UNIT

BIOMOLECULES
SYLLABUS :
Carbohydrates - Classification (aldoses and ketoses), monosaccahrides (glucose and fructose), oligosaccharides
(sucrose, lactose, maltose), polysaccharides (starch, cellulose, glycogen); importance.
Proteins - Elementary idea of - amino acids, peptide bond, polypeptides, proteins, structure of amines-
primary, secondary, tertiary structure and quaternary structures (qualitative idea only), denaturation of proteins;
enzymes.
Vitamins -Classification and functions.
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA .
KEY CONCEPTS
14.1 CARBOHYDRATES
These are naturally occurring substances composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The last two elements
being present in the same ratio as they are present in water. Thus, the empirical formula of carbohydrates is
CH2O where as the general formula is Cx(H2O)y. All the compounds satisfying the formula CX(H2O)Y are not
carbohydrates, e.g., C3H6O3. There are some carbohydrates which do not satisfy the general formula, for
example rhamnose C6H12O5, rhamnohexose C7H14O6, etc. A close study of properties of carbohydrates
reveals that they are optically active polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones.

14.1.1 CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones

and substances which hydrolyse to polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones. The simplest carbohydrates are called
sugars or saccharides, (Latin: Saccharum, sugar). Carbohydrates can be classified as monosaccharides,
oligosaccharides and polysaccharides.

Carbohydrates

Sugars Non-sugars or polysaccharides

Monosaccharides Oligo saccharides

Aldoses Ketoses Di- Tri Tetra- etc.

(Posses aldehyde (Posses keto saccharides saccharides saccharides
groups) groupss)

(i) Monosaccharides: Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates which cannot be hydrolysed into
smaller and simpler carbohydrates. A monosaccharide may be further classified as an aldose or a ketose if
it contains an aldehyde or a keto group, respectively. The simplest monosaccharides being 2,3-
dihydroxypropanal (glyceraldehyde) and 1,3-dihydroxypropanone. Their structures are as shown below:

STUDY MATERIAL: XII CHEMISTRY 1 BIOMOLECULES

 CHO CH2 OH

H C OH C O

CH2 OH CH2 OH
2,3-dihydroxypropanal 1,3-dihydroxypropanone
(an aldose) (an ketose)

(ii) Oligosaccharides
Oligosaccharides are the carbohydrates that yield two to eight monosacchardide units on hydrolysis. Car-
bohydrates which yield two monosaccharide units on hydrolysis are called disaccharides and those which
yield three monosaccharide units are called trisaccharides and so on.
The three most important disaccharides are sucrose, maltose, and lactose. Each one of these on hydrolysis
with either an acid or an enzyme gives two molecules of the same or different monosaccharides as shown:
H
C12 H 22 O11  H 2 O 
 C6 H12O6  C6 H12 O6
Sucrose or invertase Glu cose Fructrose

H
C12 H 22 O11  H 2 O 
 C6 H12 O6  C6 H12O6
or Maltase
Maltose Glucose Glucose

H
C12 H 22 O11  H 2O 
 C6 H12 O6  C6 H12O6
or Lactase
Lactose Glucose Galactose
(iii) Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are the polymers of monosaccharides. The natural polysaccharides generally contain
about 100-3000 monosaccharide units. The three most abundant natural polysaccharides-cellulose, starch
and glycogen are derived from the same monomer, i.e., glucose.

Reducing or non-reducing sugar :

The carbohydrates may also be classified as either reducing or nonreducing sugars. All those carbohy-
drates which reduce Fehling’s solution and Tollens’ reagent are referred to as reducing sugars. All monosac-
charides whether aldose or ketose are reducing sugars. In disaccharides, if the reducing groups of monosac-
charides i.e., aldehydic or ketonic groups are bonded, these are non-reducing sugars e.g. sucrose. On the
other hand, sugars in which these functional groups are free, are called reducing sugars, for example,
maltose and lactose.

14.2 MONOSACCHARIDES
Depending upon the number of carbon atoms in the chain, sugars are called trioses (3 carbons), tetroses (4
carbons), pentoses (5 carbons), hexoses (6 carbons) and so on. Therefore, 2,3-dihydroxypropanal is an
aldotriose and 1,3-dihydroxypropanone is a ketotriose.

14.2.1 Glucose : (C6H12O6) :

(A) Occurrence : Glucose is found in free as well as combined state in plants and animals. Its important
sources are cane sugar, ripe fruits, grapes, honey, human blood and urine of diabetic patients. Glucose is
the building unit of starch and cellulose.
(B) Preparation :
From Sucrose : By its hydrolysis :

STUDY MATERIAL: XII CHEMISTRY 2 BIOMOLECULES

 C12H22O11 + H2O 
2 4
dil. H SO
C6H12O6 + C6H12O6

Cane Sugar Glucose Fructose
Glucose and fructose are separated from their mixture by means of Ca(OH)2. Calcium glucosate is
soluble while calcium fructosate is insoluble in water.
From starch :
Dil. H 2SO 4 , 
(C6H10O5)n + nH2O  Under pressure
 nC H O (aq)
6 12 6
Glucose
The free acid is neturalized with CaCO3 and filtered. The filtrate is decolourized by animal charcoal and
conc. in vacuum pans to give crystals of glucose.
(C) Structure of glucose :
Glucose is an aldohexose and is also known as dextrose. It is the monomer of many of the larger
carbohydrates, namely starch, cellulose. It is probably the most abundant organic compound on earth. It
was assigned the structure given below on the basis of the following evidences.
CHO

(CHOH)4

CH2 OH
Glucose
(a) Molecular Formula: By the usual analytical methods, the molecular formula of glucose is found to be
C6H12O6.

(b) Straight chain of six carbon atoms:

(i) Reduction of glucose with conc. HI and phosphorus gives 2-iodohexane and n-hexane.
This indicates that six carbon atoms in glucose are present in a straight chain.

C6 H12O6 
 CH3  (CH 2 )4  CH3
HI/P

Glucose prolonged n  hexane

heating
(ii) Glucose when oxidized with bromine water gives gluconic acid which when reduced with excess of
HI gives n-hexanoic acid, CH3(CH2)4COOH, confirming the presence of a straight chain of six
carbon atoms in glucose.

