Aerodynamics - Subsonic-Merged

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 07: Stability and Control
LEARNING MODULE 01:

Review of Aircraft
Propulsion Systems
AE 321 – Aerodynamics 2
Prepared by:
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING FACULTY
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page
Reciprocating Engine 4
Operating Principles – Reciprocating Engine 8
Activity 1 12
Turbine Engine 13
Operating Principles – Turbine Engine 17
Activity 2 17
TIME COMMITMENT FOR THIS MODULE

Reading Material Time
Reciprocating Engine 45 mins
Operating Principles – Reciprocating Engine 60 mins
Turbine Engine 45 mins
Operating Principles – Turbine Engine 35 mins
Activity
Activity 1 60 mins
Activity 2 60 mins
Assessment
Formative Assessment No. 1 60 mins
This module reviews the different types of propulsion system used by aircrafts. It
discusses the components and operating principles of each propulsion system.
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ACADEMIC HONESTY STATEMENT

As students, you are expected to perform tasks with intellectual and academic
integrity. The college assumes basic standard of conduct in academic requirements
that students will comply with honesty and will be credited only for their own efforts.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Course Learning Outcome (CLO)

CLO 1. Valuing the study of subsonic Module Learning Outcome (MLO)
aerodynamics and its application on
the aviation industry through Topic Learning Outcome
aerodynamic computations on MLO 1. Evaluate an aircraft (TLO)
aircraft performance. propulsion system by the thrust or TLO 1. Identify the different aircraft
CLO 2. Evaluate the performance of power that it produces. propulsion systems by their
the different aircraft propulsion
MLO 2. Differentiate aircraft characteristics and definition.
systems through theoretical
discussions and calculations.
propulsion systems by TLO 2. Solve for the power output
characteristics and operation. of a piston engine using the
CLO 9. Display professional
commitment to ethical practice by equation for power.
showing sense of responsibility in TLO 3. Determine the thrust force
complying and compiling academic of a jet engine and a propeller
requirement. using the equation for thrust.
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RECIPROCATING ENGINE
Reciprocating engines operate on the basic principle of converting chemical

energy (fuel) into mechanical energy. This conversion occurs within the cylinders of
the engine through the process of combustion. The two primary reciprocating engine
designs are the spark ignition and the compression ignition. The spark ignition
reciprocating engine has served as the powerplant of choice for many years. In an
effort to reduce operating costs, simplify design, and improve reliability, several engine
manufacturers are turning to compression ignition as a viable alternative. Often
referred to as jet fuel piston engines, compression ignition engines have the added
advantage of utilizing readily available and lower cost diesel or jet fuel.
The main mechanical components of the spark ignition and the compression
ignition engine are essentially the same. Both use cylindrical combustion chambers
and pistons that travel the length of the cylinders to convert linear motion into the rotary
motion of the crankshaft. The main difference between spark ignition and compression
ignition is the process of igniting the fuel. Spark ignition engines use a spark plug to
ignite a pre-mixed fuel-air mixture. (Fuel-air mixture is the ratio of the “weight” of fuel
to the “weight” of air in the mixture to be burned.) A compression ignition engine first
compresses the air in the cylinder, raising its temperature to a degree necessary for
automatic ignition when fuel is injected into the cylinder.
TYPES OF RECIPROCATING ENGINE
• Radial Engines
- A radial engine consists of a row, or rows of cylinders arranged around
a crankcase. The two basic types of radial engines are the rotary-type
and the static-type. The cylinders of a rotary-type radial engine are
mounted radially around a small crankcase and rotate with the propeller,
while the crankshaft remains stationary. Some of the more popular
rotary-type engines were the Bentley, the Gnome, and the LeRhone.
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• Inline Engines
- In-line reciprocating engines generally have an even number of cylinders
aligned in a single row parallel with the crankshaft. The pistons are either
upright above or inverted below the crankshaft. This engine can be either
liquid-cooled or air-cooled. In-line engines have a comparatively small
frontal area, which enables them to be enclosed by streamlined nacelles
or cow lings. Because of this, in-line engines were popular among early
racing aircraft.
• V-type Engines
- In-line engines evolved into V-type engines. Two rows of cylinders,
called banks, are oriented 45, 60, or 90 degrees apart from a single
crankshaft. Two banks of cylinders typically produce more horsepower
than an in-line engine. Because the cylinder banks share a single
crankcase and a single crankshaft, V-type engines have a reasonable
power-to-weight ratio with a small frontal area. The pistons can be
located either above the crankshaft or below the crankshaft. Most V-type
engines had 8 or 12 cylinders. V-type engines can be either liquid- or air-
cooled.
• Opposed-type Engines
- Opposed-type engines are the most common reciprocating engines
currently used on light aircraft. Opposed engines always have an even
number of cylinders, with each cylinder on one side of a crankcase
"opposing" a cylinder on the other side. Opposed engines have a
relatively small, lightweight crankcase that contributes to a high power-
to-weight ratio. The compact cylinder arrangement provides a
comparatively small frontal area, which enables the engine to be
enclosed by streamlined nacelles or cowlings. With opposing cylinders,
power impulses tend to cancel each other out, resulting in less vibration
than other engine types.
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ENGINE COMPONENTS
The basic parts of a reciprocating engine include the crankcase, cylinders,

pistons, connecting rods, valves, valve-operating mechanism, and crankshaft. The
valves, pistons, and spark plugs are located in the cylinder assembly, while the valve
operating mechanism, crankshaft, and connecting rods are located in the crankcase.
Figure 1. Main components of a spark ignition reciprocating engine.
• Crankcase
The crankcase is the core of a reciprocating engine. It contains the engine's
internal parts and provides attach points for the cylinders, external accessories,
and airframe installation. Additionally, the crankcase provides a tight enclosure for
the lubricating oil. Due to great internal and external forces; crankcases must be
extremely rigid and strong. A crankcase is subjected to dynamic bending
moments that change continuously in direction and magnitude.
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• Cylinders
The cylinder is the combustion chamber where the burning and expansion of
gases takes place to produce engine power. Furthermore, a cylinder houses the
piston and connecting rod assembly along with the valves and spark plugs. A
cylinder must be strong enough to withstand the internal pressures developed
during engine operation yet be lightweight to minimize engine weight.
Additionally, the materials used in the construction of a cylinder must have good
heat-conducting properties for efficient cooling. Finally, a cylinder assembly must
be relatively simple and cost-effective to manufacture, inspect, and maintain.
• Pistons
The piston in a reciprocating engine is a cylindrical plunger that moves up and
down within a cylinder assembly. Pistons perform two primary functions; in
conjunction with the valves, pistons manage the fuel, air, and exhaust pressures
in the cylinder and they transmit the force of combustion through the
connecting rod to the crankshaft.
• Connecting rods
The connecting rod is the link that transmits the force exerted on the piston to
the crankshaft. Most connecting rods are made of a durable steel alloy; however,
low-horsepower engines sometimes use aluminum. The weight of a connecting
rod corresponds to the amount of inertia it possesses when the rod and piston
stop before accelerating in the opposite direction at the end of each stroke.
• Valves
Engine valves regulate the flow of gases into and out of a cylinder by opening
and closing at the appropriate time during the Otto cycle. Each cylinder has at
least one intake valve and one exhaust valve. The intake valve controls the
amount of fuel/air mixture that enters through the intake port, and the exhaust
valve lets the exhaust gases exit the cylinder through the exhaust port.
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• Crankshaft
The crankshaft receives a linear power pulse from the piston through the
connecting rod and changes it to rotary motion to turn the propeller. Because
crankshafts must withstand high stress; they are generally forged from a strong
alloy such as chromium-nickel molybdenum steel. Some crankshafts are made
from a single forging, while others are formed by joining several components.
OPERATING PRINCIPLES – RECIPROCATING ENGINE
ENERGY TRANSFORMATION
Aircraft engines are heat engines-that is, they convert the chemical energy of
fuel into heat energy. The heat energy increases gas pressure within cylinder. The
expanding gases force the piston downward, at which point the heat energy is
transformed into mechanical energy to rotate the crankshaft. Because the fuel is
burned inside the engine, an aircraft engine is referred to as an internal combustion
engine.
The process of converting the chemical energy of fuel into mechanical energy is similar
in all internal combustion engines. Fuel is measured then vaporized and mixed with
an appropriate amount of air to create a combustible mixture. The fuel/air mixture is
compressed and ignited within a cylinder. As the mixture burns, it releases energy,
causing the noncombustible gases, like nitrogen, to expand. Because nitrogen
comprises approximately 78 percent of air, the potential for expansion is substantial.
The expanding gas exerts pressure on a piston, driving it downward to rotate the
crankshaft, changing the mechanical energy from linear to rotary motion. This cycle
can be understood as a series of five events, which occur in this order:
Intake - the intake valve opens as the piston travels downward drawing fuel and
air into a cylinder. The exhaust valve is closed.
Compression - the intake valve closes and the fuel/air mixture is compressed
as the piston travels upward.
Ignition - the compressed fuel-air mixture is ignited by a spark.
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Power - burning gases expand, forcing the piston downward, which causes the
crankshaft to rotate.
Exhaust - the exhaust valve opens and the burned gases are forced out of the
cylinder as the piston travels upward. As the piston reaches the top of the cylinder,
the exhaust valve closes and the sequence repeats.
FOUR-STROKE CYCLE
The four strokes of the Otto cycle are called intake, compression, power, and
exhaust. Completing this cycle requires two revolutions of the crankshaft. The four-
stroke cycle is sometimes referred to as a constant volume cycle because the burning
fuel inside the cylinder increases pressure with almost no change in volume.
In a four-stroke engine, the conversion of chemical energy into mechanical

energy occurs over a four-stroke operating cycle. The intake, compression, power,
and exhaust processes occur in four separate strokes of the piston in the following
order.
1. The intake stroke begins as the piston starts its downward travel. When this
happens, the intake valve opens and the fuel-air mixture is drawn into the cylinder.
2. The compression stroke begins when the intake valve closes, and the piston starts
moving back to the top of the cylinder. This phase of the cycle is used to obtain a much
greater power output from the fuel-air mixture once it is ignited.
3. The power stroke begins when the fuel-air mixture is ignited. This causes a
tremendous pressure increase in the cylinder and forces the piston downward away
from the cylinder head, creating the power that turns the crankshaft.
4. The exhaust stroke is used to purge the cylinder of burned gases. It begins when
the exhaust valve opens, and the piston starts to move toward the cylinder head once
again.
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Figure 2. Direction of motion of the crankshaft and piston during the four-stroke cycle.
WORK-POWER CONSIDERATIONS
Work is the result of force moving an object. The amount of work accomplished
is directly proportional to the force applied and the distance moved. In mathematical
terms, work is defined as the product of force multiplied by distance.
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑥 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Time is not a consideration when determining the amount of work done. Power
is work related to time. A low-powered motor can be geared to lift a large weight;
however, if it is important to lift the weight quickly, more power is required. Power is
defined as the time-rate of doing work. Power is calculated with the formula:
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑥 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
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HORSEPOWER
Another unit of measure for power is horsepower. One horsepower is the

amount of power required to do 33,000 foot-pounds of work in one minute or 550 foot-
pounds of work in one second. The formula for calculating horsepower is:
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑥 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 =
33,000 𝑥 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
INDICATED HORSEPOWER
Indicated horsepower (IHP) represents the total power developed in the

cylinders without accounting for friction losses within the engine. To calculate indicated
horsepower, you must know the indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP) within the
cylinders. This can be determined by attaching an indicating device to a cylinder to
measure the actual pressure during a complete operating cycle. From this data,
average pressure is computed. This average pressure is included in the indicated
horsepower calculation with other engine specifications. The formula used to calculate
an engine's indicated horsepower rating is:
𝑃𝐿𝐴𝑁𝐾
𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 =
33,000
Where:
P - the IMEP inside the cylinder during a power stroke measured in pounds per square
inch.
L - the length of the stroke in feet.
A - the area of the piston head in square inches.
N - the number of power strokes per minute for one cylinder. For a four-stroke engine,
this is found by dividing the r.p.m. by two.
K - the number of cylinders.
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FRICTION HORSEPOWER
All engines require energy to draw a fuel/air charge into the combustion
chamber, compress it, and expel exhaust gases. Furthermore, gears, pistons, and
accessories create friction that must be overcome. Although friction can be reduced by
lubrication, it cannot be eliminated. Therefore, not all of the horsepower developed in
an engine goes to driving the propeller. The power necessary to overcome the friction
and energy losses is known as friction horsepower. This value is determined by driving
an engine with a calibrated motor and measuring the power needed to turn the engine
at a given speed.
BRAKE HORSEPOWER
The actual amount of power delivered to turn a propeller is called brake

horsepower. Brake horsepower can be determined by subtracting an engine's friction
horsepower from its indicated horsepower. In practice, measuring an engine's brake
horsepower involves measuring torque, or twisting moment. Torque is a measure of
load and is properly expressed in pound-feet or Newton-meters. The formula for
calculating brake horsepower is:
2𝜋 𝑥 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑥 𝑟𝑝𝑚
𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 =
33,000
ACTIVITY 1
Copy the problem first before answering the following questions on a clean paper.
Please write your name on the top left corner and your course, year level, and the
section below. Write “Activity 1” at the top center of the paper before the honesty
clause. Write legibly. Place the honesty clause and your signature at the beginning of
your work. Outputs should be submitted on Google Classroom on the dates
designated by the instructor.
1. Calculate the indicated horsepower for a six-cylinder engine with a bore of five
inches, a stroke of five inches, turning at 2,750 rpm, and with an IMEP of 125 psi per
cylinder.
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2. Calculate the brake horsepower for an engine that develops 600 foot-pounds of
torque while turning at 2,700 rpm.
TURBINE ENGINE
An aircraft turbine engine consists of an air inlet, compressor, combustion

chambers, a turbine section, and exhaust. Thrust is produced by increasing the velocity
of the air flowing through the engine. Turbine engines are highly desirable aircraft
powerplants. They are characterized by smooth operation and a high power-to-weight
ratio, and they use readily available jet fuel. Prior to recent advances in material, engine
design, and manufacturing processes, the use of turbine engines in small/light
production aircraft was cost prohibitive. Today, several aviation manufacturers are
producing or plan to produce small/light turbine-powered aircraft.
TYPES OF TURBINE ENGINE
• Turbojet
- The turbojet engine consists of four sections—compressor, combustion
chamber, turbine section, and exhaust. Turbojet engines are limited in
range and endurance. They are also slow to respond to throttle
applications at slow compressor speeds.
-
• Turboprop
- A turboprop engine is a turbine engine that drives a propeller through a
reduction gear. The exhaust gases drive a power turbine connected by a
shaft that drives the reduction gear assembly. Reduction gearing is
necessary in turboprop engines because optimum propeller performance
is achieved at much slower speeds than the engine’s operating rpm.
Turboprop engines are a compromise between turbojet engines and
reciprocating powerplants.
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• Turbofan
- Turbofans were developed to combine some of the best features of the
turbojet and the turboprop. Turbofan engines are designed to create
additional thrust by diverting a secondary airflow around the combustion
chamber. The turbofan bypass air generates increased thrust, cools the
engine, and aids in exhaust noise suppression. This provides turbojet-
type cruise speed and lower fuel consumption.
• Turboshaft
- It delivers power to a shaft that drives something other than a propeller.
The biggest difference between a turbojet and turboshaft engine is that
on a turboshaft engine, most of the energy produced by the expanding
gases is used to drive a turbine rather than produce thrust. Many
helicopters use a turboshaft gas turbine engine. In addition, turboshaft
engines are widely used as auxiliary power units on large aircraft.
ENGINE COMPONENTS
Figure 3. Basic components of a gas turbine engine.
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AIR INLET DUCT
The air inlet duct on a turbojet engine is normally considered part of the airframe,
not the powerplant. The air inlet to a turbine engine is designed to recover as much of
the total pressure of the free airstream as possible and deliver it to the compressor.
The air inlet duct also provides a uniform supply of air to the compressor for efficient
operation. The inlet duct is designed to cause as little drag as possible. It takes only a
small obstruction to the airflow inside a duct to cause a severe loss of efficiency.
COMPRESSOR SECTION
A gas turbine engine takes in a quantity of air, adds energy to it, and then
discharges the air to produce thrust. Accordingly, the more air forced into an engine,
the more thrust the engine can produce. The component forcing air into an engine is
the compressor. To be effective, the compressor must increase intake air pressure 20
to 30 times above ambient and move the air at a velocity of 400 to 500 feet per second.
One way to measure a compressor's effectiveness is by comparing the static pressure
of the compressor discharge and the static air pressure at the inlet.
COMBUSTION SECTION
A combustion section is typically located directly between the compressor

diffuser and turbine section. All combustion sections contain the same basic elements:
one or more combustion chambers (combustors), a fuel injection system, an ignition
source, and a fuel drainage system.
TURBINE SECTION
After the fuel/air mixture burns in the combustor, its energy must be extracted. A turbine
transforms a portion of the kinetic energy in the hot exhaust gases into mechanical
energy to drive the compressor and accessories. In a turbojet engine, the turbine
absorbs approximately 60 to 80% of the total pressure energy from the exhaust gases.
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The turbine section of a turbojet engine is located downstream of the combustion

section and consists of four basic elements: a case, a stator, a shroud, and a rotor.
EXHAUST SECTION
The design of the exhaust section a turbojet engine directly affects the amount of thrust
developed. A typical exhaust section extends from the rear of the turbine section to the
point where the exhaust gases leave the engine. An exhaust section is made of several
components including the exhaust cone, the exhaust duct often referred to as the
tailpipe, and the exhaust nozzle.
OPERATING PRINCIPLES – TURBINE ENGINE
ENERGY TRANSFORMATION
A gas turbine engine is a form of heat engine that converts the chemical energy
of fuel into heat energy. Heat energy causes an increase in gas pressure that is
converted into kinetic energy in the form of a high velocity stream of air. The kinetic
energy is transformed to mechanical energy as the gases rotate a series of turbine
wheels to drive a compressor and accessories. In the case of turboprop or turboshaft
engines, the expanding gases can also drive a second power turbine to drive a
propeller or gearbox.
ENERGY TRANSFORMATION CYCLE
The energy transformation cycle in a gas turbine engine is known as the Brayton cycle
(or constant pressure cycle). Similar to the four-stroke Otto cycle, the Brayton cycle
has intake, compression, combustion, and exhaust events. However, unlike a piston
engine, all four events occur simultaneously and continuously in a gas turbine engine.
A gas turbine engine is able to produce power continuously. To support the continuous
production of power, a gas turbine engine must burn a great deal of fuel.
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Figure 4. Four events in a turbine engine.
JET ENGINE THRUST

The fundamental mechanisms by which nature communicates a force to a solid
surface are by means of the surface pressure and shear stress distributions. The
propeller is a case in point, where the net result of the pressure and shear stress
distributions over the surface of the propeller blades yields an aerodynamic force, the
thrust, which propels the vehicle forward. Also, an effect of this thrust on the propeller
is an equal and opposite reaction that yields a force on the air itself, pushing it
backward in the opposite direction of the propeller thrust; that is, a change in
momentum is imparted to the air by the propeller, and an alternate physical
explanation of the production of thrust is that T is equal to the time rate of change of
momentum of the airflow.
However, keep in mind that the basic mechanism producing thrust is still the
distribution of pressure and shear stress over the surface. Also, as in the case of lift
produced by a wing, the thrust is primarily due to just the pressure distribution; the
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shear stress is predominantly a drag producing mechanism that affects the torque of
the propeller.
These same principles carry over to jet propulsion. the jet engine is a device that takes
in air at essentially the free-stream velocity, heats it by combustion of fuel inside the
duct, and then blasts the hot mixture of air and combustion products out the back end
at a much higher velocity.
In contrast to a propeller, the jet engine creates a change in momentum of the gas by
taking a small mass of air and giving it a large increase in velocity (hundreds of meters
per second).
By Newton’s third law, the equal and opposite reaction produces a thrust. However,
this reaction principle, which is commonly given as the basic mechanism for jet
propulsion, is just an alternate explanation in the same vein as the discussion
previously given. The true fundamental source of the thrust of a jet engine is the net
force produced by the pressure and shear stress distributions exerted over the surface
of the engine.
The general formula for thrust for jet engines is given as:
T = mair (Ve – V∞) + (Pe – P∞) Ae
Where:
T = Thrust
mair = mass flow rate of air
Ve = exit velocity
V∞ = free stream velocity
Pe = exit pressure
P∞ = pressure at free stream
Ae = exit velocity
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SAMPLE PROBLEM
Consider a turbojet powered airplane flying at a standard altitude of 30,000 ft at a
velocity of 500 mi/h. The turbojet engine itself has inlet and exit areas of 7 and 4.5 ft 2,
respectively. The velocity and pressure of the exhaust gas at the exit are 1600 ft/s and
640 lb/ft2, respectively. Calculate the thrust of the turbojet.
Given:
h = 30,000 ft
v = 500 mph
Ai = 7ft2
Ae = 4.5ft2
Ve = 1600 fps
Pe =640 psf
Solution:
Step 1: Compute for the density and pressure at 30,000 ft.
ρ = ρo [Th /To]4.26
ρ = (0.002377) [(519-(0.003566x30000))/ (519)]4.26
ρ = (0.002377) [(412.02)/ (519)]4.26
ρ = 8.89135982 X 10-4 slugs/ft3
P = Po [Th /To]5.26
P = 2116.8 [(412.02)/ (519)]5.26
P = 628.5933 psf
Step 2: Compute for the mass flow rate.
mair = ρ∞ V∞ Ai
mair = (8.89135982 X 10-4) (733) (7)
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mair = 4.5622 slugs/s
Step 3: Compute for Thrust.
T = mair (Ve – V∞) + (Pe – P∞) Ae
T = (4.5622) (1600 – 733) + (640 – 628.5933) (4.5)
T = 4006.75755 lbs
ACTIVITY 2
Copy the problem first before answering the following questions on a clean paper.
Please write your name on the top left corner and your course, year level, and the
section below. Write “Activity 2” at the top center of the paper before the honesty
clause. Write legibly. Place the honesty clause and your signature at the beginning of
your work. Outputs should be submitted on Google Classroom on the dates
designated by the instructor.
1. Consider a turbojet powered airplane flying at a standard altitude of 28,000 ft at a

velocity of 650fps. The turbojet engine itself has inlet and exit areas of 6 and 4 ft 2,
respectively. The velocity and pressure of the exhaust gas at the exit are 1200 ft/s
and 700 lb/ft2, respectively. Calculate the thrust of the turbojet.
2. Consider a turbojet powered airplane flying at a standard altitude of 20,000 ft at a

velocity of 600 fps. The turbojet engine itself has inlet and exit areas of 8 and 5 ft 2,
respectively. The velocity and pressure of the exhaust gas at the exit are 1500 ft/s
and 1240 lb/ft2, respectively. Calculate the thrust of the turbojet.
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TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure Reference
1 FAA. (2016). Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge.
2 FAA. (2016). Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge.
3 Jeppesen (2011). A & P Technician Powerplant Textbook.
4 Jeppesen (2011). A & P Technician Powerplant Textbook.
TABLE OF REFERENCES
No. Reference
Jeppesen (2011). A & P Technician Powerplant Textbook. 55 Inverness
Drive East Englewood, CO 80112-5498. Retrieved from
1
https://soaneemrana.org/onewebmedia/JEPPESEN%20POWERPLANT%20
TEXTBOOK4.pdf
FAA. (2016). Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge. United States
Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, Airman
2
Testing Standards Branch, AFS-630, P.O. Box 25082, Oklahoma City, OK
73125.
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Learning Module 2: Steady Unpowered, Powered, and Level Flight
LEARNING MODULE 02:

Steady Unpowered,
Powered, and Level
Flight
AE 321 – AERODYNAMICS II
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Ref. no Page
Introduction to Flight Performance 1 5
Equations of Motion 1 7
Thrust Required for Level, Unaccelerated Flight 1 9
Thrust Available and Maximum Available 1 16
Power Required for Level, Unaccelerated Flight 1 18
Power Available and Maximum Velocity 1 24
Altitude Effects on Power Required and Power Available 1 27
Sample Problems 30
Plate No. 1 33
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TABLE OF REFERENCES
References No.
Anderson, Jr., J. D. (1989). Introduction to Flight (3rd Edition) [E-book].
1
McGraw-Hill Book Company
Jones, B. (1939). Elements of Practical Aerodynamics (2nd Edition) [E-
2
book]. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Clancy, L. J. (1975). Aerodynamics [E-book]. Pitman Publishing Limited. 3
Anderson, Jr., J. D. (2011). Fundamentals of Aerodynamics (5th Edition)
4
[E-book]. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Figures and Tables No.

Figures 2.1-2.19 are taken from the reference above. 1
Note that tables presented are made for organizing purposes only.

