencies do not see to it that development
improves conditions of women.
 The approach relies on the elasticity of women’s labour in their reproductive and
community activities.
 It only meets practical gender need at the cost of longer working hours and increased
unpaid work
Strength: it is popular in both government and NGOs
5. Empowerment Approach
 It arose due to women’s subordination by not only men but also as an aspect of colonial
and neocolonial oppression
 It asserts that feminism is not simply a recent western urban, middle-class import. It
acknowledge inequalities between women and men and the origins of women’s
subordination in the family, but emphasizes that women experiences oppression differently
according to their race, class, colonial history and current position in the international
economic order.
 It is popular from 1975; its popularity increased during 1980s, but still limited
 The purpose of it is to empower women through greater self-reliance. Women
subordination is seen not as a problem of men but also of colonial and neo-colonial
oppression.
 Women’s needs met are strategic gender ones in terms of triple roles, indirectly through
bottom-up mobilization around practical gender needs as a means to confront oppression.
 Leadership in this approach is bottom-up and participatory to empower women, build
solidarity and overcome fear.
Criticism against this approach
 There is too much emphasis on third world and women’s self-reliance.
 Government and other development agencies do not largely support the approach.
 It avoids western feminism criticism. This avoidance is likely to slow growth of under –
financed voluntary organizations.

Gender analysis in development projects

Development projects undertaken by the government and non-governmental organizations
(NGOs) should benefit equally women and men. In order for this to be a reality, gender issues
have to be included in the projects at every stage of the project cycle from project identification,
preparation, implementation and monitoring, up to evaluation. For good integrations of women
in the projects, there must be gender awareness among planners and implementers of the project
and women must be empowered so that they can achieve control over the factors of production
on an equitable basis with men. However, it is of vital importance in development work not to
use imported notions of gender nor regard the community and the household as the basic units.
One must go beyond the household and break down into its component parts. By assessing and

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understanding the gender roles in a given society, the specific needs of women and men can be
ascertained and addressed harmoniously within projects (Mose and Levy, 1986). Gender analysis
is normally done using Gender Analysis Framework (GAF). The GAF is made up of three main
sub-analysis, which are: activities analysis, Resources analysis and Benefits analysis.
1. Activities analysis ( Gender division of labor)
This gender sub-analysis examines the gender distribution of labor by task in industrial sectors,
farming activities, household chores, and off-farm activities. For instance, in cropping system
one normally looks at who (men or women) do what, when and why. According this analysis, we
have the following three categories of activities
(a) Gender specific division of labor. An activity is done by only one gender category.
(b) Gender sequential division of labor. Both men and women do activities, but one group does
a portion of the activity and the other group follows to complete the other piece of the same
activity.
(c) Gender neutral division of labor. In this type of division of labor any one does any activity.
2. Resources analysis ( gender division of resources)
 This gender sub-analysis examines who has access to and/or control over which resources,
such as different types of trees, livestock, and crop. Such access and control by women and
men normally differ depending on traditions of different ethnic groups, age groups and
socio-economic positions held by different people.
 Moreover, this analysis consider time in terms of numbers of hours spent by men and
women on various productive, reproductive, and community activities, with a view to
campaign for equitable number of hours that men and women work.
3. Benefit analysis ( Gender division of income, opportunities, and constraints)
 This sub-analysis helps examines who benefits and who loses from products and other
benefits of any development, social, economic or political activity. For example, it deals
with how are the products used by whom? Who has access and/or control over the
products or benefits? Such knowledge of who benefits and controls the products helps to
make clear decisions on who should be involved in certain activities.
 Gender division of constraints is also worth analyzing. For example, in a society where
married women are not allowed to talk to project workers of opposite sex, or where it is
not socially unacceptable for an unaccompanied woman to go out at night, or ride on
public transportation, etc. then any project that would require women to do any of the
above would be rejected in such a place.
 Normally, income is a crucial resource is most gender stratification systems. Some men
tend to squander family income on matters not benefiting the whole family. Some of them
even snatch money from their wives obtained as a loan for income generating activities
(IGAs) and misuse it.
 This analysis also deals with gender division of socio- political and community
management roles, e.g what are the proportions of men and women religious and political
leaders? Who (men or women) participate more in community management and why?

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COMMITMENT OF THE GOVERNMENT OF TANZANIA TO GENDER ISSUE

Tanzania has been sensitive in gender issues for a long time. Some of the specific things that she
has done to incorporate gender issues in development are cited below:

 A few years after attaining political independence, a ruling party- affiliated Tanzania
Women Association that is Umoja wa Wanawake Tanzania (UWT) was founded. It was
mainly concerned with addressing gender issues to reduce gender imbalance and promote
women’s opportunities in the development process. Within UWT women had a forum to
articulate, address and present their development problems to the ruling party.
 The government enacted the Marriage Act of 1971 which, among other aspects gives the
right to inherit property if their husbands are deceased.
 Musoma Resolution of 1977 allowed girls from high schools to join the university
directly without having to spend 2 years of practical work unlike their male counterparts.
 In 1990 the government established the Ministry of Community Development, women
affairs and children to promote and protect interests and status of women.
 Tanzania has been represented by some women in various international for a, including
the International Conference on Population and Development in Cairo and Nairobi
Women’s conference. Due to her previous active participation in gender issues, Tanzania
Ambassador Mrs Getrude Mongella was the Secretary General of Beijin Platform of
Action ( PoA) in 1995. She has also been the Speaker of Africa Parliament. Other is Asha
Rose Migiro who is the Vice Secretary General of UN.
 The government acknowledges by deeds the economic empowerment of women and
poverty alleviation among them, “My Government will further support various credit
schemes which are flexible, transparent, and which can reach the rural and urban women”
(president Mkapa, in Mosha, 1996:21). This statement has already been translated into
actions as authenticated by the presence of Presidential Trust Fund, Equal Opportunity
Trust Fund, and various Women’s Development Funds, which give micro-credit to
women for income generation activities to reduce poverty.

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  The government has also considered political empowerment of women. The proportion of
women representation in local government seats t seats has been increased to 25%.
While their representation in parliamentary seats has been increased to 15%. The 15%
will be increased to 20% and 30% later. The seats of women have been increased in
cognizance of the fact that the economic empowerment and development of women will
be enhanced if a greater number of them are able to participate in decision making
processes.
 The government has improved women’s access to education and training. In order to
address gender imbalances in politics and in the civil services, education programmes put
emphasis on education for women. As results of mainstreaming of women in education,
their proportion in universities of Tanzania is 15%. SUA leads the universities by having
26% female students, although they are concentrated in a few courses like Home
Economics and Human Nutrition and Food Sciences and Technology. Other universities
have the following percentages of female students. University of Dares Salaam 16%
Open University of Tanzania 115, Muhimbili University 25% University of Land 16%.
 The government has done some improvement in women’s legal capacity and legal
literacy. The government encourages provision to rural and urban of legal knowledge on
various issues including land and property rights, violence against women, labour law,
child custody and marital property rights. The objective is to speed up law reforms to
enable women and men of Tanzania to enjoy equal rights as equal and free citizens.
 The government puts substantial emphasis on care of the girl child, globally and
nationally girls have suffered specific forms of gender discrimination. Therefore, the
government supports efforts addressing the socialization process of young girls in order
to empower them against social and economic discrimination.
 In 1999, the President assented major reforms in land laws that aim at increasing land
accessibility by more women and men. According to the law, every village’s land
allocation committee must have at least one female member.
 Establish new laws against women oppression and violation.

SOCIAL EXCLUSION AND DEVELOPMENT

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Social exclusion has been defined by the UK’s Department for International Development (DFID)
as ‘a process by which certain groups are systematically disadvantaged because they are
discriminated against on the basis of their ethnicity, race, religion, sexual orientation, caste,
descent, gender, age, disability, HIV status, migrant status or where they live. Discrimination
occurs in public institutions, such as the legal system or education and health services, as well as
social institutions like the household.

Social exclusion can also been seen as a part of Sen’s capability approach, which is based on the
ideas of ‘functionings’ and ‘capabilities’. ‘Functionings’ are those things that an individual is
able to do or be in leading a life, such as having a healthy body, being educated, having self-
respect, participating in community life, etc. ‘Capabilities’ are combinations of various
functionings which allow an individual to lead the kind of life he or she values. Social exclusion
can thus be seen as a process leading to a state in which it is more difficult for certain individuals
and groups to achieve certain ‘functionings’. The impossibility of reaching a functioning leads to
a state of deprivation, and the ‘state’ of social exclusion can be defined as a combination of
deprivations. Sen, A. (2000). Social Exclusion: Concept, Application, and Scrutiny (Social
Development Papers No. 1).

The concept of social exclusion arose in response to dissatisfaction with approaches to poverty that
focused on income alone. However, the term remains contested and there is no agreed definition. Most
commonly, social exclusion is seen to apply to groups, involving the exclusion of individuals due to
their membership of particular groups that suffer discrimination. Different understandings of social
exclusion emphasize different aspects such as;

i. The groups at risk of being excluded;

ii. What people are excluded from (e.g. employment, education, citizenship, respect);
iii. The negative impact of social exclusion (e.g. low income, poor housing);
iv. The processes driving exclusion; and the agents involved.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL EXCLUSION.

i. Social exclusion is multidimensional as it encompasses social, political, cultural and

economic dimensions, and operates at various social levels.
ii. It is dynamic, in that it impacts people in various ways and to differing degrees over time.

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 iii. It is also relational as it is the product of unequal power relations in social interactions.

IDENTIFYING EXCLUSION.

i. Measuring social exclusion.

The measurement of social exclusion is tied to the definition of social exclusion. Different
approaches have been adopted to define social exclusion in developing countries. These include
efforts to determine whether people benefit from opportunities or whether they fall below
average achievements. They may also be based on preconceived ideas about which groups are
excluded (e.g. people living in remote areas or tribal groups) or on surveys assessing which
groups are perceived to be excluded. These approaches all tend to identify different people as
excluded, as the ‘states’ of exclusion are highly diverse and of differing salience globally. As a
result, there can be no single set of indicators that would be equally relevant to all contexts.