(c) Reaction with NH2OH and HCN

(i) Reaction with NH2OH
HOCH2 (CHOH)4 CHO + H2NOH HOCH2(CHOH)4 CH = NOH + H2O
Glucose oxime
By this reaction we obtain higher aldose to lower aldose.
This reaction is known as whol degradation.
(ii) Reaction with HCN :
HOCH2(CHOH)4 CHO + HCN HOCH2(CHOH)4 CH(OH)CN
Glucose cyanohydrin
This reaction is used for stepping up of an aldose by Killiani-synthesis.
These reactions confirm the presence of a carbonyl group (>C = 0) in glucose.

STUDY MATERIAL: XII CHEMISTRY 3 BIOMOLECULES

 (d) Oxidation :
CHO COOH

(CHOH)4 
2 2Br /H O
(CHOH)4

CH2 OH CH2 OH
Glucose Gluconic acid

This indicates that the carbonyl group is present as an aldehydic group.

(e) Presence of five hydroxyl groups: When treated with acetic anhydride, glucose forms penta-acetate
indicating the presence of 5 – OH groups and since glucose is a stable compound, the five –OH groups
must be attached to 5 different carbon atoms.

C6 H12 O6 
C6 H 5 NHNH 2
C6H5N
 CHO
Glu cos e
|
(CHOCOCH3)4
|
CH2OCOCH3
Glucose pentaacetate

(f) On oxidation with nitric acid, glucose as well as gluconic acid both yield a dicarboxylic acid, saccharic
acid. This indicates the presence of a primary alcoholic (–OH) group in glucose.

COOH
Br2/H 2 O
(CHOH)4 Gluconic acid
CHO
CH2OH
(CHOH)4 Oxidation
COOH
CH2OH
dil. HNO3
Glucose (CHOH)4 Saccharic acid

COOH

(D) Configuration of glucose: Since the above structure possesses four asymmetric carbon atoms (shown
by asterisks), it can exist in 24 = 16 optically active forms, i.e., eight pairs of enantiomers. All these are
known and correspond to the D- and L-forms of glucose, mannose, galactose, allose, altrose, gulose,
idose and talose.
The naturally occurring dextrorotatory glucose (+)-glucose is only one of the 16-stereoisomers.

STUDY MATERIAL: XII CHEMISTRY 4 BIOMOLECULES

 CHO
1

H C OH
2

HO C H
3

H C OH CHO
4

H C OH H C OH
5

H2C OH H2C OH
6
D-(+)-Glucose (+)-Glyceraldehyde

Notations D- and L- for denoting configuration were given by Rosanoff; according to this convention any
compound whose bottom asymmetric carbon atoms has the configuration similar to the configuration of
dextrorotatory glyceraldehyde (drawn above, i.e. the bottom carbon atom has –OH to the right and H to
the left) is given D-configuration. The other having –OH to the left and H to the right is given L-configura-
tion. Remember that the symbols D-and L- have no relation with the specific rotation value, i.e., with (+)
or (–)- value. For example, the natural (–)- fructose belongs to D-series, i.e., it is D-(–)- fructose.
(E) Objections to open-chain structure of glucose: Even though open chain structure of (+)-glucose ex-
plains most of its reactions, it fails to explain the following facts about it.
(i) Glucose does not restore Schiff’s reagent colour.
(ii) Glucose does not form a bisulphite and aldehyde-ammonia compound.
(iii)Glucose forms two isomeric penta-acetates neither of which reacts with carbonyl reagents.
(iv) The existence of the two isomeric glucoses and the change in specific rotation (mutarotation) is not
explained by an open-chain formula.
(v) Glucose reacts with methanol in presence of dry HCl gas to form two isomeric glucosides.
(F) Ring structure: The above behaviour can be explained on the basis that the carbonyl group is not free in
glucose but is bound up in a form that destroys its reducing properties. On this basis and stability of -
lactones of the aldonic acid, Tollen in 1883 proposed a cyclic hemiacetal five membered ring (-oxide
ring) between first and fourth carbon atom of D(+)-glucose.
However, later on Haworth, Hirst and their co-workers in 1926 established the presence of a six-mem-
bered ring (amylene oxide or -oxide ring) between first and fifth carbon atoms.

CHO HC* OH HC* OH

1 1 1

H C OH H C OH O H C OH O
2 2 2

HO C H HO C H HO C H
3 3 3

H C OH H C H C OH
4 4 4

H C OH H C OH H C
5 5 5

H2C OH H2C OH H2C OH

6 6 6
Open-chain structure Five membered ring Six membered ring
(g-oxide) structure (d-oxide) structure
The asterisk indicates the newly developed asymmetric carbon atom.
STUDY MATERIAL: XII CHEMISTRY 5 BIOMOLECULES
 The ring structure for glucose explains all the objections against the open chain structure in the
following way.
(i) Since the ring structure of glucose has no free aldehydic group, it does not give certain characteristic
reactions of aldehydes with weak carbonyl reagents, viz. it does not restore Schiff’s reagent colour,
does not form a bisulphite or an aldehyde ammonia compound. But on the other hand, it gives certain
reactions of the carbonyl group, viz. formation of cyanohydrin, oxime, phenylhydrazone, etc., the
reason being the strong carbonyl reagents like HCN, NH2OH, C6H5NHNH2, etc., are able to open
the ring to form a free aldehydic group which then reacts with reagents.
(ii) Since in the ring structure one new asymmetric centre (C1, marked by asterisk) has been introduced,
it may have two different arrangements to give two isomeric glucoses and its some derivatives; in
practice also glucose, methyl glucoside and glucose penta-acetate are found to exist in two forms, viz.
- and -. By the study of the various aldoses it has been observed and also proved by both physical
and chemical methods that in the -form of the D-series the hydroxyl group or substituted hydroxyl
group is attached to the right. While in the -form of the L-series the hydroxyl group is attached to the
left.

H C OH HO C H
1 1

H C OH O H C OH O
2 2

HO C H HO C H
3 3

H C OH H C OH
4 4

H C H C
5 5

H2C OH H2C OH
6 6
-D-glucose -D-glucose

In carbohydrate chemistry the two isomers differing only in the configuration of C1 (in aldoses) or C2
(in ketoses) are known as anomers, while such carbon atom is known as anomeric carbon atom.
Similarly, the existence of two methyl glucosides and pentacetates can be explained.

