COS 100: COMMUNICATION SKILLS 1

UNDERSTANDING THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

Communication
Communication is a process of transferring information from one entity to another. It is a
process whereby information is enclosed in a package and is channeled and imparted by a sender
to a receiver via some medium. The receiver then decodes the message and gives the sender a
feedback. In communication, we therefore assign and convey meaning in an attempt to create
shared understanding.

This process requires a vast repertoire of skills like processing, listening, observing, speaking,
questioning, analyzing, and evaluating among others. Use of these skills transfers to all areas of
life: home, school, community, work, and beyond. Therefore, every professional has to learn
how to communicate.
Communication skills
Communication skills are the set of skills that enables a person to convey information so that it is
received and understood. It refers to the repertoire of behaviors that serve to convey information
for the individual.
Communication is divided into two:
(a) Written communication
(b) Oral communication
Oral communication
Is communication by word of mouth. According to University of Virginia, oral communication is
the effective interpretation, composition, and presentation of information, ideas, and values to a specific
audience through spoken words. There is a speaker and a listener. One should consider:
Voice projection
Use of visual aids
Use of non verbal communication cues
Language use etc
Tips for oral communication
 Pronounce the words clearly. Repetition affects the flow of presentation.
 To emphasize the importance of a particular thought, words have to be pronounced by
changing their tones.
 Avoid fillers while speaking. They, ie ('um', 'ah', etc.) could be irritating for listeners.
 Do not interrupt the speaker while in a face-to-face communication process
 Listen carefully
 Make an eye contact with the listeners to keep their attention.
 Asking questions in order to obtain information is an important aspect.

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  Consider body language.The listener either gets positively or negatively influenced by the
body language of the speaker.

Examples demanding oral communication contents are:

(i) Tutorials/seminar/conference presentations
(ii) Attending interviews
(iii) Teaching/lecturing/tutoring
Written communication
Is communication by means of written symbols (either printed or handwritten). There is a writer
and the reader who share information through written forms. It is more demanding as it is only
through what is written that communication takes place. The writer has to be an effective
communicator by observing the following:
(i) Grammatical rules of the language eg tense, plurals, sentence structure, paragraphing
etc.
(ii) Language use-style and diction
(iii) Text organization and development (making an outline, using cohesive devices,
grouping information etc).
(iv) The process of writing (pre writing, drafting, editing and proof reading)
(v) Principles of academic writing (quoting and referencing)
There are a number of writing exercises that people are involved in academic institutions
(1) Term papers
(2) Essay answers
(3) Seminar/conference papers/projects/thesis/dissertations
(4) Functional writing
 Business letters
 Memos
 Curriculum vitae
 Minute writing
 Reports
The communication process

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Shannon's (1948) Model of the communication process.

MESSAGE

SOURCE/ ENCODER RECEIVER/

DECODER (Action,
SENDER decision)

FEEDBACK

Key: Arrow-Channel (Oral/written)

Key terms that any definition of the communication process must bear in mind are:
(a) Source- The originator of information. The originator has to choose a correct channel
through which he/she will communicate. Therefore, he/she must adhere to all requirements
of that channel of communication.
(b) Channel- The source has two options (oral or written). The choice of which depends on a
number of factors.
(c) Message-
What is it that the source wants to communicate? This is the aim of initiating the
communication. The source must present his message very clearly by adhering to the
principles of the channel of communication he/she selects.
(d) Encoding
Is the process wherein the sender selects and organizes the message using appropriate words
and non verbal signals.

(e)Receiver-
This is the person(s) to whom the message is sent (listeners or readers). The role of the
receiver in the communication process is to decode the message that has been sent by the
source. He/she therefore, does the following:
 Gives feedback (if needed)
 Adopts the message i.e does what the source wanted him/her to do.
(f) Decoding
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The receiver interprets the message transmitted by the sender

(g)Feedback
This is the reaction from the receiver. It guides the source in the manner to proceed (oral)
or makes him/her know that the message has been communicated successfully or not.

What makes a good communicator?

 They provide positive feedback.
 They listen carefully and ask questions to clarify the message.
 They also have empathy, thinking from the other persons point of view
 They will encourage the speaker to provide more detail.
 They are clear in expressing their own point of view and position without dominating the
conversation.

BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

The description given is the ideal situation. However, in most cases, the communication process
faces a number of obstacles.
1. Language barriers
Language is the instrument/medium of all forms of communication (oral/written). Language
problems arise at different levels:
 Phonological level
In oral communication, learning the sound system of a language is very important. If not, the
speaker may not be effective as he/she feels inferior when his pronunciation of words in the
language of instruction is poor. Make an effort and learn the sound system of the English
language since this is the language of instruction tell, tale; boss, mboss; hair, heir
 Syntactic level
In written communication, the writer has to effectively understand the grammar of a language.
Aspects such as the following are important.
(a) Tense eg comed
(b) Plural-singular to plural formation
(c) Sentence structure
(d) Types of sentences (by function eg questions, statements, commands, exclamations) and
by structure: (simple sentences, compound sentence and complex sentence).
 Semantic level
Meaning is important both in oral and written communication. Meaning can come out clearly if
the speaker/writer understands the following aspects:
(a) Diction-Word choice, phrasal verbs, sayings, clichés (over used expressions) eg tip of the
iceberg, the writing on the wall, fit as a fiddle, curiosity killed the cat, let sleeping dogs
lie etc

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 (b) Text organization and developments
Collecting information
Organizing information (outlining)
Structuring the information (introductory, development and concluding paragraph)
(c) Understanding mechanics of writing eg. spelling and punctuation
(d) Understanding how to write scholarly/academic papers eg. essay answers, term papers etc
How to quote/cite and reference the sources (footnotes, end notes and bibliographies)
(e) Clear punctuation of information-titles and sub titles, (writing legibly).

2. Psychological barriers
The speaker/writer and the listener/reader can be faced with psychological barriers hence the
communication is affected. These are difficult to understand since they are mental (the emotions
of the individual, motivation to communicate, the mood etc). Nobody can claim to be unaffected
by psychological barriers. However, individuals can lessen or reduce psychological barriers by
going for counseling or seeking advice from peers or colleagues etc.
3. Physical barriers
This is the environment in which the speaker/writer and reader/listener is in. There are a number
of psychological barriers eg
a. Noise
b. The size of the audience
c. Lack of necessary equipment eg. public address system, furniture, over head projectors
etc
d. Hostile climate eg. too hot, cold, too warm etc
NB: Physical barriers are more pronounced in oral communication.

4. Social-cultural barriers
Class discussion: Does culture in any way affect the communication process especially in oral
communication?
You can think of culture as having three levels:
The top level is the outward manifestations, visible behavior, art, clothing and so on.
Middle level are the values. These are invisible rules that cause the outward
manifestations
The most powerful dimension of culture is the implicit cultural assumptions. These
assumptions lie so deep that they are never questioned, stated or defended
Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/55341

Cultural differences can pose serious barriers in the communication process especially owing to
the implicit cultural assumptions. These are more manifested in oral communication eg Junior vs
senior-What happens when you face an interview panel?
Male vs female speakers

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Effective communication with people of different cultures is challenging. Cultures provide
people with ways of thinking--ways of seeing, hearing, and interpreting the world. Thus the same
words can mean different things to people from different cultures, even when they talk the
"same" language.
When the languages are different, and translation has to be used to communicate, the potential
for misunderstandings increases.
Second are "behavior constraints." Each culture has its own rules about proper behavior which
affect verbal and nonverbal communication. Child vs adult speakers
Use of non verbal cues-distance expressions

Interpersonal communication skills

Consider the following scenarios:
 Two friends discussing their recent holiday over a cup of tea
 An argument between a married couple concerning the behavior of their teenage
son/daughter
 A discussion between a lecturer and one of her students
These discussions are between persons on a face to face basis
Two way
Is a process rather than an event or series of events.
 Compare to a call from a store owner
 A letter from a daughter to a parent
Interpersonal communication refers to all aspects of personal interaction, contact, and
communication between individuals or members of a group. In interpersonal communication, the
interactants are in close physical proximity to each other, there are many sensory channels used,
and feedback is immediate.
We engage in interpersonal communication for different reasons:
 To gain knowledge about another individual. We gain this information passively, by
observing them; actively, by having others engage them; or interactively, by engaging
them ourselves. Self-disclosure is often used to get information from another person.
 To help us better understand what someone says in a given context. The words we say
can mean very different things depending on how they are said or in what context.
 To establish an identity. The roles we play in our relationships help us establish identity.
 To express and receive interpersonal needs.
To effectively engage in interpersonal communication, one needs a variety of interpersonal skills
including listening, asserting, influencing, persuading, empathizing, sensitivity, and diplomacy.
Important aspects of communication between people include body language and other forms of
nonverbal communication.