However, collection of multidimensional data – including economic, social and political

dimensions - is essential if policies are to be effectively designed and monitored, and correctly
aimed at reducing group inequalities and increasing social inclusion. Without such data it is
difficult to know what sort of action is needed, and whether it has been effective. However, the
availability of disaggregated data across countries and regions remains a problem.

ii. Using quantitative and qualitative data

Some forms of social exclusion are relatively easy to measure using quantitative methods while
others are quite difficult. Many forms of social exclusion are represented by clear divisions
between groups, but multiple identities can blur group boundaries, and some excluded groups
can be ‘invisible’. For example, it can be difficult to collect information on mobile populations,
and some sensitive information such as HIV status can be difficult to collect using traditional
methods such as surveys. This has implications for how data is collected and reported.

iii. Using non-income measures.

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While income poverty is an important indicator of social exclusion, it is not the only one. There
are various nonmonetary and subjective indicators, which should be explored at the cross-
sectional level and also longitudinally. Those indicators include; asset indicators i.e household
infrastructure, building materials etc, risks and challenges facing the poor, and spatial analysis of
socio-economic indicators mapped over geographical area.

iv. Tools for assessing exclusion.

A major lesson is that practitioners’ qualities and skills are as important as the tools. This
includes cultural sensitivity, humility, facilitation skills, experience and training. Practitioners
also need to manage expectations, do no harm, and ensure accessibility and gender sensitivity.
Useful approaches have included ranking, seasonal calendars, storytelling, and participatory
theatre. Visuals (e.g. diagrams) have often proven helpful.

DIMENSIONS OF SOCIAL EXCLUSION.

Exclusionary processes can have various dimensions as explained below:

i. Political exclusion: This can include the denial of citizenship rights such as political
participation and the right to organize, and also of personal security, the rule of law,
freedom of expression and equality of opportunity. Bhalla and Lapeyre (1997: 420)3
argue that political exclusion also involves the notion that the state, which grants basic
rights and civil liberties, is not a neutral agency but a vehicle of a society's dominant
classes, and may thus discriminate between social groups.
ii. Economic exclusion: This includes lack of access to labour markets, credit and other
forms of ‘capital assets’.
iii. Social exclusion may take the form of discrimination along a number of dimensions
including gender, ethnicity and age, which reduce the opportunity for such groups to gain
access to social services and limits their participation in the labour market.
iv. Cultural exclusion: This refers to the extent to which diverse values, norms and
ways of living are accepted and respected. These relationships are interconnected and

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 overlapping, and given the complexity of influences on individuals, it is impossible to
identify a single specific cause in the context of social exclusion. People may be
excluded because of deliberate action on the part of others (e.g. discrimination by
employers); as a result of processes in society which do not involve deliberate action; or
even by choice. However, more generally, the causes of social exclusion that lead to
poverty, suffering and sometimes death can be attributed to the operations of unequal
power relations.

CAUSES AND FORMS OF SOCIAL EXCLUSION.

1. Exclusion, rights and citizenship

There are clear links between the concept of social exclusion and a rights-based approach
to development. Social exclusion analysis can help to identify which groups are being
denied access to their rights, and which actors or organisations are blocking their access.
A social exclusion analysis is useful even when rights are not on the agenda, because it
can help focus attention on those within society who are denied access to resources,
institutions or decision-making processes. Social exclusion therefore also links to
development agendas focusing on citizenship, participation, democratisation and
accountability.
Social exclusion addresses the political nature of deprivation, in that it examines the links
between people’s lack of citizenship status and their levels of poverty. Citizenship is
centred on the capability of exercising individual and collective rights, and inequalities in
this capability can generate a social hierarchy, made up of first- and second-class citizens.
This often means that not all individuals are equal before the law, and that they do not all
have the same access to public goods supplied by the state. Political aspects of exclusion
can include the lack of political rights, such as political participation and the right to
organise; alienation from or lack of confidence in political processes; and lack of freedom
of expression and equality of opportunity.
2. Exclusion based on economic status.
The distribution of resources and the accumulation of wealth is an unequal process, which is based
on power relations, the capacity of various groups to lobby for their interests and influence the
government’s agenda, and the targeting of government policies. Economic exclusion also refers
to

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 the exclusion of workers (either totally or partially) from three basic markets: labour, credit, and
insurance. Applying the social exclusion approach to labour markets highlights the real and
growing differences between the employed and the unemployed, between open and
underground economies, and between the formal and informal sectors.
Whilst this exclusion plays an important role in the reproduction of inequality, it is also itself
the result of inequalities, in access to resources, employment, education, and public services.
Educational status, particularly illiteracy, can be an important cause of exclusion from the
labour market.
3. Exclusion based on social status or identity.
Social exclusion is often the effect of a process of discrimination or ‘othering’ on the basis
of cultural, social and/ or racial identity. Such discrimination can generate powerful
exclusionary processes. It can be systematic and intentional – resulting from policies
which are embedded in the formal institutions of the state, as it was in the case of the
Apartheid regime in South Africa.
4. Exclusion based on spatial factors.
Spatial inequalities include disparities between rural and urban areas, and also between
geographically advantaged and disadvantaged areas. Spatial disadvantage may result from
the remoteness of a location which makes it physically difficult for its inhabitants to
participate in broader socio-economic processes. Or it may operate through the
segregation of urban environments and the ‘subcultures’ of violence, criminality, drug
dependence and squalor, which can often characterise urban slums and excluded
neighbourhoods. In some cases, ghettos of marginalised religious or ethnic groups can
form as the direct result of communal violence. In many countries, these disparities are
increasing, partly as a consequence of the uneven impact of trade and globalisation. These
disparities are particularly worrying where they overlap with political or ethnic divisions.
5. Exclusion based on gender and sexualities.
Discrimination against women is widespread and systemic, and they are subject to
exclusion in various spheres. Women continue to face barriers to their political
participation, and are vastly under-represented in local and national governing bodies
worldwide. There are also gender differences in terms of inclusion in the labour market.
Most women work in the informal economy, which is characterised by job insecurity, poor
working conditions and low pay. The persistence and reproduction of women’s exclusion

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 is also supported by social norms and religious values. In many communities, traditional
barriers still prevent women from going out of their homes to work. For some women,
having primary or sole responsibility for household duties, including childcare, also
prevents them from working outside their homes or areas of residence.
6. Exclusion based on migration.
Migration can act both as a way of moving out of poverty, and a cause of social exclusion.
For example, foreign remittances can help receiving households to increase their income
and consumption levels, as well as their capabilities to face socioeconomic shocks.
However, rural-urban migrants for example, often do not benefit from the same political,
social and economic rights as other urban citizens. They often find themselves in insecure,
low-paid jobs, or become concentrated in vulnerable areas such as slums and deprived
housing estates, with high levels of criminality and violence.
Similar conditions can also sometimes affect foreign immigrants or refugee groups,
generating mutual mistrust and resentment. 'Host'-immigrant tensions can be increased by
perceptions of religious, ethnic or cultural ‘otherness’ that can sharpen social divisions and
potentially contribute to conflict. (However, findings from West Africa suggest that
cultural similarities between immigrants and host populations can actually worsen
immigrant-host relations.)
Where policy directly or indirectly discriminates against migrant and immigrant
populations – through, for instance, the targeting of immigrants by law enforcement in the
first case, or the failure to provide language assistance to foreign migrants in the second –
this process may become cyclical, with structural exclusion driving low educational
attainment, low employment, and vulnerability to crime and consequent community
tensions. There are thus fears that the exclusion of migrants can pose a threat to stability.
IMPORTANT DYNAMICS IN SOCIAL EXCLUSION.
i. Social exclusion as a process.
Social exclusion is a process. It can involve the systematic denial of entitlements to
resources and services, and the denial of the right to participate on equal terms in
social relationships in economic, social, cultural or political arenas. Exclusionary
processes can occur at various levels – within and between households, villages, cities,
states, and globally. This is an actor-oriented approach which is useful because it

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 points to who is doing what and in relationship with whom. It also provides
information for international development agencies to identify those dynamic
processes already extant which they could aim to strengthen or minimise. In a situation
where there is a disparity in social power relationships, the question of who has the
prerogative to define, who is the definer and who is the defined, becomes a site of
conflict.
In the text below, Naila Kabeer identifies three types of attitudes and social practices
which result in exclusion (2000: 91-93). These can be conscious or unconscious,
intended or unintended, explicit or informal. They are:
1. Mobilization of institutional bias: This refers to the existence of ‘a predominant set
of values, beliefs, rituals and institutional procedures that operate systematically and
consistently to the benefit of certain persons and groups at the expense of others’. This
mechanism operates without conscious decisions by those who represent the status quo.
2. Social closure: This is the way in which ‘social collectivities seek to maximize
rewards by restricting access to resources and opportunities to a limited circle of
eligibles’. This involves the monopolisation of certain opportunities based on group
attributes, such as race, language, social origin and religion. State institutions cause
exclusion when they deliberately discriminate in their laws, policies or programmes. In
some cases, there are social systems that decide people’s position in society on the
basis of heredity.
3. Unruly practices: This refers to the gaps between rules and their implementation.
Institutions unofficially perpetuate exclusion when public sector workers reflect the
prejudices of their society through their position; in this way institutionalizing some
kind of discrimination.
ii. THE CONCEPTUAL LINK BETWEEN EXCLUSION AND POVERTY.
People who are socially excluded are generally also poor, particularly if poverty is
defined in a multidimensional way. There are, however, several key differences
between the concepts of poverty and social exclusion: (i) the majority of people in a
society may be poor, (i.e. suffer from adverse incorporation) but it does not make
sense to say that the majority are excluded; (ii) in most cases social exclusion implies
inequality or relative deprivation, whereas poverty need not; (iii) social exclusion