H C OR OR C H
1 1

H C OH O H C OH O
2 2

HO C H HO C H
3 3

H C OH H C OH
4 4

H C H C
5 5

H2C OH H2C OH
6 6
- -
Methyl glucosides, when R = CH3
Glucose penta-acetates, when R = COCH3

STUDY MATERIAL: XII CHEMISTRY 6 BIOMOLECULES

 (iii) Mutarotation: The ring structures for glucose also explains the mutarotation by the fact that the change in
specific rotation is due to the interconversion of the -form [()D = +113°] of glucose to -[(x)D = +19.5)
and vice verse through the aldehydrol structure (hydrate of aldehyde) till an equilibrium is reached between
two structures. The specific rotation value of this equilibrium mixture consisting of 36% -glucose and
64% -is +52.50.

CH(OH)2

H C OH H C OH HO C H
1 1

H C OH O HO C H H C OH O
2
  

 H2O
 2
 
 H2O

HO C H  H2O
H C OH
 H 2O HO C H
3 3

H C H C OH H C
4 4

H C OH H2C OH H C OH
5 5

H2C OH H2C OH
6 6
intermediate aldehydrol form -D-glucose
-D-glucose
[D [D

 [D 

(G) Properties : It is a white crystalline solid, melting point 146ºC, sweet in taste but not as sweet as cane
sugar. It produces cooling on keeping on the tongue, soluble in water, sparingly soluble in alcohol and
insoluble in ether. It rotates the plane of polarization of plane polarized light towards right hand side, hence
the name dextrose.
Glucose molecule contains four chiral carbons. It exists in 16-optically active forms.

14.2.2 FRUCTOSE, C6H12O6

Fructose is found in ripened fruits and honey. It is leavo rotatory and hence the name leavulose. It contains
three different asymmetric carbon atoms and so exists in eight optically isomeric forms. It is the sweets of all the
sugars.

HOH2C OH CH2OH HO CH2OH

CH2OH
| |
C C=O C
C=O
| | |
|
HO – C – H HO – C – H HO – C – H
HO – C – H
| | |
|
H – C – OH O H – C – OH H – C – OH O
H – C – OH
| | | |
H – C – OH H – C – OH H – C – OH H – C – OH
| | | |
CH2OH CH2 CH OH CH2
2
Fructose –D–Fructose D–Fructose –D–Fructose

STUDY MATERIAL: XII CHEMISTRY 7 BIOMOLECULES

 In form of Pyromose ring structure :

H H
|6 |6
C
1
H C OCH2OH
1
H O OH
| |
| | | H |
H C5 OH C2
C H
5
OH C
2
H | |
| |4 | | | |
HO HO C4 C CH2OH
C C OH
3 3

| |
| | OH H
OH H
–D–Fructose –D–Fructose
In form of furanose structure (Haworth structure) :
O O
HOH2C CH2OH HOH2C OH

H HO H HO
H OH H CH2OH

HO H HO H

-D-(–)-Fructofuranose -D-(–)-Fructofuranose
Some important characteristics of fructose are :
* It is a ketonic sugar. It behaves like a ketohexose.
* It shows mutarotation i.e. specific rotation of a freshly prepared fructose solution changes with time. It
suggests its ring structure.
* Fructose on reduction with Na–Hg/H2O forms a mixture of sorbitol and mannitol.
* Fructose is not oxidised by Br2 water but with HNO3 it forms a mixture of glycollic and tartaric acids.
* Fructose forms a pentaacetate with excess of acetic anhydride indicating the presence of five – OH groups
in its molecule. The pentaacetate loses reducing properties.
* Fructose is a reducing sugar. It reduces Tollen's reagent giving silver mirror, Fehling's solution giving a red
ppt. of Cu2O, etc.
* Although fructose is a ketonic sugar yet it reduces Tollen's reagents, etc. It is due to the fact that under
alkaline conditions it rearranges to give a dmixture of glucose, mannose and fructose. Glucose and mannose
are aldehydic sugars and hence reducing in nature.
* Fructose forms osazone with phenyl hydrazine which is quite identical with glucose and mannose osazone.
* Zymase ferments fructose to ethanol and CO2.
* Fructose is functional isomeric with glucose.

14.3 DISACCHARIDES
Disaccharides on hydrolysis with dilute acids or enzymes yield two molecules of either the same or different
monosaccharides. The two monosaccharides are joined together by an oxide linkage formed by the loss of a
water molecule. Such a linkage between two monosaccharide units through oxygen atom is called glycosidic
linkage.
14.3.1 SUCROSE, CANE SUGAR, C12H22O11 :
Occurrence : It occurs naturally in sugar cane and beet root. It is also found in honey, pineapples, bananas
and several other ripened fruits. Molasses is the mother liquor left after the crystallization of sugar from the
sugar cane juice. It is a colourless, crystalline, solid, highly soluble in water.
STUDY MATERIAL: XII CHEMISTRY 8 BIOMOLECULES
 O
CH2OH
HOH2C
O
H H H
H
OH H OH H
HO
O CH2OH
H OH H HO
Glucose unit Fructose unit
Sucrose
Main Properties :
Hydrolysis :
C12H22O11 + H2O  C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
Dil. Acid or
invertase(yeast)
Glucose Fructose
The hydrolysis of cane sugar is called inversion. An equimolecular mixture of glucose and fructose is called
invert sugar. Invert sugar is sweeter than sucrose due to the presence of fructose. Sucrose (cane sugar) is
dexro-rotatory, but invert sugar is levorotatory, because the levorotation of fructose in invert sugar is more than
dextro rotation of glucose.

Acetylation : Sucrose forms sucrose octaacetate indicating that sucrose molecule contains eight – OH groups.
Sucrose octaacetate is used for preparing denatured spirit.

Non-reducing nature Sucrose does not contain a free aldehydic or ketonic group so it does not show
mutarotation. It does not reduce Fehling solution or Tollen's reagent. It does not form cyanohydrin, oxime or
osazone.