Reading Materials Time (min)
Modules
Introduction to Flight Performance 34
Equations of Motion 44
Thrust Required for Level, Unaccelerated Flight 54
Thrust Available and Maximum Available 34
Power Required for Level, Unaccelerated Flight 54
Power Available and Maximum Velocity 34
Altitude Effects on Power Required and Power Available 44
References
Anderson, Jr., J. D. (1989). Introduction to Flight (3rd
185.2
Edition) [E-book]. McGraw-Hill Book Company
Activities Time (min)

Sample Problems 100
Plate No. 1 180
Quiz No. 2 180
TOTAL 943.2 min (15.72 hrs)
HONESTY CLAUSE
As members of the academic community, students are expected to recognize and
uphold standards of intellectual and academic integrity. The institution assumes as a
basic and minimum standard of conduct in academic matters that students be honest
at all times and that they submit for credit only the products of their own efforts.
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LEARNING OUTCOMES
Program Learning Outcomes (PLO)
Course Learning Outcomes (CLO)
PLO 1: Apply knowledge of Module Learning Outcomes (MLO)
mathematics, physical CLO 1: Valuing the study of Topic Learning
sciences, engineering subsonic aerodynamics and Outcomes (TLO)
MLO 1: Introduce concepts
sciences to the practice of its application on the aviation involving aircraft performance TLO 4: Discuss concepts
aeronautical engineering. industry through through discussions presented involved in aircraft performance
through theoretical discussions.
PLO 4: Function in multi- aerodynamic computations in the module. TLO 5: Explain and identify
disciplinary and multi-cultural on aircraft performance. MLO 2: Explain force diagram forces acting on an aircraft
during steady, level,
teams CLO 3: Quantify for steady, level, unaccelerated unaccelerated flight through
PLO 5: Identify, formulate, aerodynamic forces along flight through discussions force diagram and definition of
terms.
and solve aeronautical flight using aerodynamic presented in the module. TLO 6: Explain the thrust
engineering problems. MLO 3: Explain thrust required for an aircraft to fly in
equations derived from steady, level, unaccelerated flight
PLO 8: Understand the required, power required for
Newton’s Second Law of through using the force diagram
level unaccelerated flight of an aircraft.
impact of aeronautical Motion. TLO 7: Formulate working
through discussions presented
engineering solutions in CLO 4: Utilize knowledge in equations for thrust required and
in the module. its minimum conditions through
global, economic, airplane performance by MLO 4: Derive working the use of equations of motion
obtained from the force diagram.
environmental, and societal applying theories and equations for thrust required TLO 8: Solve for the thrust
context principles of flight in solving and power required and its required and its minimum
conditions through the
PLO 9: Recognize the need problems. minimums using the equation application of derived working
for, and engage in life-long CLO 5: Display analytical of motions. equations and aerodynamic
considerations.
learning skills by performing MLO 5: Solve problems TLO 9: Explain the
PLO 11: Use techniques, computations in flight involving thrust required and difference of thrust required and
thrust available through the
skills, and modern power required and its
performance problems. discussion of their definitions.
engineering tools necessary minimum conditions through TLO 10: Explain the concept
CLO 9: Display professional of power and its application to
sample problems and/or
for aeronautical engineering commitment to ethical power required of an aircraft
module activities. through theoretical discussions.
practice practice by showing sense of TLO 11: Formulate working
MLO 6: Differentiate thrust equations for power required and
PLO 12: Knowledge and responsibility in complying required and thrust available its conditions through the
understanding of and compiling academic through theoretical discussions application of the concept of
power and the equations of
engineering and requirement. and considerations. motion.
management principles as a MLO 7: Differentiate thrust TLO 12: Solve for the power
required and its minimum
member and leader in a available between propeller conditions through the
application of the derived
team, to manage projects and jet driven aircraft through working equations and
and in multidisciplinary illustrations and aerodynamic aerodynamic considerations.
environments. data. TLO 13: Explain the

difference of thrust available for
PLO 13: Apply acquired MLO 8: Explain the effect of propeller driven and jet driven
altitude on power required and aircraft through the discussion of
aeronautical engineering the presented aerodynamic data.
power available through TLO 14: Discuss the effects
knowledge and skills for
formulation of working of altitude on power required and
national development. equations.
power available through
formulation of working equations
MLO 9: Solve problems that illustrate the effects using
existing derived working
involving altitude effects on equations.
power required through TLO 15: Solve for power
required at altitudes using
problem sets and/or module derived working equations.
activities.
4|P a ge
CONTENT
I. Introduction to Flight Performance
In the discussion of the fundamentals of aerodynamics, the physical
phenomena of producing lift, drag and moments of an airplane were
introduced. It was emphasized that aerodynamic forces and moments
exerted on a body moving through a fluid came from two sources which
acts over the body surface:
1. Pressure Distribution
2. Shear Stress Distribution
This module will consider the airplane as a rigid body on which is exerted
four natural forces: lift, drag, thrust, and weight. Concerns will be focused
on the movement of the airplane as it responds to these forces and such
considerations form the core of flight dynamics.
The study of flight dynamics will no longer be concerned with aerodynamic
details, rather we will generally assume that the aerodynamicists have
done their work and that the pertinent aerodynamic data for the airplane
are provided for us. These data are usually packaged in the form of drag
polar equation for the airplane.
𝐶𝐿2
𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷,𝑒 + (1)
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
The drag polar equation above includes the drag coefficient for the whole
airplane. CD represents the total drag for the whole airplane, while C L is
the total lift coefficient, including the small contributions from the horizontal
tail and fuselage; CD,e is defined as the parasite drag coefficient which
contains the profile drag of the wing, skin friction drag and pressure drag
of the tail surfaces, fuselage, engine nacelles, landing gear, and other
aerodynamic component of the airplane which is exposed to the airflow.
Note that at transonic and supersonic speeds, the parasite drag coefficient
also contains wave drag.
TOTAL DRAG
SUBSONIC SUPERSONIC
INDUCED DRAG INDUCED DRAG
PARASITE DRAG PARASITE DRAG
 PROFILE (FORM)  PROFILE (FORM)

DRAG DRAG
 SKIN FRICTION  SKIN FRICTION
DRAG DRAG
Figure 2.1
 INTERFERENCE Components of  INTERFERENCE
DRAG Total Drag DRAG 5|P a ge
 WAVE DRAG
Recall that from the fundamentals of aerodynamics, it was stated that the
presence of friction in a flow (or for viscous flows) produces two source of
drag from an aerodynamic body which is: skin friction drag due to shear
stress and the pressure drag due to separation (sometimes identified as
form drag or profile drag). In addition to this, the drag produce by wing tip
vortices or downwash on a finite wing is the drag due to lift or induced
drag.
Recall also that, the drag divergence Mach number is the Mach number
where the onset of drag increase is imminent due to the transition to
supersonic flows and that for supersonic flows, wave drag is present
because of the difference in pressure ahead and behind the shockwave
which gives a net effect in the direction of the greater pressure acting in
the drag direction. This drag is needed to overcome by the aircraft
powerplant.
Interference drag is a type of drag generated from the mixing of airflow

streamlines between airframe components which causes eddies,
turbulence or restrictions for smooth airflow. Some examples of this ire the
connection of the fuselage and the wing, and the connection of the tail
boom and the horizontal stabilizer.
Because of the changes in the flow field around the airplane, especially
changes in the amount of separated flow over parts of the airplane as the
angle of attack is varied, CD,e will change with the angle of attack, that is
CD,e is a function of lift coefficient. A reasonable approximation for this
function is given by:
𝐶𝐷,𝑒 = 𝐶𝐷𝑜 + 𝑟𝐶𝐿2 (2)
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑟 = 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Substituting equation (2) to the drag polar equation above:
𝐶𝐿2
𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷,𝑒 +
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
𝐶𝐿2
𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷𝑜 + 𝑟𝐶𝐿2 +
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
1
𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷𝑜 + (𝑟 + ) 𝐶𝐿2 (3)
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
In equations 1 and 3, e represents the span efficiency factor which is
accounting for non-elliptical wing planforms. Redefining e in the equation,
we can rewrite the equation as:
6|P a ge
𝐶𝐿2
𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷𝑜 + (4)
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
Where:
CD,o = Parasite drag coefficient at zero lift
𝐶𝐿2
= Includes the induced drag and contributions of parasite drag due to
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
lift
Equation 4 now includes the effects of empirically defined constant (r) to

span efficiency factor (e) and is called the Oswald’s Efficiency Factor.
Note that equation 4 describes basic aerodynamic properties of the
airplane and consider that CD,o and e as known aerodynamic quantities.
𝐶𝐿2
We will continue to designate as CDi which has an expanded
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
interpretation as the coefficient of drag due to lift, including both
contributions due to induced drag and the increment in parasite drag due
to angle of attack different than zero lift angle of attack. For compactness,
CD,o will be designated simply as the parasite drag coefficient although we
know it as parasite drag coefficient at zero lift.
II. Equation of Motions
Figure 2.2 Flight Diagram of an Airplane
Consider an airplane in flight as illustrated by the figure above. The flight

path of the airplane is inclined at an angle ϴ with respect to the horizontal
7|P a ge
axis (x-axis). The flight path and relative wind are illustrated to be in the
same direction while the chord line is inclined at a geometric angle of
attack α with the flight path direction. By inspection there are four physical
forces acting on the airplane:
1. Lift (L), which is perpendicular to the flight path direction

2. Drag (D), which is parallel to the flight path direction
3. Weight (W), which acts vertically toward the center of the earth (and
hence is inclined at an angle ϴ with respect to the lift direction)
4. Thrust (T), which in general is inclined at an angle 𝑎 𝑇 with respect to
the flight path direction
Consider the flight path taken by the airplane in the figure above is drawn
as a straight line since we are focusing on the airplane itself. However,
looking at a bigger picture, we see that the airplane follows a curved path
since the Earth is spherical. This is obviously true if the airplane is
maneuvering, even if the airplane is flying straight and level with respect to
the ground. The airplane still travels a curved path with a radius of
curvature equal to the absolute altitude (ha).
An object that moves along a curved path has a curvilinear motion, while
those that follows a straight line have a rectilinear motion. The Newton’s
Second Law of Motion holds for either case. Now, imagine a curvilinear
path and we set up two perpendicular axes in the direction of the flight
path (parallel) and another normal (perpendicular) to the direction of the
flight path.
Applying Newton’s Second Law we have:
𝑑𝑉
∑ 𝐹𝐼𝐼 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚
𝑑𝑡
Where:
∑ 𝐹𝐼𝐼 = 𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ
𝑑𝑉
𝑎= = 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ
𝑑𝑡
𝑉 = 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 ′ 𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
Applying Newton’s Second law:

𝑚𝑉 2
∑ 𝐹ꓕ =
𝑟𝑐
Where:
8|P a ge
∑ 𝐹ꓕ = 𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ
𝑉2
= 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑎 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑎 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑟𝑐
𝑟𝑐
𝑉2
Note that is also known as the centrifugal force.
𝑟𝑐
Performing the summation of forces for parallel and perpendicular

directions: Upward (+) ; Downward (-)
𝑑𝑉
∑ 𝐹𝐼𝐼 = 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑎 𝑇 − 𝐷 − 𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛳 = 𝑚
Parallel Direction 𝑑𝑡
𝑚𝑉 2
Perpendicular Direction ∑ 𝐹ꓕ = 𝐿 + 𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎 𝑇 − 𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛳 =
𝑟𝑐
The equations presented above are the equations of motion for an

airplane in translational flight, i.e. it describes the general two dimensional
motion of an airplane in an accelerated flight. However, for the first part of
flight performance, we are primarily concerned about unaccelerated flight
conditions (where acceleration is zero). This is called the static
performance of an airplane.
Therefore, for level, unaccelerated flight, (where ϴ = 0 and 𝑎 = 0) we have:
𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑎 𝑇 − 𝐷 − 𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛳 = 0
Parallel Direction 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑎 𝑇 = 𝐷 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑎 𝑇 ≈ 1
𝑇=𝐷
𝐿 + 𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎 𝑇 − 𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛳 = 0
Perpendicular Direction 𝐿 + 𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎 𝑇 = 𝑊 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎 𝑇 ≈ 0
𝐿= 𝑊
The equations above are the equations of motion for level, unaccelerated
flight of an aircraft. By inspection of the figure, we can see that in order for
an aircraft to be level and steady in the air, the lift should support the
weight of the aircraft. Likewise, the aerodynamic drag should be balanced
by the propulsive thrust of the aircraft.
III. Thrust Required for Level, Unaccelerated Flight

Consider an airplane in steady level flight, at a given altitude and velocity.
For flight at this velocity, the airplane’s powerplant must produce a net
thrust which is equal to drag. Note that if the net thrust is greater than the
drag, the aircraft will accelerate. From the equations of motion given above
we have:
9|P a ge
𝑇 = 𝐷 = 𝑞∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐷
𝑊 = 𝐿 = 𝑞∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐿
Dividing the equations for thrust and weight above, we have:

𝑇 𝐶𝐷
=
𝑊 𝐶𝐿
The thrust required for an airplane to fly at a given velocity in level,

unaccelerated flight is given by:
𝑊 𝑊
𝑇𝑅 = =
𝐶𝐿 /𝐶𝐷 𝐿/𝐷
The thrust required TR at a given altitude, varies directly with velocity 𝑉∞ . A

thrust required curve is a plot illustrating this variation and is given below:
Figure 2.3 TR vs 𝑽∞ of an Airplane
To calculate a point on this curve, the steps are given by:

1. Choose a value of 𝑉∞
2. From L = W, calculate the lift coefficient (CL):
𝑊
𝐶𝐿 =
1 2
2 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ 𝑆
Where:
𝜌∞ = 𝑖𝑠 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑎 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒
10 | P a g e
𝑆 = 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑎 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒

𝐶𝐿 = 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐿 = 𝑊
3. Calculate the total drag coefficient CD from the drag polar equation
given by:
𝐶𝐿2
𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷,𝑜 +
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
Where:
𝐶𝐿 = 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝 2
4. Calculate the lift to drag (L/D) ratio:

𝐶𝐿
𝐿/𝐷 =
𝐶𝐷
5. Calculate the thrust required (T R) given by:

𝑊 𝑊
𝑇𝑅 = =
The value of thrust required calculated in step 5 is the value of thrust

needed to fly at a specific velocity chosen in step 1. The figure given
above is the locus of all the points taken for all velocities in the flight range
of the airplane.
The value of TR depends inversely as the L/D ratio and, thus the minimum
thrust required (TRmin) will be obtained when the airplane is flying at a
velocity where the lift to drag (L/D) ratio is a maximum as illustrated by the
minimum point in the graph above. The lift to drag (L/D) ratio is an
important measure of the aerodynamic efficiency of an airplane. As stated
above, to obtain the minimum thrust required (TRmin) the lift to drag (L/D)
ratio must be of maximum value. This is why the lift to drag (L/D) ratio is
an important aerodynamic consideration in airplane design. Further
emphasis on this parameter will be done on the succeeding sections of
this module.
It is important to remember that the lift to drag (L/D) ratio is a function of
angle of attack, where in for most conventional subsonic airplanes, lift to
drag (L/D) ratio reaches a maximum value at some specific value of 𝑎
usually on the order of 2⁰ - 5⁰. Therefore, when the value of thrust required
(TR) is minimum, it is flying simultaneously at an angle of attack for
maximum lift to drag (L/D) ratio as shown on figure 1.4 below.
11 | P a g e
Figure 2.4 L/D vs 𝒂 of an Airplane
In addition to the discussion above, let us take a look at the variation of the
thrust required to velocity and angle of attack by examining the graph
shown in figure 1.5 below.
Figure 2.5 TR vs 𝑽∞ of an Airplane
12 | P a g e
Different points on the thrust required curve corresponds to different

values of angle of attack, which is emphasized by considering two points
(a and b) from the curve shown above. Considering point (a), since the
velocity at that point is so high, the dynamic pressure will in turn be also
high. Since the dynamic pressure is directly proportional to the formula of
lift, we have:
𝐿 = 𝑞∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐿
Most of the required lift by the aircraft at point (a) is obtained by the high
dynamic pressure (𝑞∞ ) and since it is inversely proportional to lift
coefficient (CL), the value of angle of attack (𝒂) should be small, so as to
produce a small value of the lift coefficient (CL). That is why, the angle of
attack (𝒂) from the high values of velocity is increasing going to the left
direction (moving towards low velocities). In addition to this, drag is
relatively large because the dynamic pressure (𝑞∞ ) is large in value.
As we move to the left direction, since the velocity (𝑉∞ ) and, hence, the
dynamic pressure (𝑞∞ ) is decreasing, the coefficient of lift (CL) and the
angle of attack (𝑎) should increase to a value enough to generate lift to
support the weight of the aircraft. Because, the dynamic pressure (𝑞∞ )
decreases, drag and thrust required (TR) in turn decrease initially from
point (a) to lower values of velocity (𝑉∞ ).
Recall that the drag due to lift is a component of total drag and that the
induced drag coefficient (CDi) varies directly to CL2 and at low velocities
(𝑉∞ ) such as point (b), the dynamic pressure (𝑞∞ ) is low and the coefficient
of lift (CL) is large. In these conditions, CDi increases rapidly more than the
decreasing dynamic pressure (𝑞∞ ) and, hence, drag (D) and thrust
required (TR) increases. That is why from point (a), the thrust required (TR)
initially decreases and then goes through a minimum value and starts to
increase again as the velocity further decrease in value.
Also, recall that the total drag of an airplane is the sum of its parasite drag
and drag due to lift and from the equations of motion for level,
unaccelerated flight we have:
𝑇 = 𝐷 = 𝑞∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐷 = 𝑞∞ 𝑆(𝐶𝐷𝑜 + 𝐶𝐷𝑖 )
𝐶𝐿2
𝑇𝑅 = 𝐷 = 𝑞∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐷𝑜 + 𝑞∞ 𝑆
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
Where:
𝑞∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐷𝑜 = 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑
𝐶𝐿2
𝑞∞ 𝑆 = 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
13 | P a g e
Figure 2.6 Breakdown of TR vs 𝑽∞ of an Airplane
The figure above shows that the induced thrust required is decreasing with
increase in velocity and that the parasite thrust required is increasing with
increase in velocity. The question is, why does it behave like that?
In relation to the discussions above, the coefficient of lift is decreasing with
increase in velocity since the presence of dynamic pressure 𝑞∞ is high
enough to create majority of the lift and since the coefficient of lift is small,
the induced thrust required consequently decreases. In addition to that,
since the dynamic pressure 𝑞∞ is high, the parasite drag increases. Recall
that parasite drag is a combination of profile (form) drag, skin friction drag,
and interference drag.
Recall that:
𝑊
𝐶𝐿 =
𝑞∞ 𝑆
𝐶𝐿2
𝑇𝑅 = 𝐷 = 𝑞∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐷𝑜 + 𝑞∞ 𝑆
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
𝑊2
𝑇𝑅 = 𝐷 = 𝑞∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐷𝑜 +
𝑞∞ 𝑆 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
From calculus, we see that the point of minimum T R corresponds to the

point where:
𝑑𝑇𝑅
= 0 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑑𝑇𝑅 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑑𝑉∞
14 | P a g e
𝑑𝑇𝑅
= 0
𝑑𝑞∞
Deriving the equation of TR with respect to the dynamic pressure we have:

𝑑𝑇𝑅 𝑊2 1
= 𝑆𝐶𝐷𝑜 − ( 2)=0
𝑑𝑞∞ 𝑆 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅 𝑞∞
𝑊2 1 2
𝑊2
𝐶𝐷𝑜 = ( 2 ) 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝐶𝐿 = 2 𝑆2
𝑆 2 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅 𝑞∞ 𝑞∞
𝐶𝐿2
𝐶𝐷𝑜 = = 𝐶𝐷𝑖
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
The equation highlighted above shows that at TRmin conditions, the
parasite drag is equal to the induced drag as shown by their respective
coefficients. This was readily shown by the graph given above, since the
point of intersection of the parasite thrust required and induced thrust
required intersected at a point corresponding to velocity for T Rmin where
the lift to drag (L/D) ratio is a maximum.
Minimum Thrust Required and Minimum Drag:

From the discussions of maximum C L/CD ratio, we know that:
𝐶𝐿2
𝐶𝐷𝑜 = = 𝐶𝐷𝑖 𝑓𝑜𝑟 (𝐶𝐿 /𝐶𝐷 )𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
𝑊 𝑊
𝑇𝑅 = =
𝑊
𝑇𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
(𝐶𝐿 /𝐶𝐷 )𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐶𝐿 = √𝐶𝐷𝑜 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷𝑜 + 𝐶𝐷𝑖 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝐶𝐷𝑜 = 𝐶𝐷𝑖

𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷𝑜 + 𝐶𝐷𝑜 = 2𝐶𝐷𝑜
𝐶𝐿 √𝐶𝐷𝑜 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅 1 𝐶𝐷𝑜 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅 1 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅

( ) = = √ 2 = √
𝐶𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥 2𝐶𝐷𝑜 2 𝐶𝐷𝑜 2 𝐶𝐷𝑜
𝑊 𝑊
𝑇𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = =
(𝐶𝐿 /𝐶𝐷 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 1 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
2 √ 𝐶𝐷𝑜
15 | P a g e
𝐶𝐷𝑜
𝑇𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2𝑊 √ 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑇 = 𝐷
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
𝐶𝐷𝑜
𝐷𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2𝑊 √
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
Velocity Corresponding to Minimum Drag:

1 2
𝐿= 𝜌𝑉 𝑆𝐶𝐿 = 𝑊
2
2𝑊
𝑉2 =
𝜌𝑆𝐶𝐿
2𝑊
𝑉𝐷𝑚𝑖𝑛 = √
𝜌𝑆𝐶𝐿
2𝑊
𝜌𝑆 √𝐶𝐷𝑜 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
IV. Thrust Available and Maximum Velocity
The thrust required discuss in the previous section is dictated by the

aerodynamics and weight of the airplane which is an airframe-associated
phenomenon. On the other hand, the thrust available T A is strictly
associated with the engine of the airplane, which is the propulsive thrust
provided by an airplane propeller combination, a turbo jet, etc.
The figure below shows the variation of thrust available for a reciprocating
engine and a turbo jet engine commonly used in modern aviation. It is
important to remember that the thrust available produced by a piston
engine with propellers is a maximum at zero velocity (static thrust) and it
decreases with forward velocity. At near sonic flight speeds, the tips of
propeller blades suffer the effects of compressibility (stalling) where the
thrust available deteriorates rapidly. On the contrary, the jet engine
produces a relatively constant thrust with respect to its velocity.
16 | P a g e
Figure 2.7 Piston Engine-Propeller Combination vs. Turbojet Engine
Figure 2.8 TR vs 𝑽∞ for a Turbojet Engine
17 | P a g e
Consider a jet airplane flying at a steady, level flight at a given altitude and
velocity V1. The point 1 on the thrust required curve gives the value of T R
for the airplane to fly at a velocity V1. The pilot has adjusted the throttle
such that the jet engine provides thrust available just equal to the thrust
required at this point: TA = TR. If the pilot now pushes the throttle forward
and increases the engine thrust to a higher value TA, the airplane will
accelerate to a higher velocity. If the throttle is increased to full position,
maximum TA will be produced by the jet engine. In this case the speed of
the airplane will further increase until the thrust required equals the
maximum TA as indicated by point 2. This point indicates that the aircraft
can no longer fly at a faster velocity, otherwise the thrust required would
exceed the maximum thrust available from the powerplant. Hence, the
intersection of the TR curve (airframe dependent) and the T A curve (engine
dependent) defines the maximum velocity Vmax of the airplane at the given
altitude.
Take note that, conventional jet engines are rated in terms of thrust
(usually in lbs) while the piston engines are rated in terms of power
(horsepower), hence TA and TR are inconvenient for propeller driven
aircrafts. Power required and power available are used for propeller driven
aircrafts.
V. Power Required for Level, Unaccelerated Flight

Power is a defined mechanical term that is energy per unit time. The
power in a moving object can be illustrated by a block moving at a
constant velocity V under a constant force F and through a time interval (t 2
– t1) covered by distance d. We assume that an opposing force equal in
magnitude is stopping the block from accelerating as represented by the
figure below. Work is the force multiplied by the distance through which
the force moves. Work is energy and hence, have the same units as
energy.
Figure 2.9 Diagram of an object in motion
From the definition of Power:

𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 ∗ 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = = = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 ∗
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
18 | P a g e
From the diagram above we have: where d/∆t = V