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 implies that there are processes of exclusion and institutional processes and actors
responsible for excluding, whereas poverty does not. Some authors also connect state
fragility to social exclusion
iii. THE LINK BETWEEN EXCLUSION AND INEQUALITY.
The concepts of social exclusion and inequality are closely linked. Unequal societies
in which certain groups are discriminated against can lead to exclusion. Likewise,
social exclusion involves inequality. Unlike vertical inequalities, which focus on
individuals, horizontal inequalities concern inequalities between groups, as does social
exclusion. Both horizontal inequalities and social exclusion are multidimensional,
encompassing social, economic and political forms of exclusion. However, horizontal
inequalities are not always severe enough to lead to a situation defined as social
exclusion.
Policies and initiatives to reduce horizontal inequalities and social exclusion can be
quite similar; both take a multidimensional approach and generally target groups rather
than individuals. Both are also concerned with the responsibility of richer groups in
bringing about social exclusion/ horizontal inequality, and are conscious of the need to
address policies towards richer as well as poorer people to reduce social exclusion/
horizontal inequality.
The social exclusion discourse in Latin America, for example, emerged partly as a
result of widespread recognition of the high levels of inequality throughout the region.
In sub-Saharan Africa, debates on poverty reduction are increasingly focused on
inequality, providing entry points for social exclusion to be addressed.
iv. EXCLUSION AS CAUSE AND CONSEQUENCE OF VIOLENT CONFLICT.
There are close links between social exclusion and violent conflict and insecurity, both
in terms of causes and consequences. There are now convincing arguments that some
forms of social exclusion generate the conditions in which conflict can arise. This can
range from civil unrest to violent armed conflict and terrorist activity. Severely
disadvantaged groups with shared characteristics (such as ethnicity or religion) may
resort to violent conflict in order to claim their rights and redress inequalities. Group
differences are not enough in themselves to cause conflict, but social exclusion and
horizontal inequalities provide fertile ground for violent mobilisation. Hence, the

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 concept of social exclusion can help in conflict resolution because it identifies some of
the causes of conflict. By analysing why some societies with sharp horizontal
inequalities suffer conflict and others do not, it has become evident that conflict occurs
most frequently when socio-economic and political horizontal inequalities are
combined. Becoming aware of exclusion and inequality, therefore, can be an essential
first step for international development practitioners in contributing to conflict
prevention and resolution in fragile states
v. GLOBALISATION AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION.
Globalisation is an uneven and socially unequal process and there are concerns that
global production and trading systems serve to increase poverty and inequality
between developed and developing countries.

THE IMPACTS OF SOCIAL EXCLUSION.

Social exclusion has numerous impacts as explained below;

i. Health and education.

The greater poverty of socially excluded groups often translates into poorer levels of
health and education, particularly when their poverty is combined with remoteness
and lack of infrastructure and social services.
ii. Income inequality.
Social exclusion can lead to and result from disparities in income distribution, with
the wealthiest segments of a country’s population receiving the greatest proportion of
its national income. Income inequality arises from inequities in the distribution of
assets such as land, credit and education.
iii. Exclusion, growth and poverty.
There is some evidence that economic growth is positively related to equality. One
explanation for this is that with more equality there is more investment in education,
health and nutrition. There is also some evidence to show that policies designed to
tackle social exclusion can lead to more equitable forms of growth as excluded
groups gradually gain greater access to education, employment and business
opportunities. Excluded sections of the population can often be quite large (for

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 example, racial groups in Latin America), so targeted policies can have an impact on
increasing human capital and widening economic markets, whilst reducing the risk of
political instability and its overall impact on economic growth.
The poverty-reducing effects of economic growth fall as inequality rises. In addition,
the interaction of economic inequalities with other inequalities may result in negative
consequences for growth. For example, economic dynamics and innovation depend
on competitive processes of entry that are stifled by unequal economic institutions.
Greater equity in political institutions is also considered good for growth because it is
associated with broader and better-quality provision of public education, which, in
turn, translates into a better-performing workforce.
iv. Violence and insecurity.
When individuals or groups, and particularly youth, feel excluded from power
structures, and deprived of legitimate outlets to express their grievances, violence can
provide an opportunity for them to have a voice and to gain control over their own
lives.
v. Subjective well being.
The psychological aspects of exclusion are also important. These include the absence
of power, voice and independence, and vulnerability to exploitation and humiliation.
‘The injury done to people who experience discrimination on the basis of labels they
are given by society and entrenched ideas about their inferiority or societal taboos
around sex, death and dirt goes well beyond that of economic deprivation and lack of
political voice. When people are treated as lesser because of the colour of their skin,
their sex, what they do for a living, and where they live, they can come to internalise
a sense of lack of worth that profoundly affects their sense of what they can do and
what they are due by society’ (Eyben et al, 2008: 8)

TACKLING SOCIAL EXCLUSION, APPROACHES, LESSONS AND TOOLS.

Tackling social exclusion requires a multi-faceted approach to policy and action on a number of
fronts. If only one aspect is addressed, success will be unlikely because other aspects of
exclusion will prevent effective progress. The first priority is a good scoping exercise to identify
the dimensions and causes of exclusion.

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A ‘business as usual’ approach to development has so far proved inadequate in addressing the
challenges posed by social exclusion for four reasons:

1. Prevalent forms of data collection tend to define the poor in terms of assets or income.
The absence of disaggregated data has thus ‘invisibilised’ socially excluded groups.
2. Socially excluded groups are less likely to benefit from economic growth than other
sections of the poor because: a) they have limited assets and b) the discrimination they
face in markets for labour and commodities makes it harder for them to turn their
resources into income.
3. Socially excluded groups are less likely to be able to access ‘normal’ forms of social
provisioning. Discriminatory attitudes prevalent in society are often reproduced by state
officials responsible for service provision. They are also unlikely to be able to purchase
these services privately in the market place.
4. Socially excluded groups are generally less likely to participate in ‘normal’ models of
democracy. Particularly where they constitute a minority, there is no incentive for
political parties competing for power to take their interests into account since they neither
represent enough votes nor are they able to exercise a great deal of influence. They are
also unlikely to have the resources needed to compete for political office. (2005: 30-31).

Below are the various ways in which governments, civil society, donors and international bodies
have worked to tackle social exclusion.

a) Policy instruments.

Policy responses to social exclusion have ranged from legislative measures to tackle
discrimination at a national level to civil society movements focused on ensuring a voice for the
excluded.

b) Challenges for international aid.

Social exclusion presents various challenges for donors. There is considerable variation amongst
developing countries in the availability of information, as well as important contextual
differences in terms of the nature of exclusion and if/ how the concept is understood. National

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level census and survey data and poverty monitoring often fail to provide much information on
excluded groups. Donor organisations are also usually large and dispersed, and need time to
embed social exclusion approaches across their work. Developing indicators for and monitoring
and evaluating programmes is also a challenge

c) The role of civil society and social movement.

Civil society organisations (CSOs) can provide both immediate relief and longer-term
transformative change – by defending collective interests and increasing accountability;
providing solidarity mechanisms and promoting participation; influencing decision making;
directly engaging in service delivery; and challenging prejudice. In this way, excluded groups
can be effective drivers of their own change by forming or participating in organisations that
represent group interests. CSOs also play an important role in conducting research to raise the
profile of excluded groups.

However, these activities can be constrained by institutional factors, such as the type of regime
they are operating in, the level of decentralisation of state institutions and various other aspects
of governance. New researches are recognising the importance of building alliances and
platforms across the state and civil society, to connect champions of change.

REFFERENCES.

Bibbings, Sharleene May (2012). The politics of mainstreaming in critical perspective.

Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Pub. ISBN 9781443835121.

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 Charlesworth, H. (2005). "Not waving but Drowning: Gender Mainstreaming and
Human Rights in the United Nations", 18 Harvard Human Rights Journal 1

Council of Europe. (1998). Gender Mainstreaming: Conceptual Framework,

Methodology and Presentation of Good Practices: Final Report of Activities of the Group of
Specialists on Mainstreaming. EG-S-MS. Strasbourg: Council of Europe

GSDRC,(2015) Social exclusion. Topic guide. UK aid.

Handrahan, Lori. "Conflict, gender, ethnicity and post-conflict reconstruction". Security

Dialogue. 35: 429–445 – via University of Victoria library database.

Lombardo, E. (2005). "Integrating or Setting the Agenda? Gender Mainstreaming in the

European Constitution-Making Process", Social Politics 12(3): 417

Pradhan, Rima das (2004). Practical challenges for gender mainstreaming in governance
projects: Observations of a consulting practitioner IDP Americas and IDP Education
Australia*

Shepard, Laura J. (2015). Gender Matters in Global Politics: A Feminist Introduction to

International Relations. New York: Routledge.
Strasbourg (1995). Gender Mainstreaming Conceptual framework, methodology and
presentation of good practices. Central of Europe.
True, Jacqui (2010). Mainstreaming Gender in Global Public Policy, International
Feminist Journal of Politics, 371
UNIFEM (1995). Report of the Expert Group Meeting on the Development of Guidelines
for the Integration of Gender Perspectives into United Nations Human Rights Activities
and Programmes. New York, United Nations Development Fund for Women.
UNESCO (2015). A Guide for Gender Equality in Teacher Education Policy and
Practices (PDF). Paris, UNESCO. pp. 72–75. ISBN 978-92-3-100069-0.

Elimeleck P.Akyoo (PhD) Page 131

 LECTURE SIX
HIV/AIDS AND DEVELOPMENT

MEANING OF HIV/AIDS
Majority of the people in most cases confuse between HIV and AIDS and define them as the
same concept. These two concepts are fundamentally different and mean the different thing.

 HIV is stand for Human Immunodeficiency Virus and the disease HIV weaken your
immune system by destroying important cell that fight disease and infection
 At this stage, the HIV patient is not already started to be serious sick

AIDS simply mean Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome, and at this stage a person is starting
to realize the symptoms of infection.
AIDS is not something you inherit from your parents, but you are acquired AIDS after
birth.

HOW HIV/AIDS TRANSMITTED?

1. Sexual Contact: This includes anal, oral oe virginal sex with an infected partner. If your
partner has HIV, those body fluid can deliver the virus into your blood stream through
microscope breaks and lips.
 It is advised to use condom when you have sex intercourse with any partner.

2. Injection Drug Use: When you are injured or use injections or sharp equipments that
already used by infected person. Example “Mateja” used to share the injection.

3. Blood transfusion: with the infected blood or unsafe blood transmission during the
treatment.

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 4. During Pregnancy, child birth and/or breath feeding.

HIV/AIDS STATUS AND DEVELOPMENT IN TANZANIA

In Tanzania, the first cases of HIV/AIDS were reported in 1983 in Kagera Region. HIV/AIDS
infection is unevenly distributed across geographical areas, gender, age, sex and groups and
social economical classes in the country.

 The statistics shows that youth and women have been the most affected group because of
the economical, social –culture, biological and anatomical reasons.