14.3.2 Maltose, malt sugar, C12H22O11 : It is obtained by the action of enzyme diastase present in germinated
barley on starch.
It is a white crystalline solid, m.p. 160ºC. It is highly soluble in water and the solution rotates the plane of
polarised light towards right hand side (dextro rotatory). It is about one third as sweet as cane sugar. It is a
reducing sugar. It reduces Fehling's solution, forms oxime and osazone and shows the phenomenon of
mutarotation. On hydrolysis with dil. HCl or the enzyme maltase, it gives two molecules of glucose.
CH2OH CH2 OH
O O
H H H H
H H
OH H OH H
HO OH
O
H OH H OH
Glucose unit Maltose Glucose unit

C12H22O11 + H2O 

conc. HCl
 C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
Maltase
Maltose Glucose Glucose
Uses : Maltose is used in the manufacture of malted milk and various types of baby foods.
STUDY MATERIAL: XII CHEMISTRY 9 BIOMOLECULES
14.3.3 Lactose, Milk Sugar, C12H22O11 : It occurs in the milk of all animals, hence the name milk sugar. It is sweet
in taste but much less than sucrose. It is manufactured by evaporating whey, a by-product obtained in the
manufacture of cheese, and crystallizing the concentrated solution.
Lactose is a white crystalline solid, m.p. 203ºC. It dissolves in water and is optically active (dextro rotatory).
It is a reducing sugar. Its solution shows mutarotation. It gives an oxime and osazone. It reduces Tollen's
reagent, Fehling solution, etc.

CH2OH CH2OH
O H O
H H
H H
OH H O OH H
HO OH
H

H OH H OH
Glucose Unit Glucose Unit
Lactose

On hydrolysis, lactose gives equimolecular amounts of D-glucoses and D-galactose.

C12H22O11 + H2O 
conc. HCl
 C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
Glucose Galactose

14.4 POLYSACCHARIDES
Polysaccharides contain a large number of monosaccharide units joined together by glycosidic linkages. These
are the most commonly encountered carbohydrates in nature. They mainly act as the food storage or structural
materials.

14.4.1 Starch, Amylum, (C6H10O5)n :

Starch is an important plant poly saccharide. It's general formula is (C6H10O5)n. n = 200 to 1000. It consist of
 – glucose and is made up of two components (i) Amylose (ii) Amylopectin .
Amylose – It is a linear polymer containing  – glucose as the structural units. The anylose is water soluble.
Amylopectin – It is water insoluble component of starch, It is made up of several short branched chains of –
glucose unit.
It is important carbohydrate in our diet. It is found in plants as reserved food material. Rice, wheat, maize and
other cereals contain 60–80% starch. Potatoes also contain about 15-20% starch. Rice is the richest source
of starch.
Glycogen, a polymer of glucose, is known as animal starch and is present in liver. It functions as reserve
carbohydrate in animals.

Properties of Starch :
Starch is a white, amorphous powder with no odour and taste. It is insoluble in water.
Soluble starch is prepared by heating ordinary starch with 10% HCl for 24 hours and then precipitating with
alcohol.

Hydrolysis – When boiled with dilute mineral acids, it is first converted into dextrin and finally into glucose.

 (C6H10O5)n  nC6H12O6

dil. Acid
(C6H10O5)n 
Dil. acid

Dextrin Glucose

STUDY MATERIAL: XII CHEMISTRY 10 BIOMOLECULES

 Hydrolysis of starch with diastase, an enzyme gives maltose (a disaccharide).
2(C6H10O5)n + nH2O 
Diastase
 nC12H22O11
(enzyme)
Maltose
Action with iodine : Starch gives blue colour with iodine. The blue colour disappears on heating but reappears
on cooling.
Amylose gives blue colour whereas amylopectin gives brown colour with iodine.
Uses of Starch :
(i) In the manufacture of glucose, dextrin and adhesives.
(ii) For preparing ethyl alcohol.
(iii) As a laboratory reagent, an indicator for iodine titrations.
(iv) For sizing paper, textiles, etc.
(v) Starch is the main source of Carbohydrate. So, it is used as food in the form of bread, rice, potatoes, etc.
(vi) In laundery for stiffening of cotton.

14.4.2 Cellulose: Cellulose is the chief component of wood and plant fibers; cotton, for instance, is nearly pure
cellulose. It is insoluble in water and tasteless; it is a non-reducing carbohydrate. These properties, in part at
least, are due to extremely high molecular weight.
Cellulose has the formula (C6H10O5)n. Complete hydrolysis by acid yields D-(+)-glucose as the only
monosacchardide. Hydrolysis of completely methylated cellulose gives a high yield of 2,3,6-tri-O-methyl-D-
glucose. Like starch, therefore, cellulose is made up of chains of D-glucose units, each unit joined by a glyco-
side linkage of C-4 of the next.

H H
OH H
H OH
HO
O
O O
HO HO O
HO H2O
O O
O
H OH
H OH
H
HO H
Cellulose

Cellulose differs from starch, however, in the configuration of the glycoside linkage. Upon treatment with acetic
anhydride and sulfuric acid, cellulose yields octa-O-acetylcellobiose; there is evidence that all glycoside link-
ages in cellulose, like the one in (+)-cellobiose, are beta linkages.

Properties of Cellulose :
(i) Cellulose is a white, amorphous, tasteless, fibrous substance, insoluble in water and organic solvents. It
dissolves in a solution of cupric hydroxide in ammonia [Cu(NH3)4](OH)2 (Schweitzer's reagent) from
which acids, alcohols or salts precipitate it. This property is used in the manufacture of artificial silk (rayon,
cupra silk).
(ii) Hydrolysis – On boiling with dilute acids, cellulose is completely hydrolysed to give glucose.
(C6H10O5)n + nH2O 
Dil. acid
 nC6H12O6

Cellulose glucose

STUDY MATERIAL: XII CHEMISTRY 11 BIOMOLECULES

 Cattle and other ruminants have enzyme cellulase which hydrolyses cellulose to glucose. Hence, these
animals can digest cellulose. Men cannot digest cellulose due to the lack of cellulase in their digestive
system.
(iii) Cellulose when treated with conc. HNO3 yields cellulose trinitrate. Its acetylation with acetic anhydride
forms cellulose triacetate, thus showing the presence of three – OH groups per glucose unit.
Industrial applications of cellulose In the manufacture of paper, artificial silk (rayon), explosives, etc.
Gun cotton is cellulose trinitrate. It is a powerful explosive. It used for making smokeless powder or
cordite which is a mixture of cellulose trinitrate, nitroglycerine and vaseline.
Blasting gelatin is a mixture of nitroglycerine and 70% gun cotton. Cellulose acetate is used for making
non-inflammable photographic and motion picture films, non-shatterable glass and varnishes.

14.4.3 Glycogen: The carbohydrates are stored in animal body as glycogen. It is also known as animal starch be-
cause its structure is similar to amylopectin and is rather more highly branched. It is present in liver, muscles and
brain. When the body needs glucose, enzymes break the glycogen down to glucose. Glycogen is also found in
yeast and fungi.

