Gravitation

GRAVITATION
Newton’s law of gravitation:
“Every body in the universe attracts every other body with a force which is directly
proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to square of the
distance between them.”

Let A and B are the two bodies of masses m1 and m2 respectively separated by a distance d then

m1 m2
F
d2

m1 m2
F G
d2

G is called universal gravitational constant. The SI unit of G is Nm2/ kg2

The value of G in SI is 6.67×10-11 Nm2/ kg2. The dimensions of [G] = [M-1L3 T-2]

In vector form force on 2nd body due to 1st

m1 m2
F21   G 2
r̂21
r21
Similarly the force on 1st body due to 2nd is

m1 m2
F12   G 2
r̂12
r12

Gravitational field:
The space around a body with in the gravitational force of attraction is called the
gravitational field.

The gravitational field intensity at a point is defined as the gravitational force

experienced by a unit mass kept at that point.
The gravitational field at a point distance r from m1 is given by
F
E
m2
m1
F21   G 2
r̂12
r12

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Gravitational potential energy:

The gravitational potential energy of two particles separated by a distance r is the work done in
bringing one particle from infinity to r when the other particle is stationary, by the gravitational
force.
r
U    F .dx


r
GM m
U   .  dx
 x2

r
G M m 
U   
 x 

GM m
U 
r

Gravitational potential:
The potential energy that a unit mass possess at a given point in the gravitational field,
is known as the gravitational potential V at that point.
SI unit of gravitational potential is Jkg-1.

Expression for the gravitational potential at a point due to a point mass:

Consider a point mass ‘M’ at O. The work done in bringing a unit mass from ∞ to a distance r is
r
V    F .dx M


r
GM
V   .  dx
 x2

r
 GM 
V   
 x 

GM
V 
r

Relation between field and potential:

Let Va and Vb be the potential at two points separated by a distance dx in a uniform gravitational
field E. The work done in moving unit mass from b to a is
Vb  Va   E dx

But Vb  Va  dV change in potential difference

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 Gravitation

dV   E dx
dV
E
dx

Gravitational field at a point is the negative potential gradient at that point.

Gravitational potential at a point due to a solid sphere:

Consider a solid sphere of mass m, radius a and density ρ to be made up of a large number of thin
concentric spherical shells whose radii vary from 0 to a. Let one such shell be of radius x and
thickness dx and mass Δm.

Δm = surface area × thickness × density

Δm = 4 x 2 dx 

There fore the potential at the point p due to the shell is given by

G m
dV  
r

G 4 x 2  dx
dV  
r

Then the potential due to the entire sphere at the point is given by

G 4  2
r 
V  x dx

Case(i) When the point is outside the sphere (r > a):

Gravitational potential at a distance r from O:

G 4 2
a

r 0
V  x dx

a
G 4   x 3 
V   
r  3 0

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 Gravitation

G 4  a 3
V 
r 3

4  4
V  G   a 3  but  a 3 is the volume of the sphere
3 r 3

Volume × density = mass of the sphere

Gm
Therefore potential V  
r
Gravitational field intensity at p
dV
We know that E  
dr

d  Gm 
There fore E    
dr  r 

Gm
E
r2

Case(ii) When the point p is on the surface of the sphere, r = a

G 4 2
a

a 0
V  x dx

a
G 4  x 3 
V   
a  3 0

G 4 a 3
V 
a 3

4  4
V  G  a 3  but  a 3 is the volume of the sphere
3 a 3

Volume × density = mass of the sphere

Gm
Therefore the potential on the surface V  
a
Gravitational field intensity on the surface
dV
We know that E  
dr

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 Gravitation

d  Gm 
There fore E    
da  a 

Gm
E
a2
Case (iii) When the point P is inside the sphere(r < a):
Gravitational potential:
Consider a point p on the imaginary sphere of surface of radius b. The point P is at a distance of (a –
b) from the outer surface.
The potential at P due the sphere of radius b is

4 
V1   G   b 3 
3 b

The potential at P due to the sphere of radius ‘a’