 In Tanzania, transmission of HIV/AIDS occurs mainly through heterosexual contact than

others.

The current situation

Global HIV statistics

 24.5 million [21.6 million–25.5 million] people were accessing antiretroviral

therapy (end ofJune 2019).

 37.9 million [32.7 million–44.0 million] people globally were living with HIV (end
2018).

 1.7 million [1.4 million–2.3 million] people became newly infected with HIV (end
2018).

 770 000 [570 000–1.1 million] people died from AIDS-related illnesses (end
2018).

 74.9 million [58.3 million–98.1 million] people have become infected with HIV
since the start of the epidemic (end 2018).

 32.0 million [23.6 million–43.8 million] people have died from AIDS-related
illnesses since the start of the epidemic (end 2018).

People living with HIV

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 In 2018, there were 37.9 million [32.7 million–44.0 million] people living with HIV.

o 36.2 million [31.3 million–42.0 million] adults.

o 1.7 million [1.3 million–2.2 million] children (<15 years).

 79% [67–92%] of all people living with HIV knew their HIV status.

 About 8.1 million people did not know that they were living with HIV.

People living with HIV accessing antiretroviral therapy

 As of end of June 2019, 24.5 million [21.6 million–25.5 million] people were
accessingantiretroviral therapy.

 In 2018, 23.3 million [20.5 million–24.3 million] people living with HIV were accessing
antiretroviral therapy, up from 7.7 million [6.8 million–8.0 million] in 2010.

 In 2018, 62% [47–74%] of all people living with HIV were accessing treatment.

o 62% [47–75%] of adults aged 15 years and older living with HIV had
access to treatment, as did 54% [37–73%] of children aged 0–14 years.

o 68% [52-82%] of female adults aged 15 years and older had access to
treatment however, just 55% [41-68%] of male adults aged 15 years and older had
access.

 82% [62– >95%] of pregnant women living with HIV had access to antiretroviral
medicines to prevent transmission of HIV to their child in 2018.

New HIV infections

 New HIV infections have been reduced by 40% since the peak in 1997.

o In 2018, around 1.7 million [1.4 million–2.3 million] were newly infected with
HIV, compared to 2.9 million [2.3 million–3.8 million] in 1997.

 Since 2010, new HIV infections have declined by an estimated 16%, from 2.1
million [1.6 million–2.7 million] to 1.7 million [1.4 million–2.3 million] in 2018.

o Since 2010, new HIV infections among children have declined by 41%, from
280 000 [190 000–430 000] in 2010 to 160 000 [110 000–260 000] in 2018.

AIDS-related deaths

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 AIDS-related deaths have been reduced by more than 56% since the peak in 2004.

o In 2018, around 770 000 [570 000–1.1 million] people died from AIDS- related
illnesses worldwide, compared to 1.7 million [1.3 million–2.4 million] in 2004 and 1.2
million [860 000–1.6 million] in 2010.

 AIDS-related mortality has declined by 33% since 2010.

90–90–90

 In 2018, 79% [67–92%] of people living with HIV knew their status.

 Among people who knew their status, 78% [69–82%] were accessing treatment.

 And among people accessing treatment, 86% [72–92%] were virally suppressed.

 Of all people living with HIV, 79% [67-92%] knew their status, 62% [47-74%]
were accessing treatment and 53% [43-63%] were virally suppressed in 2018.

Women

 Every week, around 6000 young women aged 15–24 years become infected with HIV.

o In sub-Saharan Africa, four in five new infections among adolescents aged 15–19 years
are in girls. Young women aged 15–24 years are twice as likely to be living with HIV than
men.

 More than one third (35%) of women around the world have experienced
physical and/or sexual violence at some time in their lives.

o In some regions, women who have experienced physical or sexual intimate

partner violence are 1.5 times more likely to acquire HIV than women who have not
experienced such violence.

Key populations

 Key populations and their sexual partners account for:

o 54% of new HIV infections globally.

o More than 95% of new HIV infections in Eastern Europe and Central Asia.

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 o 95% of new HIV infections in Middle East and North Africa.

o 88% of new HIV infections in Western and central Europe and North
America.

o 78% of new HIV infections in Asia and the Pacific.

o 65% of new HIV infections in Latin America.

o 64% of new HIV infections in Western and central Africa.

o 47% of new HIV infections in the Caribbean.

o 25% of new HIV infections in eastern and southern Africa.

 The risk of acquiring HIV is:

o 22 times higher among men who have sex with men.

o 22 times higher among people who inject drugs.

o 21 times higher for sex workers.

o 12 times higher for transgender people.

HIV/tuberculosis (TB)

 TB remains the leading cause of death among people living with HIV, accounting for
around one in three AIDS-related deaths.

 In 2017, an estimated 10.0 million [9.0-11.1million] people developed TB disease,

approximately 9% were living with HIV.

o People living with HIV with no TB symptoms need TB preventative therapy,

which lessens the risk of developing TB and reduces TB/HIV death rates by around 40%.

 It is estimated that 49% of people living with HIV and tuberculosis are unaware of their
coinfection and are therefore not receiving care.

Investments

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 At the end of 2018, US$ 19.0 billion (constant 2016 dollars) was available for the AIDS
response in low- and middle-income countries, almost 1 billion less than in 2017.

o Around 56% of the total resources for HIV in low- and middle-income
countries in 2018 were from domestic sources.

 UNAIDS estimates that US$ 26.2 billion (constant 2016 dollars) will be required for
the AIDS response in 2020.

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE TRANSMISSION OF HIV/AIDS IN TANZANIA

There are number of factor that influences the spread of HIV/AIDS in our country. Below are
some of the factors:
1. Poverty: This is one of the major factors that contributed to the spread of HIV/AIDS to
the majority of Tanzanians. Lack of employments and venue to generate income
influence girls/women to engage themselves in prostitute behavior for their survival.

2. Traditional Beliefs and Culture: is another factor for spread of HIV/AID in Tanzania.
Some culture and beliefs are still believe in female circumcision, early marriage, and
polygamist and inherit wife from deceased.

3. Ignorance and Illiteracy: majority of the population is illiterate and ignorant of

HIV/AIDS, they are not aware of the way HIV is transmitted. They are ignorance of the
use condoms and how to take precaution against HIV/AIDS.

4. Group Behavior: HIV/AIDS to large extent affect the youth and female due to
unprotected sex behavior and the use of drugs. Most of them they don’t want to change
their behavior.

5. Lack of Political Will: to address the problem of HIV/AIDS, the government should
invest much in education and awareness on the disease.

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IMPACTS OF HIV/AIDS TO SOCIAL, ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
The HIV/AIDS has had serious impact on the country’s social, economical development as
follows:
1. Depopulation: The disease to large extent kill majority of the population especially
youth.

2. Increase Poverty: At family level, result to the loss of the parents who are the source of
income to the family. The disease resulted to household poverty.

3. It affects industrial and agriculture production due to the death labour forces.

4. Increase orphans and street children

5. Reduce number of skill/educated manpower by killing lot professionals. This result cause
high cost of recruitment and training the new personnel.

6. Reduce Life Expectancy: The World Bank (WB) estimates that because of the AIDS
epidemic life, life expectancy by 2010 will revert ot 47 years instead of the projected 56
year in the absence of HIV/AIDS

Note: Please read “Tanzania National Policy on HIV/AIDS”

CARE AND SUPPORT FOR PLWHIV

Care and support is a wide-range set of services, such as medical, psychosocial, physical,
socioeconomic, nutritional and legal support. These services are of great importance to ensure
the wellbeing and survival of not only those living with HIV/AIDS but their families as well.
Care and support services should be provided to these individuals from as early the time one is
diagnosed with HIV/AIDS and all through one’s life (UNAIDS,2016).
The following are the strategies for care and support for PLWHIV/AIDS according to UNAIDS:

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--ANTIRETROVIRAL THERAPY. The therapy contributes towards the reduction of rates of
ill health and AIDS-related deaths among people living with HIV. In November 2001 when the
then President Benjamin William Mkapa recognized ARV as a rights for PLWHIV/AIDS as he
launched the national HIV/AIDS policy With the launch of the national HIV/AIDS policy by the
President in November 2001, a bold strategy was initiated in ensuring the wellbeing of the
PLWHIV/AIDS . These efforts were solidified around 2004 when the government announced
free provision of ARVs. The strategy thrived as years went by scaling-up the treatment, more
hospitals adopted it hence more people got access to the medication in both rural and urban areas
(WHO 2005). Scaling up access to antiretroviral treatment (ART) has meant that between 2010
and 2018, the number of people dying from an AIDS-related illness has halved (UNAIDS 2020).

--STRENGTHENING Home-based care is the care of persons infected and affected by

HIV/AIDS that is extended from the health facility to the patient s home through family
participation and community involvement within available resources and in collaboration with
health care workers. Home-based care is a holistic, collaborative effort by the hospital, the
family of the patient, and the community to enhance the quality of life of people living with
HIV/AIDS (PLWHAs) and their families. l. It encompasses clinical care, nursing care,
counselling and psycho-spiritual care, and social support (Kenya’s Ministry of Health 2002).

--ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT ;PLWHIV are often denied economic opportunities such as

loans because of their HIV status hence many live in extreme poverty Alliance For African
Women Initiative This project targets women with low incomes and people living with
HIV/Aids (PLWHA). Sub-Saharan Africa is home to 62% of the worlds’ Human
Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) cases (WHO 2005): Also, Sub-Saharan Africa is home to 70%
of the poorest people in the world, with more than 60% of the population spending less than US
$1 a day (UNAIDS 2007). Among strategies in place to support PLWHIV is providing them
with means to get themselves and their families out of poverty. Programs such as livelihood
project, offers the opportunity of gaining a sustainable source of income by providing
participants with small low interest loans that are unattainable through the banks here in Ghana.
In addition, the project supports beneficiaries with basic business skills and training. This
project will support the economic participation of women, promote gender equality, and
improve the economic welfare of PLWHA in Ghana (Alliance For African Women Initiative,
retrieved 2021).

--PROVISION OF PSYCHOSOCIAL SUPPORT. Psychosocial support addresses the

ongoing psychological and social problems of HIV infected individuals, their partners, families
and caregivers (WHO, ). In hospitals, clinics and home care settings, existing health care workers

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can provide basic psychosocial support. Providing an individual LWHIV emotional support
through counselling crucial as it helps one through daily challenges in life (UNAIDS, 2000).