14.5 PROTEINS
The word 'protein' was first of all given by Mulder. These are complex nitrogenous, organic compounds found
in the protoplasm of all living cells. These are essential constituents of all the living cells. Chemically, proteins
are the linear condensation polymers of -amino acids which are bonded by peptide (–CO–NH–) bonds.
Thus, proteins are polyamides.
Biological Importance of Proteins :
(i) Proteins are required for repairing the wear and tear of tissues.
(ii) Some proteins act as hormones such as insulin, oxytocin vasopressin, glutathione, etc.
(iii) All enzymes are proteins which catalyze the physiological reactions.
(iv) Proteins function as biological structural materials. For example, hair, nails, etc.
(v) Haemoglobin, the oxygen transporter which is a red coloured pigment in blood is a protein.
(vi) Antibodies in blood which provide resistance to diseases are proteins.
(vii) Nucleoproteins are the molecules of life. They are the important constituents of genes which transmit
genetic messages in cell division.
Structure of Proteins : Proteins are built up of a large number of -amino acid molecules interlocked by
elimination of water between NH2 of one acid molecule and COOH of the other to form an amide like linkage.
H2N – CH2 – COOH + H2N – CH – COOH

–H2O CH3

H2N – CH2 – CO – NH – CH – COOH

CH3
Peptide linkage
Glycylalanine (Gly-Ala)

The product is a peptide and the grouping – CO – NH – is called a peptide linkage.

Peptides are further designated as di-, tri- and tetrapeptide according as they contain two/three or four amino
acid molecules joined together in this fashion. In general, they are referred as polypeptides.
A polypeptide with more than hundred amino acid residues, having molecular mass higher than 10,000 u is
called a protein.

STUDY MATERIAL: XII CHEMISTRY 12 BIOMOLECULES

 Classification of Proteins :
Fibrous proteins : When the polypeptide chains run parallel and are held together by hydrogen and disulphide
bonds, then fibre– like structure is formed. Such proteins are generally insoluble in water. Some common
examples are keratin (present in hair, wool, silk) and myosin (present in muscles), etc.
Globular proteins : This structure results when the chains of polypeptides coil around to give a spherical
shape. These are usually soluble in water. Insulin and albumins are the common examples of globular proteins.
Simple proteins These yield -amino acids only on complete hydrolysis.
Conjugated proteins They produce a mixture of -amino acids and a non-protein part (prosthetic group)
on complete hydrolysis. For example
Lipoproteins,chromoproteins,nucleoproteins,glycoproteins are conjugated proteins.
Derived proteins Derived proteins are the intermediate products of hydrolysis of proteins.
Structure of Proteins These are the condensation polymers of -amino acids joined together through
peptide (–CONH) bonds.
Primary structure : It refers to the sequence in which the various amino acids present in a protein are linked
to one another in a polypeptide chain.
Change in the sequence of amino acids drastically changes the properties of protein. In haemoglobin change in
just one amino acid unit causes sickel cell anemia.
Normal haemoglobin  Val – His – Leu – Thr – Pro – –– Glu ––

Sickel sell haemoglobin  Val – His – Leu – Thr – Pro –– Val ––

Secondary structure It refers to the formation of helical structure of proteins. The  or –helical structure
is stabilized by hydrogen bonds.

O O O O O

C C C C C

N N N N N

H H H H H

Secondary structure of Protein Molecules

-Helix is one of the most common ways in which a polypeptide chain forms all possible hydrogen bonds by
twisting into a right handed screw (helix) with the –NH group of each amino acid residue hydrogen bonded to
the >C = O of an adjacent turn of the helix. In -structure all peptide chains are stretched out to nearly
maximum extension and then laid side by side which are held together by intermolecular hydrogen bonds. The
structure resembles the pleated folds of drapery and therefore is known as -pleated sheet.
Tertiary sturcture: It refers to the three dimensional structure of proteins. It includes bending and folding of
long polypeptide chains. This structure is stabilized by H-bond, ionic bonds, etc.
Quaternary structure of proteins: Some of the proteins are composed of two or more polypeptide chains
referred to as sub-units. The spatial arrangement of these subunits with respect to each other is known as
quaternary structure.
STUDY MATERIAL: XII CHEMISTRY 13 BIOMOLECULES
 Denaturation of Proteins : Protein found in a biological system with a unique three-dimensional structure and
biological activity is called a native protein. When a protein in its native form, is subjected to physical change
like change in temperature or chemical change like change in pH, the hydrogen bonds are disturbed. Due to
this, globules unfold and helix get uncoiled and protein loses its biological activity. This is called denaturation of
protein. During denaturation 2° and 3° structures are destroyed but 1º structure remains intact.
Example : The coagulation of egg white on boiling is a common example of denaturation. Another example is
curdling of milk which is caused due to the formation of lactic acid by the bacteria present in milk.

14.6 AMINO ACIDS

Amino acids are the bifunctional organic compounds containing –NH2 and –COOH groups. –Amino acids
are the building blocks of almost all the proteins. Proteins are linear condensation polymers of –amino acids.
There are about 24 natural amino acids known.
Amino acid :
H
|
H2N –– C –– COOH
|
Amino group R Carboxyl group
Non-essential amino acids : Human body can synthesize ten amino acids and hence they are called nonessential
amino acids.
Essential amino acids : Amino acids which the human body cannot synthesize and are supplied in the human
diet are called essential amino acids. Deficiency of these amino acids causes disease such as Kwashiorkor. All
amino acids exist as Zwitter ion.

NH2 NH3
| |
R – CH – COOH R – CH – COO
The dipolar structure is commonly known as Zwitter ion. In acidic medium, amino acids exist as cation while in
alkaline medium they form a –ve ion. The pH at which an amino acid does not migrate towards any electrode
is called its isoelectric point (Pi). Different amino acids have different Pi. All amino acids except glycine (NH2
– CH2 –COOH) are optically active.
Some Amino acids
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Structure Name Abbreviation
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
NH2
H
O glycine Gly
HO