𝑑
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝐹 ( ) = 𝐹𝑉
𝑡2 − 𝑡1
The equation above demonstrates that the power associated with a force
exerted on a moving object is the product of force and velocity.
Recall from the equations of motion, for an airplane in level, unaccelerated

flight at a given altitude with velocity 𝑉∞ and a thrust required 𝑇𝑅 we have:
𝑇𝑅 = 𝐷
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝐹𝑉 = 𝑇𝑅 𝑉∞
𝑊
𝑃𝑅 = 𝑇𝑅 𝑉∞ = 𝑉
𝐶𝐿 /𝐶𝐷 ∞
But from the formula of Lift:
1 2𝑊
𝐿 = 𝑊 = 𝑞∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐿 = 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞2 𝑆𝐶𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉∞ = √
2 𝜌∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐿
Substituting to the formula of power:
𝑊 2𝑊
𝑃𝑅 = √
𝐶𝐿 /𝐶𝐷 𝜌∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐿
2𝑊 3 𝐶𝐷2
𝑃𝑅 = √
𝜌∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐿3
The equation of power required above shows that it is inversely
proportional to the ratio:
1
𝑃𝑅 ∝ 3/2
((𝐶𝐿 )/𝐶𝐷 )
Remember that the thrust required varies inversely to the lift to drag ratio
𝐶𝐿
which is different from the lift to drag ratio of the power required.
𝐶𝐷
The power required curve is defined as a plot of the Power Required (P R)

versus velocity (𝑉∞ ) as shown in the figure below. Qualitatively, it
resembles the thrust required curve in a sense that the power required will
decrease, hit a minimum and increase again. The minimum point
3/2
corresponds to the maximum lift to drag ratio (𝐶𝐿 )/𝐶𝐷 .
19 | P a g e
Figure 2.10 Power Required Curve
Analogous to thrust required, but different relations hold at minimum power

required. Recall from power required:
𝑃𝑅 = 𝑇𝑅 𝑉∞ = 𝐷𝑉∞
𝐶𝐿2
𝑃𝑅 = 𝑞∞ 𝑆(𝐶𝐷𝑜 + )𝑉
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅 ∞
𝐶𝐿2
𝑃𝑅 = 𝑞∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐷𝑜 𝑉∞ + 𝑞∞ 𝑆 𝑉
Where:
𝑞∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐷𝑜 𝑉∞ = 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑
𝐶𝐿2
𝑞∞ 𝑆 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑
The power required, as the case for the thrust required, can be split into
the respective contributions needed to overcome parasite drag and drag
due to lift. The conditions for minimum power required is given by the
𝑑𝑃
slope of the equation of the power required curve given above (𝑑𝑉𝑅 = 0).
∞
20 | P a g e
Figure 2.11 Breakdown of a Power Required Curve
1 𝑊
Recall that: 𝑞∞ = 𝜌 𝑉 2 and 𝐶𝐿 = 1
2 ∞ ∞ 𝜌 𝑉2 𝑆
2 ∞ ∞
Substituting to the equation of power required:
2
𝑊
(1 )
𝜌 𝑉 2𝑆
1 1 ∞ ∞
𝑃𝑅 = 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞2 𝑆𝐶𝐷𝑜 𝑉∞ + 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞2 𝑆 2 𝑉∞
2 2 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
𝑊2
1
1 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ 𝑆
𝑃𝑅 = 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐷𝑜 + 2
3
2 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
Deriving with respect to 𝑉∞ :
𝑑𝑃𝑅 3 𝑊2 1
= 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞2 𝑆𝐶𝐷𝑜 −
𝑑𝑉∞ 2 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅 1 𝜌 𝑉 2 𝑆
2 ∞ ∞
2
𝑑𝑃𝑅 3 𝑊 1 𝑊
= 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞2 𝑆 [𝐶𝐷𝑜 − ] 𝐵𝑈𝑇 𝐶𝐿 =
𝑑𝑉∞ 2 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅 3 𝜌2 𝑉 4 𝑆 2 1 2
4 ∞ ∞ 2 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ 𝑆
1 2
𝑑𝑃𝑅 3 𝐶𝐿 𝐶𝐿2
= 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞2 𝑆 [𝐶𝐷𝑜 − 3 ]= 0 𝐵𝑈𝑇 𝐶𝐷𝑖 =
𝑑𝑉∞ 2 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
1
𝐶𝐷𝑜 = 𝐶𝐷𝑖 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑃𝑅
3
Note that point 1 in the figure above corresponds to C Do = CDi that is
minimum TR, hence the velocity for minimum PR is less than that for the
minimum TR.
21 | P a g e
The point on the power required curve that corresponds to minimum T R is

easily obtained by drawing a line through the origin and tangent to the P R
curve. This can be proved by the illustration below that shows a sketch of
a broken line from the origin intersecting the PR curve. The slope of this
line is PR/V and as we move to the right, the slope of the PR curve
decreases, reach a minimum (tangent point) and then again increase. The
point of tangency corresponds to the minimum slope, thus a minimum
value of PR/V.
𝑃 𝑇 𝑉
𝑑(𝑉𝑅 ) 𝑑( 𝑅𝑉 ∞ ) 𝑑𝑇
∞ ∞ 𝑅
= = = 0
𝑑𝑉∞ 𝑑𝑉∞ 𝑑𝑉∞
The results above show that the point of tangency is equal to the
mathematical criterion for minimum T R and correspondingly, L/D is a
maximum at this point.
Figure 2.12 Slope for minimum Thrust Required
Minimum Power Required:

From the discussion of maximum
𝑃𝑅 = 𝑇𝑅 𝑉∞ = 𝐷𝑉∞
2𝑊 3 𝐶𝐷2
𝑃𝑅 = √
2𝑊 3
𝑃𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
√ 𝐶3
𝜌∞ 𝑆 ( 𝐿2 )
𝐶𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥
1 3/2
𝐶𝐷𝑜 = 𝐶𝐷𝑖 𝑓𝑜𝑟 ((𝐶𝐿 )/𝐶𝐷 )𝑚𝑎𝑥
3
22 | P a g e
𝐶𝐿2
3𝐶𝐷𝑜 = 𝐶𝐷𝑖 =
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
𝐶𝐿 = √3𝐶𝐷𝑜 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷𝑜 + 𝐶𝐷𝑖 = 𝐶𝐷𝑜 + 3𝐶𝐷𝑜
𝐶𝐷 = 4𝐶𝐷𝑜
2𝑊 3 (4𝐶𝐷𝑜 )2
𝑃𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = √ 3
𝜌∞ 𝑆(√3𝐶𝐷𝑜 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅)
2
2𝑊 3 (16𝐶𝐷𝑜 )
𝑃𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = √
3
𝜌∞ 𝑆 [√27𝐶𝐷𝑜 𝜋 3 𝑒 3 (𝐴𝑅)3 ]
4
2𝑊 3 (√𝐶𝐷𝑜 )
𝑃𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 4√
3
𝜌∞ 𝑆 [√27𝐶𝐷𝑜 𝜋 3 𝑒 3 (𝐴𝑅)3 ]
4
2𝑊 3 𝐶𝐷𝑜
𝑃𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 4√ √ 3
𝜌∞ 𝑆 27𝐶𝐷𝑜 𝜋 3 𝑒 3 (𝐴𝑅)3
2𝑊 3 𝐶𝐷𝑜
𝑃𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 4√ √ 3
𝜌∞ 𝑆 3 (𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅)3
2𝑊 3 1 𝐶𝐷𝑜 2𝑊 3 1 √𝐶𝐷𝑜
𝑃𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 4√ ∗ √ 3
= 4√ ∗ ∗
𝜌∞ 𝑆 3 3(𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅) 𝜌∞ 𝑆 3 √3(𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅)3
Rationalizing, we have:
2𝑊 3 1 √𝐶𝐷𝑜 √3(𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅)3
𝑃𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 4√ ∗ ∗[ ∗ ]
𝜌∞ 𝑆 3 √3(𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅)3 √3(𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅)3
2𝑊 3 1 √3𝐶𝐷𝑜 (𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅)3
𝑃𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 4√ ∗ ∗[ ]
𝜌∞ 𝑆 3 3(𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅)3
2𝑊 3 1 1 √3𝐶𝐷𝑜 (𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅)3
𝑃𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 4√ ∗ ∗ [ ]
𝜌∞ 𝑆 3 3 (𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅)3
2𝑊 3 1 √3𝐶𝐷𝑜 (𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅)3
𝑃𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 4√ ∗ 2∗[ ]
𝜌∞ 𝑆 3 (𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅)3
4 2𝑊 3 √3𝐶𝐷𝑜 (𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅)3
𝑃𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = √ ∗[ ]
3 𝜌∞ 𝑆 (𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅)3
23 | P a g e
4 2𝑊 √3𝐶𝐷𝑜 (𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅)3
𝑃𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑊√
Minimum Velocity for Power Required:
1 2
𝐿= 𝜌𝑉 𝑆𝐶𝐿 = 𝑊
2
2𝑊
𝑉2 =
𝜌𝑆𝐶𝐿
2𝑊
𝑉𝑃𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = √
𝜌𝑆𝐶𝐿
2𝑊
𝜌𝑆√3𝐶𝐷𝑜 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
VI. Power Available and Maximum Velocity

A. Reciprocating Engine – Propeller Combination
A reciprocating engine generates power by burning air and fuel inside
the cylinders and using this energy to move the pistons which delivers
power to the crankshaft. The shaft brake power P is defined as the
power delivered to the propeller by the crankshaft. The term brake
stems from a method of laboratory testing which measures engine
power by loading it with calibrated brake mechanisms. It is important to
remember that the shaft brake power is available to drive the airplane,
some of it is lost by friction, heat, and inefficiencies of the propeller
itself. The Power available is given by:
𝑃𝐴 = ⴄ𝑃
Where:
ⴄ = Propeller efficiency which is less than 1
P = shaft brake power
24 | P a g e
Figure 2.13 Shaft Brake Power
Propeller efficiency is an important quantity and is a direct product of

the aerodynamics of the propeller which is always less than unity.
Remember that:
𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏
1 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 550 = 746 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
𝑠
With the system of units above, it is common to use shaft brake
horsepower, BHP in place of P and horsepower available h PA instead
of PA which gives us:
ℎ𝑃𝐴 = ⴄ ∗ 𝐵𝐻𝑃
The power available curve for a piston engine and propeller

combination is given below.
25 | P a g e
Figure 2.14 Power Available Curve of a Piston Engine – Propeller Combination
B. Jet Engine
The jet engine derives its thrust by combustion heating an incoming
stream of air and then exhausting this hot air at high velocities through
a nozzle. The power available for a jet engine is reasonably constant
with respect to its forward velocity. Thus the power available varies
linearly with velocity as shown by the figure below.
𝑃𝐴 = 𝑇𝐴 𝑉∞
Figure 2.15 Power Available Curve of a Jet Engine
26 | P a g e
For both piston engine-propeller combination and jet powered aircraft

the maximum flight velocity is determined by the intersection of the
power available and power required curve.
VII. Altitude Effects on Power Required and Power Available

Defining the effects of altitude for power required and available may be
done using the formulas for velocity and power required. The ratios for sea
level and altitude conditions are used to graph and visually see the effects
of altitude on the power required and power available curves.
For Sea-Level Conditions we have:
2𝑊
𝑉0 = √
𝜌0 𝑆𝐶𝐿
2𝑊 3 𝐶𝐷2
𝑃𝑅0 = √
𝜌0 𝑆𝐶𝐿3
For at an altitude, we have:

2𝑊
𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑡 = √
𝜌𝑆𝐶𝐿
2𝑊 3 𝐶𝐷2
𝑃𝑅𝑎𝑙𝑡 =√
𝜌𝑆𝐶𝐿3
For the purposes of calculations, let CL and CD remain fixed. We have the
following relations for sea level values and values at an altitude:
1
𝜌0 2
𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑡 = 𝑉0 ( )
𝜌
1
𝜌0 2
𝑃𝑅𝑎𝑙𝑡 = 𝑃𝑅0 ( )
𝜌
Plugging in values in the equations above, the results will be conforming to
an upward and rightward translation along with a clockwise rotation as
shown in figure 1.16 below:
27 | P a g e
Figure 2.16 Effects of Altitude for Power Required
Figure 2.17 Effects of Altitude for Power Available of Propeller Driven Aircraft
28 | P a g e
Figure 2.18 Effects of Altitude for Power Available of Jet Propelled Aircraft
The power available for altitudes experiences a reduction in power

because of low air density at that altitudes. Assuming power available and
thrust available to be proportional to ambient density, the impact on aircraft
performance is illustrated in figure 1.17 and 1.18 for propeller driven
aircraft and jet propelled aircraft, respectively.
From the intersection of the PA and PR, figure 1.19 shows that at an
altitude, the minimum velocity can be greater than the actual stalling
velocity. This means that the aircraft at an altitude would stall beyond the
minimum velocity point depicted in the graph.
29 | P a g e
Figure 2.19 Intersection of Power Available and Power Required Curve
VIII. Sample Problem

1. Constructing thrust required versus velocity curve. A light, single-
engine, propeller driven airplane has the given specifications listed
below, at SSLC conditions:
b = 35.8 ft.
S = 174 ft.2
W = 2950 lbs
Fuel Capacity = 65 gal. of aviation gas
c = 0.45 lb/HP-hr
CDo = 0.025
e = 0.8
ⴄ = 0.8
Calculate the coefficient of lift and drag, lift to drag ratio and the thrust
required for a velocity of 100 ft/s.
Solution:
1
𝐿 = 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞2 𝑆𝐶𝐿 = 𝑊
2
2𝑊 2(2950)
𝐶𝐿 = = = 1.43
𝜌∞ 𝑉∞2 𝑆 0.002377 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 ∗ (100)2 ∗ 174
𝑓𝑡 3
30 | P a g e
𝐶𝐿2
𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷𝑜 + 𝐶𝐷𝑖 = 𝐶𝐷𝑜 +
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
(1.43)2
𝐶𝐷 = 0.025 + = 0.135
35.82
𝜋(0.8)( 174 )
𝐿 𝐶𝐿 1.43
= = = 10.59
𝐷 𝐶𝐷 0.135
𝑊 2950
𝑇𝑅 = = = 278.56 𝑙𝑏
𝐶𝐿 /𝐶𝐷 10.59
2. For problem #1, calculate the minimum drag and the velocity for
minimum drag.
Solution:
𝐶𝐷𝑜
𝐷𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2𝑊 √
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
0.025
𝐷𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2(2950)√
35.82
𝜋(0.8)( 174 )
𝐷𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 216.82 𝑙𝑏
2𝑊
𝜌𝑆 √𝐶𝐷𝑜 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
2(2950)
𝑉𝐷𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
√ 35.82
0.002377 ∗ 174 ∗ √0.025 ∗ 𝜋 ∗ 0.8 ∗ ( 174 )
𝑓𝑡
𝑉𝐷𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 144.81
𝑠
3. For problem #1, calculate the power available, and power required if
the engine is rated at 150 HP.
𝑃𝐴 = ⴄ𝑃
𝑃𝐴 = 0.8 ∗ 150 = 120 𝐻𝑃
2𝑊 3 𝐶𝐷2
𝑃𝑅 = √
2(2950)3 (0.135)2
𝑃𝑅 = √
(0.002377)(174)(1.43)3
𝑓𝑡𝑙𝑏 1 𝐻𝑃
𝑃𝑅 = 27815.61 ∗ = 50.57 𝐻𝑃
𝑠 𝑓𝑡𝑙𝑏
550 𝑠
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4. For problem #1, calculate the minimum power required and its
corresponding velocity.
𝑃𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑊√
2 3
√3 ∗ 0.025 (𝜋 ∗ 0.8 ∗ (35.8 ))
4 2(2950) 174
𝑃𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = (2950) 3
3 0.002377 ∗ 174 35.82
(𝜋 ∗ 0.8 ∗ ( 174 ))
√
𝑙𝑏𝑓𝑡 1 𝐻𝑃
𝑃𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 27546.75 ∗ = 50.08 𝐻𝑃
550 𝑠
2𝑊
𝜌𝑆 √3𝐶𝐷𝑜 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
2(2950)
𝑉𝑃𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
√ 35.82
0.002377 ∗ 174 ∗ √3 ∗ 0.025 ∗ 𝜋 ∗ 0.8 ∗ ( )
174
𝑓𝑡
𝑉𝑃𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 110.03
𝑠
5. For 100 ft/s of sea level velocity, what is the velocity required needed
to fly an aircraft, steady and level at 10000 ft.
@10,000 ft. 0.001755 slug/ft3
1
𝜌0 2
𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑡 = 𝑉0 ( )
𝜌
1
0.002377 2
𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑡 = 100 ( )
0.001755
𝑓𝑡
𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑡 = 116.38
𝑠
IX. Plate No. 1

1. An airplane weighing 5000 ln is flying at standard sea level with a
velocity of 200 mi/h. At this velocity, the L/D ratio is a maximum. The
wing area and aspect ratio are 200 ft.2 and 8.5, respectively. The
Oswald efficiency factor is 0.93. Calculate the total drag on the
airplane.
2. Consider an airplane patterned after the Fairchild Republic A-10, a
twin-jet attack aircraft. The airplane has the following characteristics:
wing area = 47 m2, aspect ratio = 6.5, Oswald efficiency factor = 0.87,
32 | P a g e
weight = 103,047 N, and parasite drag coefficient =0.032. The airplane

is equipped with two jet engines with 40,298 N of static thrusts each at
sea level.
(a) Calculate and sketch the power required curve at sea level.
(b) Calculate the maximum velocity at sea level.
(c) Calculate and plot the power required curve at 5 km altitude.
(d) Calculate the maximum velocity at 5 km altitude. (Assume the
engine thrust varies directly with free stream density.)
3. Consider an airplane patterned after the Beechcraft Bonanza V-tailed,
single engine light private airplane. The characteristics of the airplane
are as follows: aspect ratio = 6.2, wing area = 181 ft. 2, Oswald
efficiency factor = 0.91, weight = 3000 lb, and parasite drag coefficient
= 0.027. The airplane is powered by a single piston engine of 345 hp
maximum at sea level. Assume the power of the engine is proportional
to free stream density. The two-bladed propeller has an efficiency of
0.83.
(a) Calculate the power required at sea level.
(b) Calculate the maximum velocity at sea level.
(c) Calculate the power required at 12,000 ft. altitude.
(d) Calculate the maximum velocity at 12,000 ft. altitude.
4. Consider an airplane patterned after the twin-engine Beechcraft Queen
Air executive transport. The airplane weight is 38,220 N, wing area is
27.3 m2, aspect ratio is 7.5. Oswald efficiency factor is 0.9 and parasite
drag coefficient CDo = 0.03. Calculate the thrust required to fly at a
velocity of 350 km/h at (a) standard sea level and (b) an altitude of 4.5
km.
X. Quiz No. 1
1. Consider a Gulfstream IV twin turbofan executive transport. Calculate
the thrust required curve at an altitude of 30,000 ft flying at 500 ft/s,
assuming a weight of 73,000 lbs. Other pertinent data are given as:
S = 950 ft.2
AR = 5.92
CDo = 0.015
K = 0.08
CD=0.015+0.08CL2
2. For problem #1, calculate the minimum thrust required and the velocity
corresponding to minimum drag.
3. For problem #1, calculate the L/D ratio for a velocity of 400 ft/s.
4. For a steady, level flight of a Gulfstream IV aircraft, flying at an altitude
of 30,000 ft at a velocity of 500 ft/s, has a weight of 73000 lb and S =
950 ft.2. The drag polar equation is given as:
𝐶𝐷 = 0.015 + 0.08𝐶𝐿2
33 | P a g e
Find the minimum power required and the velocity corresponding to it.
5. An airplane is weighing 11,200 lb, with a wing area of 365 sq. ft. A wind
tunnel test of an accurate model shows that the drag polar equation is
very close to a parabola given by:
𝐶𝐷 = 0.023 + 0.0445𝐶𝐿2
Calculate the following:
(a) Power required at a velocity of 100 mph.
(b) Minimum power required
(c) Velocity corresponding to minimum power required.
34 | P a g e
Learning Module 3: Climb and Drift Performance
LEARNING MODULE 03:

Climb and Drift
Performance
1|P a ge
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Ref. no Page
Rate of Climb 5 5
Gliding Flight 1 10
Absolute and Service Ceiling 1 13
Time to Climb 1 15
Introduction to Accelerated Rate of Climb (Energy Method) 20
Sample Problems 28
Plate No. 1 32
2|P a ge
TABLE OF REFERENCES
References No.
1
2
4

Note that tables presented are made for organizing purposes only.

Modules
Rate of Climb 30
Gliding Flight 20
Absolute and Service Ceiling 20
Time to Climb 40
Introduction to Accelerated Rate of Climb (Energy
50
Method)
References
158.8

Sample Problems 70
Plate No. 1 120
Quiz No. 1 120
HONESTY CLAUSE
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LEARNING OUTCOMES
MLO 1: Explain the steady,
sciences to the practice of its application on the aviation unaccelerated rate of climb TLO 1: Discuss the
aeronautical engineering. industry through concept of rate of climb
of an aircraft through a force
PLO 4: Function in multi- aerodynamic computations using force diagrams.
diagram. TLO 2: Derive working
disciplinary and multi-cultural on aircraft performance. MLO 2: Formulate equation equations for rate of climb
teams CLO 3: Quantify using force diagrams.
for steady unaccelerated
PLO 5: Identify, formulate, aerodynamic forces along TLO 3: Discuss the
rate of climb using equations effect of power excess in
and solve aeronautical flight using aerodynamic of motion. rate of climb through
engineering problems. equations derived from aerodynamic data and
MLO 3: Solve problems
PLO 8: Understand the Newton’s Second Law of formula.
involving steady, TLO 4: Compute
impact of aeronautical Motion. unaccelerated rate of climb problems involving rate of
engineering solutions in CLO 4: Utilize knowledge in climb using working
using the derived working
global, economic, airplane performance by equations derived for
equations. steady, unaccelerated rate
environmental, and societal applying theories and MLO 4: Explain the steady, of climb.
context principles of flight in solving TLO 5: Discuss the
unaccelerated gliding flight
PLO 9: Recognize the need problems. concept of gliding flight
of an aircraft through a force using force diagrams.
for, and engage in life-long CLO 5: Display analytical diagram. TLO 6: Derive working
learning skills by performing equations for gliding flight
MLO 5: Formulate equation
PLO 11: Use techniques, computations in flight using force diagrams.
for steady, unaccelerated TLO 7: Compute
skills, and modern performance problems. gliding flight using equations problems involving gliding
engineering tools necessary CLO 9: Display professional flight using working
of motion.
for aeronautical engineering commitment to ethical equations derived for
MLO 6: Solve for gliding steady, unaccelerated
practice practice by showing sense of velocity, gliding angle, range gliding flight.
PLO 12: Knowledge and responsibility in complying TLO 8: Differentiate
and rate of descent through
understanding of and compiling academic absolute and service ceiling
problems sets and/or of an aircraft through their
engineering and requirement. module activities. definition and specific rate
management principles as a of climb.
MLO 7: Explain absolute
member and leader in a TLO 9: Derive working
ceilings and service ceilings equations for determining
team, to manage projects
through their definitions and time to climb using the
and in multidisciplinary equation of rate of climb.
specific property.
environments. TLO 10: Derive working
MLO 8: Formulate working equations for determining
PLO 13: Apply acquired
equations for time to climb absolute ceiling using time
aeronautical engineering to climb equation.
using the rate of climb
knowledge and skills for TLO 11: Explain the rate
equation. of climb using the energy
national development.
MLO 9: Explain the rate of method through
climb using the energy discussions and
computations presented in
method concept the module.
4|P a ge
CONTENT
I. Rate of Climb
A. Equations of Motion
Consider an aircraft right after takeoff. As the nose rotates upward and
the aircraft climbs to its cruising altitude in no time. If we focus on the
aircraft while it is climbing steadily as shown on the figure below, we
have:
Figure 3.1 Flight Diagram of an Airplane in Climb
The velocity along the flight path and the flight path itself is inclined at
an angle ϴ to the horizontal. Lift and drag are perpendicular and
parallel to the flight path (and 𝑉∞ ), respectively. The weight is
perpendicular to the horizontal pointing to the ground. Looking at
closely in the free body diagram, we have the equations of motion by
summation of forces parallel and perpendicular:
Summation of Forces
Parallel Direction 𝑇 = 𝐷 + 𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Perpendicular Direction 𝐿 = 𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
The equations above show that the thrust does not only overcome the
effects of drag for steady and level climb but it also need to overcome
an additional component of lift. On the other hand, the lift on the aircraft
in a steady level climb is less than the weight.
5|P a ge
Multiplying the summation of forces parallel to the flight path by 𝑉∞ :

𝑇𝑉∞ = 𝐷𝑉∞ + 𝑊𝑉∞ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑇𝑉∞ − 𝐷𝑉∞
= 𝑉∞ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑊
From the right hand side of the equation, it corresponds to the vertical
component of the flight velocity. This vertical velocity is called the rate
of climb.
𝑅/𝐶 = 𝑉∞ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
On the left hand side of the equation, we have 𝑇𝑉∞ = 𝑃𝐴 and the 𝐷𝑉∞ =
𝑃𝑅 which is represented by the Power available curves and the power
required curves. However, for climbing flight, 𝐷𝑉∞ is no longer precisely
the power required assumed for steady level flight because as shown
by the equations of motion, the thrust supports not only the drag but
also the component of lift where power must be applied to overcome
these forces. Nevertheless, for small climb angles 𝜃 < 20⁰, it is
reasonable to neglect this fact and to assume that the term 𝐷𝑉∞ is the
power required from steady level flight. From these assumptions, we
now have:
𝑇𝑉∞ − 𝐷𝑉∞ = 𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑃𝐴 − 𝑃𝑅 = 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑅/𝐶 =
𝑊
𝑃𝐸
𝑅/𝐶 =
𝑊
The equations above hold true for both propeller-driven and jet driven
airplanes. Power excess is illustrated by the figures below for propeller-
driven and jet driven aircrafts respectively.
Figure 3.2 Power Excess for Propeller and Jet Driven Aircraft
6|P a ge
Note that the PR curve shown above are taken, for convenience, as
those values for steady level flight. Thus, in conjunction with these
curves, the rate of climb equation in terms of power excess is an
approximation to the rate of climb which is good only for small values of
ϴ. To be more specific, the power required vs velocity for climbing
flight is smaller compared to the same curve taken for level flight simply
because drag (D) is smaller for climbing flight than for level flight at the
same velocity.
To prove the point made in the statement above, consider an aircraft

with the following conditions:
Given:
𝑊 = 5000 𝑙𝑏
𝑆 = 100 𝑓𝑡 2
𝐶𝐷𝑜 = 0.015
𝑒 = 0.6
𝐴𝑅 = 6
𝑉∞ = 500 𝑓𝑡/𝑠 @ 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑆𝑒𝑎 𝐿𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 (𝑆𝑆𝐿𝐶)
If the airplane is assumed to be in level flight, we have:
𝐿 𝑊
𝐶𝐿 = = = 0.168
𝑞∞ 𝑆 1 2
2 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ 𝑆
𝐶𝐿2
𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷𝑜 + = 0.015 + 0.0025 = 0.0175
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
If the airplane is assumed to be in a climb at 30⁰:

𝐿 = 𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛳
𝐿 𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛳
𝐶𝐿 = = = 0.145
𝑞∞ 𝑆 1 2𝑆
𝜌 𝑉
2 ∞ ∞
𝐶𝐿2
𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷𝑜 + = 0.015 + 0.0019 = 0.0169
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
The values for total drag coefficient (CD) for level flight is indeed greater
than for the climbing flight. In addition to this, since L is smaller for
climbing flight, a smaller CL would yield a small induced drag as
compared to level flight conditions. Consequently, the total drag for
climbing flight is smaller than that for level flight at the same velocity.
7|P a ge
Referring again, to the figure above, we can see that the power excess
is different at different values of velocity. The maximum values of
power excess for both graphs is dictated by the value of velocity and at
this point we have:
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑃𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑅/𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 = =
𝑊 𝑊
The figure 3.3 below shows, that at maximum power available for an
aircraft, the maximum power excess yields the maximum rate of climb
that can be generated by an aircraft at that altitude. A conventional
graphical method of determining maximum rate of climb is by graphing
R/C vs 𝑉∞ where a horizontal tangent defines the point of maximum
rate of climb as shown in letter (b).
Figure 3.3 Maximum R/C and Maximum Excess Power
Another useful construction is the hodograph diagram, which is a plot

of the airplane’s vertical velocity 𝑉𝑣 versus it horizontal velocity 𝑉ℎ .
Recall that the rate of climb is the vertical velocity of the aircraft, thus a
horizontal tangent to the hodograph defines the point of maximum R/C.
8|P a ge
In addition to that, any line from the origin and intersecting the graph
has the slope 𝑉𝑣 /𝑉ℎ , which is the angle of climb with respect to the
horizontal axis. In addition to that, the length of the line is equal to 𝑉∞
(resultant). As this line is rotated counter clockwise from the reference
horizontal axis, the value of R/C first increases, then goes to a
maximum and then decreases, finally the line becomes tangent to the
graph which gives the maximum climb angle (or the best climb angle)
for which the airplane can maintain steady flight (shown as 𝛳𝑚𝑎𝑥 ). Note
that the maximum R/C does not occur at 𝛳𝑚𝑎𝑥 .
Climb angle is given by:

𝑅/𝐶
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =
𝑉∞
Figure 3.4 Hodograph for Best Climb angle and Maximum R/C
For modern aircrafts, large excess power and high thrust available
allow climbing flight at any angle. An example is the high-performance
military aircrafts which can accelerate to supersonic speeds flying
straight up. For those large climb angles, the previous analysis made in
this module is not valid.
Going back to figure 3.2, notice that a difference in low speed rate of
climb performance can be seen between the two types. For a piston
engine-propeller combination, large excess power is available at low
values of velocity just above the stall. Thus, for an airplane on its
landing approach, this gives a comfortable margin of safety in case the
aircraft needed to climb (balked landings). On the contrary, the power
excess available for jets at low velocities, as shown in letter (b), is low
which corresponds to a reduced rate of climb ability as compared to the
piston engine-propeller combination.
9|P a ge
II. Gliding Flight

A. Equations of Motion
Asdfas
Consider an aircraft in a power-off glide, as shown in the figure 3.5
below. The forces acting on the aircraft are lift, drag and weight, but
remember that we considered an aircraft to be in a power-off glide so
that the thrust is zero. The glide path makes an angle 𝜃 below the
horizontal reference axis. For a steady, unaccelerated glide, the sum of
the forces must be equal to zero.
Figure 3.5 Force Diagram for Gliding Flight
From the summation of forces parallel and perpendicular, we have:
Summation of Forces
Parallel Direction 𝐷 = 𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Perpendicular Direction 𝐿 = 𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
The glide angle can be calculated by dividing the equations above:

𝐷 𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
=
𝐿 𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝐷 1
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = =
𝐿 𝐿/𝐷
10 | P a g e
The equation for glide angle shows that it is a function of the lift to drag
ratio. The higher the lift to drag ratio, the shallower the glide angle.
Thus, the smallest glide angle (𝜃𝑚𝑖𝑛 ) occurs at ((𝐿/𝐷)𝑚𝑎𝑥 which means
𝐶𝐷𝑜 = 𝐶𝐷𝑖 and corresponds to the maximum range for the glide as
shown below.
𝐷 1
𝜃𝑚𝑖𝑛 = arctan( ) = arctan( )
𝐿 (𝐿/𝐷)𝑚𝑎𝑥
Figure 3.6 Glide Angle and its Range
B. Gliding Velocity
From the equations of motion for gliding flight, we know that:
𝐿 = 𝑞𝑆𝐶𝐿 = 𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
1
𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆𝐶𝐿
2
2𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑉2 =
𝜌𝑆𝐶𝐿
𝑉𝑔 = √
𝜌𝑆𝐶𝐿
C. Gliding Range
Referring to figure 3.6, we have the following relations:
ℎ 𝐷
tan 𝜃 = 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 tan 𝜃 =
𝑅 𝐿
ℎ
tan 𝜃𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥
1
(𝐿/𝐷)𝑚𝑎𝑥
11 | P a g e
Equating:
ℎ 1
=
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝐿/𝐷)𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ(𝐿/𝐷)𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ(𝐶𝐿 /𝐶𝐷 )𝑚𝑎𝑥
D. Rate of Descent
Referring to figure 3.6 in terms of velocity, we have the following
relations:
Vg
RD
𝜃
Range
𝑅𝐷
sin 𝜃 =
𝑉𝑔
𝑅𝐷 = 𝑉𝑔 sin 𝜃
𝑉𝑔 = √
𝜌𝑆𝐶𝐿
𝐷 𝐶𝐷 sin 𝜃
tan 𝜃 = = 𝑏𝑢𝑡 tan 𝜃 =
𝐿 𝐶𝐿 cos 𝜃
𝐶𝐷
sin 𝜃 = cos 𝜃 ∗
𝐶𝐿
Substituting to RD, we have:
𝑅𝐷 = 𝑉𝑔 sin 𝜃
2𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝐶𝐷
𝑅𝐷 = √ cos 𝜃 ∗
𝜌𝑆𝐶𝐿 𝐶𝐿
2𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃𝐶𝐷2
𝑅𝐷 = √
𝜌𝑆𝐶𝐿3
For minimum rate of descent:
2𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃
𝑅𝐷𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
√ 𝐶3
𝜌𝑆 ( 𝐿2 )
𝐶𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥
Where: 3𝐶𝐷𝑜 = 𝐶𝐷𝑖
12 | P a g e
III. Absolute and Service Ceilings

For the sake of discussion, consider a propeller driven aircraft which
shows qualitatively the same result for jets. The power available and
power required are given by the graph in figure 3.7 shown below. Notice
that with an increase in altitude, there is a decrease in power excess. This
can be proven by graphing power available and power required curves for
different altitudes and comparing it at sea level values of power excess.
Figure 3.7 Comparison of Power Excess
The result of the reduction in power excess as altitude increases is that,

the maximum rate of climb decreases as shown in the figure 3.8 below
where the altitude vs R/C max is plotted.
13 | P a g e
Figure 3.8 Altitude vs. Maximum R/C
As the aircraft climb at a higher altitude, there will come a point at some
altitude where the power available and power required curves become
tangent with each other as shown by figure 3.9 below. This results in a
zero power excess and this is the only velocity where level and steady
flight is possible. Since the power excess is zero, this denote that the rate
of climb is also zero which means that beyond this altitude the aircraft can
no longer climb at a higher altitude. The altitude where the maximum rate
of climb is zero is defined as the absolute ceiling. Another useful
quantity, is the service ceiling, which is defined as the altitude
corresponding to a max rate of climb of 100 ft/min. The service ceiling
represents the practical upper limit of steady level flight.
14 | P a g e
Figure 3.9 Graphical Representation of Zero Rate of Climb
Remember that the rate of climb at service ceiling for:
100 ft./min
Propeller Driven Aircraft
Jet Driven Aircraft 500 ft./min
IV. Time to Climb

In aircraft performance, the time to climb of an aircraft to its design altitude
is an important design consideration. For instance, a commercial airplane
should rapidly climb to its designate altitude in order to avoid inclement
weather, passenger discomfort and traffic avoidance. The time it takes to
climb after takeoff is crucial primarily because passenger safety should
always be prioritized. On another note, say, a fighter aircraft need to
launch from an aircraft carrier and climb as fast as it could to intercept an
invading enemy. The time it took from its takeoff until reaching the desired
altitude is of great importance.
From the definition of rate of climb, it is the vertical velocity component of

an aircraft in climb. Velocity is simply the rate of change of distance where
the distance is the altitude for this case. We have the following equations:
𝑑ℎ
𝑅/𝐶 =
𝑑𝑡
15 | P a g e
𝑑ℎ
𝑑𝑡 =
𝑅/𝐶
The equations above show that dt is a small increment in time required to

climb a small increment of altitude (dh). From integral calculus we have:
𝑡 ℎ2
𝑑ℎ
∫ 𝑑𝑡 = ∫
0 ℎ1 𝑅/𝐶
ℎ2
𝑑ℎ
𝑡 =∫
ℎ1 𝑅/𝐶
The equation above shows the time to climb from a lower altitude h 1 to a
higher altitude h2.
In order for the equation for time to climb to be useful, we should find a
rate of climb equation (R/C equation) in terms of the variable which is
height, h for this case.
From the similar triangles and definition of absolute and service ceilings,
we have:
Absolute Ceiling
h
Altitude
RCh RCO
Rate of Climb
Since the variation of rate of climb to altitude is linear, then from the graph
of altitude versus rate of climb, we can obtain a rate of climb equation
using similar triangle relationships.
From the figure, we can see the absolute ceiling where we defined that the
rate of climb is zero. Remember that rate of climb at sea level is
designated as (𝑅𝐶𝑜 ). Now, if we consider another altitude (h) anywhere
16 | P a g e
from sea level to the absolute ceiling (except service ceiling), then a
corresponding rate of climb (RCh) at that altitude will be given.
From similar triangles, we have:
𝐴𝐶
𝐵𝑖𝑔 𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 =
𝑅𝐶𝑜
ℎ
𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 =
𝑅𝐶𝑜 − 𝑅𝐶ℎ
Equating both triangles, we have:
𝐴𝐶 ℎ
=
𝑅𝐶𝑜 𝑅𝐶𝑜 − 𝑅𝐶ℎ
Notice that, a variable h is now visible in the equation and the 𝑅𝐶ℎ is the
rate of climb equation we are looking for. Therefore, solving for 𝑅𝐶ℎ :
𝐴𝐶 (𝑅𝐶𝑜 − 𝑅𝐶ℎ ) = ℎ(𝑅𝐶𝑜 )
𝐴𝐶 𝑅𝐶𝑜 − 𝐴𝐶 𝑅𝐶ℎ = ℎ(𝑅𝐶𝑜 )
𝐴𝐶 𝑅𝐶ℎ = 𝐴𝐶 𝑅𝐶𝑜 − ℎ(𝑅𝐶𝑜 )
𝐴𝐶 𝑅𝐶𝑜 − ℎ(𝑅𝐶𝑜 )
𝑅𝐶ℎ =
𝐴𝐶
(𝑅𝐶𝑜 )ℎ
𝑅𝐶ℎ = 𝑅𝐶𝑜 −
𝐴𝐶
Substituting from the time to climb, we have:

ℎ2 ℎ2
𝑑ℎ 𝑑ℎ
𝑡 =∫ = ∫
ℎ1 𝑅/𝐶 ℎ1 𝑅𝐶ℎ
ℎ2
𝑑ℎ
𝑡 =∫
ℎ1
(𝑅𝐶𝑜 )ℎ
𝑅𝐶𝑜 − 𝐴𝐶
The equation for time to climb is now useful for any two altitudes.
Remember that the triangle similarity can also be used for service ceiling
and yield the equation:
𝐴𝐶 𝑆𝐶
=
𝑅𝐶𝑜 𝑅𝐶𝑜 − 𝑅𝐶𝑆𝐶
Where:
𝑅𝐶𝑆𝐶 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝐷𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝐴𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡 = 100 𝑓𝑡./𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑅𝐶𝑆𝐶 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐽𝑒𝑡 𝐷𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝐴𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡 = 500 𝑓𝑡./𝑚𝑖𝑛
Further solving for time to climb may be done by the following analysis,
Let:
𝐴𝐶 = 𝐻
ℎ1 = 0
17 | P a g e
(𝑅𝐶𝑜 )ℎ
𝐴𝐶
(𝑅𝐶𝑜 )ℎ
𝐻
ℎ
𝑅𝐶ℎ = 𝑅𝐶𝑜 (1 − )
𝐻
𝐻−ℎ
𝑅𝐶ℎ = 𝑅𝐶𝑜 ( )
𝐻
ℎ2 ℎ2
𝑑ℎ 𝑑ℎ
𝑡 =∫ = ∫
ℎ1 𝑅/𝐶 ℎ1 𝑅𝐶ℎ
ℎ2
𝑑ℎ
𝑡 = ∫
𝐻−ℎ
0 𝑅𝐶𝑜 ( 𝐻 )
ℎ2
𝐻 𝑑ℎ
𝑡 = ∫
𝑅𝐶𝑜 0 𝐻 − ℎ
𝐻
𝑡 = [ln 𝐻 − ln(𝐻 − ℎ)]
𝑅𝐶𝑜
𝐻 𝐻
𝑡 = ln
𝑅𝐶𝑜 (𝐻 − ℎ)
𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐶
𝑡 = ln
𝑅𝐶𝑜 (𝐴𝐶 − ℎ)
For time in minutes:
𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐶
𝑡 = 2.303 log10
𝑅𝐶𝑜 (𝐴𝐶 − ℎ)
Where:
𝑅𝐶𝑜 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑡./𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐴𝐶 (𝑜𝑟 𝐻) 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑡.
Finding Absolute Ceiling by time to climb formula

Since the time to climbs is a function of ceiling, it is possible to use this
relation to find the ceiling of an airplane by noting the altitudes attained at
twice the time in a continuous climb. Thus, if the time it takes from 0 to h1
is twice the time to climb from 0 to h2. Note that h1 and h2 are any altitude
in the atmosphere below the absolute ceiling (AC).
𝐻 𝐻
𝑡 = ln
𝑅𝐶𝑜 (𝐻 − ℎ)
𝐻 𝐻
𝑡1 = ln
𝑅𝐶𝑜 (𝐻 − ℎ1 )
𝐻 𝐻
𝑡2 = ln
𝑅𝐶𝑜 (𝐻 − ℎ2 )
Dividing, t2 by t1:
18 | P a g e
𝐻 𝐻
𝑡2 ln (
𝑅𝐶𝑜 𝐻 − ℎ2 )
=
𝑡1 𝐻 𝐻
𝑅𝐶𝑜 ln (𝐻 − ℎ1 )
𝐻
𝑡2 ln (𝐻 − ℎ2 )
=
𝑡1 ln 𝐻
(𝐻 − ℎ1 )
𝑡2 𝐻 𝐻
(ln ) = ln
𝑡1 (𝐻 − ℎ1 ) (𝐻 − ℎ2 )
𝑡2 /𝑡1
𝐻 𝐻
ln [ ] = ln
(𝐻 − ℎ1 ) (𝐻 − ℎ2 )
From the assumption that t2 = 2t1:
2
𝐻 𝐻
ln [ ] = ln
(𝐻 − ℎ1 ) (𝐻 − ℎ2 )
2
𝐻 𝐻
[ ] =
(𝐻 − ℎ1 ) (𝐻 − ℎ2 )
𝐻2 𝐻
2
=
(𝐻 − ℎ1 ) (𝐻 − ℎ2 )
𝐻2 (𝐻 − ℎ2 ) = 𝐻 (𝐻 − ℎ1 )2
𝐻 (𝐻 − ℎ2 ) = (𝐻 − ℎ1 )2
(𝐻2 − 𝐻ℎ2 ) = 𝐻2 − 2𝐻ℎ1 + ℎ12
𝐻2 − 𝐻ℎ2 = 𝐻2 − 2𝐻ℎ1 + ℎ12
−𝐻ℎ2 = −2𝐻ℎ1 + ℎ12
2𝐻ℎ1 − 𝐻ℎ2 = ℎ12
𝐻(2ℎ1 − ℎ2 ) = ℎ12
ℎ12
𝐻=
(2ℎ1 − ℎ2 )
ℎ12
𝐴𝐶 =
(2ℎ1 − ℎ2 )
19 | P a g e
V. Introduction to Accelerated Rate of Climb (Energy Method)

Modern fighter aircrafts are capable of highly accelerated rate of climb.
This goes beyond the considerations we have made for unaccelerated rate
of climb in the previous sections. In this section, we will introduce a
method dealing with the energy of an airplane which is entirely different
from the forces acting on the airplane that we have considered before.
Consider an aircraft of mass m in flight at some altitude h and with some

velocity V. Due to its altitude, the airplane inherently has a potential
energy, PE, which is equal to the product of its mass, altitude, and
gravitational acceleration (mgh). Due to its velocity, the airplane has
kinetic energy, KE, equal to (1/2)𝑚𝑉 2 . Therefore, the total energy of the
airplane is the sum of its energies.
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑃𝐸 + 𝐾𝐸

1
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ + 𝑚𝑉 2
2
The energy per unit weight of the airplane is obtained by dividing, W = mg
which yields the specific energy, denoted by He as:
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑃𝐸 + 𝐾𝐸

=
𝑊 𝑊
1 2
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑚𝑔ℎ 2 𝑚𝑉
= +
𝑊 𝑊 𝑊
1 2
𝑚𝑔ℎ 2 𝑚𝑉
𝐻𝑒 = +
𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑔
𝑉2
𝐻𝑒 = ℎ +
2𝑔
Note that by dimensional analysis, we have:
𝑁𝑚
𝐻𝑒 = =𝑚
𝑁
Therefore, the specific energy is given in terms of height, which is why it is
also called the energy height of the aircraft. The energy height, H e of the
aircraft is the sum of its potential and kinetic energies per unit weight.
20 | P a g e
Figure 3.10 Energy Height Contours
The figure above shows contours of constant energy height, He which is

simply an Altitude-Mach number map where the dashed lines represent
the lines of constant energy height.
Example:
Consider airplane A and airplane B flying at 30,000 ft. and 10,000 ft.
respectively. If airplane A is flying at M = 0.81 and airplane B is flying at M
= 1.3, then by calculation both aircrafts have the same energy height, H e of
40,000 ft.
Solution:
For 30,000 ft:
𝑅
𝑇30𝑘 = 519 𝑅 − (0.003566 ∗ 30000 𝑓𝑡)
𝑓𝑡
𝑇30𝑘 = 519 𝑅 − 106.98 𝑅
𝑇30𝑘 = 412.02 𝑅
𝑎 = √𝑘𝑅𝑇
𝑙𝑏𝑓𝑡
𝑎 = √1.4 ∗ 1716 ∗ 412.02 𝑅
𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 𝑅
𝑎 = 994.91 𝑓𝑡/𝑠
𝑉 = 𝑀𝑎
21 | P a g e
𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡
𝑉 = 0.81 ∗ 994.91 = 805.55
𝑠 𝑠
𝑉2
𝐻𝑒𝐴 = ℎ +
2𝑔
𝑓𝑡
(805.55 𝑠 )2
𝐻𝑒𝐴 = 30,000 +
2(32.2)
𝐻𝑒𝐴 = 400076.2547 𝑓𝑡 ≈ 40000 𝑓𝑡
For 10,000 ft:

𝑅
𝑇30𝑘 = 519 𝑅 − (0.003566 ∗ 10000 𝑓𝑡)
𝑓𝑡
𝑇30𝑘 = 519 𝑅 − 35.66 𝑅
𝑇30𝑘 = 483.34 𝑅
𝑙𝑏𝑓𝑡
𝑎 = √1.4 ∗ 1716 ∗ 483.34 𝑅
𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 𝑅
𝑎 = 1077.58 𝑓𝑡/𝑠
𝑉 = 𝑀𝑎
𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡
𝑉 = 1.3 ∗ 1077.58 = 1400.85
𝑠 𝑠
2
𝑉
𝐻𝑒𝐵 = ℎ +
2𝑔
𝑓𝑡
(1400.85 𝑠 )2
𝐻𝑒𝐵 = 40000 +
2(32.2)
𝐻𝑒𝐵 = 40471.75305 𝑓𝑡 ≈ 40000 𝑓𝑡
As shown by our computation, the energy height for airplane A and B are
both 40000 ft. However, airplane A has more potential energy than kinetic
energy while airplane B has more kinetic energy than potential energy. If
both airplanes maintain their same states of total energy, then both are
capable of zooming to an altitude of 40,000 ft. at zero velocity
(represented by point C) simply by trading all their kinetic energy for
potential energy.
Consider another airplane, D, flying at an altitude of 50,000 ft at M = 1.85

which gives us an energy height of 100,000 ft and is indeed capable of
zooming to 100000 ft by trading its kinetic energy for potential energy.
Since airplane D is in a much higher energy state (100000 ft), compared to
airplane A and B (40000 ft), it has much greater capability for speed and
altitude performance. In air combat, having high H e, everything else being
equal, is favorable compared to aircrafts with smaller H e.
22 | P a g e
How does an airplane change its energy state? How could airplane A and
B increase their energy height equal to that of airplane D? Let us try to
quantify.
Recall that from the rate of climb free body diagram and applying Newton’s
Second Law of motion:
𝑑𝑉
𝑇 − 𝐷 − 𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑚
𝑑𝑡
𝑊
𝑚=
𝑔
𝑊 𝑑𝑉
𝑇 − 𝐷 = 𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 +
𝑔 𝑑𝑡
1 𝑑𝑉
𝑇 − 𝐷 = 𝑊 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + )
𝑔 𝑑𝑡
𝑇−𝐷 1 𝑑𝑉
= (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + )
𝑊 𝑔 𝑑𝑡
Multiplying both sides by V, we have:

𝑇−𝐷 1 𝑑𝑉
∗ 𝑉 = 𝑉(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + )
𝑊 𝑔 𝑑𝑡
𝑇𝑉 − 𝐷𝑉 𝑉 𝑑𝑉 𝑑ℎ
= (𝑉𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + ) 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑅/𝐶 = 𝑉𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =
𝑊 𝑔 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Recall that from power excess:
𝑇𝑉 − 𝐷𝑉 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
= = 𝑃𝑠
𝑊 𝑊
𝑃𝑠 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
Therefore, specific power excess:
𝑑ℎ 𝑉 𝑑𝑉
𝑃𝑠 = ( + )
𝑑𝑡 𝑔 𝑑𝑡
The equation for specific power excess states that an airplane with excess
power can use this excess for rate of climb (dh/dt) or to accelerate along
its flight path (dV/dt) or for a combination of both.
Example:
Consider an airplane in level flight at a velocity of 800 ft/s. Assume the
pilot pushes the throttle all the way forward, an excess power is generated
in the amount Ps = 300 ft/s. The equation for Ps illustrates that the pilot can
choose to use all this excess power to obtain a maximum unaccelerated
rate of climb of 300 ft/s (dV/dt = 0 and Ps = dh/dt = R/C). In this case the
velocity along the flight path stays at 800 ft/s.
23 | P a g e
Alternatively, the pilot can choose to maintain level flight (that is dh/dt = 0)
and to use all the excess power to accelerate at the rate of dV/dt where:
𝑑𝑉 𝑔𝑃𝑠 32.2 𝑓𝑡/𝑠 2 (300 𝑓𝑡/𝑠)
= = = 12.1 𝑓𝑡/𝑠 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑉 800 𝑓𝑡/𝑠
On the other hand, some combination could be achieved by, such that the
rate of climb dh/dt =100 ft/s along with an acceleration along the flight path
of dV/dt = 8.1 ft/s2.
𝑑ℎ 𝑉 𝑑𝑉
Note that 𝑃𝑠 = ( 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑔 𝑑𝑡 ) is a generalization of R/C equation given for
steady climb where as in this section, we are treating a more general case
of climb with a finite acceleration.
Returning to the energy height, we can derive and express it in terms of dt:
𝑉2
𝐻𝑒 = ℎ +
2𝑔
𝑉𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝐻𝑒 = 𝑑ℎ +
𝑔
Multiplying both sides by 1/dt:

𝑑𝑡 𝑉𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝐻𝑒 ∗ = 𝑑ℎ +
𝑑𝑡 𝑔
𝑑𝐻𝑒 𝑑ℎ 𝑉𝑑𝑉
= +
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑔𝑑𝑡
The differential form of energy height as shown above is identical to P S (in
ft/s):
𝑑𝐻𝑒 𝑑ℎ 𝑉𝑑𝑉
= +
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑔𝑑𝑡
𝑑ℎ 𝑉𝑑𝑉
𝑃𝑠 = +
𝑑𝑡 𝑔𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐻𝑒
𝑃𝑠 =
𝑑𝑡
Therefore, the time rate of change of energy height is equal to the specific
excess power. This answers the questions made above. An airplane can
increase its energy state simply by the application of excess power. In
other words, airplane A and B can reach the high energy state of airplane
D if they have enough excess power to do so.
This immediately leads to the next question. How can we ascertain

whether or not a given airplane have enough PS to reach a certain energy
height?
24 | P a g e
To address this question, recall that power excess is the difference

between power available and power required. For a given altitude, h, the
excess power (PS) can be plotted versus velocity or Mach number. For a
subsonic airplane below the drag divergence Mach number, the resulting
curve will resemble the sketch shown below:
Figure 3.11 Excess Power vs. Mach Number
At a given h1, Ps will be an inverted U shaped curve which is essentially

the same for rate of climb vs velocity graph shown in the previous section.
As the altitude increases to h2 and h3 respectively, Ps is getting smaller.
Note that power excess decreases with increase in altitude as shown in
the previous sections. Hence, the graph above is simply a plot of P s vs
Mach number with altitude as a parameter. This graph can be cross
plotted as an Altitude-Mach number map using Ps as a parameter as
shown below:
25 | P a g e
Figure 3.12 Altitude vs. Mach Number with Excess Power as a Parameter
An entire series of Ps contours can be generated in the Altitude-Mach

number map. For a supersonic airplane, the Ps vs Mach curves at different
altitudes will appear as an inverted U-shaped curve but with a “dent”
around M=1 due to the large increase in drag in the transonic flight regime
as shown below in letter (a) and in turn can be cross plotted on the
Altitude-Mach number map as shown in letter (b).
Figure 3.13 Excess Power vs. Mach Number for Supersonic Flows
26 | P a g e
Figure 3.14 Altitude vs. Mach Number with Excess Power as a Parameterfor
Supersonic Flows
Overlaying all the Ps contours and specific energy states on an Altitude-