--PROVISION OF LEGAL SUPPORT. People living with or affected by HIV often require
practical assistance to maintain adequate housing, keep child custody, enforce property and
inheritance rights, or access health care, education or employment without discrimination.
Access to legal services is even more important in punitive legal environments. , both
government, international organizations and NGO’s work ensure that rights of PLWHA are
protected; e.g. The International Development Law Organization (IDLO), the UNAIDS
Secretariat and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) work on strengthening and
expanding HIV legal services to PLWHA, KELIN an NGO in Kenya, among its many objectives
is its focus to include the right to health in four thematic areas, among which are HIV & TB;
Sexual & Reproductive Health, advocacy campaigns and litigation on matters relating to HIV
law and the rights of people living with and affected by HIV (Godwin 2010).

VOLUNTARY COUNCELLING AND TESTING

VCT includes both voluntary pre- and post-test counselling and voluntary HIV testing (WHO,
2002). According to WHO Voluntary counselling and testing has many advantages such as:
-Knowing one’s status: Testing is the only way to know for sure if you have HIV. Knowing
your status means you can keep yourself and your sexual partners healthy. Being diagnosed
early gives you a better chance of living a long and healthy life. If one is diagnosed positive,
he/she may adopt the best way to leading a healthy life as advised by a VCT attendee. those who
are negative will be advised on adopting to a lifestyle that will protect their negative status.

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- Improving care and support for PLWHA; When one is diagnosed as positive she or he is
immediately linked with HIV treatment programs which is the introduction to ARV dosage
among, which if used correctly which will ensure good health for a patient and prevent them
from transmitting the infection to their immediate family. The individual will also be introduced
to other serviced such as home based care which also aims at ensuring one’s health.
-Reduction in high risk sexual behavior; VCT includes counselling both before and after
testing, during post testing counselling one gets educated on how to avoid getting a HIV
infection if she/he has tested negative, and if one has tested negative she/he gets educated on
how to avoid infecting others. Hence both are encouraged to practice safe sex and avoid other
means which may lead to infecting another or getting infected.
-Provision of education on HIV/AIDS. During counselling that takes place before as well as
after a HIV test is conducted much needed information is being given to individuals, such
information includes what the infection is, how it is transmitted etc. This information may bring
about awareness to an individual and the community at large as well as correct misinformation
surrounding HIV/AIDs .

-Combating stigma and discrimination in the society. Stigma and discrimination is mainly
caused by misinformation about HIV/AIDs: VCT serves as an educator and corrector of these
misinformation that exists in our societies this paves a way to a better understanding of the
subject. Once the subject is well understood by members of a society leading to combating
stigma and discrimination which plays a key role in the wellbeing of PLWHA hence the
wellbeing of their families and community.

MAINSTREAMING HIV/AIDS IN ORGANIZATIONS

According to UNAIDS, HIV Mainstreaming is a process that facilitates development actors to
tackle the causes and effects of HIV and AIDS in an effective and sustained manner, through
their usual work and within their workplace.
HIV mainstreaming is two sided: First, Internal mainstreaming is about changing
organizational policy and overall practice so as to deal with it’s vulnerability to HIV infection
and mitigate the impacts of HIV and AIDS among staff members. Internal mainstreaming
includes: • Efforts to provide awareness to staff members of HIV and of their own risk; •

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Promoting testing and counseling and encourage staff members to know their HIV status; •
Efforts to end stigma and discrimination in the working environment for staff members living
with or affected by HIV; • Ensuring the access to health care for staff members; • Integrating
responsibilities for HIV mainstreaming into performance management systems. While External
mainstreaming is to become accustomed to development and humanitarian programme work in
order to prevent new HIV infection cases and mitigate the impacts of HIV and AIDS on
programme beneficiaries (Trócaire 2012).

ADVANTAGES OF HIV AIDs MAINSTREAMING IN AN ORGANIZATION

According to Trocaire 2012 HIV mainstreaming in organization has the following advantages;
--Provision of education and awareness on HIV/AIDs in organizations. Mainstreaming
HIV/AIDs in organizations leads to normalizing the subject hence HIV will be a common topic
of discussion in the office setting. Discussion among employees and HIV awareness programs
where education and awareness may be brought about by seminars conducted, will provide
knowledge and enlightenment to members of a particular organization on the matter.
-Encouraging VOLUNTARY TESTING. Since mainstreaming HIV in organizations translated
to normalizing the subject around an establishment, members will have a good understanding of
the infection and the right tools will be available to ensure people take the right steps on dealing
with the pandemic one being accessibility to HIV screening so that people are encouraged to
know their status and take the next best step for their wellbeing.

--Ensuring wellbeing of the infected persons. This includes ensuring one is able to attain
nutrition needs in his/her homestead by providing incentives meant for that particular course for
PLWHIV in organizations so as to not only encourage their wellbeing through proper feeding
habits for PLWHIV but also encourage disclosure of HIV positive status in organizations.
--Encourage joint effort in care and support of PLWHIV. As HIV won’t be a strange topic in
the work place, efforts to care and support those living with HIV will not only be done by
employers but it will be encouraged at personal levels as well. Employees will take part and to
ensure the wellbeing of colleagues LWHIV.
--Reduce stigma through conversation about HIV/AIDs. Stigma refers to the beliefs and
attitudes that deeply discredit individuals due to their association with HIV; this leads to
discrimination— i.e. actions or omissions that harm or deny services or entitlements to
stigmatized individuals (DFID 2016). Frequent HIV/AIDs programs, seminars and workshop in
Organizations does not only help in informing the organization members of the infection but also
help in normalizing the subject. With such kind of knowledge organizational members are
empowered with knowledge that helps in reducing stigma and discrimination in work places. it is
very useful

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-- Support efforts of HIV prevention. Many efforts have been poured by Organizations, CSOs,
NGOs, governments and International organizations to assure prevention of HIV infections for
those who are HIV negative. HIV Mainstreaming programs solidifies this effort such as bringing
access to HIV education, counseling, and testing whereby these encourage people to know their
status and learn how to better prevent themselves from HIV infection.

NB; According to ILO, HIV mainstreaming helps in understanding the impact of the
pandemic. When initiatives to mainstream HIV /AIDS in organizations helps to encourage
testing and disclosure of HIV status to the employer hence data is obtained. This data obtained is
not useful for that specific organization but to also other stakeholder involved in the course of
addressing the issue eg Governments SCOs, NGOs and International Organizations: Who with
the help of this data will be able to plan the to what extent they should work to reach all the
intended personnel.

HIV STIGMA AND DESCRIMINATION

Stigma has been described as a dynamic process of devaluation that highly
discredits an individual in the eyes of others. The qualities to which stigma adheres
can be quite arbitrary, for example, skin colour, manner of speaking, or sexual
preference. Within particular cultures or settings, certain attributes are seized upon
and defined by others as discreditable or unworthy (UNAIDS 2005).
When stigma is acted upon, the result is discrimination; discrimination is the
outcome of stigma. Discrimination consists of actions or omissions that are derived
from stigma and directed towards those individuals who are stigmatized (UNAIDS,
2005).

HIV related stigma refers to the beliefs and attitudes that deeply discredit
individuals due to their association with HIV; this leads to discrimination actions
or omissions that harm or deny services or entitlements to stigmatized individuals
(DFID 2016).
HIV related stigma is also referred to as any form of arbitrary distinction,
exclusion, or restriction affecting a person, usually but not only by virtue of an
inherent personal characteristic or perceived belonging to a particular group—in
the case of HIV and AIDS, a person’s confirmed or suspected HIV-positive status
—irrespective of whether or not there is any justification for these measures
(UNAIDS 2000)

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HIV-related stigma is multi-layered, tending to build upon and reinforce negative
connotations through the association of HIV and AIDS with already-marginalized
behaviors, such as sex work and drug use etc. Individuals living with HIV are often
believed to deserve their HIV-positive status as a result of having done something
‘wrong’. By attributing blame to these individuals labeling them as are “different”,
others can absolve themselves from acknowledging their own risk, confronting the
problem and caring for those affected.

WHAT CAUSES HIV STIGMA AND DISCRIMINATION

Stigma and discrimination may take place in various places in societies such as
homesteads, schools, workplaces, healthcare places etc.
HIV is often thought to be highly contagious and easily transmitted from one
person to another. Based on this notion, people often suspect that individuals with
HIV or AIDS pose great danger of infecting others in the community. This
misconception does not only exist among the general population but also medical
personnel are as well said to be misinformed, about what HIV is, and how it can be
transmitted (Fatoki 2016).
HIV/AIDS-related stigma is fueled by assumptions of questioning the moral
integrity and values of people with HIV or AIDS. People tend to relate AIDS with
moral indecency. HIV infection is perceived as the result of a personal choice;
one’s choice to engage in risky behaviors and, therefore, they should be blamed for
contracting the infection.

CONSEQUENCES OF HIV STIGMA AND DESRIMINATION

HIV related stigma and discrimination have many consequences to not only those
living with HIV/AIDs but the society at large. Among consequences are fear or
disclosure, discouragement of treatment, affecting emotional and mental health of

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PLWHIV, interfere with prevention efforts (Mhode and Nyamhanga, 2016) and
discouraging HIV testing (DFID, 2007)
-Fear of disclose. PLWHIV are discourage to disclose their HIV status to relatives,
employers etc. due to the fear of being judges on the means of how they got
infected: many only think of unprotected sex as a means of transmission of all HIV
cases, whereas PLWHIV are labeled as prostitutes and having unhealthy sexual
behaviors. This kid of judgement leads to blaming the patients as responsible for
the infection

-Affect the emotional well-being and mental health of PLWHIV. PLWHIV

often internalize the stigma and discrimination they experience, and begin to
develop a negative image about themselves. They accept discrimination and
negative judgement done to them by their societies leading to stress, self-isolation
and the feeling of despair which affects their health and emotion.

--Discourage treatment, care n support 4 PLWHIV. Due to the stigma that exists
HIV positive individuals may go to great lengths to avoid disclosing their HIV
status to relatives or any other to the extent of not taking their medication (ARVs);
due to the reason that if seen having the medication around their possessions or
taking them will disclose their status. This situation is dangerous to the health of an
individual, it may lead to sickness and even death.