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
NH2
H3C
O alanine Ala
HO

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
STUDY MATERIAL: XII CHEMISTRY 14 BIOMOLECULES
 CH3

H3C

NH2
valine Val
HO

CH3 NH2

O
H3C leucine Leu
OH

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
NH2

O
H3C isoleucine Ile
CH3 OH

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
O

S
H3C OH methionine Met
NH2

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

14.7 ENZYMES
These are biological catalysts produced by living cells. They catalyze various biological reactions. They are
highly specific in their action. All the enzymes are conjugated proteins There is an optimum pH and temperature
for the proper functioning of each enzyme. Some of the important reactions catalyzed by enzymes are given
below.
Enzymes Reaction catalyzed
Zymase Fermentation of glucose or fructose to ethyl alcohol
Invertase Sucrose glucose fructose
Maltase Maltose  glucose glucose
Lactase Lactose  glucose + galactose
Amylase Amylum (starch)  glucose
Urease Urea  NH3 + CO2
Pepsin Proteins Amino acids
Trypsin Proteins Amino acids
Nuclease DNA/RNA  Nucleotides
Lipase Oils or fats  glycerol fatty acids

Mechanism of Enzyme Action : Enzymes are needed only in small quantities for the progress of a reaction.
Similar to the action of chemical catalysts, enzymes are said to reduce the magnitude of activation energy. For
example, activation energy for acid hydrolysis of sucrose is 6.22 kJ mol–1, while the activation energy is only
2.15 kJ mol–1 when hydrolysed by the enzyme, sucrase.

STUDY MATERIAL: XII CHEMISTRY 15 BIOMOLECULES

14.8 VITAMINS (VITAL MINERALS)
The organic compounds which are required in very small amounts and are necessary to maintain normal health,
growth and nutrition are called vitamins. It should be noted that vitamins are not utilized in cell building or as
energy source but they act as catalysts (co-enzymes) in biological processes. Their deficiency causes serious
diseases. Vitamins are not synthesized in the body and hence should be supplied in diet i.e. they are essential
dietary factors.

Classification of Vitamins :
(i) Fat soluble vitamins – These are vitamin A, D, E and K.
(ii) Water soluble vitamins – Vitamin B complex and vitamin C.
Table : Some important Vitamins, their Sources and their Deficiency Diseases
S. Name of Sources Deficiency diseases
No. Vitamins
1. Vitamin A Fish liver oil, carrots, Xerophthalmia (hardening of
butter and milk cornea of eye)
Night blindness
2. Vitamin B1 Yeast, milk, green Beri beri (loss of appetite,
(Thiamine) vegetables and ereals retarded growth)
3. Vitamin B2 Milk, eggwhite, liver, Cheilosis (fissuring at corners of
(Riboflavin) kidney mouth and lips), digestive
disorders and burning sensation
of the skin.
4. Vitamin B6 Yeast, milk, egg yolk, Convulsions
(Pyridoxine) cereals and grams
5. Vitamin B12 Meat, fish, egg and Pernicious anaemia (RBC
curd deficient in haemoglobin)
6. Vitamin C Citrus fruits, amla and Scurvy (bleeding gums)
(Ascorbic green leafy vegetables
acid)
7. Vitamin D Exposure to unlight, Rickets (bone deformities
fish and egg yolk in children) and osteomalacia
(soft bones and joint pain in
adults)

14.9 NUCLEIC ACIDS

These are the prosthetic groups of nucleoproteins. These are natural biopolymers made of nucleotide units, i.e.
these are polynucleotides. They are present in all the living cells. They direct the synthesis of proteins and are
responsible for the transfer of genetic information, i.e., hereditary characteristics. Nucleic acids are of two types.
DNA or Deoxyribonucleic acid The sugar unit present
in these nucleic acids is 2-deoxyribose. H
RNA or Ribonucleic acid They contain ribose as the Branched H

sugar unit. Nucleic acids are colourless, amorphous, base H

compounds. The monomeric unit of nucleic acids are called

nucleotides each nucleotide consists of three parts.
RNA molecules are of three types and they perform different
Non coiling
functions. They are named as messenger RNA (m-RNA), area of RNA
ribosomal RNA (r-RNA) and transfer RNA (t-RNA). Unbranched
base

STUDY MATERIAL: XII CHEMISTRY 16 BIOMOLECULES

 Structure of RNA
(a) Nitrogeneous bases – They are again of two types ;
Purine bases
NH2
N O
N
H-N N
N N H2 N
H N N
H
Adenine Guanine
Pyrimidine bases :
O NH2
O
H-N CH3 N H-N
O O
N N O
N
H H
Thymine Cytosine Uracil
(b) Sugars : 2–Deoxy ribose (Present in DNA) and Ribose (Present in RNA)
(c) Phosphate unit :
Nucleosides : A nucleoside is made up of a base unit and a sugar mostly.
For example
Adenine ribose = Adenosine
Guanine ribose = Guanosine
Cytosine ribose = Cytidine
Thymine ribose = Thymidine
Nucleotides : [Nucleotide = Nacleoside + phosphate unit]

Structure of Nucleic Acids

A unit formed by the attachment of a base to 1' position of sugar is known as nucleoside. In nucleosides, the
sugar carbons are numbered as 1', 2', 3', etc. in order to distinguish these from the bases (Fig. a). When
nucleoside is linked to phosphoric acid at 5'-position of sugar moiety, we get a nucleotide (Fig.).
O
5' – 5'
HO – H2C O Base O O H2C O Base

4' 1' O– 4' 1'

H H H
H H 3' 2'
H
3' 2'

OH OH OH OH
(b)
(a)
Figure : Structure of (a) a nucleoside and (b) a nucleotide
Nucleotides are joined together by phosphodiester linkage between 5' and 3' carbon atoms of the pentose
sugar. The formation of a typical dinucleotide is shown in Fig..

STUDY MATERIAL: XII CHEMISTRY 17 BIOMOLECULES

 5' end of chain
O BASE
5'
O BASE O P O CH2 O
O P O CH2 O O SUGAR
O SUGAR 3'
O
+ OH Phosphodiester O P O
linkage
O BASE O BASE
O P O CH2 O 5'CH
2 O
O SUGAR SUGAR
3'
OH
3' end of chain
Flow Chart of Nucleic acid (DNA and RNA)

Nucleotides

Nucleoside Phosphoric acid

Nitrogen base Pentose sugar

Purine Pyrimidine Ribose Deoxyribose

Adenine Guanine Cytosine Thymine Uracil

Difference Between DNA and RNA

DNA
1. The pentose sugar is 2-deoxy ribose.
2. DNA occurs in the nucleus of the cell.
3. The component bases of DNA are
adenine, guanine,
4. DNA has double helical structure.
5. It directs protein synthesis, stores and
transfers genetic information.
RNA
The pentose sugar is ribose.
RNA is found mainly in the cytoplasm of
the cell.
The four component bases of RNA are
adenine, guanine, cytosine and uracil.
RNA has single helical structure.
It helps in protein synthesis.