Mach number map. We will have the following curve:
Figure 3.15 Altitude vs. Mach Number with PS contours and He
27 | P a g e
In the figure above, note that Ps contours always correspond to a given

airplane at a given load factor, whereas H e lines are universal fundamental
physical curves that have nothing to do with any given airplane. This figure
clearly establishes what energy states are obtainable by a given airplane.
The regime of sustained flight lies inside the envelope formed by the P s =
0 contour. Hence, all the values of He inside this envelope are obtainable
by the airplane. A comparison of this figure for different airplanes will
clearly show what regions of altitude and Mach number an airplane has
maneuver advantages over another.
In addition to this, the figure also represents the proper flight path to
achieve minimum time to climb. First consider two energy heights, H e1 and
He2 where He2 > He1. The time to move between these energy states can
be obtained from:
𝑑𝐻𝑒
𝑑𝑡 =
𝑃𝑠
Integrating:
𝑡2 𝐻𝑒 2
𝑑𝐻𝑒
∫ 𝑑𝑡 = ∫
𝑡1 𝐻𝑒 𝑃𝑠
1
𝐻𝑒 2
𝑑𝐻𝑒
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 = ∫
𝐻𝑒 1 𝑃𝑠
The equation above shows that the time to climb will be a minimum when
PS is maximum. Maximum Ps is tangent to the H e curve as shown by
points A to I in the graph. The heavy curve through these points illustrates
the variation of altitude and Mach number along the flight path for
minimum time to climb. The line segment between D and D’ represents a
constant energy dive to accelerate through the drag divergence region
near Mach 1.
VI. Sample Problems

1. A light, single-engine, propeller driven airplane has the given
specifications listed below, at SSLC conditions:
b = 35.8 ft.
S = 174 ft.2
W = 2950 lbs
c = 0.45 lb/HP-hr
CDo = 0.025
e = 0.8
ⴄ = 0.8
28 | P a g e
Find, the PR, PA, R/C @ Sea Level, Climb Angle, R/Cmax if the aircraft is
flying 150 ft/s and the engine is rated at 230 HP.
Solution:
1
𝐿 = 𝑊 = 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆𝐶𝐿
2
2𝑊 2 ∗ 2950
𝐶𝐿 = = = 0.63
𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆 0.002377 ∗ 1502 ∗ 174
𝐶𝐿2
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
2
𝐶𝐿
𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷𝑜 +
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
(0.63)2
𝐶𝐷 = 0.025 + = 0.047
(35.8)2
𝜋 ∗ 0.8 ∗ 174
2𝑊 3 𝐶𝐷2
𝑃𝑅 = √
2(2950)3 (0.047)2 𝑙𝑏𝑓𝑡

𝑃𝑅 = √ 3
= 33116.61
0.002377 ∗ 174 ∗ (0.63) 𝑠
𝑃𝑅 = 33116.61 ∗ = 60.21 𝐻𝑃
550 𝑠
𝑃𝐴 = ⴄ𝑃
𝑃𝐴 = 0.8 ∗ 230 = 184 𝐻𝑃
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑅/𝐶 =
𝑊
33000 𝑓𝑡𝑙𝑏/𝑚𝑖𝑛
(184 𝐻𝑃 − 60.21 𝐻𝑃) ∗
𝑅/𝐶 = 1 𝐻𝑃
2950
𝑅/𝐶 = 1384.77𝑓𝑡/𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑃𝐴 − 𝑃𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛

𝑅/𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 = =
𝑊 𝑊
𝑃𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑊 √
29 | P a g e
2 3
√3 ∗ 0.025 ∗ (𝜋 ∗ 0.8 ∗ (35.8) )
4 2 ∗ 2950 174
𝑃𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = ∗ 2950 ∗
3 0.002377 ∗ 174 (35.8)2 3
(𝜋 ∗ 0.8 ∗ 174 )
√
𝑃𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 27546.75 ∗ = 50.085 𝐻𝑃
550
𝑠
33000 𝑓𝑡𝑙𝑏/𝑚𝑖𝑛
(184 𝐻𝑃 − 50.085 𝐻𝑃) ∗
𝑅/𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1 𝐻𝑃
2950
𝑅/𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1498.03 𝑓𝑡/𝑚𝑖𝑛

𝑅/𝐶 = 𝑉 sin 𝜃
𝑅/𝐶
𝜃 = sin−1 ( )
𝑉
1384.77𝑓𝑡 1𝑚𝑖𝑛
∗ 60 𝑠
𝜃 = sin−1 ( 𝑚𝑖𝑛 )
150
𝜃 = 8.85⁰
2. An airplane takes, 7 min, 30 sec to reach 8000 ft altitude. In that same
interval, (i.e. 15 min from sea level) it reaches 13600 ft. altitude. What
is the absolute ceiling?
Solution:
ℎ12
𝐴𝐶 =
(2ℎ1 − ℎ2 )
(8000)^2
𝐴𝐶 = = 26666.67 𝑓𝑡.
((2 ∗ 8000) − 13600)
3. For a rate of climb equation given as RC=850-1/12 h (ft./min). find:
a. Time to climb from sea level to 300 ft.
b. Time to climb from sea level to 600 ft.
Solution:
ℎ2
𝑑ℎ
𝑡 =∫
ℎ1 𝑅/𝐶
300
𝑑ℎ
𝑡 =∫
1
0 (850 − 12 ℎ)
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Let:
1
𝑢 = 850 − ℎ
12
1
𝑑𝑢 = − 𝑑ℎ
12
𝑑ℎ = −12𝑑𝑢
300
−12𝑑𝑢
𝑡 =∫
0 𝑢
𝑡 = −12 ln 𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 0 − 300

1
𝑡 = −12 ln(850 − ℎ) 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 0 − 300
12
1 1
𝑡 = −12 ln(850 − 300) + 12 ln(850 − 0)
12 12
𝑡 = −80.58 + 80.94 = 0.36 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 21.6 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠
4. From problem #1. Calculate the minimum glide angle at maximum
gliding range if gliding starts at 10000 ft.
Solution:
1
(𝐿/𝐷)𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐶𝐿2
𝐶𝐷𝑜 = 𝐶𝐷𝑖 =
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
1
√𝐶𝐷𝑜 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅/2𝐶𝐷𝑜
2𝐶𝐷𝑜
√𝐶𝐷𝑜 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
2 ∗ 0.025
2
√0.025 ∗ 𝜋 ∗ 0.8 ∗ (35.8)
174
2 ∗ 0.025
𝜃𝑚𝑖𝑛 = tan−1 ( ) = 4.20⁰
( 35.8 ) 2
√0.025 ∗ 𝜋 ∗ 0.8 ∗
174
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ(𝐿/𝐷)𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ(𝐶𝐿 /𝐶𝐷 )𝑚𝑎𝑥

√𝐶𝐷𝑜 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 10000( )
2𝐶𝐷𝑜
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2
√0.025 ∗ 𝜋 ∗ 0.8 ∗ (35.8)
174
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 10000(
2 ∗ 0.025
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 136059.33 𝑓𝑡
VII. Plate No. 1 – Midterm

1. For an airplane weighing 4000 lb, the excess horsepower at sea level
is 60 hp; at 10000 ft altitude there is an excess power of 17 hp. What is
its service ceiling?
2. At sea level an airplane’s rate of climb is 1000 ft. per min. Its absolute
ceiling is 15000 ft. How long will it take to climb to 7000 ft altitude?
3. An airplane takes, 7 min, 30 sec to reach 8000 ft altitude. In that same
interval, (i.e. 15 min from sea level) it reaches 13600 ft. altitude. What
is the ceiling?
4. An airplane weighs 4600 lbs; its rate of climb at sea level is 1100
ft./min; its absolute ceiling is 14,000 ft. What is its service ceiling?
5. The service ceiling of an airplane is 15,000 ft. Its rate of climb at sea
level is 890 ft./min, what is the absolute ceiling?
6. An airplane weighs 4,200 lbs. What is the excess horsepower at its
service ceiling?
7. At sea level, an airplane weighing 5200 lbs has 135 excess
horsepower. Its absolute ceiling is 19,000 ft.
a. How long will it take to climb from sea level to 7000 ft?
b. How long will it take to climb from sea level to 8000 ft?
8. A Beechcraft airplane has a service ceiling of 18000 ft. Its rate of climb
at sea level is 1200 ft. per min. How long will it take to climb from sea
level to 10,000 ft. altitude?
9. A Waco airplane, whose service ceiling is 14000 ft., climbs 950 ft. per
min at sea level. How long will it require to climb from sea level to 8000
ft?
10. A Luscombe Trainer climbs 900 ft. per min at sea level. How long does
it take to climb to its service ceiling which is 15,000 ft?
11. An airplane climbs in 9 min from sea level to 7640 ft altitude; continuing
the climb, 9 min later the altitude is 13600 ft. What is the ceiling?
12. An airplane climbs in a certain time to 9500 ft altitude; in double that
time counted from sea level the airplane reaches 15200 ft altitude.
What is the ceiling?
13. An airplane with a ceiling of 19000 ft can climb to12450 ft in 20
minutes. What height will it have reached in 10 minutes?
14. The maximum lift to drag ratio of the World War I Sopwith Camel was
7.7. If the aircraft is in flight at 5000 ft. when the engine fails, how far
can it glide in terms of distance measured along the ground?
15. For the Sopwith Camel in problem #14, calculate the equilibrium glide
velocity at 3000 ft., corresponding to the minimum glide angle. The
32 | P a g e
aspect ratio of the airplane is 4.11, the Oswald efficiency factor is 0.7,
the weight is 1400 lb, and the wing area is 231 ft. 2.
16. Consider an airplane in level flight at a velocity of 1000 ft/s. Assume
the pilot pushes the throttle all the way forward, an excess power is
generated in the amount Ps = 250 ft/s. Find:
a. The rate of climb assuming the pilot gave up linear acceleration in
the flight direction.
b. The acceleration assuming the pilot gave up climb.
VIII. Quiz No. 1 – Midterm
1. The absolute ceiling of an airplane is 18400 ft. The rate of climb at sea
level is 1070 ft. per min. What is the rate of climb at 12000 ft. altitude?
2. The service ceiling of an airplane is 21300 ft. The rate of climb at sea
level is 950 ft. per min. What is the rate of climb at 13,000 ft. altitude?
3. A Piper Cub, whose absolute ceiling is 14200 ft, climbs 650 ft./min at
sea level. How long will it require to climb from sea level to its service
ceiling?
4. An airplane with a ceiling of 26000 ft climbs to a height of 5000 ft in a
certain time. What height will it attain in twice that time?
5. An airplane climbs to a certain time to 2200 ft; in twice that time it
climbs to 3800 ft. What is the ceiling?
6. Consider a Gulfstream IV twin turbofan executive transport. Calculate
the thrust required curve at an altitude of 30,000 ft flying at 500 ft/s,
assuming a weight of 73,000 lbs. Other pertinent data are given as:
S = 950 ft.2
AR = 5.92
CDo = 0.015
K = 0.08
𝐶𝐷 = 0.015 + 0.08𝐶𝐿2
Find the minimum glide angle, maximum range covered over the
ground, and the gliding velocity at 30,000 ft.
7. Consider an airplane with a parasite drag coefficient of 0.025, an
aspect ratio of 6.72, and an Oswald efficiency factor of 0.9. Calculate
the value of (L/D)max.
8. Consider an airplane in level flight at a velocity of 900 ft/s. Assume the
pilot pushes the throttle all the way forward, an excess power is
generated in the amount Ps = 275 ft/s. Find:
c. The rate of climb assuming the pilot gave up linear acceleration in
the flight direction.
d. The acceleration assuming the pilot gave up climb.
33 | P a g e
Learning Module 4: Endurance and Range
LEARNING MODULE 04:

Endurance and Range
1|P a ge
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Ref. no Page
Range and Endurance for a Propeller Driven Airplane 1 5
Range and Endurance for a Jet Driven Airplane 1 13
Relations between CDo and CDi 1 17
Sample Problems 1 20
Plate No. 2 22
2|P a ge
TABLE OF REFERENCES
References No.
1
2
4


Modules
Range and Endurance for a Propeller Driven Airplane 60
Range and Endurance for a Jet Driven Airplane 40
Relations between CDo and CDi 30
References
218.8

Sample Problems 40
Plate No. 2 120
Quiz No. 2 120
HONESTY CLAUSE
3|P a ge
LEARNING OUTCOMES
MLO 1: Explain the range
sciences to the practice of its application on the aviation and endurance for propeller TLO 12: Discuss the
aeronautical engineering. industry through concept of range and
and jet driven aircraft using
PLO 4: Function in multi- aerodynamic computations endurance for a propeller
physical considerations and driven aircraft using physical
disciplinary and multi-cultural on aircraft performance. considerations presented in the
quantitative formulations.
teams CLO 3: Quantify module.
MLO 2: Formulate equations TLO 13: Derive working
PLO 5: Identify, formulate, aerodynamic forces along equations for range and
for range and endurance for
and solve aeronautical flight using aerodynamic endurance for a propeller
propeller and jet driven driven aircraft using
engineering problems. equations derived from quantitative formulations
aircraft by quantitative
PLO 8: Understand the Newton’s Second Law of presented in the module.
formulation of the physical TLO 14: Derive the
impact of aeronautical Motion. Breguet’s simplified range and
considerations made.
engineering solutions in CLO 4: Utilize knowledge in endurance for a propeller
MLO 3: Formulate working driven aircraft using the
global, economic, airplane performance by derived equations from the
equations for range and
environmental, and societal applying theories and quantitative formulations.
endurance of a propeller TLO 15: Explain factors
context principles of flight in solving affecting the takeoff
driven aircraft using the
PLO 9: Recognize the need problems. performance for a propeller
Breguet’s assumption. driven aircraft using the
for, and engage in life-long CLO 5: Display analytical parameters presented in the
MLO 4: Formulate equations
learning skills by performing derived working equations.
for range and endurance of TLO 16: Discuss the
PLO 11: Use techniques, computations in flight concept of range and
a jet driven aircraft by
skills, and modern performance problems. endurance for a jet driven
quantitative formulation of aircraft using physical
engineering tools necessary CLO 9: Display professional considerations presented in the
the physical considerations
for aeronautical engineering commitment to ethical module.
made. TLO 17: Derive working
practice practice by showing sense of equations for range and
MLO 5: Identify
PLO 12: Knowledge and responsibility in complying endurance for a jet driven
aerodynamic quantities that aircraft using quantitative
understanding of and compiling academic formulations presented in the
affect range and endurance
engineering and requirement. module.
for propeller and jet driven TLO 18: Explain factors
management principles as a affecting the takeoff
aircraft using the derived
member and leader in a performance for a jet driven
working equations. aircraft using the parameters
team, to manage projects presented in the derived
MLO 6: Solve problems
and in multidisciplinary working equations.
involving range and TLO 19: Compute
environments. problems involving takeoff and
endurance through sample
PLO 13: Apply acquired landing performance using
problems and/or module derived working equations
aeronautical engineering presented in the module.
activities.
knowledge and skills for TLO 20: Discuss the
MLO 7: Explain the relationships between CDo and
national development. C¬Di for maximum lift to drag
relationships between CDo ratios by deriving formulas in
and CDi through derivation terms of CDo.
of formulas.
4|P a ge
CONTENT
I. Range and Endurance for a Propeller Driven Airplane
As quoted by Claude Graham White, “First Europe, and then the globe,
will be linked by flight, and nations so knit together that they will grow to be
next-door neighbors… What railways have done for nations, airways will
do for the world.”
Back in the days, the primary mode of transportation for long rides are
trains. Railroads connects different cities and cuts the travel time from one
place to another. However, since trains needs railroads to function, they
are limited by different factors in order to be considered efficient and
reliable for transporting goods and services (including people) which are
necessary for day to day life.
The early airplanes were really not made for mass transport, but their
development have contributed to a large cut in travel time not only within
countries but also globally. Just like for cars and any other methods of
transportation, the important questions fall under two categories: how far
and how long. How far can my car take me on this tank? How long will this
fuel in my tank can run my car? The same considerations apply to
airplanes but optimizing both categories at the same time is not feasible
for an aircraft designer. One has to make compromises for each category
and then design an aircraft suitable for the compromise made. For
example, fighter aircrafts are designed small compared to commercial
aircraft primarily for speed, but in order to fly at supersonic speeds a lot of
fuel is needed to be burned. In general, we can say that fighter aircrafts
are not designed for long duration flights at their designed operating
speed. On the contrary, passenger aircrafts are significantly slower than
fighter aircrafts but in terms of size, it is generally larger which means that
it can carry a lot more fuel than an average fighter aircraft. Thus is suitable
for long duration flights.
Range by definition is the total distance (measured with respect to the
ground) traversed by an airplane on a tank of fuel. On the other hand,
endurance is the total time an airplane stays in the air on a tank of fuel.
Again, it is important to remember that, for different applications, it may be
desirable to maximize one or the other. The parameters which maximize
range are different from those of maximizing endurance and they are also
different for jet driven and propeller driven airplanes.
5|P a ge
A. Physical Considerations
One of the critical factors influencing range and endurance is the
specific fuel consumption which is a characteristic of the engine. For a
reciprocating engine, specific fuel consumption (SFC) is defined as the
weight of fuel consumed per unit power per unit time. Since
reciprocating engines are rated in terms of horsepower and the
common unit for SFC (although inconsistent) are:
𝑙𝑏 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
𝑆𝐹𝐶 =
𝐵𝐻𝑃 (ℎ𝑟)
Considering endurance on a qualitative basis, in order to stay airborne

for the longest period of time, common sense say that we use our fuel
efficiently such that we burn the minimum number of pounds of fuel per
hour. On a dimensional basis we have this quantity proportional to the
horsepower required by the airplane and to the SFC:
∝ 𝑆𝐹𝐶 (ℎ𝑝𝑅 )
ℎ𝑟
Therefore, the relationship above states that in order to burn the

minimum amount of fuel per hour, the power required (hp R) should also
be minimum which gives us the maximum endurance of an airplane.
From these statement we can say that:
Maximum endurance for a propeller-driven airplane occurs when

the airplane is flying at minimum power required.
From the previous discussions we have shown that minimum power

3/2
required corresponds to a maximum value of 𝐶𝐿 /𝐶𝐷 . Thus, we can
say that:
Maximum endurance for a propeller-driven airplane occurs when

𝟑/𝟐
the airplane is flying at a velocity such that 𝑪𝑳 /𝑪𝑫 is maximum.
Considering Range, in order to cover the largest distance (say, in

miles), it is obvious to say that we use the minimum number of pounds
of fuel per mile. From these statement we can say that:
𝑙𝑏 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑆𝐹𝐶 (ℎ𝑝𝑅 )

∝ 𝑉∞ = 𝑚𝑝ℎ
𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑉∞
6|P a ge
The equation above shows that the minimum pounds of fuel per mile is
obtained with a minimum (hpR )/𝑉∞ . The minimum value of this is
shown previously to correspond to the tangent point where 𝐿/𝐷 is
maximum. From these results we can say that:
Maximum range for a propeller driven aircraft occurs when the

airplane is flying at a velocity such that 𝑪𝑳 /𝑪𝑫 is maximum.
Figure 4.1 Velocity for Endurance and Range
B. Quantitative Formulation
From the physical reasoning made above for range and endurance, we
can develop quantitative formulas which can substantiate these
conclusions and allow us to calculate for range and endurance at
specific conditions.
From the definition of specific fuel consumption, we have:

𝑆𝐹𝐶 =
𝐵𝐻𝑃 (ℎ𝑟)
7|P a ge
Expressing in consistent units, we have the following: Let SFC = c
𝑙𝑏 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑁 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
𝑐= =
𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏 𝐽
( 𝑠 ) (𝑠) ( 𝑠 ) (𝑠 )
Consider the product of specific fuel consumption, engine power, and

small increment of time, the units of this product in consistent units are:
𝑙𝑏 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏
𝑐𝑃𝑑𝑡 = ( ) (𝑠) = 𝑙𝑏 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏 𝑠
( 𝑠 ) (𝑠)
Therefore, the product above represents the differential change in

weight (dW) of the fuel due to consumption over a short period of
time dt.
Definition of terms:
W = total weight of the airplane (payload, structures, and changing fuel
weight)
Wf = fuel load
W 0 = gross weight of aircraft with fuel and payload
W 1 = weight of aircraft without fuel
Note that any changes in W is assumed to be due to the change in fuel
weight.
With these considerations, we have the following formulas:

𝑊1 = 𝑊0 − 𝑊𝑓
𝑑𝑊𝑓 = 𝑑𝑊 = −𝑐𝑃𝑑𝑡 (𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔)
𝑑𝑊
𝑑𝑡 = −
𝑐𝑃
Integrating both sides from t = 0 to t = E and W 0 to W 1:
𝐸 𝑊1
𝑑𝑊
∫ 𝑑𝑡 = − ∫
0 𝑊0 𝑐𝑃
𝑊0
𝑑𝑊
𝐸= ∫ (𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛)
𝑊1 𝑐𝑃
Since consistent units were used, the endurance (E) calculated using
the equation above is given in seconds (s).
Analogous to the formula for endurance, range is a unit of distance.