-Stigma and discrimination interferes with HIV prevention efforts. As one of

HIV prevention strategies is encourage testing, so as to treat those who are found
to be positive and prevent for those found negative; but due to the fear of testing
that is brought about by HIV related stigma and discrimination in our societies,
prevention efforts are suppress since many do not get tested. This leads to an
increased number of HIV infections among individuals.

-Discourages HIV testing. UNAIDS and the World Health Organization (WHO)
cites fear of stigma and discrimination as the main reason why people are
discouraged to get tested. Societies label PLWHIV as an outcast, different and
immoral, this poses as a hindrance from one getting tested for HIV. Many finds life

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easier not knowing their status than subjecting themselves to getting testing tested
and face the aftermath.

HOW TO CAMBAT STIGMA

We can combat stigma by simply providing education to the society, empowering
PLWHIV, enacting and enforcing laws to protect PLWHIV and society (joint
effort) inclusion in ending HIV stigma (Avert 2019).

--Provision of education and awareness: Educating people on HIV/AIDS, on the

providing them with the right information subject may help correcting the
misinformation that exists in societies. Furthermore, educating on how stigma and
discrimination has negative outcome to the PLWHIV, efforts to combat the
infection and the whole society as well; and how the society will benefit when
stigma and discrimination is eliminated and joint efforts is achieved to fight against
HIV/AIDs.
--Empowering PLWHIV. Providing PLWHIV a platform that encourage them to
raise their voices to fight for their rights and against stigma and discrimination and
act against violence facing PLWHIV. Empowering PLWHIV economically will as
well play a part in combating HIV related stigma since, it will ensure their
accesibity to essential needs e.g. nutritional, medical and housing etc., with will
encourage them to lead a normal life like anybody else in the world correcting the
notion of them being seen as “different” because they are HIV positive.
-Enacting and enforcing laws to protect PLWHIV: Enacting laws that aims to
tackle stigma and discriminations in all sectors in a nation, laws that are against
discrimination and criminalization of PLWHIV, as well as challenge violence they
face will ensure the reduction and eradication of stigma and eradication.

--Inclusive effort to combat stigma and discrimination: Reduction of stigma

and discrimination should be designed to be a goal of the whole nation and not just
a few government ministries and NGOs. Policies should be designed aiming at
ensuring every citizen is obliged to work focusing on achieving the goal of ending
stigma and discrimination. Joint effort by all will make it easier and speed up the
accomplishing of the goal.

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 LECTURE SEVEN

POPULATION AND DEVELOPMENT

The relationship between population growth and economic development has long been
debated ever since Malthus in the 18th century. In the mid 20th century when it became
clear that rapid increase in the populations of the developing countries had started; several
authors highlighted the potentially negative impact of continued rapid population growth
Nevertheless, others have argued that technological advances and institutional development
could counter negative effects of rapid population growth on development (Kuznets 1967;
Boserup1981; Simon 1981).
The debate has revolved around two fundamental Issues. First, to what extent is a larger
population good or bad for human development and welfare and secondly how does population
growth respond to changing economic conditions (Kremer, 1993,Wang et al., 1994). Cohen
(1995) review on human carrying capacity noted the continuing lack of scientific consensus on
the subject. The Royal Society, (2012) review of these debates indicates that economic

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development and the demographic change are interlinked. In the process of demographic
transition, different challenges and opportunities do exist.

Despite the debates, many poor nations especially in sub Saharan Africa (Tanzania included) are
still struggling to meet the needs of rapidly growing populations amid huge disparities between
the rich and the poor (Zuberi and Thomas 2012). In addition, more people are vulnerable to food
insecurity, water shortages, and weather-related disasters thus undermining their welfare. For
Tanzania, despite having achieved relatively high economic growth (GDP increasing from 1.6%
in1992 to 7% in 2007) little has changed in terms of human welfare (URT, 2011)

COMPONENTS OF POPULATION GROWTH

Natural rate of increase
The major source of population increase in Tanzania is the declining mortality rates and
high birth rates .Data from the various censuses show that the effect of international migration on
Tanzanian population change at national level is minimal. Trend data is indicative that Tanzania
is at the second stage of demographic transition where birth rates are still high and death rates
have begun to fall markedly.

Fertility
Fertility is one of the components of population change, alongside mortality and migration.
Fertility analysis is therefore important for understanding past, current and future trends in
population size, composition and growth. Population growth rates in developing countries are
largely driven by levels of fertility.

Mortality
Mortality refers to deaths that occur within a population. The likelihood of dying during a given
time period is linked to many factors; such as age, sex, race or ethnicity, occupation, and social
class. However the incidence of death can reveal much about a population’s standard of living
and quality of health care. Therefore, several indicators used to assess human development relate
to mortality and indicators of mortality often act as inverse measurements for the health of
populations.

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Migration
Migration is the process of moving from one location to another for a period of time. It consists
of where a person comes from (place of origin), where s/he is going and where s/he ends up
(place of destination).Migration is one of the three components of population change, besides
fertility and mortality. However, migration is a complex phenomenon compared with fertility
and mortality. This is because migration must be defined in both spatial and temporal dimensions.

IMPLICATIONS OF POPULATION GROWTH

The primary needs of the people, which development programmes aim to satisfy, cannot be
gauged rationally without regard to the expected size, composition and distribution of the
population at different geographic units and points in time hence the need for population
projections. On the other hand, population projections can also be used to estimate the likely
demographic impact of planning decisions and policy changes, as well as planning and policy
implications of demographic change. Finally, population projections become an important input
for programmes not only during target setting, but also for monitoring and evaluation of the
programmes.

Implications of population growth on food production

Globally, food production (the key basic need) depends on cropland and water availability. In
eastern Africa the major source of energy particularly in the rural areas is wood (PRB, 2012). As
populations grow, energy use increases. Secondly, as wealth grows, energy use per capita also
increases. In the early stages of industrialization, this is typically accompanied by a decline in the
efficiency with which energy supplies are used, resulting in more pollution per dollar of output.
The pace of current population has implications on resources such as water, arable land and
energy.
Implications on Basic Education
Education is a fundamental human right: every child is entitled to it. It is critical to development
as individuals and as societies, and it helps pave the way to a successful and productive future.
Increasing education, which often facilitates quality labour force and general improvements in
the standards of living particularly for women, is an important aspect for social and economic

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GLOBAL POPULATION SIZE & TRENDS
Population growth in the past was at a slower rate compared to now.This was caused byfactors
such as 1. Plagues 2. Poor health conditions and 3. Wars . Thus reduced populations in several
parts of the world.From the 18th century, however the populationbegan to increase very
fast.Between 1750 and 1900 world population growth rate was0.5 percent per annum.In the 20th
century the growth rate increased from 0.5 to 1% until1950, and no it is about 2% per annum.It
took about more than 1, 500 years for thepopulation to doubled up to the years 1750.Then it
doubled to reach 1.7 billion by the1900 e.i within only 150 years.Now in almost a period of less
than 50 years i.e from 1950to date the world population has nearly doubled again from about 2.5
to almost 6.0billion. In terms of distribution, the world population is uneven.More than 815 is
locatedin the developing countries. The countries with highest population in the world are
Chinafollowed by India.

Characteristic of population: Developing vs. Developed countries

In developing countries there is high population growth due to the following characteristics
Annual population growth rate is high,High fertility level,Low life expectancy,Low level of
urbanization but with rapid urban population growth,Urban immigration and High dependency
ratio Mixture of social, economic and cultural factors has caused high fertility. These are:

 Value of children as source of labour. Old age security and mortality risk

 Universal and early marriage

 Decline in the practice of prolonged breast –feeding

 Decline in the practice of sexual abstinence after childbirth

 Low status of women

 Limited use of modern family planning methods

 Relatively lack of a clear population policy

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 Sex preferences

Population trend in Africa

The population in Africa was estimated to be 141 million in 1920, which represented about 8%
of the world population. In 1980 Africa had about 869 million people which were about 11% of
the world population. Currently Africa has 840 million people. About 13.5 of the world
population has been increasing significance over years. Moreover, the rapid increase of the
population is reflected in the changing population density in the region. The population density
from about 5 people per square kilometer in 2002.

This information is summarized as follows:

 Within Africa, there exists notable variations in population size and growth in Africa between
regions

 By 2002, Eastern Africa had the largest population in the continent, followed by Western
Africa. Southern Africa had the smallest proportion than all other regions.

 The population estimates for 2025 indicates that Western Africa will take the lead in terms of
population size.

Demographic situation in Tanzania

Several attempts to count the population of Tanzania have been made. Earlier counts in 1913,
1921, 1928 and 1931 were based on the tax payers records and native administration’s reports

The data obtained from these counts were considered inaccurate in detail and statistically
incorrect due to their poor coverage and reporting system (Tanganyika, 1932) The more
scientific censuses were obtained in 1948, 1957, 1967, 1978, 1988 and 2002.

The table below demonstrates the population developments in Tanzania between 1948 and 2002.

 The population almost doubled between 1967 and 1988, a period of 21 years suggesting a
growth rate of above 3.0.

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Population density

 There is clear evidence to suggest existence of unequal distribution of population by regions.

 Eleven regions in the mainland had a population of more than a million in 1988. These
include mwanza, mbeya, shinyanga, Dar, arusha., kagera, iringa morogoro, tabora
Kilimanjaro and Dodoma. But in 2002 the number has gone to 19 regions.
 The population density by region in the mainland shows that Dar region has the highest
population density 1.793 per square km. and lindi region has the lowest density 12 per
square km.
 The other regions with higher density in the mainland are mwanza 150 and Kilimanjaro 104.
 In Zanzibar almost all regions have higher density than most of the mainland’s regions
 These density differentials are largely caused by annual population increase which is a result
of fertility and mortality changes and other factors such as migration.
 Similarly, the variability of arable land and its quality is of considerable importance in
explaining the internal disparities in population densities.
 Given the fact that the majority of the population live in the rural area and depend on
peasant agriculture, the quality of land and its accessibility encourage the population to
select the best parts in the first place ( Madulu, 1996)
 Although the magnitude of the population increase differs from one region to another. Its
consequences on the other hand and the overall environment may be broadly similar.
 Long distance to the farm, declining productivity, increasing resources depletion, land use
conflicts and high risk of land degradation are common phenomena in almost all regions
which record high population densities and growth.
 Proportion of land less people in the population has also been increasing

Demography
Definition
Demography can be defined as the study of human populations including their composition, distributions,
densities, growth and other characteristics as well as the causes and consequences of changes in these
factors.