G 4  2
a

x b
V2   x dx

a2 b2 
V2   G 4     
2 2
The net potential at P is V = V1 + V2

4  a2 b2 
V =  G   b3   G 4    
3 b 2 2

b2 a 2 b2 
V  G 4     
 3 2 2

G 4 
V 
6

2b 2  3 a 2  3b 2 
G 4 a 3 
V 
3 2 a 3

3a2  b2  but
4
3
 a 3 is the volume of the sphere

Volume × density = mass of the sphere

Potential at a point inside the sphere V  

Gm
2a 3

3a2  b2 

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At the centre b = 0

3 Gm
V 
2 a

The gravitational field intensity:

dV
E
db

G mb
E
2 a3
E = 0 at the centre of the sphere.

Kepler’s laws of planetary motion:

I law: “All the planets are moving around the sun in elliptical orbits with sun at one of
its focus.”

II law: “The line joining the planet to the sun sweeps out equal areas in equal
intervals of time.” Or “The areal velocity of a planet is constant.”

III law: “The square of the period of a planet is proportional to cube of its mean
distance from sun.”
T 2 r 3

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Derivation of Kepler’s laws:

Derivation of II law: The line joining the planet to the sun sweeps out equal areas in equal
intervals of time.” Or “The areal velocity of a planet is constant.”

Consider a planet of mass m moving at a distance of r around the sun. Let M be the mass of the sun
then

M m
From Newton’s law of gravitation F  G 2
rˆ
r

dv
From Newton’s second law of motion F  ma  m
dt

dv Mm
m   G 2 rˆ
dt r

dv Mm
m  G 3 r
dt r

Taking left cross product on both side with r

 dv GM    
r   3 r  r  but r  r  0
dt r
  
d    dv  dr dr   
But r  v   r  v but v v v  0
dt dt dt dt

d    dv
Therefore r  v   r  substituting this
dt dt

d  
r  v   0
dt
 
r  v  cons tan t

 dr
r  constant
dt

 1   dr 
2   r    constant…………….(1)
2  dt 

The planet gets displaced from P to P’ in time t . Then the area swept by the radius vector
 1  
A  r  r 
 2
 dA
The areal velocity h  taking the limits and t  0
dt
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 1   dr 
h   r   ……………………(2)
2 dt 

Comparing (1) and (2)


2h  Constant

h  Constant

Derivation of I law: All the planets are moving around the sun in elliptical orbits
with sun at one of its focus.”
Consider a planet of mass m moving at a distance of r around the sun. Let M be the mass of the sun.

 1  
From Kepler’s second law h  r  v 
2
  
2h  r  v 

   dr 
2h   r  
 dt 

  d (rrˆ) 
2h   rrˆ  
 dt 

  drˆ dr 
2h   r 2 rˆ   rrˆ  rˆ  but rˆ  rˆ  0
 dt dt 

 r 2  drˆ 
h   rˆ   …………………….(1)
2 dt 

M m
From Newton’s law of gravitation F  G 2
rˆ
r

dv
From Newton’s second law of motion F  ma  m
dt

dv Mm
m   G 2 rˆ
dt r

dv M
  G 2 rˆ …………….(2)
dt r

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 Gravitation

Taking right cross product on both sides of (2) with h
 
dv  M
 h   G 2 rˆ  h Sub for h only on RHS from (1)
dt r


dv  M r2  drˆ 
h   G ˆ
r   rˆ  
 dt 
2
dt r 2


dv  GM  drˆ 
h   rˆ   rˆ  
dt 2  dt 
        
But A  B  C  ( A  C ) B  ( A  B)C

 drˆ   drˆ  drˆ drˆ

Therefore rˆ   rˆ     rˆ  rˆ  rˆ  rˆ  but rˆ   0 and rˆ  rˆ  1
 dt   dt  dt dt

 drˆ  drˆ
rˆ   rˆ    
 dt  dt
Substituting this

dv  GM drˆ
h  h is a constant
dt 2 dt

Therefore
dt

d   GM drˆ
vh  
2 dt

  GM 
vh  rˆ  C C is integration constant
2

Taking dot product on both sides of the above equation with r
   GM   
r  (v  h )  r  rˆ  r  C
2
   GM
r  (v  h )  rrˆ  rˆ  rC cos 
2
     