STUDY MATERIAL: XII CHEMISTRY 18 BIOMOLECULES

 Structure of DNA : In 1953 Waston and Crick proposed double
stranded structure of DNA. The two polynucleotide chains of DNA 5' 3'
molecule are twisted about a common axis. These chains run in opposite
directions to form a right handed helix. The bases in the two chains are
G C
joined with each other by hydrogen bonds. Adenine forms pair with A T
T A
thymine and guanine with cytosine. A T

Replication : It is the property of a molecule to form its own duplicate

copy. DNA possesses unique property to duplicate or replicate itself. C G
G C
Transcription : It involves the copying of DNA base sequences into a T A
complimentary RNA molecule known as messenger RNA. C G
Mutation : It is error in the base sequence in the DNA molecule. This
chemical change in the DNA molecule leads to a protein synthesis having T A
G C
different amino acid sequence called mutation. A T
It may be caused by radiation, heat, chemicals or vireas etc. T A

Biological Functions of Nucleic Acids : DNA is the chemical basis of A T

T A
heredity and may be regarded as the reserve of genetic information. C G
DNA is exclusively responsible for maintaining the identity of different G C
species of organisms over millions of years. A DNA molecule is capable
of self duplication during cell division and identical DNA strands are 5' 3'
transferred to daughter cells.
Fig. Double strand helix structure
for DNA
Another important function of nucleic acids is the protein synthesis in the cell. Actually, the proteins are synthesised
by various RNA molecules in the cell but the message for the synthesis of a particular protein is present in DNA.
LEARNING CHECK

Q.1 What are the constitutents of starch ?

Q.2 Deficiency of which vitamin causes rickets ?
Q.3 What is structural formula of zwitter ion formed from alaminic ?
Q.4 What are constituents units of cellulose ?
ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES
Example 1 :
Glycogen and cellulose are both homopolymers of glucose. What is the difference between them?
Sol. Glycogen has  (1  4) and  (1  6) linkages, while cellulose has  (1  4) linkages.

Example 2 :
Removing lignin from wood pulp and forming the resulting of cellulose fibers into sheets makes paper. Most of
us have observed that untreated paper losses most of its strength when wet with water but maintains its strength
when wet with oil. Why should this be the case?
Sol. Water disrupts the intrafiber hydrogen bonds that hold the cellulose fibers together; oil has no effect on hydrogen
bonds.
Example 3 :
What functional group distinguishes a reducing sugar from a nonreducing sugar?
Sol. Saccharides in which the anomeric carbon has not been derivatized are reducing sugars a mild oxidizing agent
such as Ag+ of Cu+2 can oxidize the aldehyde.

STUDY MATERIAL: XII CHEMISTRY 19 BIOMOLECULES

Example 4 :
Glucose oxidase catalyzes the oxidation of glucose. The enzyme is absolutely specific for  -D-glucose and will
not react with  -D-glucose. Yet this enzyme is routinely used in clinical laboratories to determine blood
glucose concentrations in samples that are mixtures of -D-glucose and  -D-glucose. How is this possible?
Sol. As the -D-glucose anomer is oxidized, mutarotation converts the -D-glucose to -D glucose until all the
glucose has been oxidized.

Example 5 : CHO
What type of stereochemical representation of glyceraldehyde is shown ? HO H
Sol. This is a Fischer projection. CH2OH

Example 6 :
Assign the configuration of the molecule of glyceraldehyde example 7 as R or S and D or L.
Sol. In a Fischer projection the horizontal bonds are towards you, the vertical away as shown below:
CHO CHO
HO H = HO H
CH2OH CH2OH
To assign the R / S configuration, need to assign the priorities of the groups at the chirality center.
HO > CH = O > CH2OH > H. Now with the lowest priority group away, the sense of rotation of highest to
lowest priority is counter-clockwise, so this is the S stereoisomer.
To assign the D / L configuration, need to remember that in the Fischer projection the -OH group is on the left
in the L stereoisomer.

Example 7 :
Write the products of hydrolysis of lactose.
Sol. -D-Glucose and -D-Galactose

Example 8 :
Define the following terms :
(i) Nucleotide (ii) Anomers (iii) Essential amino acids
Sol. (i) Nucleotide : It is the monomer unit of DNA which is formed by nitrogenous base, Deoxyribose sugar and
Phosphoric acid.
(ii) Anomer : Anomers are cyclic monosaccaride which are differing from each other in the configuration of c-
1 if they are aldose or in the configuration at c-2 if they are ketoses.
(iii) Essential amino acid : The Amino acid can not synthesised by body and essential for body.
ANSWERS TO LEARNING CHECK
(1) Starch is made up of amylose and amylopectin. Amylose is a soluble fraction and a linear polymer of
-D-glucose. Amylopectin is the water soluble fraction and consists of linear as well as branched chain polymer
-D-glucose.
(2) Deficiency of vitamin D causes Rickets.

NH3
|
(3) CH3  CH  COO
(4) Cellulose is a linear polymer made up of D (+)-glucose molecules linked by -glycosidic bonds (linkages).
STUDY MATERIAL: XII CHEMISTRY 20 BIOMOLECULES