Demography focuses its attention on three readily available human phenomena:

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• Changes in population size (growth or decline)
• The composition of the population and
• The distribution of population in space.
Demography deals with major “demographic processes” namely fertility, mortality and migration. These
processes are continually at work within a population determining its size, composition and distribution.

Sources of Population Data

Demographic data are important in providing factual basis for decisions on matters of public policy and
action concerning social and economic affairs. These data can be processed to indicate present and future
requirements of the population in terms of the types and extent of social needs of the society such as
health, education and employment.

The major sources of population data include:

 Census
 Registration of vital events (Records)
 Sample surveys

(a) CENSUS

Definition; is defined as the total process of collecting, compiling, and publishing demographic,
economic and social data pertaining at specific time or times to all persons in a country or
delineated territory. (UN, 1965). It is common method in most LDCs and the world in general. It
is carried out in intervals of five or ten years. It is good method of recording the size, distribution
and other characteristics of the population at fixed intervals

Techniques of Census Taking

There are two techniques of conducting census, dejure and defacto.

A. DEJURE
This technique is the counting of people according to the permanent place of location or residence.

Advantages
• It gives permanent picture of a community.
• It provides more realistic and useful statistics.

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Disadvantages
• Some persons may be omitted from the count. A household member who is temporarily away from
home may be missed from being counted unless the enumerator makes sure that nobody is missing.
• Some may be counted twice.
• Information collected regarding persons away from home is often incomplete or incorrect.

B. DEFACTO
This technique of conducting census refers to counting persons where they are present at the time of the
census period.
Advantages
• There is less chance for the omission of persons from the count.
Disadvantages
• Difficult to obtain information regarding persons in transit. These are persons who are, for example
travelling and have left their area of permanent residence but haven’t reached the area of destination
during the census day.
• It provides incorrect picture of the population in a community.
• Vital statistics are usually distorted (in areas with high migration).

MAIN FEATURES OF A POPULATION CENSUS

1. Sponsorship

A census is usually sponsored by the national government. It is the responsibility of the

government to provide and mobilize resources from other sources necessary for conducting a
census. A census requires adequate legislative support or legal authority.

2. Universality within a defined territory: Enumeration must cover every person within a
defined territory or geographic unit e.g state, country, nation. When this condition is not
fulfilled for whatever reason e.g. war or isolated tribes it is essential to indicate the
proportion of population that is not covered.
3. Simultaneity: To have any comparative logic, a census should refer to a well-defined
period of time and to be taking simultaneously throughout the country. For example, in
Tanzania the 1967, 1978, and 1988 census were conducted on the 26th/27th August of the

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 respective years. Although the enumeration was not completed on the same day, the
official reference period remained to be the mid-night of the census day.
4. Individual enumeration: Every individual is enumerated separately. It is only on rare
occasions that group enumeration can be applied over communities.
5. Defined periodicity: A census should be taken at constant intervals, say ten years, so that
the information collected can be comparable. This has major advantage in appraising the
past, present and future population trends.
6. Demarcated enumeration areas

A census requires a detailed geographic work to demarcate the country into smaller
enumeration areas or clusters that can be conveniently covered by one enumerator within
the census period.

(a) Sample Survey

 Definition; defined as data collection from selected or fraction of a population.

 These are second most important sources of demographic data ( after census) in most
LDCs.

Advantage

 Simple, flexible, easy to administer and relatively cheap in terms of costs compared
to census.

Disadvantage

 Have high rates of error especially during sampling.

 The results of findings are used to generalize the phenomena in a locality

(b) Vital registration

 It is a continuous process of registering of birth, deaths, marriage, divorces,

adoption, legitimating and separation.
 In most LDCs vital registration system is uncommon.

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  Thus not a very reliable sources of data.

(c) Population registration

This is up to date records of people resident in a country with details of sex, date of
birth, marital status. Not well developed and used in LDCs.

(d) Miscellaneous sources

Most of these are obtained from sources like, parish registers, baptismal records and
government publications and administrative data.

IMPACTS OF POPULATION GROWTH ON RESOURCES

Meaning of resource

Resource can be defined as materials useful or potential for human use. Currently human race is
dependent on them for survival. Resources can be divided into two major groups:

 Renewable resources: these are resources which replenish themselves within a short time
such as water, timber, soil and solar power. Such resources can disappear through over
exploitation and mismanagement
 Non-renewable resources are resources that take time to replenish such as fossil fuels
(coal, and oil) and minerals.

Currently it is argued that population growth in developing countries is bringing

ecological stress leading to resources depletion. The stress is explained in terms of
deforestation, desertification, fuel wood crisis, water supplies and food production.
However these features are an outcome of different factors such as deforestation,
desertification, and impact on water supply and fuel crisis as discussed in environmental
degradation topic. Moreover population growth has impact on food production.

Other factors affecting resources in LDCs.

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  There are several other factors contributing to resources depletion in LDCs apart from
demographic ones. Namely:
 equality in access to resources especially land
 Production of large-scale commercial agriculture
 Commercialization of resources
 Breakdown of traditional resources management system.

In conclusion

 As noted in the discussion population growth is not necessarily the major causes of
resources depletion in the world in general and LDCs in specific.
 Thus other factors have to be considered as well to protect the resources
 Therefore hand in hand with population policies the following possible alternatives have
to be considered:

1. To strike a balance between the needs for food, land energy and foreign exchange in
the LDCs and the world in general.
2. Diversification of resources use such as energy and food so as to reduce over-
exploitation.
3. Encourage use of traditional methods in resources management and conservation.
4. In addition current effort of resources management such as reforestation, protection
of water resources and protection of endangered species has to be maintained.
5. Also other strategies such as educating the masses to make them appreciate that the
resources are theirs: establishment of bylaws that protect the environment; and
encouraging of popular participation in resources management should be adopted.

POPULATION POLICIES

Definition and classification

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 A population policy can be defined as an effort or program by a government or other social
institution to influence the size, distribution, composition, structure and change of the human
population.
 In other words it involves efforts to influence the 3 major demographic variables i.e fertility,
mortality and migration in a society.

In defining a population policy it is important to note that policies to influence the

Rational for the Tanzania Population Policy

In Tanzania demographic factors such as rapid population growth, young age structure and the uneven
spatial distribution of the population aggravated by a continuing high fertility manifest the severe state of
underdevelopment that characterizes the present Tanzanian society. Underdevelopment manifests itself,
among others, in the following ways.

 Low productivity in almost all sectors of the economy resulting in high rates of unemployment
and underemployment.
 Low accessibility to education, health services and housing.
 The perennial problem of food insecurity.
 High prevalence of maternal, infant and child morbidity and mortality.
 Low life expectancy.

The objectives of Tanzania population policy

 Closing the gap between high population growth and low economic productivity through
planned reduction of population growth and increasing economic returns.

 Expending economic and social development processes through holistic integrated

development programs designed to expedite the structural differentiation of the economy
and employment.

 Reducing the rate of rural to urban migration.

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  Maintaining/ improving the carrying capacity of the environment by taking appropriate
environmental protection/ conservation measures.

 Raising the economic and social status of women by freeing them from the restrictions
and drudgeries of traditional life and making it possible for them to participate
productively in the larger community.

 Significantly improving the social and economic status of vulnerable groups (women,
youth, children and elderly).

demographic variables cane be in two forms

Explicit policies

 An explicit policy is a statement or document by a national government announcing its

intention to affect the country’s population growth or distribution or composition or all of
them.
 The statements or documents can be given in different forms including: legislation,
commissions, development plans, declaration of a ruling party and statement by nation’s
president.

Implicit policies

 These are laws, regulations and other directives which although not necessarily issued for
the purpose of affecting population have effect of doing so.
 Such policies include for example: integrated rural development programmes, villagisation,
socioeconomic policies e.g education, health and housing.
 NB. Emphasis is always made in examining the former than the latter i.e explicit rather than
implicit policies.
 This is due to two main reasons:

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1. Most of the implicit policies are not coordinated to reach a common population goal.
2. Legal changes in some areas are important for the effective implementation of population
policies.

Some of these areas: include age at marriage, status of women and medical ethics.

Implementation

 Simply a policy does not guarantee that it will be carried out.

 Thus many policies specify the institution at framework and institutions responsible for
implementation
 Development of action plans

For example: Nigeria (1988) stated that all tiers and agencies of government as well as
community and NGOs to be actively involved

Monitoring and evaluation

 Institution responsible
 Mode of monitoring and evaluation e.g reports, reviews

Population policy in sub-Saharan Africa.

Introduction

 SSA covers about 20% of the earth’s land surface and currently it contains about 10% of the
world’s population.
 The population is diverse
 Region wise it is mainly concentrated in Western Africa then Eastern Africa and least in
Southern Africa.
 Country wise over 20% of the SSA population is in Nigeria and nearly 40% of the
population are found in six relatively populous countries i.e Ethiopia. Somalia.

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Policy and program measures

 Most policies consist of measures that a country plans to take.

 These are actions to be taken to achieve the objectives or goals as well as the target set.

The following measures are often used by many policies

i. Providing fertility regulation or family planning services.

 This is a features-common to most policies.

 Family planning is justified in terms of its importance to MCHs
 Sometimes specific FP methods to be provided or prohibited are included. Example:
Kenya population policy of 1986 emphasized on the use of voluntary surgical
contraception.

ii. Implementing policies to affect migration

 Internal migration sometimes creates some problems to countries

 They include increase crime, overcrowding of cities or towns, pollution , emergency of
slums
 Thus some policies are designed to curb the problem of migration.
 They include: creation of new towns, an increase in rural investments, encouraging
decentralization of industrial location, and improving the rural infrastructure

iii. Providing incentives and disincentives

 Some policies do include use of incentives or disincentives to influence fertility behavior

especially in Asia.