But A( B  C )  C  ( A  B)

        
r  (v  h )  h (r  v ) But 2h  r  v 

    
r  (v  h )  h  2h

  
r  (v  h )  2h 2 Substituting this

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 Gravitation

GM
2h 2  r  rC cos 
2

 GM 
2h 2  r   C cos  
 2 

1 GM C cos  4h 2
  Multiplying both sides by
r 4h 2 2h 2 GM

4 h2 2C cos 
 1
GM r GM

l 4h 2
this is in the form of  1  e cos  equation for an ellipse. l  Semilatus rectum and
r GM
2C
e eccentricity. If e is less than 1 then the path is ellipse.
GM

Derivation of 3rd law: The Square of the period of a planet is proportional to cube of
its mean distance from sun.”
Let a, b, and l be the semi major axis, semi minor axis and latus rectum of the ellipse
Then they are related by the equations


b 2  a 2 1  e 2 ………….(1) 
 
l  a 1  e 2 ………………(2)
(1)  (2)

4h 2
b 2  al but l  substituting this
GM

4h 2
b2  a
GM

If T is the period of the planet then areal velocity of the planet is

area of the ellipse  ab
h 
period of revolution T

 2 a 2b 2
T2  2
substituting for b2
h

4 2 a 3
T2 
GM

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 Gravitation

T 2 a 3 Hence Kepler’s 3rd law.

Inertial mass and gravitational mass:

Inertial mass (mi) of a body is the resistance to get accelerated. It represents the inertia of the body.
F  m ia
F
mi  If a = 1 then mi = F
a
Inertial mass of a body is numerically equal to external force required to produce unit acceleration.
Gravitational mass of a body is its ability to produce gravitational attraction.

M mG
F G
R2
Equivalence of mi and mG:

M mG
F G = mig
R2

 GM  m  m
there fore g   2  G  The value of g is independent of mi and mG. There fore G  1
 R  mi  mi
or mi = mG if mi  mG then g would be different for different inertial masses. Thus mi and mG are
equivalent.

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Satellites
Satellites are the celestial bodies, which move around a planet.
Moon is the natural satellite of earth. Man made satellites is known as artificial satellites.

Launching of satellites:
When a space vehicle takes off from the ground it is fired vertically upwards. As it ascends jets are
used to make it turn slowly to follow a horizontal trajectory. Then the satellite is set into motion
around the earth. The velocity with which the satellite moves around the planet is
known as orbital velocity.

Expression for the orbital velocity of a satellite:

Let m be the mass of a satellite moving around a planet at a height h from the surface of the planet.
Let M be the mass of the planet and R be its radius. Then gravitational force between the planet
mM
and the satellite is F = G 2 where r = R + h
r
This force provides centripetal force to the satellite to move around the planet.
2
mvo
Fc  Where vo is the
r2
orbital velocity
2
mvo mM
Equating both = G
r2 r2

GM
vo 
2

GM
vo 
r

GM
vo 
Rh

if satellite is very close to the planet then h is

GM GM GM
negligible compare to R. then vo  But g  2
there fore gR 
R R R

there fore vo  gR

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Time period of a satellite:

It is the time taken by a satellite to complete one revolution around the planet.

2 r GM
T but vo 
vo r
r
T  2 r
GM

r3
T  2 where r = R + h
GM

T  2
R  h 3
GM

if satellite is very close to the planet then h is negligible

R3 GM R3 R
compare to R. then T  2 But g  2 there fore 
GM R GM g

R
Therefore T  2
g

Satellites are used for a large number of purposes. Common types include military and civilian Earth
observation satellites, communications satellites, navigation satellites, weather satellites, and
research satellites. Space stations and human spacecraft in orbit are also satellites. Satellite orbits
vary greatly, depending on the purpose of the satellite, and are classified in a number of ways.
Well-known (overlapping) classes include low Earth orbit, polar orbit, and geostationary orbit.