Therefore, from the differential form of velocity we have the following:
8|P a ge
𝑑𝑠
𝑉=
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑠 = 𝑉𝑑𝑡 = 𝑉∞ 𝑑𝑡
Multiplying 𝑉∞ on both sides from the formula given above, we have:
𝑉∞ 𝑑𝑊
𝑉∞ 𝑑𝑡 = −
𝑐𝑃
𝑉∞ 𝑑𝑊
𝑑𝑠 = −
𝑐𝑃
Integrating from s = 0 to s = Range (R) and W0 to W 1 we have:
𝑅 𝑊1
𝑉∞ 𝑑𝑊
∫ 𝑑𝑠 = − ∫
0 𝑊0 𝑐𝑃
𝑊0
𝑉∞ 𝑑𝑊
𝑅= ∫
𝑊1 𝑐𝑃
The range for an airplane calculated using the formula given above is
in meters or feet.
The equation for range and endurance above can be calculated

graphically, as shown in the figure below. Range can be calculated by
𝑉∞ 1
plotting versus W, and endurance can be calculated using versus
𝑐𝑃 𝑐𝑃
W. Taking the area under the curves generated by integral calculus
from W 1 to W 0 would give us the range and endurance respectively.
Figure 4.2 Integration for Endurance and Range
The equations presented are accurate formulations for range and

endurance which can be used in different phases of flight such as
takeoff, climb, cruise and landing provided that instantaneous values
for 𝑤, 𝑉∞ , 𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃 are known at each point along the flight path.
However, although accurate, solutions are long and tedious.
9|P a ge
C. Breguet’s Formula for Range and Endurance

Recall that from level unaccelerated flight, we have 𝑃𝑅 = 𝐷𝑉∞ . Also, to
maintain steady conditions, the pilot has adjusted the throttle such that
the power available is equal to the power required. 𝑃𝐴 = 𝑃𝑅 = 𝐷𝑉∞ .
From the equation 𝑐𝑃𝑑𝑡, P represents the brake shaft horsepower of
the engine but for a propeller driven airplane we know that 𝑃𝐴 =
ⴄ(𝐵𝐻𝑃) where ⴄ is the propeller efficiency.
From the equations above, we have:

𝑃𝐴
𝐵𝐻𝑃 = 𝑃 = 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑃𝐴 = 𝑃𝑅 = 𝐷𝑉∞
ⴄ
𝑃𝐴 𝐷𝑉∞
𝑃= =
ⴄ ⴄ
Substituting to the formula for Range:

𝑊0
𝑉∞ 𝑑𝑊
𝑅= ∫
𝐷𝑉
𝑊1 𝑐 ( ⴄ∞ )
𝑊0
𝑉∞ ⴄ 𝑑𝑊
𝑅= ∫
𝑊1 𝑐 (𝐷𝑉∞ )
𝑊0
ⴄ 𝑑𝑊
𝑅= ∫
𝑊1 𝑐 (𝐷)
Multiplying by W/W where for steady level flight, W = L:

𝑊0
ⴄ 𝑑𝑊 𝑊
𝑅= ∫ ( )
𝑊1 𝑐 (𝐷 ) 𝑊
𝑊0
ⴄ 𝑊 𝑑𝑊
𝑅= ∫ ( )
𝑊1 𝑐(𝐷 ) 𝑊
𝑊0
ⴄ 𝐿 𝑑𝑊
𝑅= ∫ ( )
𝑊1 𝑐𝐷 𝑊
Note that unlike the formula for range in the previous section, the
Range now contains the direct assumption for steady, level flight
conditions. However, for practical use, it is simplified further by
assuming that ⴄ, 𝐿/𝐷 = 𝐶𝐿 /𝐶𝐷 , and c are constant throughout the flight.
This is a reasonable approximation during the cruising flight conditions.
Thus, we have:
ⴄ 𝐶𝐿 𝑊0 𝑑𝑊
𝑅= ∫
𝑐 𝐶𝐷 𝑊1 𝑊
10 | P a g e
ⴄ 𝐶𝐿 𝑊0
𝑅= ln (𝐵𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑒𝑡 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎)
𝑐 𝐶𝐷 𝑊1
The Breguet range formula gives a quick and practical estimate for
range which is within 10% - 20% accuracy. Keep in mind that Breguet
Range Formula was derived using consistent units and that gives us
range in terms of feet or meters.
ⴄ 𝐶𝐿 𝑊0
𝑅 (𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑠) = 375 ln
𝑐 𝐶𝐷 𝑊1
Where for:
𝑙𝑏
𝑐=
𝐻𝑃 − ℎ𝑟
𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠
𝜌=
𝑓𝑡 3
𝑆 = 𝑓𝑡 2
A closer look at the formula gives us the following conditions needed to

maximize the range of an aircraft:
1. Highest possible propeller efficiency, ⴄ
2. Lowest specific fuel consumption, 𝑐
3. Highest ratio of 𝑊0 /𝑊1 , possible with the largest fuel weight 𝑊𝑓
4. Flights at maximum L/D conditions. Recall that from our physical
considerations above, we have concluded that Maximum range for
a propeller driven aircraft occurs when the airplane is flying at
a velocity such that 𝑪𝑳 /𝑪𝑫 is maximum. Indeed, the Breguet’s
formula is directly proportional to the L/D ratio. This is why high
values of the said ratio is of vital importance in airplane design
considerations. This importance was underscored in the 1970s due
to the increasing awareness of the need to conserve energy (hence
fuel).
For endurance, we have the following formulas:

𝑊0
𝑑𝑊
𝐸= ∫
𝑊1 𝑐 (
𝐷𝑉∞
ⴄ )
𝑊0
ⴄ 𝑑𝑊
𝐸= ∫
𝑊1 𝑐 (𝐷𝑉∞ )
1 2𝑊
Multiplying by W/W and that 𝐿 = 𝑊 = 2 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞2 𝑆𝐶𝐿 ; 𝑉∞ = √𝜌
∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐿
𝑊0
ⴄ 𝑑𝑊 𝑊
𝐸= ∫
𝑊1 𝑐 (𝐷𝑉∞ ) 𝑊
11 | P a g e
𝑊0
ⴄ𝑊 𝑑𝑊
𝐸= ∫
𝑊1 2𝑊 𝑊
𝑐 (𝐷√𝜌 𝑆𝐶 )
∞ 𝐿
𝑊0
ⴄ𝐿 𝑑𝑊
𝐸= ∫
𝑊1 2𝑊 𝑊
𝑐 (𝐷√𝜌 𝑆𝐶 )
∞ 𝐿
𝑊0
ⴄ𝐿 𝜌 𝑆𝐶 𝑑𝑊
𝐸= ∫ √ ∞ 𝐿
𝑊1 𝑐 (𝐷 ) 2𝑊 𝑊
𝑊0
ⴄ 𝐶𝐿 𝜌∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐿 𝑑𝑊
𝐸= ∫ √ 3
𝑊1 𝑐𝐶𝐷 2
𝑊2
3
ⴄ 𝐶𝐿2 𝜌∞ 𝑆 𝑊0 3
𝐸= √ ∫ 𝑊 −2 𝑑𝑊
𝑐𝐶𝐷 2 𝑊1
3 1
ⴄ 𝐶𝐿2 𝜌∞ 𝑆 [𝑊 −2 ] (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑊1 𝑡𝑜 𝑊0 )
𝐸= √ ∗
𝑐𝐶𝐷 2 1
−2
3
ⴄ 𝐶𝐿2 𝜌∞ 𝑆 −
1
2
−
1
2
𝐸 = −2 √ [ 𝑊0 − 𝑊1 ]
𝑐𝐶𝐷 2
3
ⴄ 𝐶𝐿2 −
1
2
−
1
2
𝐸= √2𝜌∞ 𝑆 [ 𝑊1 − 𝑊0 ] (𝐵𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑒𝑡 ′ 𝑠 𝐸𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎)
𝑐 𝐶𝐷
The Breguet’s Endurance formula, gives the endurance in seconds (s)

since it was derived with consistent units.
3
ⴄ 𝐶𝐿2 −
1
2
−
1
2
𝐸 (ℎ𝑟) = 778 √2𝜌∞ 𝑆 [ 𝑊1 − 𝑊0 ]
𝑐 𝐶𝐷
Where for:
𝑙𝑏
𝑐=
𝐻𝑃 − ℎ𝑟
𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠
𝜌=
𝑓𝑡 3
𝑆 = 𝑓𝑡 2
A closer look at the formula gives us the following conditions needed to

maximize the endurance of an aircraft:
1. Highest possible propeller efficiency, ⴄ
2. Lowest specific fuel consumption, 𝑐
3. Highest fuel weight W f possible, where W 0 = W 1 + W f
12 | P a g e
3/2
4. Flights at maximum (𝐶𝐿 )/𝐶𝐷 conditions. Recall that from our
physical considerations above, we have concluded that Maximum
endurance for a propeller-driven airplane occurs when the
𝟑/𝟐
airplane is flying at a velocity such that 𝑪𝑳 /𝑪𝑫 is maximum.
Indeed the Breguet’s Endurance Formula is directly proportional to
3/2
𝐶𝐿 /𝐶𝐷
1
5. Flight at sea level, because 𝐸 ∝ and since 𝜌∞ is largest at sea
√𝜌∞
level.
Note that the approximations for range is dependent on altitude, on the

contrary, the range is independent of altitude. The results presented
above conforms to aircrafts driven by a combination of reciprocating
engine and a propeller.
II. Range and Endurance for a Jet Driven Airplane

For a jet airplane, specific fuel consumption is defined as the weight of fuel
consumed per unit thrust per time. Recall that thrust is used instead of
power for jet driven aircrafts. The fuel consumption of a jet physically
depends on the thrust of the engine contrary to piston engines which
depends on the brake shaft horsepower produced. It is this simple
difference that leads to different range and endurance formulas for jets. In
this section we will define the specific fuel consumption as the thrust
specific fuel consumption (TSFC) used for jet driven airplanes. It is given
by: (note that time has inconsistent unit)
𝑇𝑆𝐹𝐶 =
(𝑙𝑏 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡) (ℎ𝑟)
A. Physical Considerations
The maximum endurance for a jet airplane is when minimum pounds of
fuel per hour is consumed, the same consideration for a propeller
driven aircraft. However, for a jet we have the following:
= 𝑇𝑆𝐹𝐶 (𝑙𝑏 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡)
(ℎ𝑟)
𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑇𝐴 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒
= 𝑇𝑆𝐹𝐶 (𝑇𝐴 )
(ℎ𝑟)
Recall that for steady level, unaccelerated flight, the throttle setting is
adjusted in such a way that the thrust available is equal to the thrust
required that is: 𝑇𝑅 = 𝑇𝐴 . Therefore, minimum pounds of fuel per hour
13 | P a g e
corresponds to minimum thrust required and hence we can say that

from the physical considerations above, we have:
Maximum endurance for a jet airplane occurs when the airplane is

flying at minimum thrust required.
Recall that minimum thrust required corresponds to maximum L/D.

Thus:
Maximum endurance for a jet airplane occurs when the airplane is

flying at a velocity such that CL / CD is maximum.
Now considering range as a distance (in miles), from velocity we have

𝑣 = 𝑠/𝑡. We have the following equations:
𝑠 (𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒)
= 𝑡(ℎ)
𝑣∞ (𝑚𝑝ℎ)
(ℎ𝑟)
(𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒)
(𝑚𝑝ℎ)
(𝑚𝑝ℎ) 𝑙𝑏 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
(𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒)
𝑙𝑏 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑇𝑆𝐹𝐶 (𝑇𝐴 )
=
(𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒) (𝑚𝑝ℎ)
𝑙𝑏 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑇𝑆𝐹𝐶 (𝑇𝐴 )
=
(𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒) (𝑣∞ )
Recall that for steady level flight, T A = TR, we note that the minimum
pounds of fuel per mile corresponds to a minimum TR /𝑉∞ which is the
slope of a line through the origin and intersecting the thrust required
whose minimum value occurs when the line becomes tangent to the
thrust required curve. Recall also that for steady level flight T R = D, and
therefore we have:
1
TR D 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞2 𝑆𝐶𝐷 1 2𝑊
= = 2 = 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐷 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑉∞ = √
𝑉∞ 𝑉∞ 𝑉∞ 2 𝜌∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐿
TR 1 2𝑊
= 𝜌∞ √ 𝑆𝐶
𝑉∞ 2 𝜌∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐿 𝐷
TR 1
∝ 1/2
𝑉∞ (𝐶𝐿 )/𝐶𝐷
14 | P a g e
1/2
Therefore TR /𝑉∞ corresponds to (𝐶𝐿 )/𝐶𝐷 . From these considerations
we conclude that:
Maximum range for jet airplane occurs when the airplane is flying
𝟏/𝟐
at a velocity such that (𝑪𝑳 )/𝑪𝑫 is maximum.
B. Quantitative Formulation
Let the specific fuel consumption of a jet driven airplane be 𝑐𝑡 , which is
the thrust-specific fuel consumption. In consistent units, we have:
𝑙𝑏 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑁 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
𝑜𝑟
𝑙𝑏 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 (𝑠) 𝑁 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 (𝑠)
Let dW be the elemental change in weight of the airplane due to fuel
consumption over a small increment in time, dt. We have:
𝑑𝑊 = −𝑐𝑡 𝑇𝐴 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑊
𝑑𝑡 = −
𝑐𝑡 𝑇𝐴
Integrating both sides from t = 0 to t = E and W = W 0 to W = W 1:
𝐸 𝑊1
𝑑𝑊
∫ 𝑑𝑡 = − ∫
0 𝑊0 𝑐𝑡 𝑇𝐴
𝑊0
𝑑𝑊
𝐸 = ∫
𝑊1 𝑐𝑡 𝑇𝐴
Multiplying both sides by W/W and recall that T A = TR = D and W = L
for steady, level, unaccelerated flight:
𝑊0
𝑑𝑊 𝑊
𝐸 = ∫ ∗
𝑊1 𝑐𝑡 𝑇𝐴 𝑊
𝑊0
𝑊 𝑑𝑊
𝐸 = ∫ ∗
𝑊1 𝑐𝑡 𝐷 𝑊
𝑊0
1 𝑊 𝑑𝑊
𝐸 = ∫ ∗
𝑊1 𝑐𝑡 𝐷 𝑊
1 𝐿 𝑊0 𝑑𝑊
𝐸 = ∫
𝑐𝑡 𝐷 𝑊1 𝑊
1 𝐶𝐿 𝑊0
𝐸 = ln
𝑐𝑡 𝐶𝐷 𝑊1
Note that the equation for endurance above is derived with consistent
units and that to maximize the endurance, we need the following
conditions:
1. Maximum thrust specific fuel consumption, 𝑐𝑡
2. Maximum fuel weight, 𝑊𝑓
15 | P a g e
3. Flight at maximum L/D ratio. This confirms the physical

considerations we made in the previous section that states:
Maximum endurance for a jet airplane occurs when the
airplane is flying at a velocity such that CL / CD is maximum.
Note that, subject to our assumptions, E for a jet does not depend on
𝜌∞ , that is, it is independent of altitude.
Considering range, we have the following formula for velocity:

𝑑𝑠
= 𝑑𝑡
𝑉∞
Substituting:
𝑑𝑊
𝑑𝑡 = −
𝑐𝑡 𝑇𝐴
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑊
= −
𝑉∞ 𝑐𝑡 𝑇𝐴
𝑉∞ 𝑑𝑊
𝑑𝑠 = −
𝑐𝑡 𝑇𝐴
Where ds is the smallest increment of distance covered by the jet over
the time increment dt, integrating both sides from s = 0 to s = R and W
= W 0 to W = W 1:
𝑅 𝑊1
𝑉∞ 𝑑𝑊
∫ 𝑑𝑠 = − ∫
0 𝑊0 𝑐𝑡 𝑇𝐴
𝑊0
𝑉∞ 𝑑𝑊
𝑅 =∫
𝑊1 𝑐𝑡 𝑇𝐴
Recall that TA = TR = W / (CL /CD) and W = L for steady, level,
unaccelerated flight:
𝑊0
𝑉∞ (𝐶𝐿 /𝐶𝐷 )𝑑𝑊
𝑅 = ∫
𝑊1 𝑐𝑡 𝑊
𝑊0
𝑉∞ 𝐶𝐿 𝑑𝑊
𝑅 =∫
𝑊1 𝑐𝑡 𝐶𝐷 𝑊
2𝑊
Since 𝑉∞ = √𝜌 we have:
∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐿
2𝑊
𝑊0 √𝜌 𝑆𝐶 𝐶 𝑑𝑊
∞ 𝐿 𝐿
𝑅 =∫
𝑊1 𝑐𝑡 𝐶𝐷 𝑊
1
𝑊0
2 1 𝑑𝑊𝐶𝐿2
𝑅 =∫ √ 1
𝑊1 𝜌∞ 𝑆 𝑐𝑡 𝐶𝐷
𝑊2
16 | P a g e
Assuming that, 𝑐𝑡 , 𝐶𝐿 , 𝐶𝐷 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜌∞ to be constant (at a constant altitude)

we have:
1
1 𝐶𝐿2 𝑊0 𝑑𝑊
2
𝑅 =√ ∫ 1
𝜌∞ 𝑆 𝑐𝑡 𝐶𝐷 𝑊1
𝑊2
1
1 𝐶𝐿2
2 1 1
𝑅 =√ (𝑊0 − 𝑊12 )
2
𝜌∞ 𝑆 𝑐𝑡 𝐶𝐷
The equation above is the range for a jet driven aircraft which gives the
range in meters or feet since it was derived using constant units. In
order to maximize the range for a jet driven aircraft, we need the
following conditions:
1. Minimum thrust-specific fuel consumption, 𝑐𝑡
2. Maximum fuel weight, 𝑊𝑓
1/2
3. Flight at maximum (𝐶𝐿 )/𝐶𝐷 . This confirms the physical
consideration we have made in the previous section that states:
Maximum range for jet airplane occurs when the airplane is
𝟏/𝟐
flying at a velocity such that (𝑪𝑳 )/𝑪𝑫 is maximum.
4. Flight at high altitudes, i.e. low density. The equation for range
states that the range becomes infinite as the density approaches
zero (approaching outer space). This is ridiculous because the
airplanes require the atmosphere to produce lift and thrust. In fact,
long before the outer space is reached, the 𝑐𝑡 increases and the
engine performance deteriorates. It can be only concluded from the
equation that range for a jet is poorest at sea level and increases
with altitude up to a point. Typical cruising altitudes for a subsonic
commercial jet are 30,000 ft to 40,000 ft, while supersonic
transports are flying in 50,000 ft to 60,000 ft.
III. Relations between CDo and CDi

In the previous sections we have discussed different ratios for C L and CD
that corresponds to different aircraft performance characteristics such as
thrust required, power required, range and endurance. In this section
results will be obtained strictly from aerodynamic considerations.
Recall that: CD = CDo + CDi = CDo + CL2/πeAR
For maximum 𝑪𝑳 /𝑪𝑫
Deriving, we have:
17 | P a g e
𝐶𝐿 𝐶𝐿
=
𝐶𝐷 𝐶𝐷𝑜 + CL 2 / πeAR
𝑑(𝐶𝐿 /𝐶𝐷 ) 𝐶𝐷𝑜 + CL 2 / πeAR − 𝐶𝐿 (2𝐶𝐿 /πeAR)
= 2 = 0
𝑑𝐶𝐿 (𝐶𝐷𝑜 + 〖C_L〗^2/πeAR)
CL 2 2𝐶𝐿
𝐶𝐷𝑜 + − 𝐶𝐿 ( )=0
πeAR πeAR
CL 2 𝐶𝐿2
𝐶𝐷𝑜 + − 2( )=0
πeAR πeAR
CL 2 𝐶𝐿
𝐶𝐷𝑜 = = 𝐶𝐷𝑖 𝑓𝑜𝑟 ( )
πeAR 𝐶𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝟑/𝟐
For maximum (𝑪𝑳 )/𝑪𝑫
Deriving, we have:
3/2 3/2
𝐶𝐿 𝐶𝐿
=
1 3
CL 2 3 2CL
3/2 [(𝐶𝐷𝑜 + ) ∗ 𝐶𝐿2 ] − 𝐶𝐿2 ( )
𝑑(𝐶𝐿 /𝐶𝐷 ) πeAR 2 πeAR
= 2 =0
𝑑𝐶𝐿 (𝐶𝐷𝑜 + 〖C_L〗^2/πeAR)
1 5
3 12 3 CL2 𝐶𝐿2 2CL2
[( 𝐶𝐿 𝐶𝐷𝑜 + )] − ( )=0
2 2 πeAR πeAR
1 1
3 12 3 CL2 𝐶𝐿2 2CL2 𝐶𝐿2
[( 𝐶𝐿 𝐶𝐷𝑜 + )] − ( )=0
2 2 πeAR πeAR
3 3 CL2 2CL2
[( 𝐶𝐷𝑜 + )] − ( )=0
2 2 πeAR πeAR
3 1 CL2
𝐶 − =0
2 𝐷𝑜 2 πeAR
3 1 CL2 1
2 2 πeAR 2
3
𝐶𝐿2
3 𝐶𝐷𝑜 = 𝐶𝐷𝑖 𝑓𝑜𝑟 ( )
𝐶𝐷
𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝟏/𝟐
For maximum (𝑪𝑳 )/𝑪𝑫
Deriving, we have:
18 | P a g e
(𝐶𝐿1/2 ) 1/2
𝐶𝐿
=
1
CL 2 1 − 1/2 2CL
1/2 (𝐶𝐷𝑜 + πeAR ) ∗ 2 𝐶𝐿 2 − 𝐶𝐿 (πeAR )
𝑑(𝐶𝐿 /𝐶𝐷 )
= 2 =0
𝑑𝐶𝐿 CL 2
(𝐶𝐷𝑜 + πeAR)
CL 2 1 −12 1
2CL
(𝐶𝐷𝑜 + ) ∗ 𝐶𝐿 − 𝐶𝐿2 ( )=0
πeAR 2 πeAR
CL 2 1 1 1
2
2CL
(𝐶𝐷𝑜 + )∗ 1/2
= 𝐶𝐿 ( )
πeAR 2𝐶 πeAR
𝐿
2
CL 2CL
(𝐶𝐷𝑜 + ) = 2𝐶𝐿 ( )
πeAR πeAR
4CL2
(𝐶𝐷𝑜 + 𝐶𝐷𝑖 ) = ( )
πeAR
(𝐶𝐷𝑜 + 𝐶𝐷𝑖 ) = 4𝐶𝐷𝑖
1
𝐶𝐿2
𝐶𝐷𝑜 = 3𝐶𝐷𝑖 𝑓𝑜𝑟 ( )
𝐶𝐷
𝑚𝑎𝑥
Note that the derivations above should not be associated with T R and PR
as done in the previous sections. The relations between C Do and CDi
depend purely on the conditions for maximum ratios shown above.
Consider again from maximum 𝑪𝑳 /𝑪𝑫 :
CL 2
πeAR
𝐶𝐿 = √πeAR𝐶𝐷𝑜
𝐶𝐿 𝐶𝐿 √πeAR𝐶𝐷𝑜
= = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐶𝐷𝑜 = 𝐶𝐷𝑖
𝐶𝐷 𝐶𝐷𝑜 + 𝐶𝐷𝑖 2𝐶𝐷𝑜
𝐶𝐿 √πeAR𝐶𝐷𝑜
( ) =
𝐶𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥 2𝐶𝐷𝑜
𝟑/𝟐
Consider again from maximum (𝑪𝑳 )/𝑪𝑫 :
CL 2
3 𝐶𝐷𝑜 = 𝐶𝐷𝑖 =
πeAR
𝐶𝐿 = √3πeAR𝐶𝐷𝑜
19 | P a g e
3
3/2 3/2
𝐶𝐿 𝐶𝐿 (√3πeAR𝐶𝐷𝑜 )2
= =
3 3
𝐶2 (3πeAR𝐶𝐷𝑜 )4
( 𝐿) =
𝐶𝐷 4𝐶𝐷𝑜
𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝟏/𝟐
Consider again from maximum(𝑪𝑳 )/𝑪𝑫 :
3CL 2
𝐶𝐷𝑜 = 3𝐶𝐷𝑖 =
πeAR
1
𝐶𝐿 = √ πeAR𝐶𝐷𝑜
3
1/2
1 1 1
(√3 πeAR𝐶𝐷𝑜 )
𝐶𝐿2 𝐶𝐿2
= =
1 1/4
1
𝐶𝐿2 (3 πeAR𝐶𝐷𝑜 )
( ) =
𝐶𝐷 4
𝑚𝑎𝑥
3 𝐶𝐷𝑜
IV. Sample Problems

b = 35.8 ft.
S = 174 ft.2
W = 2950 lbs
Fuel Capacity = 65 gal. of aviation gas (5.64 lb/ gal)
BHPSea-level¬ =230 HP
c = 0.45 lb/HP-hr
CDo = 0.025
e = 0.8
ⴄ = 0.8
Find, the best range and endurance.
Solution:
65 gal. of aviation gas whose specific weight is 5.64 lb/ gal.
20 | P a g e
Also note that:

Standard Weights and Measures
Aviation Gasoline 6 lb/gal.
JP-4 6.6 lb/gal.
Kerosene 7 lb/gal.
Oil 7.5 lb/gal.
𝑙𝑏
𝑊𝑓 = 65 𝑔𝑎𝑙 ∗ 5.64 = 366.6 𝑙𝑏
𝑔𝑎𝑙
𝑊𝑂 = 2950 𝑙𝑏𝑠
𝑊1 = 𝑊𝑂 − 𝑊𝑓 = 2950 − 366.6 = 2583.4 𝑙𝑏
For Range:
ⴄ 𝐶𝐿 𝑊0
𝑅 (𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑠) = 375 ( ) ln
𝑐 𝐶𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑊1
𝐶𝐿2
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
𝐶𝐿 = √𝐶𝐷𝑜 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅 = √0.025 ∗ 𝜋 ∗ 0.8 ∗ 7.37 = 0.68
𝐶𝐷 = 2(0.025) = 0.05
0.8 0.68 2950
𝑅 (𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑠) = 375 ( ) ln
0.45 0.05 𝑚𝑎𝑥 2583.4
𝑅 (𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑠) = 1203.14 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑠

For Endurance:
𝐶𝐿2
3𝐶𝐷𝑜 = 𝐶𝐷𝑖 =
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
𝐶𝐿 = √3 ∗ 0.025 ∗ 𝜋 ∗ 0.8 ∗ 7.37 = 1.18

𝐶𝐷 = 4𝐶𝐷𝑜 = 4 ∗ 0.025 = 0.1
3
𝐶𝐿2
ⴄ −
1
2
−
1
𝐸 (ℎ𝑟) = 778 ( ) √2𝜌∞ 𝑆 [ 𝑊1 − 𝑊0 2 ]
𝑐 𝐶𝐷
𝑚𝑎𝑥
21 | P a g e
0.8 1.183/2 1
𝐸 (ℎ𝑟) = 778 ( )√2 ∗ 0.002377 ∗ 174 [ (2583.4)−2
0.45 0.1
1
− (2950)−2 ]
𝐸 (ℎ𝑟) = 20.36 ℎ𝑟𝑠.
V. Plate No. 2 – Midterm