These measures include: cash payment, family benefits and penalties. Example; Ghana’s policy
incentives design to encourage smaller family size among government employees e.g limit to 3
the number of paid maternity leaves, limiting to 3

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  children for whom child allowances and travel allowances will be paid to government
officers

iv. Improving research and evaluation

 These aim at improving the existing statistical and vital registration capacity.
 In addition, they aim at monitoring the population policy itself

v. Carrying specific legal reforms

Factor for lack of explicit population policies in SSA

1. The common perception that the population was too small leading to empty spaces and
vast unutilized resources base.

 At the time of independence most of the SSA had a small population relative to the size of
the resource base.
 As results the economies at that time could accommodate the population growth leading to
raised incomes and standards of living.

2. The message that Africa has rapid population growth has come from the west.

 These countries were linked with colonialism.

 Thus some political leaders considered the arguments as irrelative and tricky aiming to
continue to dominate them

3. Religious and tribal factors made population a very sensitive issue

 There are more than 800 ethnic groups in SSA speaking different languages and
belonging to different religious
 Some group are reluctant to discuss about reducing population due to fear of domination
by other groups

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 Most post-colonial political leaders in SSA were pre-occupied with the problems of
economic and social development and foreign assistance. Thus population was not a
concern. It was considered a long-term issue.

4. Lack of reliable demographic data.

 Most of the SSA had inadequate information to understand fertility levels and to
demonstrate how fast the population was growing.
 Most countries had not taken a census or comprehensive surveys before the 1960’s.

Development of Explicit population policies

In the mid 1980’s attitudes of many political leaders in SSA towards development of policies
were gradually becoming positive.

Several factors contributed to this trend.

1. Impact of severe economic recession of the late 1970’s and early 1908’s.

 The failure of many governments to meet or sustain basic social services

contributed to changing attitudes of some politicians towards population growth.

2. Increased awareness of population trends caused by international conferences in

population.

 A series of major international conference have helped to change the attitudes.

 African population conference held in Arusha in 1984.
 International conference on population held in Mexico, 1984.
 The all Africa Parliamentary conference on population held in Zimbabwe, 1985.
 These conferences stimulated governments to formulate official positions on
population.

3. Influence of international donor agencies

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  Several donor agencies e.g UNFPA, USAID, JOIFP and GTZ have sponsored a
series of sensitization and awareness seminars to government ministers, policy
and planning officials as well as party, religious and community leaders

4. Availability of reliable and scientific information documenting fertility levels. Population

growth rates increased the awareness of the population trends to many countries.

 Many countries had their first information or second census during the 1970s and
early 1980s.
 The WFSs which included 10 SSA between 1977-1982, as well as CPS and DHS
provided adequate data on fertility and population growth.
 The messages had an impact to policy makers

5. Other factors

 Concern on the levels of infant and maternal mortality.

Activities of some pioneering private FP association helped to change attitudes e.g UMATI of
TZ began in the late 1950’s

SOME CALCULATION IN POPULATION VARIABLES

(a) Crude Birth rate =is the number of birth in a year’s per 1000 mid -year population. The rate
is normally expressed per 1000. Sometimes this measure is called as the birth rate and it is
the simplest and commonest measures of fertility. CBR is computed using the following
formula:
Crude birth rate= Birth in a year x1000
Population at mid-year
 CBR is a crude measure of fertility because it includes all ages and both sexes in
the denominator.

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  Moreover, no attempt is been made to relate births to women at risk of giving these
births. Normally range from 10 per 1000 in developed countries to 50 per 1000 in
developing countries.

Crude death rate

This is the simplest and commonest measures of mortality. It refers to the number of
deaths in a year per 1000 of the mid-year population. Like crude birth rate it is
conventionally expressed per 1000. Although it is the most elementary and most quoted
death rate it is strongly affected by the age sex structure of the population. This definition
is represented in a formula as follows:
CDR =Death in a year x1000
Mid-year population
(b) Sex Ratio

Relates to the number of males per 100 females in the same population. Thus measures
the balance between sexes

It is given as; Sex ratio= Males x 100

Females
Interpretations.
 When sex ratio is more than 100 then it indicates that there are more male birth than
female. A value of less than 100 indicates an excess of female over male births
 Usually sex ratio at birth shows an excess of males over females, in most cases it range
between 104 and 107.
 When sex ratio is lower than 100 it may be attributed to migration, high death rate for
males.

(c) Growth rate

 These can be defined as rates of population growth adjusted for births, deaths and
migration.
 They are expressed as per cent growth per annum.
 Usually the rates are established by using models that are based on demographic statistics.

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  Two models are commonly used: geometric and exponential

Geometric growth rate is given as r=

Exponential growth rate is given as r=1/n log e (p2/p1)

Where, r is the growth rate expressed in per cent per annum, P1 is the population at the
beginning of the interval, P2 is the population at the end of the interval, n is the length of the
interval between two counts and e is a base of natural logarithm ( e=2.72) in these methods, birth,
death and migration rate are held constant.
Significance of the model
These two mathematical models are useful for
 Estimating rates of growth in inter-censual intervals
 Estimating the size of the population at any time in future
(d) Age error

POPULATION POLICIES
 A population policy can be defined as an effort or program by a government or other social
institution to influence the size, distribution, composition, structure and change of the human
population. It involves efforts to influence three major demographic variables
i.e. fertility, mortality and migration in a society.

1. TANZANIA POPULATION POLICY

In Tanzania demographic factors such as rapid population growth, young age structure and the
uneven spatial distribution of the population aggravated by a continuing high fertility manifest the
severe state of underdevelopment that characterizes the present Tanzanian society.
Underdevelopment manifests itself, among others, in the following ways.
 Low productivity in almost all sectors of the economy resulting in high rates of
unemployment and underemployment.
 Low accessibility to education, health services and housing.
 The constant problem of food insecurity.
 High prevalence of maternal, infant and child morbidity and mortality.
 Low life expectancy.

The objectives of Tanzania population policy

 Closing the gap between high population growth and low economic productivity through
planned reduction of population growth and increasing economic returns.

Elimeleck P.Akyoo (PhD) Page 166

  Expending economic and social development processes through holistic integrated
development programs designed to advance economy and employment.
 Reducing the rate of rural to urban migration.
 Maintaining/ improving the carrying capacity of the environment by taking appropriate
environmental protection/ conservation measures.
 Raising the economic and social status of women by freeing them from the restrictions and
drudgeries of traditional life and making it possible for them to participate productively in the
larger community.
 Significantly improving the social and economic status of vulnerable groups (women, youth,
children and elderly).

TYPES POLICIES
1. Explicit policies
Explicit means the population policy stated clearly and in detail about the development of
population leaving no room for confusion on fertility, mortality and migration
 An explicit policy is a statement or document by a national government announcing its
intention to affect the country’s population growth or distribution or composition or all of
them.
 The statements or documents can be given in different forms including: legislation,
commissions, development plans, declaration of a ruling party and statement by nation’s
president.

2. Implicit policies
Implicit policy affects population growth but not directly expressed in detail. These are laws,
regulations and other directives although not necessarily issued for the purpose of affecting
population but affect population in one way or another.
 Such policies include for example: socioeconomic policies for example education, health and
housing, employments benefits, etc.

2. SOME CALCULATION IN POPULATION VARIABLES

Crude Birth Rate (CBR)
CBR is the number of resident live births for a specified geographic area (nation, state, county,
etc.) during a specified period (usually a calendar year) divided by the total population (usually
mid-year) for that area and multiplied by 1,000

Crude Birth rate =is the number of births in a year per 1000 mid -year population. The rate is
normally expressed per 1000. Sometimes this measure is called as the birth rate and it is the
simplest and commonest measures of fertility. CBR is computed using the following formula:
Crude Birth Rate= Birth in a year x1000
Population at mid-year

For example,

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 Calculate the CBR for Maswa District in Tanzania, for year 2013. The number of live births
that year was 500 and the estimated mid-year population was 35,000. Find the CBR

Formula
CBR= BIRTH IN A YEAR X1000
POPULATION AT MID A YEAR

Solution
Data given
Birth in a year =500
Population at mid a year = 35,000
Find CBR
= 500X1,000
35,000
=500,000
35,000
= 14.2

Crude Death Rate (CDR)

Crude death rate is the number of deaths happening among the population of a given geographical
area during a given year, per 1,000 mid-year total population of the given geographical area during
the same year.

This is the simplest and commonest measures of mortality. It refers to the number of deaths in a
year per 1000 of the mid-year population. Like crude birth rate it is conventionally expressed per
1000. Although it is the most elementary and most quoted death rate it is strongly affected by the
age sex structure of the population. This definition is represented in a formula as follows:
CDR =Death in a year x1000
Mid-year population

Sex Ratio (SR)

Population ratios are used to describe the degree of balance between two elements of the
population, for Males vs. females, children versus women of reproductive age. The ratio is
normalized to refer to a standard unit of people, usually 100 persons.

Sex ratio: The sex ratio is the ratio of males to females in the population (normalized to 100).
Always calculate two sex-ratios: At birth, and in the total population.

The sex ratio at birth is fairly standard, around 105. Due to higher mortality among males, the
sex ratio in the total population switches to 95-97. For populations with high levels of sex-
selective outmigration (such as male soldiers leaving a country for war),

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 particularly in certain age groups (e.g. aged 15-29), the sex ratio may be even smaller. Ranges for
sex ratios:
 Sex ratio at birth: 105 except for African populations, where it is 102-103
 Sex ratio for total population: 101.5
 Briefly, sex ratio is the as the number of male births per 100 female births

Relates to the number of males per 100 females in the same population. Thus, measures the
balance between sexes
It is given as; Sex ratio= Males x 100
Females
Interpretations.
 When sex ratio is more than 100 then it indicates that there is more male birth than female.
A value of less than 100 indicates an excess of female over male births
 Usually sex ratio at birth shows an excess of males over females, in most cases it ranges
between 104 and 107.
 When sex ratio is lower than 100 it may be attributed to migration, high death rate for males.

Worked example:
A certain district has 58,000 male and 55,000 female live births in 2008 respectively. Calculate
the sex ratio

Formula
Sex ratio= Males x 100
Females
Solution
Data given
 Male birth = 58,000
 Female birth 55,000
 Calculate Sex Ratio (SR)

Calculation
= 58,000x100
55,000
= 5,800,000
55,000
= 105.5
Therefore SR= 105.5

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