Remote sensing satellites :( IRS means Indian remote sensing)

Remote sensing means obtaining data using which information can be obtained about objects or
materials located at the surface of the earth or its atmosphere using sensors.

Applications of remote sensing:

1. To record changes in the earth and its atmosphere.
2. To observe planets, stars and other distant objects.
3. For weather forecast.
4. For ground water exploration.
5. To locate minerals deposits on the earth.
6. For communication purpose.

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Geo stationary satellite:

If the period of revolution of the satellite is equal to period of rotation (24hr) of the earth, then
satellite appears to be stationary. The satellite is said to be Geo stationary satellite.
Geo stationary satellites are used for communication purpose. Height at which geostationary
satellites move around the earth is h = 35930km.

Essential conditions for geostationary satellite:

1. Its period of revolution around the earth should be the same as that of period of
ration of the earth. i.e., 24hrs.

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 Gravitation

2. Its sense of rotation should be the same as that of earth about its own axis. i.e.,
from west to east.
3. It should revolve in an orbit concentric and coplanar with the equatorial plane.

Escape velocity:
It is the velocity with which the body should be projected to escape from the gravity of
the planet.

Expression for escape velocity:

Consider a body of mass m projected with escape velocity. Then the kinetic energy of the body
1
E k  mve This should be equal to gravitational potential energy (Work done in
2

2

moving the body from surface to infinity against gravity) U   F .dx
R


GM m
U  .  dx
R
x2


G M m 
U 
 x  R

GmM
U
R

1 GmM
mve 
2
Therefore
2 R

2GM GM
ve  But g 
R R2

GM
therefore gR 
R

There fore ve  2 gR

The velocity with which the body should be projected to escape from the earth’s gravity is
11.2km/s.

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All the satellites are well within the gravity. If the velocity of the rocket is equal to escape velocity
then it traces hyperbolic path and escapes from the earth’s gravity.
v
If the velocity of the rocket is less than escape velocity but equal to e then the satellite is put into
2
v
circular orbit. If the velocity of the rocket is less than escape velocity but greater than e then the
2
satellite is put into an elliptical orbit.
Binding energy of a satellite:
When a satellite has energy less than that required to escape from the earth, we say that it is
bound to the earth. The energy that should be supplied to the satellite so that it just escapes to
infinity is called binding energy.

GmM 1 2
BE   mv
r 2

1 g mR 2
BE 
2 r
Weightlessness:
We feel our weight due to ground reaction. In a satellite the gravitational pull is used to provide the
necessary centripetal force to keep the satellite in the orbit. Therefore g will become zero. The
bodies simply float inside the satellite. This condition is known as weightlessness.

When astronauts are in orbit (With in the space station), Earth's gravity provides a centripetal force
that continually changes the direction of their velocity. The resulting motion is a nearly circular
Earth orbit. This orbit is under the influence of no other significant forces but Earth's gravity, so
they are freely falling around the Earth. Orbiting astronauts are in free fall. Hence they are
weightless.
With weightlessness, there are multiple effects, including:

 Decrease in heart rate

 Decrease in respiratory rate
 Loss of body weight
 Changes in bone calcium

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 Gravitation

 Redistribution of body fluids with greater amount in the upper body

 Decrease in muscle tissue
 Weakening of veins and arteries in the legs
 Underproduction of red blood cells leading to anemia
 Osteoporosis

From long space flights, we have learned that the body in space needs a little over a month to get
used (acclimated) to these changes. Intermittent physical exercise can markedly improve the
situation.
Once back on earth, the majority of these changes vanish and most matters revert to normal But
there is nonetheless an initial period of weakness and difficulty with balance back on earth that
may last several days.The loss of calcium from bone, however, is a more serious problem,
particularly during and after long space flights. The physical stresses on bone and pressures from
weight bearing that take place in the presence of gravity are quite clearly necessary for the normal
formation, remodeling, and maintenance of bone. The impairment of these normal bone processes
in space leads to liberation of calcium from the skeleton. The result is weakened, brittle bone that
easily breaks. This process is quite similar to the osteoporosis that occurs on earth. And, just as with
osteoporosis, full recovery of bone structure may not always be possible.

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