1. Derive (CL3/2/CD)max and (CL1/2/CD)max and show the relationship
between CDo and CDi.
2. Derive (CL3/2/CD)max and (CL1/2/CD)max in terms of CDo.
3. An airplane is making an endurance flight and is therefore flying
constantly at the angle of minimum power required at which angle C L =
0.715 and CDT = 0.060. If the engine burns 0.5 lb per hp per hour, if the
propeller efficiency is 83% and the wing area is 255 sq. ft. How long
may the flight be maintained if the aircraft take off with 6000 lb gross
weight of which 2000 lb are fuel?
4. A light airplane weighs 1,100 lb, its wing area is 178 sq. ft., the
maximum value of CL3/2/CD is 10.2, the propeller efficiency is 79% and
the specific fuel consumption is 0.48 lb per hp per hour. How long can
it stay in the air if its fuel capacity is 25 gal.?
5. An airplane weighs 4000 lb and takes off with 80 gal. of gasoline. It has
a Clark Y wing of 216 sq. ft of area. If it has 180 hp engine, and the
maximum efficiency of the propeller is 78%, assume that the specific
fuel consumption is 0.55 lb per hp per hour and maximum velocity to
be 135 mph. Find the range if the L/D ratio is 9.3.
6. A Lockheed airplane weighs 20,000 lb and takes off with 644 gal. of
fuel. Its top speed is 284 mph. It has two Wright cyclone engines of
1000 hp each. Assume that the propellers have a maximum efficiency
of 82 per cent and the maximum L/D is 11.6. The fuel consumption is
0.48 lb per hp per hour. What is the range?
7. A Douglas DC-3 weighing 25,200 lb takes off with 822 gal. of fuel. Its
maximum speed is 220 mph, and it has two Wright engines rated at
1000 hp each with a fuel consumption of 0.54 lb per hp per hour.
Assume the maximum propeller efficiency of 81 per cent and that the
maximum L/D ratio of the airplane is 10.6. What is the range?
8. What is the maximum time an airplane can stay in the air if its gross
weight at takeoff is 11000 lb, its fuel capacity is 420 gal, the wing area
is 610 sq. ft., the maximum value of CL3/2/CD is 8.8, the propeller
efficiency is 83% and the specific fuel consumption is 0.51 lb per hp
per hour?
VI. Quiz No. 2 – Midterm
1. What is the maximum time an airplane can stay in the air if its gross
weight at takeoff is 9000 lb, its wing area is 560 sq. ft., the maximum
value of CL3/2/CD is 9.8, the propeller efficiency is 81%, the specific fuel
22 | P a g e
consumption is 0.52 lb per hp per hour, and its fuel capacity is 250
gal.? Note that 1 gal of gasoline weighs 6.0 lb.
2. A Cub Coupe with a total weight of 1400 lb takes off with 25 gal. of fuel.
Its top speed is 100 mph. The engine is rated at 75 hp. Assume that
the propeller has a maximum efficiency of 75 per cent, that the
maximum L/D ratio is 9.3 and that the fuel consumption is 0.55 lb per
hp per hour. What is the range?
3. A Boeing 307-B with a total weight of 45,000 lb takes off with 1700 gal.
of fuel. Its top speed is 250 mph and its four Wright engines are rated
at 900 hp a piece. Assume that the propellers have a maximum
efficiency of 81%, that the maximum L/D is 11.3 and that the fuel
consumption is 0.54 lb per hp per hour. What is the range?
23 | P a g e
Learning Module 5: Takeoff and Landing
LEARNING MODULE 05:

Takeoff and Landing
1|P a ge
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Ref. no Page
Takeoff Performance 1 5
Landing Performance 1 11
Sample Problems 15
Plate No. 1 17
2|P a ge
TABLE OF REFERENCES
References No.
1
2
4

Table 5.1 is taken from the reference above. 2

Modules
Takeoff Performance 40
Landing Performance 30
References
104.4

Sample Problems 30
Plate No. 1 50
Quiz No. 1 60
HONESTY CLAUSE
3|P a ge
LEARNING OUTCOMES
MLO 1: Explain takeoff
sciences to the practice of its application on the aviation performance and landing TLO 21: Discuss the
aeronautical engineering. industry through performance using force concept of takeoff
PLO 4: Function in multi- aerodynamic computations diagrams performance through
disciplinary and multi-cultural on aircraft performance. their definitions and
MLO 2: Formulate working
teams CLO 3: Quantify presentation of force
equations for takeoff and
PLO 5: Identify, formulate, aerodynamic forces along diagrams.
landing performance using
and solve aeronautical flight using aerodynamic TLO 22: Derive
force diagrams and
engineering problems. equations derived from working equations for
application to Newton’s
PLO 8: Understand the Newton’s Second Law of takeoff performance
second law. through the
impact of aeronautical Motion. MLO 3: Identify quantities application of force
engineering solutions in CLO 4: Utilize knowledge in affecting takeoff diagrams to Newton’s
global, economic, airplane performance by performance using the second law.
environmental, and societal applying theories and derived working formula. TLO 23: Discuss
context principles of flight in solving quantities affecting
PLO 9: Recognize the need problems. takeoff performance
for, and engage in life-long CLO 5: Display analytical through the
learning skills by performing parameters involved in
PLO 11: Use techniques, computations in flight the working equations.
skills, and modern performance problems. TLO 24: Discuss the
engineering tools necessary CLO 9: Display professional concept of landing
for aeronautical engineering commitment to ethical performance through
practice practice by showing sense of their definitions and
PLO 12: Knowledge and presentation of force
responsibility in complying
understanding of diagrams.
and compiling academic TLO 25: Derive
engineering and requirement. working equations for
management principles as a landing performance
member and leader in a through the
team, to manage projects application of force
and in multidisciplinary diagrams to Newton’s
environments. second law.
PLO 13: Apply acquired TLO 26: Discuss
aeronautical engineering quantities affecting
knowledge and skills for landing performance
national development. through the
parameters involved in
the working equations.
4|P a ge
CONTENT
I. Takeoff Performance
The previous sections discussed airplane performance where we assumed
that the acceleration is zero. In other words, we have dealt with static
performance. This chapter will focus on aspects of airplane performance
with finite acceleration or dynamic performance such as takeoff and
landing runs, turning flight, and accelerated rate of climb.
An airplane started on one end of the runway and accelerates as it is

cleared for takeoff. Notice that at some point on the runway, the airplane
noses up and become airborne. This brings us the question, what is the
running length along the ground required by the airplane, starting from
zero velocity, to gain flight speed and lift off the ground? We will define this
distance as the ground roll, or lift off distance s LO.
Figure 5.1 Free Body Diagram of an object in motion
Addressing the question above, let us look at a body in an accelerated

rectilinear motion with a mass m, and experiencing a constant force F as
shown in the figure above.
From Newton’s Second Law of Motion, we have:

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑑𝑉
𝐹=𝑚
𝑑𝑡
𝐹
𝑑𝑉 = 𝑑𝑡
𝑚
Assuming that the body starts from rest, at a location where s = 0 at time t
= 0 and is accelerated to a velocity V over the distance s at time t.
Integrating between these two points and remembering that F and m are
constant, we have:
𝑉
𝐹 𝑡
∫ 𝑑𝑉 = ∫ 𝑑𝑡
0 𝑚 0
5|P a ge
𝐹
𝑉= 𝑡
𝑚
𝑚
𝑡= 𝑉
𝐹
Considering an instant where the velocity is V, the incremental distance

covered during an incremental amount of time is given by the differential
form of velocity:
𝑑𝑠
𝑉=
𝑑𝑡
𝐹𝑡
𝑑𝑠 = 𝑉𝑑𝑡 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑉 =
𝑚
Performing integration from s = 0 to s = s and t = 0 to t = t:

𝑠
𝐹 𝑡
∫ 𝑑𝑠 = ∫ 𝑡𝑑𝑡
0 𝑚 0
𝐹 𝑡2 𝑚
𝑠= 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑡 = 𝑉
𝑚2 𝐹
𝑚 2
𝐹 ( 𝐹 𝑉)
𝑠=
𝑚 2
𝑉 2𝑚
𝑠=
2𝐹
The equation above gives us the distance (s) required for a body of mass
(m) to accelerate to velocity V under the constant action of a force F.
Consider the free body diagram of an aircraft during its ground roll as
shown below. In addition to the four forces we have in steady level flight,
we also have a resistance force R, which impedes the aircraft’s forward
motion because of the rolling friction between the tires and the ground.
Figure 5.2 Free Body Diagram of an airplane in Takeoff
6|P a ge
The resistance force, R is given by the formula of frictional force given by:
𝐹 = 𝜇𝑁
Where:
N = Normal force
F = Frictional Force
𝜇 = Frictional Coefficient.
Applying to the resistance forces from the diagram we have:

𝐹 = 𝜇𝑁
𝑅 = 𝜇(𝑊 − 𝐿)
Summation of forces parallel to the ground and employing Newton’s

Second Law of Motion:
𝐹𝐼𝐼 = 𝑇 − 𝐷 − 𝑅
𝐹𝐼𝐼 = 𝑇 − 𝐷 − 𝜇(𝑊 − 𝐿)
𝐹𝐼𝐼 = 𝑇 − 𝐷 − 𝜇 (𝑊 − 𝐿) = 𝑚𝑎
𝑑𝑉
𝐹𝐼𝐼 = 𝑇 − 𝐷 − 𝜇 (𝑊 − 𝐿) = 𝑚
𝑑𝑡
The equation above gives the local instantaneous acceleration of the

airplane, dV/dt as a function of T, D, L, and W. For takeoff, over most of
the ground roll, T is reasonably constant (holds true for jets), and W is
constant. However, both L and D vary with velocity such that:
1
𝐿 = 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞2 𝑆𝐶𝐿
2
1 2
𝐶𝐿2
𝐷 = 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ 𝑆 (𝐶𝐷𝑜 + ∅ )
2 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
Notice that for the drag equation presented, the ∅ stands out and requires
some explanation. When aircraft is flying close to the ground, the strength
of the wing tip vortices is somewhat diminished because of its interaction
with the ground. Since these tip vortices induce downwash on the wing, it
generates induced drag or drag due to lift. The downwash and hence, the
induced drag is reduced when the aircraft flies close to the ground. This
phenomenon is called the ground effect. This causes the aircraft to have
the tendency of flaring, or “floating” above the ground near the instant of
landing. The reduced drag, in the presence of ground effect is accounted
for by the term ∅ whose value is ≤ 1. An approximation of the expression
∅, based on aerodynamic theory, is given by McCormick as:
(16ℎ/𝑏)2
∅=
1 + (16ℎ/𝑏)2
7|P a ge
Where:
h = height of the wing above the ground
b = wing span of the aircraft
To accurately calculate the variation of velocity with time during the ground
roll, and the ground roll required for takeoff, the equation must be
integrated numerically to account for the variation of Lift and Drag with
velocity as well as any velocity effect on Thrust.
𝑑𝑉
𝐹𝐼𝐼 = 𝑇 − 𝐷 − 𝜇 (𝑊 − 𝐿) = 𝑚
𝑑𝑡
A typical variation of these forces are sketched in the figure below. Note
𝑉2𝑚
that from 𝑠 = , s is directly proportional to V2 and hence the horizontal
2𝐹
axis from the figure below might as well be V2. Since both lift and drag are
1
proportional to the dynamic pressure 𝑞∞ = 𝜌 𝑉 2, they appear as linear
2 ∞ ∞
variations. The figure sketched below shows that Thrust is relatively
constant, which is a case for jet driven airplanes.
Figure 5.3 Force vs. Distance along the Ground

8|P a ge
An approximation for the lift of distance can be obtained by assuming T is

constant. In addition to that, assume an average value for Drag and
Resistance force, [𝐷 + 𝜇 (𝑊 − 𝐿)]𝑎𝑣𝑒 and that this average value, taken as
a constant force, produces the proper lift off distance s LO. Considering an
effective constant force acting on the airplane during takeoff roll as:
𝐹𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑇 − [𝐷 + 𝜇(𝑊 − 𝐿)]𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Notice that the assumptions are fairly reasonable such that the sum of 𝐷 +
𝜇 (𝑊 − 𝐿) versus V2 is reasonably constant as shown by a dashed line
representing the sum. Hence, the accelerating force 𝑇 − [𝐷 + 𝜇 (𝑊 − 𝐿)] is
also reasonably constant as sketched by the difference between the
Thrust curve and the dashed line.
Substituting to the equation of s, we can say that:

𝑉 2𝑚
𝑠=
2𝐹
2
𝑉𝐿𝑂 (𝑊/𝑔)
𝑠𝐿𝑂 =
2 (𝑇 − [𝐷 + 𝜇 (𝑊 − 𝐿)]𝑎𝑣𝑒 )
Where:
𝑠𝐿𝑂 = lift off distance or ground roll
𝑉𝐿𝑂 = lift off velocity
𝑊
𝑚= where g, is the acceleration due to gravity.
𝑔
As a consideration, to ensure a margin of safety during takeoff, the lift off

velocity is 20% higher than the stalling velocity and is given by the
equation:
2𝑊
𝑉𝐿𝑂 = 1.2𝑉𝑆𝑇𝐴𝐿𝐿 = 1.2√
𝜌∞ 𝑆 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥
Substituting to SLO, we have:

2
2𝑊
(1.2√𝜌 𝑆 𝐶 ) (𝑊/𝑔)
∞ 𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑠𝐿𝑂 =
2 (𝑇 − [𝐷 + 𝜇 (𝑊 − 𝐿)]𝑎𝑣𝑒 )
2𝑊
1.44 ∗ 𝜌 𝑆 𝐶 (𝑊/𝑔)
𝑠𝐿𝑂 =
2 (𝑇 − [𝐷 + 𝜇 (𝑊 − 𝐿)]𝑎𝑣𝑒 )
1.44𝑊 2
𝑠𝐿𝑂 =
𝑔𝜌∞ 𝑆 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝑇 − [𝐷 + 𝜇 (𝑊 − 𝐿)]𝑎𝑣𝑒 )
9|P a ge
In order to make computations for the equation of lift off distance given
above, Shevell suggests that the average force be set equal to its
instantaneous value at a velocity equal to 0.7VLO that is:
[𝐷 + 𝜇 (𝑊 − 𝐿)]𝑎𝑣𝑒 = [𝐷 + 𝜇(𝑊 − 𝐿)]0.7𝑉𝐿𝑂
This means that the velocity to be used for lift and drag should be set to
70% of the lift off speed:
2𝑊
𝑉 = 0.7 𝑉𝐿𝑂 = 0.84√
A further simplification may be obtained by assuming that thrust is much
larger than either Drag or Resistance Force, during takeoff. Ignoring the
values of D and R, we have:
1.44𝑊 2
𝑠𝐿𝑂 =
𝑔𝜌∞ 𝑆 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝑇)
This equation illustrates some important physical trends, as follows:

1. Lift off distance is very sensitive to the airplane’s weight varying directly
as the square of Weight. In other words, if the weight of the airplane is
doubled, the lift off distance required would be 4 times as much.
2. Lift off distance is dependent on ambient density, 𝜌∞ . Assuming thrust
to be proportional to the ambient density, then the equation above
demonstrates:
1
𝑠𝐿𝑂 ∝
(𝑇 )
1
𝑠𝐿𝑂 ∝
(𝜌∞ )
This explains that on hot summer days, where the ambient density is
lower than on cooler days, a given aircraft needs a longer ground roll to
get off the ground. The same case applies for airports situated at high
altitudes above sea level where density is much lower compared to that
of sea level ambient density.
3. The lift distance may be decreased by increasing the wing area and
CLmax (which is why flaps are used at low angles during takeoff) and
increasing thrust.
Note that as defined by the FAR, the total takeoff distance is the sum of
the ground roll sLO and the distance (measured along the ground) to clear
a 35 ft. height (for jet powered civilian transport) and 50 ft. height (for all
other airplanes.
10 | P a g e
II. Landing Performance

Consider an airplane during landing. After the airplane touched the
ground, the force diagram during the ground roll is exactly the same given
for the takeoff performance but the instantaneous acceleration is negative.
However, we assume that in order to minimize the distance required for a
complete stop, the pilot has decreased the thrust to zero at touch down.
Figure 5.4 Force Diagram during Landing
Therefore, from the summation of forces, we have:

𝐹𝐼𝐼 = 𝑇 − 𝐷 − 𝑅 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑇 = 0
𝐹𝐼𝐼 = −𝐷 − 𝜇(𝑊 − 𝐿)
𝐹𝐼𝐼 = −𝐷 − 𝜇 (𝑊 − 𝐿) = 𝑚𝑎
𝑑𝑉
𝐹𝐼𝐼 = −𝐷 − 𝜇 (𝑊 − 𝐿) = 𝑚
𝑑𝑡
A typical variation of these forces on the airplane during landing is

sketched below. The landing roll distance or ground roll distance is
designated as sL. Accurate calculations can be obtained by numerically
integrating the equation above with the variations of lift and drag.
Assume an average constant value for 𝐷 − 𝜇 (𝑊 − 𝐿) which yields correct

ground roll distance for landing. Once again, we assume that
[𝐷 − 𝜇 (𝑊 − 𝐿)]𝑎𝑣𝑒 is equal to its instantaneous value evaluated at 0.7𝑉𝑇 .
VT is the touch down velocity.
𝐹𝑒𝑓𝑓 = −[𝐷 + 𝜇 (𝑊 − 𝐿)]𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝐹𝑒𝑓𝑓 = −[𝐷 + 𝜇(𝑊 − 𝐿)]𝑎𝑣𝑒 = −[𝐷 + 𝜇 (𝑊 − 𝐿)]0.7𝑉𝑇
That is, the velocity for lift and drag should be 70% of VT.
11 | P a g e
Figure 5.5 Force vs Distance along the ground during Landing
As shown by the figure above, the net decelerating force is given by 𝐷 +

𝜇 (𝑊 − 𝐿), which can vary considerably with distance as shown by the
dashed line. Hence, our assumption here for landing is more tenuous than
for takeoff.
Recall that:
𝐹𝑡
𝑑𝑠 = 𝑉𝑑𝑡 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑉 =
𝑚
𝐹𝑡
𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑡
𝑚
Integrating from the point where s = sL to s = 0 and t = 0 to t = t:

0
𝐹 𝑡
∫ 𝑑𝑠 = ∫ 𝑡𝑑𝑡
𝑠𝐿 𝑚 0
𝐹 𝑡2
−𝑠𝐿 =
𝑚2
𝐹 𝑡2 𝑚
𝑠𝐿 = − 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑡 = 𝑉
𝑚2 𝐹
12 | P a g e
𝑚 2
𝐹 ( 𝐹 𝑉)
𝑠𝐿 = −
𝑚 2
𝑉 2𝑚
𝑠𝐿 = −
2𝐹
The equation above gives the distance required to decelerate from an

initial velocity V to zero under the action of a constant force F. Accounting
for the Feff and that V = VT, we have:
𝑉𝑇2 (𝑊/𝑔)
𝑠𝐿 = −
2(−[𝐷 + 𝜇 (𝑊 − 𝐿)]0.7𝑉𝑇 )
𝑉𝑇2 (𝑊/𝑔)
𝑠𝐿 =
2([𝐷 + 𝜇 (𝑊 − 𝐿)]0.7𝑉𝑇 )
In order to maintain a factor of safety, we have:

2𝑊
𝑉𝑇 = 1.3𝑉𝑆𝑇𝐴𝐿𝐿 = 1.3√
Substituting to SL, we have:
2
2𝑊
(1.3√𝜌 𝑆 𝐶 ) (𝑊/𝑔)
𝑠𝐿 =
2([𝐷 + 𝜇 (𝑊 − 𝐿)]0.7𝑉𝑇 )
2𝑊
1.69 ∗ 𝜌 𝑆 𝐶 ∗ (𝑊/𝑔)
𝑠𝐿 =
2([𝐷 + 𝜇 (𝑊 − 𝐿)]0.7𝑉𝑇 )
1.69𝑊 2
𝑠𝐿 =
𝑔𝜌∞ 𝑆 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 ([𝐷 + 𝜇 (𝑊 − 𝐿)]0.7𝑉𝑇 )
Note that the velocity for lift and drag should be:
2𝑊
𝑉 = 0.7𝑉𝑇 = 0.91√
It is important to remember that the coefficient of friction for aircraft that

use brakes are estimated to be 0.4 for a paved surface. However, for a jet,
thrust reversal is used using the landing ground roll. Thrust reversal is
created by ducting air from the jet engines and blowing it in the upstream
direction, opposite to the usual downstream direction during thrust
production. Accounting for thrust reversal, the thrust vector is reversed and
points in the drag direction, aiding deceleration and shortening ground roll.
Therefore, we have:
13 | P a g e
𝑑𝑉
𝐹𝐼𝐼 = −𝑇 − 𝐷 − 𝜇 (𝑊 − 𝐿) = 𝑚
𝑑𝑡
𝐹𝑒𝑓𝑓 = −𝑇 − [𝐷 + 𝜇(𝑊 − 𝐿)]𝑎𝑣𝑒 = −[𝑇 + 𝐷 + 𝜇(𝑊 − 𝐿)]0.7𝑉𝑇
Assuming TR (Thrust Reversed) is constant:

1.69𝑊 2
𝑠𝐿 =
𝑔𝜌∞ 𝑆 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝑇𝑅 + [𝐷 + 𝜇 (𝑊 − 𝐿)]0.7𝑉𝑇 )
Another ploy to shorten ground roll is to decrease lift to near zero. This is
facilitated by spoilers which destroys lift in an aerodynamic surface.
Consequently, this action impose the full weight of the airplane in the tires
and the ground thereby increasing the resistance force due to friction.
Therefore, for landing at zero lift, we have:
1.69𝑊 2
𝑠𝐿 =
𝑔𝜌∞ 𝑆 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 ([𝐷 + 𝜇 (𝑊 )]0.7𝑉𝑇 )
The FAR defines the total landing distance as the sum of the ground roll
distance plus the distance (measured along the ground) to clear a 50 ft
height.
Frictional Coefficients
Brakes Off 𝝁
Concrete runway, or wooden deck 0.02
Hard turf, Level Field 0.04
Short Grass 0.05
Long Grass 0.10
Soft Ground 0.10 - 0.30
Brakes On 𝝁
Concrete runway 0.5
Hard turf 0.4
Short Grass 0.3
Long Grass 0.5
Table 5.1 Frictional Coefficients
14 | P a g e
III. Sample Problems

b = 35.8 ft.
S = 174 ft.2
W = 2950 lbs
BHPSea-level¬ =230 HP
c = 0.45 lb/HP-hr
CDo = 0.025
e = 0.8
ⴄ = 0.8
μ = 0.02
CLmax at ground roll = 1.0
Height of wing to the ground = 6 ft.
Find the total lift-off distance.
Solution:
2𝑊
𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 = √
𝜌𝑆𝐶𝐿
2 ∗ 2950
𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 = √ = 119.436 𝑓𝑡/𝑠
0.002377 ∗ 174 ∗ 1.0
For VLO:
𝑉𝐿𝑂 = 1.2𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 1.2(119.436) = 143.32 𝑓𝑡/𝑠
For lift, drag:

𝑉 = 0.7𝑉𝐿𝑂 = 0.7 ∗ 143.32 = 100.326 𝑓𝑡/𝑠
Lift:
1 1
𝐿 = 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆𝐶𝐿 = ∗ 0.002377 ∗ (100.326)2 ∗ 174 ∗ 1 = 2081.495273 𝑙𝑏
2 2
Drag:
1 𝐶𝐿2
𝐷 = 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆 (𝐶𝐷𝑜 + ∅ )
2 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
(16ℎ/𝑏)2 (16 ∗ 6/35.8)2
∅= = = 0.8779
1 + (16ℎ/𝑏)2 1 + (16 ∗ 6/35.8)2
15 | P a g e
1 12
𝐷= ∗ 0.002377 ∗ (100.326)2 ∗ 174 ∗ (0.025 + 0.8779 )
2 𝜋 ∗ 0.8 ∗ 7.37
𝐷 = 150.69 𝑙𝑏
Thrust for the setting where, PA = PR

ⴄBHP = TV
550 𝑓𝑡𝑙𝑏/𝑠
ⴄBHP 0.8 ∗ 230 𝐻𝑃 ∗ 1 𝐻𝑃
T= = = 1008.7116 𝑙𝑏
𝑉 100.326 𝑓𝑡/𝑠
For Takeoff Roll:

1.44𝑊 2
𝑠𝐿𝑂 =
𝑔𝜌∞ 𝑆 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝑇 − [𝐷 + 𝜇 (𝑊 − 𝐿)]𝑎𝑣𝑒 )
1.44(2950)2
𝑠𝐿𝑂 =
32. 2 ∗ 0.002377 ∗ 174 ∗ 1 ∗ (1008.7116 − [150.69 + 0.02(2950 − 2081.495)]
𝑠𝐿𝑂 = 1119.325 𝑓𝑡.
2. Estimate the sea level landing roll for an airplane X. Assume landing
weight of 2850 lbs, CLmax with flaps at touchdown is 1.8. After touch
down, assume L=0. Airplane X’s specification are listed below.
b = 35.8 ft.
S = 174 ft.2
Wo = 2950 lbs
CDo = 0.025
𝜇 = 0.4
Solution:
2𝑊
𝜌𝑆𝐶𝐿
2 ∗ 2850
𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 = √ = 87.5 𝑓𝑡/𝑠
0.002377 ∗ 174 ∗ 1.8
For Touchdown velocity, VT:

𝑉𝐿𝑂 = 1.3𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 1.3(87.5) = 113.75 𝑓𝑡/𝑠
For drag:
𝑉 = 0.7𝑉𝐿𝑂 = 0.7 ∗ 113.75 = 79.625 𝑓𝑡/𝑠
16 | P a g e
Drag:
1 𝐶𝐿2
𝐷 = 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆 (𝐶𝐷𝑜 + ∅ ) 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝐿 = 0
2 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
1 1
𝐷 = 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆(𝐶𝐷𝑜 ) = ∗ 0.002377 ∗ 79.6252 ∗ 174 ∗ 0.025 = 32.78 𝑙𝑏𝑠
2 2
1.69𝑊 2
𝑠𝐿 =
𝑔𝜌∞ 𝑆 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 ([𝐷 + 𝜇 (𝑊 )]0.7𝑉𝑇 )
1.69(2850)2
𝑠𝐿 =
32.2 ∗ 0.002377 ∗ 174 ∗ 1.8([32.78 + 0.4 ∗ 2850])
𝑠𝐿 = 488.26 𝑓𝑡.
IV. Plate No. 3 – Midterm

1. Estimate the sea-level landing ground roll distance for the airplane in
problem #4. Assume the airplane is landing with a weight of 2900 lb.
The maximum lift coefficient with flaps at touchdown is 1.8. After
touchdown, assume zero lift.
2. Estimate the sea-level lift off distance for the airplane in problem #3.
Assume a paved runway. Also, during the ground roll, the angle of
attack is restricted by the requirement that the tail not drag the ground.
Hence, assume CLmax during the ground roll is limited to 0.8. Also,
when the airplane is on the ground, the wings are 5 ft. above the
ground.
V. Quiz No. 3 – Midterm