* Biomolecule : Molecules of organic
compounds which build up living
systems and are required for their
growth and maintenance are called
biomolecules.
* Carbohydrates : The naturally oc-
curring organic compounds con-
taining carbon, hydrogen and oxy-
STUDY MATERIAL: XII CHEMISTRY
gen are called carbohydrates. The
general formula of carbohydrates is
CnH2nOn.
Starch and sugars are the most im-
portant carbohydrates.
* Monosaccharides : Monosaccha-
rides are the simplest carbohydrates
which cannot be hydrolysed into
any smaller simpler molecules. The
21
monosaccharide containing aldehy-
dic group is termed aldose, while
* Peptide bond : The amino (– NH2)
group of one -amino acid and the
carboxylic (– COOH) group of an-
other molecule of the same or dif-
ferent -amino acid get condensed
with the elimination of a water mol-
ecule. During condensation, a bond
of the type – CONH– is formed be-
tween the two amino acids. This
amide linkage of the type
– CONH – is called a peptide link-
age or a peptide.
* Terminal groups : All peptides con-
tain a free amino (– NH2) group at
one end, and a free carboxylic
BIOMOLECULES
CONCEPT MAP
that containing a keto group is
called ketose.
* Disaccharides : Disaccharides are
sugars (carbohydrates) which con-
tain two monosaccharide units. and
give these monosaccharides on hy-
drolysis. The disaccharides have
the molecular formula C12H22O11.
The most important and common
disaccharides are, maltose, lactose
and sucrose.
• Sucrose (canesugar) contains one
glucose and one fructose unit.
• Maltose contains two glucose
units.
BIOMOLECULES
(– COOH) group at the other end.
These are called end groups or ter-
minal groups.
* Peptides : The compounds formed
by the condensation of two or more,
same or different amino acids are
called peptides.
* Protein : Proteins are complex
nitrogeneous organic compounds,
which are essential for the growth
and maintenance of life.
• Fibrous proteins : The fibrous pro-
teins consists of linear, thread-like
polypeptide chains which are
• Lactose (milk sugar) contains one
glucose and one galactose unit.
* Polysaccharides : The carbohy-
drates which upon hydrolysis give
a large number of monosaccharide
molecule are called polysaccharides.
General molecular formula of
polysaccharides is (C 6 H 10 O 5 ) n
where n = 100 – 3000.
e.g. : Starch, Cellulose, Glycogen
* Amylose is a linear polymer of glu-
cose. It contains about 200 glucose
units linked to each o ther by glyco-
sidic bonds. Amylose is water-
soluble component of starch.
arranged or twisted to form long
strands (fibres).
The substances like collagen of
tendon; Keratin in skin, hair, nails
and Fibroin in silk; Myosin in
muscles, are fibrous proteins.
• Globular proteins : The proteins
in which polypeptide chains are
very tightly folded into a compact,
spherical from are called globular
proteins.
* Denaturation of proteins : The pro-
cess which leads to change in the
* Amylopectin is a highly branched
polymer of glucose. Amylopectin
is water-insolube component of
starch.
* Amino acid : The carboxylic acids
containing amino (NH2) group at-
tached to any carbon atoms other
than the carboxylic carbon are called
amino acids.
* Zwitter ion : In solutions, amino
acid molecule exists as a dipolar ion,
e.g.
Such a dipolar ion of an amino acid
is called zwitter ion.
physical and biological properties
of proteins without affecting its
chemical composition is called de-
naturation of protein.
* Hydrolysis of proteins : Proteins
hydrolyse through a number of
steps, e.g.,
Proteins Proteoses  Peptones
 Polypeptides  Simple peptides
 -Amino acids

* Structure of proteins :
• The sequence in which amino ac-
ids are arranged in a protein is
called its primary structure.
• The conformation (or shape)
which the polypeptide chain of a
protein molecule acquires due to
secondary bonding such as, hydro-
gen bonding between the carbonyl
STUDY MATERIAL: XII CHEMISTRY
and amino groups, is called the sec-
ondary structure of the protein.
• The tertiary structure of a protein
is a complete three-dimensional
structure of globular proteins. Ter-
tiary structure in proteins arises due
to folding and super-imposition of
various secondary structural ele-
22
ments.
* DNA is the genetic material and is
responsible for the heredity char-
acter of the cell.
* The RNA is found as the genetic
material in some plant and animal
viruses, while in other living organ-
isms it occur with DNA. RNA is
found in nucleolus, cytoplasm and
on the membrane in ribosomes.
RNA is a giant molecule, but shorter
than DNA. The ribonucleic acids
are found in multiple copies in mul-
tiple forms in a given cell.
* RNA is heterogenous and is classi-
fied by its cellular location and by
BIOMOLECULES
CONCEPT MAP
* Enzymes : Enzymes are biocatalyst
produced by the living cells which
catalyse many biochemical reac-
tions in animal and plant bodies.
* Gene and genetic code : The DNA
sequence that codes for a specific
protein or a polypeptide is called a
gene. Thus, every protein in a cell
has a corresponding gene. The re-
lationship between the nucleotide
triplets and the amino acids is called
the genetic code.
* Mutation : Any change in the base-
sequence of DNA which leads to
the synthesis of proteins with al-
tered amino acid sequence is called
mutation.
BIOMOLECULES
its function as follows:
• Messenger RNA (mRNA),
• Ribosomal RNA (rRNA),
• Transfer RNA (tRNA)
* Nucleosides : The Base-sugar unit
in any nuclei acid chain is called a
nucleoside. Thus, a nucleoside
contains a pentose sugar and a ni-
trogen base. In a nucleoside, 1-po-
sition (N atom) of the pyrimidine
base, or 9-position (N atom) of a
purine base is linked to 1C of the
sugar by a -linkage. The nucleo-
sides are named after the name of
* Vitamins : A group of biomolecules
which are not produced by the
body but required in very small
quantities for normal metabolic ac-
tivities and healthy growth of hu-
man beings and animals are called
vitamins.
• Water-soluble vitamins : Vitamins
which dissolve in water are called
water-soluble vitamins. Examples:
Vitamins B and C are water-soluble
vitamins.
• Oil or fat-soluble vitamins : Vita-
mins which dissolve in oils or fats
are called oil or fat-soluble vitamins.
the base, attached at carbon atom
number-1 of the sugar unit. Thus,
the nucleoside consisting of the
sugar ribose, and the base adenine
is called adenosine.
* Nucleotides : The Base-Sugar-
Phosphate unit is called a nucle-
otide.
NOTE
* Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy
aldehydes or ketones.
* Mild oxidation of aldoses gives
aldonic acid.
Examples : Vitamins A, D, E and K
are oil/fat-soluble vitamins.
* Nucleic acids : Nucleic acids are
long thread-like macromolecules of
high molecular mass, that are re-
sponsible for the transmission or
herediatry characters (genetic in-
formation) from parents to their off-
springs and for the biosynthesis
of proteins.
There are two types of nucleic acid.
(a) deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
(b) ribonucleic acid (RNA)
Bases present in DNA :
Purines: Adenine (A),Guanine (G)
Pyrimidines : Cytosine (C),
Thymine (T)
Bases present in RNA :
Purines: Adenine (A),Guanine (G)
Pyrimidines : Cytosine (C),
Uracil (U)
* Aldose and ketoses both react with
phenylhydrazine (excess) to form
osazones, which contain two
phenylhydrazone group.
* Monosaccharides are simple sug-
ars, containing three to nine carbon
atoms.
* All amino acids are chiral molecules
with at least one chiral carbon ex-
cept glycine.
* The -amino acids exists as dipolar
ion (Zwitter ion).