1. Estimate the sea-level lift off distance for the airplane in problem #4.
Assume a paved runway and CLmax = 1.1 during the ground roll. When
the airplane is on the ground, the wings are 4 ft. above the ground.
2. Estimate the sea-level landing ground roll distance for the airplane in
problem #3. Assume the airplane is landing at full gross weight. The
maximum lift coefficient with flaps fully employed at touchdown is 2.8.
After touchdown, assume zero lift.
17 | P a g e
Learning Module 6: Maneuvering and Flight Envelope
LEARNING MODULE 06:

Maneuvering and Flight
Envelope
1|P a ge
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Ref. no Page
Maneuvering Flight 1 5
Flight Envelope (V-n) Diagram 1 11
Load Factor due to Gust 1 15
Sample Problems 16
Plate No. 1 18
2|P a ge
TABLE OF REFERENCES
References No.
1
2
4


Modules
Maneuvering Flight 30
Flight Envelope (V-n) Diagram 20
Load Factor due to Gust 10
References
72.2

Sample Problems 15
Plate No. 1 40
Quiz No. 1 60
HONESTY CLAUSE
3|P a ge
LEARNING OUTCOMES
MLO 1: Explain different
sciences to the practice of its application on the aviation maneuvers involved in TLO 1: Discuss
aeronautical engineering. industry through aircraft dynamic different flight
PLO 4: Function in multi- aerodynamic computations performance through maneuvers using
disciplinary and multi-cultural on aircraft performance. force diagrams.
discussions and force
teams CLO 3: Quantify TLO 2: Derive
diagrams.
PLO 5: Identify, formulate, aerodynamic forces along working equations for
MLO 2: Formulate equations
and solve aeronautical flight using aerodynamic flight maneuvers using
involving maneuvers using
engineering problems. equations derived from equations of motion,
the equations of motion and
PLO 8: Understand the Newton’s Second Law of load factor and
the concept of load factors. Newton’s second law.
impact of aeronautical Motion. MLO 3: Solve problems TLO 3: Evaluate
engineering solutions in CLO 4: Utilize knowledge in involving maneuvering flight problems involving
global, economic, airplane performance by using derived working flight maneuvers
environmental, and societal applying theories and equations. through application of
context principles of flight in solving MLO 4: Explain the flight working equations to
PLO 9: Recognize the need problems. problems sets and/or
envelop using the concept of
for, and engage in life-long CLO 5: Display analytical module activities.
load factors and
learning skills by performing TLO 4: Explain the
aerodynamic data.
PLO 11: Use techniques, computations in flight flight envelope
MLO 5: Discuss gust load
skills, and modern performance problems. through the
factors through discussions
engineering tools necessary CLO 6: Interpret a flight application of
and formulas. knowledge of load
for aeronautical engineering envelope using the concept
practice behind aircraft load factor. factors and discussion
PLO 12: Knowledge and of aerodynamic data
CLO 9: Display professional
understanding of presented in the
commitment to ethical module.
engineering and practice by showing sense of TLO 5: Identify
management principles as a responsibility in complying phases of flight in the
member and leader in a and compiling academic flight envelope by
team, to manage projects requirement. discussion of different
and in multidisciplinary points along the flight
environments. envelope.
PLO 13: Apply acquired TLO 6: Discuss the
aeronautical engineering load factors due to
knowledge and skills for gust through brief
national development. discussion and
presentation of
formula from FAR Part
23.
4|P a ge
CONTENT
I. Maneuvering Flight
After dealing with static performance and the dynamic performance
involving takeoff and landing, we have to look at flight maneuvers
performed by an airplane.
We often hear the term, standard turns, pull up maneuver, and pull down
in different references be it books, education videos, or movies. In this
section we are going to take a look at these maneuvers performed by an
airplane.
Take note that takeoff and landing performance involves rectilinear motion
while maneuvering flight performance involve radial acceleration in bodies
in a curvilinear motion.
A. Level Turn
The illustration below shows the free body diagram of an aircraft in a
level turning flight. By definition, in level turning flight, the aircraft is
banked through the angle ϴ, hence the lift vector is tilted by the said
angle with respect to the vertical axis.
From the free body diagram, the banking angle ϴ and the lift are such
that the component of the lift in the vertical direction exactly equals the
weight. Therefore, the airplane maintains a constant altitude, moving in
the same horizontal plane. However, a resultant force created by these
banked angle which is acting on the horizontal plane and since it is
perpendicular to the flight path, it causes the airplane to turn in a
circular path with a curvature R as shown below.
Figure 6.1 Free Body Diagram for Level Turn
5|P a ge
Figure 6.2 Top View of Level Turn
From the force diagram, we have the resultant force as:

𝐹𝑟 = √𝐿2 − 𝑊 2
Note that the resultant force is known as the centripetal force, which
exerts an inward force. On the contrary, centrifugal force is an apparent
force which exerts an outward force.
From the summation of forces horizontal, we have the following results:

𝐶𝐹 = 𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
From the summation of forces vertical, we have the following results:

𝑊 = 𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
From this point, we will introduce a new term, the load factor n, defined
as:
𝐿
𝑛=
𝑊
Where:
n = Load Factor
6|P a ge
L = Lift
W = Weight
The load factor is usually quoted in terms of g’s; as an example, an

airplane with lift equal to 10 times the weight is said to be experiencing
a load factor of 10 g’s. Thus we can rewrite the resultant force as:
𝐹𝑟 = √𝐿2 − 𝑊 2
𝐿 = 𝑛𝑊
𝐹𝑟 = √(𝑛𝑊)2 − 𝑊 2
𝐹𝑟 = 𝑊√𝑛2 − 1 = 𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑢𝑔𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
Since the airplane is moving in a circular path at the velocity 𝑉∞ , then

the radial acceleration is given by (𝑉∞2 )/𝑅. From Newton’s Second Law
of motion:
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑊 𝑉∞2
𝐹𝑟 =
𝑔 𝑅
Solving for the turn radius, R:

𝑊 𝑉∞2
𝑅=
𝑔 𝐹𝑟
𝑊 𝑉∞2
𝑅=
𝑔 𝑊√𝑛2 − 1
𝑉∞2
𝑅=
𝑔√𝑛2 − 1
The angular velocity, called the turn rate is given by:

𝑉∞ = 𝑟𝜔 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑟 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑅
𝑉∞ 𝑉∞2
=
𝜔 𝑔√𝑛2 − 1
𝑔√𝑛2 − 1
𝜔= 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑉∞
For the maneuvering performance of an airplane, both military and civil,
it is frequently advantageous to have the smallest possible turn radius,
R and the largest possible turn rate, 𝜔. For these conditions to be met,
we should:
1. Have the highest possible load factor (highest possible L/W)
2. Lowest possible velocity
7|P a ge
Minimum Velocity for Level Turning Flight:

From Steady, Level Flight:
1
𝐿 = 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆𝐶𝐿 = 𝑊
2
2𝑊
𝑉2 =
𝜌𝑆𝐶𝐿
2𝑊
𝜌𝑆𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥
Similarly for Level Turning Flight:

1 2
𝐿= 𝜌𝑉 𝑆𝐶𝐿
2
𝑊 1
= 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆𝐶𝐿
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 2
2𝑊
𝑉2 = 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚, 𝐶𝐿 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑏𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
𝜌𝑆𝐶𝐿 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
2𝑊
𝑉𝑠 ′ = √
𝜌𝑆𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Remember that 𝑉𝑠 ′ represents the stalling speed in turns. Therefore, it

is called minimum velocity for level turning flight.
Relationship between stalling speed and minimum turning velocity:

2𝑊
𝑉𝑠 ′ = √
𝜌𝑆𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
2𝑊
𝜌𝑆𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥
Dividing both equations, we have:
2𝑊
𝑉𝑠 ′ √𝜌𝑆𝐶
𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
=
𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 2𝑊
√𝜌𝑆𝐶
𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥
′
𝑉𝑠 1
=
𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 √𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙
𝑉𝑠 ′ =
√𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 𝑉𝑠 ′ √𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
8|P a ge
B. Pull-up Maneuver
Consider a case of turning flight where an airplane is initially in straight
and level flight (L=W) where it suddenly experiences an increase in lift.
Since L > W, the airplane will begin to turn upward. From this pull up
maneuver, the flight path becomes curved in the vertical plane, with a
turn rate 𝜔.
Figure 6.3 Free Body Diagram for Pull–up Maneuver
From the free body diagram, we have:

𝐹𝑟 = 𝐿 − 𝑊
𝐿
𝑛=
𝑊
𝐹𝑟 = 𝑛𝑊 − 𝑊
𝐹𝑟 = 𝑊(𝑛 − 1)
From Newton’s Second Law of Motion, where is given by the radial

acceleration and F is the resultant force:
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑊 𝑉∞2
𝐹𝑟 =
𝑔 𝑅
𝑊 𝑉∞2
(
𝑊 𝑛−1 = )
𝑔 𝑅
𝑉2
(𝑛 − 1) = ∞
𝑔𝑅
2
𝑉∞
𝑅=
𝑔 (𝑛 − 1)
9|P a ge

𝑉∞ 𝑉∞2
=
𝜔 𝑔 (𝑛 − 1)
𝑔 (𝑛 − 1)
𝑉∞
C. Pull-down Maneuver
Imagine an airplane in steady level flight (L=W) and it suddenly rolled
into an inverted position, such that both L and W are pointing
downward. The airplane will begin to turn downward in a circular flight
path with a turn radius R and a turn rate 𝜔
Figure 6.4 Free Body Diagram for Pull–down Maneuver
From the free body diagram, we have:

𝐹𝑟 = 𝐿 + 𝑊
𝐿
𝑛=
𝑊
𝐹𝑟 = 𝑛𝑊 + 𝑊
𝐹𝑟 = 𝑊(𝑛 + 1)
From Newton’s Second Law of Motion, where is given by the radial

acceleration and F is the resultant force:
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
10 | P a g e
𝑊 𝑉∞2
𝐹𝑟 =
𝑔 𝑅
𝑊 𝑉∞2
𝑊 (𝑛 + 1) =
𝑔 𝑅
𝑉∞2
(𝑛 + 1) =
𝑔𝑅
2
𝑉∞
𝑅=
𝑔 (𝑛 + 1)

𝑉∞ 𝑉∞2
=
𝜔 𝑔 (𝑛 + 1)
𝑔 (𝑛 + 1)
𝑉∞
II. Flight Envelope (V-n) Diagram

Considerations of turn radius and turn rate are particularly important to
military fighter aircraft; everything else being equal, those airplanes with
the smallest R and largest 𝜔 will have definite advantages in air combat.
High performance fighter aircraft are designed to operate at high load
factors, typically from 3 to 10. When the load factor is large, then we can
say that:
𝑛+1 ≈𝑛
𝑛−1 ≈𝑛
For the cases presented above, we have the following equations:
𝑉∞2
𝑅=
𝑔 (𝑛 )
𝑔 (𝑛 )
𝜔=
𝑉∞
Recall that:
1
𝐿 = 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞2 𝑆𝐶𝐿
2
2𝐿
𝑉∞2 =
𝜌∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐿
Substituting 𝑉∞2 , for both equations respectively:

𝑉∞2
𝑅=
𝑔 (𝑛 )
2𝐿
𝜌∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐿 2𝐿 𝐿
𝑅= = 𝐵𝑈𝑇 𝑛 =
𝑔 (𝑛 ) 𝑔𝜌∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐿 (𝑛) 𝑊
11 | P a g e
2𝐿
𝑅=
𝐿
𝑔𝜌∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐿 ( )
𝑊
2𝑊 2 𝑊
𝑅= =
𝑔𝜌∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐿 𝑔𝜌∞ 𝐶𝐿 𝑆
𝑔 (𝑛 )
𝜔=
𝑉∞
𝑔 (𝑛 )
𝜔= 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝐿 = 𝑊𝑛
2𝐿
√𝜌 𝑆𝐶
∞ 𝐿
𝑔 (𝑛 )
𝜔=
2𝑊𝑛
√𝜌 𝑆𝐶
∞ 𝐿
𝜌∞ 𝑛𝐶𝐿
𝜔 = 𝑔√
2(𝑊/𝑆)
Note that from the equations above, the factor W/S appears. This factor
occurs frequently in airplane performance analyses and is labeled as the
wing loading. The equations illustrate that airplanes with low wing loadings
have smaller turn radii and larger turn rates, everything else being equal.
However, in airplane design wing loading is affected by many factors such
as payload, range and maximum velocity. As a result, wing loadings for
light, general aviation aircraft are relatively low, but those for high
performance military aircraft are large. An example is presented below.
Figure 6.5 Typical Values for Wing Loading
From the values presented above, we conclude that a small light aircraft
such as a Beechcraft Bonanza can outmaneuver a larger, heavier aircraft
such as the F-16 because of smaller turn radius and larger turn rate.
However, this is comparing apples and oranges.
12 | P a g e
Consider the equations above for a given airplane with a given wing
loading and ask the question, under what conditions will the R be minimum
and 𝜔 be maximum? From both of the equations, it is clear that these
scenarios will happen if both CL and n are maximum.
2 𝑊
𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝑔𝜌∞ 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑆
𝜌∞ 𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝜔𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑔√
2(𝑊/𝑆)
The equations above also show that the best performance will occur at
sea level where the value of ambient density is the largest. There are
some practical constraints on the above considerations. First, at low
speeds, nmax is a function of CLmax, because:
1
𝐿 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞2 𝑆𝐶𝐿
𝑛= = 2
𝑊 𝑊
1 𝐶𝐿
𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞2 𝑚𝑎𝑥
2 𝑊/𝑆
At higher speeds, maximum load factor is limited by the structural design
of the airplane. These can be better understood by examining the flight
envelope of a given airplane shown below.
Figure 6.6 Flight Envelope
13 | P a g e
1 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥
In this graph, the curve AB is given by the equation 𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞2 .
𝑊/𝑆
Consider an aircraft flying at a velocity V1 with an angle of attack giving a
CL < CLmax, this is represented by point 1 in the figure. Now if the angle of
attack is increased further giving CLmax, keeping the velocity constant at V1,
this will give us a maximum value of the load factor as given by the
equation for nmax for that given V1 and the corresponding condition is given
by point 2. Beyond this angle of attack, the wing stalls and the load factor
drops as represented by point 3 in the figure. This point in the stall region
is unobtainable in flight. Consequently, point 2 represents the highest load
factor attainable for a given velocity, V1.
If the velocity is increased to a value V4, then the maximum possible load
factor also increases since it is proportional to the square of the velocity as
shown in point 4. As we can see, the trend is that, maximum load factor
continues to increase with velocity but, in reality, we cannot allow the
maximum load factor to increase indefinitely. By design, an aircraft has a
positive limit load factor which primarily depend on its category. Beyond
this load factor, structural damage may occur to the aircraft as shown by
the diagonal lines.
The velocity corresponding to point B is designated as V *. At velocities

higher than V*, say V5, the effective CL should be less than the CLmax, in
order to be within the positive limit load factor. Should the C Lmax be
reached at this velocity, structural damage will occur as illustrated by point
5.
The line CD shown on the graph is the high speed limit, where velocities
beyond this generates high dynamic pressures that may induce structural
damage to the aircraft. Note that this high speed limit by design is larger
than the Vmax obtained that for level flight. In fact, the structural design of
most airplanes is such that the maximum velocity allowed by the flight
envelope is sufficiently greater than the maximum diving velocity for the
airplane.
Finally, the bottom part of the flight envelopes, curves AE and ED

corresponds to negative angle of attack. In other words, negative load
factors. Curve AE defines the stall limit. When the absolute angle of attack
is less than zero, the lift is negative and acts in the downward direction
and if the aircraft is pitched downward to a large negative angle of attack,
the flow separates from the bottom surface of the wing and lift decreases
in magnitude, i.e. the wing stalls. Line ED, gives the negative limit load
14 | P a g e
factor which dictates the maximum load factor that can be reached at
negative angles of attack. Beyond this line, structural damage will occur.
On a final note, consider again point B. This is called the maneuver point
where bot CL and n are simultaneously at their maximum values that can
be obtained compared to the other points in the flight envelope.
Consequently, this conditions conform the conditions mentioned previously
in this section regarding the minimum turn radii and the maximum turn
rate. This is shown by the following formulas:
2 𝑊
𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝑔𝜌∞ 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑆
𝜌∞ 𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝜔𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑔√
2(𝑊/𝑆)
The velocity corresponding to point B is called the corner velocity, V * which

can be obtained by:
2𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑊
𝑉∗ = √
𝜌∞ 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑆
Remember that the value of nmax correspond to that of point B. The corner
velocity is a dividing line where at flight velocities less than V * (V < V*), it is
not possible to structurally damage an aircraft due to the generation of too
much lift. Contrary to this at flight velocities greater than V* (V > V*), too
much lift generation will structurally damage an aircraft.
III. Load Factor due to Gust

When an aircraft is flying in variable winds, the aircraft may encounter
vertical gusts that produce severe loads on the aircraft. While flying at a
straight and level flight, the inertia of the airplane tends to keep the
airplane moving forward when it encounters a vertical up-current of air.
The combination of the upward motion of the air and the aircrafts motion
creates a backward an upward relative wind which results in an increase
of angle of attack for the airplane. Unless this increase in angle of attack
happen very slowly, the increase in lift will be much more rapid than the
decrease in velocity due to drag.
From FAR Part 23, the load factor due to gust is given by:
𝑘𝑈𝑉𝑎
𝑛 =1+
𝑊
575 ( 𝑆 )
15 | P a g e
Where:
n = load factor due to gust
k = gust correction factor
U = gust velocity in ft/s
V = airspeed in mph
a = lift curve slope in per radian
W/S = wing loading
Remember that for k:

1 𝑊 1/4 𝑊
𝑘= ( ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 ≤ 16 𝑝𝑠𝑓
2 𝑆 𝑆
2.67 𝑊
𝑘 = 1.3 − 3 𝑓𝑜𝑟 > 16 𝑝𝑠𝑓
(𝑊/𝑆)4 𝑆
Also, the limit load maneuvering load factor is given by:

24000
𝑛 = 2.1 +
𝑊 + 10000
Where:
W = weight of the aircraft (lbs)
n = limit load maneuvering load factor
for normal category, the load factor can reach n = 3.8
for utility category, the load factor can reach n = 4.4
for acrobatic category, the load factor can reach n = 6.0
IV. Sample Problems

1. A plane of 3800 lbs of gross weight is turning at 175 mph with angle of
bank of 50⁰. Determine:
a. Centrifugal Force
b. Lift
c. Radius of Turn
d. Load Factor
e. Turn Rate
Solution:
a. Centrifugal Force
𝐶𝐹 = 𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝐶𝐹 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
= = tan 𝜃
𝑊 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝐶𝐹 = 𝑊 tan 𝜃 = 3800 𝑡𝑎𝑛50 = 4528.66 𝑙𝑏
b. Lift
16 | P a g e
𝐿 = 𝑊𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 = 3800 sec 50 = 5911.75 𝑙𝑏
c. Radius of Turn
88 2
𝑊 𝑉∞2 3800 ∗ (175 ∗ 60)
𝑅= =
𝑔 𝐶𝐹 32.2 ∗ 4528.66
𝑅 = 1716.71 𝑓𝑡
d. Load Factor
𝐿 5911.75
𝑛= = = 1.56
𝑊 3800
e. Turn Rate
𝑔√𝑛2 − 1
𝜔=
𝑉∞
32.2√(1.56)2 − 1
𝜔= = 0.15 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
88
(175 ∗ 60)
2. An airplane weighing 2000 lbs has a wing area of 216 ft. 2. The wing at
zero lift coefficient is -5⁰. If the AR of the wing used has a CL =1.19 at
angle of attack of 12⁰, what is the load factor caused by a sharp edge
30 ft/s gust when the airplane is flying at 60 mph and 10000 ft. altitude?
Solution:
𝑘𝑈𝑉𝑎
𝑛 =1+
𝑊
575 ( )
𝑆
𝑊 2000
= = 9.26
𝑆 216
1 𝑊 1/4 𝑊
𝑘= ( ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 ≤ 16 𝑝𝑠𝑓
2 𝑆 𝑆
1 1
𝑘 = (9.26)4 = 0.87
2
𝑑𝐶𝐿 0 − 1.19 0.07 180 4.01
𝑎= = = ∗ =
𝑑𝑎 −5 − 12 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛
𝑘𝑈𝑉𝑎
𝑛=1+
𝑊
575 ( )
𝑆
0.87 ∗ 30 ∗ 60 ∗ 4.01
𝑛 = 1+ = 2.179
575 (9.26)
17 | P a g e
V. Plate No. 1 – Finals

1. An airplane is flying straight at 150 mph. Its weight is 6000 lb. Its wing
area is 200 sq. ft. with aspect ratio 6 and used a Clark-Y airfoil. If the
airplane is flying at 150 mph at 30 degrees of bank. Calculate the
following:
(a) Centrifugal Force
(b) Lift
(c) Radius of turn
2. A plane of 3800 lb gross weight is turning at 175 mph with an angle of
bank of 50 degrees. What is the centrifugal force? What is the lift?
What is the radius of turn required?
3. An airplane is making a 40 degrees banked turn over a 565 ft. radius.
What should be the airspeed in mph?
4. An airplane weighing 2740 lb has a Clark-Y wing with 243 sq. ft. in area
with aspect ratio 6. If the airplane is flying at 170 mph at a 1/8 of a mile
radius of turn. Calculate the bank angle in degrees.
VI. Quiz No. 1 – Finals

1. A racing plane weighing 3500 lb is rounding a pylon at 380 mph. The
radius of turn is 150 ft. What should be the angle of bank? What is the
centrifugal force?
2. An airplane weighing 4,600 lb has a Clark-Y wing of 340 sq. ft. area with
aspect ratio 6. If the airplane is flying at 150 mph at 35 degrees of bank,
what is the turn radius?
3. A Cub has a minimum flying speed of 39.3 mph in straight, level flight.
Assuming unlimited engine power, what is the minimum turn stalling speed
in:
a. A 30⁰ banked turn?
b. A 50⁰ banked turn?
c. A 70⁰ banked turn?
4. What is the stalling speed of a cub in a 60⁰ banked turn at 8000 ft in
altitude?
5. An airplane with a wing loading of 18.2 lb per sq. ft. uses a wing section
whose CLmax is 1.5. What is the turn stalling speed in a 40⁰ banked turn if
the airplane is flying at 8000 ft?
18 | P a g e

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LEARNING MODULE 01:

TIME COMMITMENT FOR THIS MODULE

ACADEMIC HONESTY STATEMENT

Course Learning Outcome (CLO)

Reciprocating engines operate on the basic principle of converting chemical

TYPES OF RECIPROCATING ENGINE

The basic parts of a reciprocating engine include the crankcase, cylinders,

Figure 1. Main components of a spark ignition reciprocating engine.

OPERATING PRINCIPLES – RECIPROCATING ENGINE

Ignition - the compressed fuel-air mixture is ignited by a spark.

In a four-stroke engine, the conversion of chemical energy into mechanical

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑥 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

Another unit of measure for power is horsepower. One horsepower is the

Indicated horsepower (IHP) represents the total power developed in the

L - the length of the stroke in feet.

A - the area of the piston head in square inches.

K - the number of cylinders.

The actual amount of power delivered to turn a propeller is called brake

An aircraft turbine engine consists of an air inlet, compressor, combustion

TYPES OF TURBINE ENGINE

Figure 3. Basic components of a gas turbine engine.

AIR INLET DUCT

A combustion section is typically located directly between the compressor

The turbine section of a turbojet engine is located downstream of the combustion

OPERATING PRINCIPLES – TURBINE ENGINE

ENERGY TRANSFORMATION CYCLE

Figure 4. Four events in a turbine engine.

JET ENGINE THRUST

T = mair (Ve – V∞) + (Pe – P∞) Ae

Step 1: Compute for the density and pressure at 30,000 ft.

ρ = (0.002377) [(519-(0.003566x30000))/ (519)]4.26

ρ = (0.002377) [(412.02)/ (519)]4.26

ρ = 8.89135982 X 10-4 slugs/ft3

P = 2116.8 [(412.02)/ (519)]5.26

Step 2: Compute for the mass flow rate.

mair = (8.89135982 X 10-4) (733) (7)

mair = 4.5622 slugs/s

Step 3: Compute for Thrust.

T = mair (Ve – V∞) + (Pe – P∞) Ae

T = (4.5622) (1600 – 733) + (640 – 628.5933) (4.5)

1. Consider a turbojet powered airplane flying at a standard altitude of 28,000 ft at a

2. Consider a turbojet powered airplane flying at a standard altitude of 20,000 ft at a

LEARNING MODULE 02:

Figures and Tables No.

TIME COMMITMENT FOR THIS MODULE

Activities Time (min)

environments. data. TLO 13: Explain the

INDUCED DRAG INDUCED DRAG

PARASITE DRAG PARASITE DRAG

 PROFILE (FORM)  PROFILE (FORM)

Interference drag is a type of drag generated from the mixing of airflow

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑟 = 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Equation 4 now includes the effects of empirically defined constant (r) to

II. Equation of Motions

Figure 2.2 Flight Diagram of an Airplane

Consider an airplane in flight as illustrated by the figure above. The flight

1. Lift (L), which is perpendicular to the flight path direction

∑ 𝐹𝐼𝐼 = 𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ

Applying Newton’s Second law:

∑ 𝐹ꓕ = 𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ

Performing the summation of forces for parallel and perpendicular

The equations presented above are the equations of motion for an