COMMUNICATION SKILLS AT TERTIARY LEVEL

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Courses in communication skills at tertiary level can be divided into two:
Professional communication skills-The communication that encompasses oral, written, and visual
discipline within a work place context is called professional communication. There are many places
where we strictly need professionalism like while finding a job, dealing customers, and doing business
Academic communication skills courses
These are concerned with imparting relevant and necessary skills in academic communication.
Therefore, this course is an academic communication skills course that aims to enable you
understand academic requirements, conventions, expectations and misconceptions.

STUDY SKILLS
GUIDELINES ON STUDY METHODS
The transition from secondary school to tertiary education is often a critical one. The teaching
learning process is tilted towards student centered rather than teacher centered. The expectation
of lecturers at tertiary institutions is very high. Students are expected to do a lot of reading on
their own (research) and also conduct discussion among themselves through (discussions/study
groups).
There are a number of conventions that students at this level are expected to develop which may
not have been at secondary school level eg.
 Participating in tutorials/seminars
 Researching/carrying out independent study
 Writing academic papers which must adhere to academic conventions eg. quoting,
referencing etc
 Taking notes from lectures.
Effect of these changes/expectations
Far too many students who were successful in secondary school become casualties in tertiary
institutions. One of the basic reasons for this is lack of basic study skills. Study skills refer to
abilities and approaches applied to learning.

(A) SOME GENERAL STUDY SUGGESTIONS

Many of these suggestions have their basis in research findings on student learning. However,
study is a very personal matter and one must develop the methods most effective for him/herself.
Some of the suggestions are:
(a) Preparing a personal timetable
What factors should one consider when preparing a personal timetable?
 Work load
 Time available
 Priorities

What characteristic features should a good personal study timetable have?

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  Leisure
 All courses
 Comprehensive
(b) Budgeting and purchasing of reading materials
Independent study and research require that students access a variety of reading materials (text
books, journals, unpublished materials etc). However, most libraries are not well stocked with
the latest reading materials hence need for students to supplement these ‘archaic’ materials with
his/her own purchase.
What factors should one consider when purchasing reading materials to supplement the
library ones?
 Availability
 Comprehensive coverage
 Should be affordable
(c) Storing and retrieving reading materials
After a given period, a student accumulates a lot of reading materials (notes taken from lectures,
personal research notes, hand outs, photocopies etc). These materials need to be stored well for
future reference hence the student should device a good system of storing these materials. The
most common system is filing. Filing means keeping documents in a safe place and being able to
find them easily and quickly. Documents that are cared for will not easily tear, get lost or dirty.
Methods of filing
How should materials in the files be sectioned?
How should files be labeled/identified?
There are 5 methods of filing:
 Filing by Subject/Category
 Filing in Alphabetical order
 Filing by Numbers/Numerical order
 Filing by Places/Geographical order
 Filing by Dates/Chronological order
Use file dividers/tags.
NB: Ensure you have a filing key.

(B) ESSAY WRITING

An essay is usually a short piece of writing by a student as part of a course of study. Most of the
examination questions at the tertiary level are essay questions.
The skill of essay writing usually takes some time to acquire. Below is a set of strategies for
approaching the task of writing essays in tertiary institutions.
 Make an outline
 Understand the instruction words used in the question

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Essay questions usually contain one or more of the following key words: discuss, evaluate,
compare and contrast, describe etc). Understanding instruction verbs is very important in
directing the student on how to approach a particular question.
 Write the essay based on conventions of academic writing and effective written
communication, i.e
 Writing legibly
 Use standard correct grammar
 Observe good language use-style and diction
 Observe quoting and referencing (for take away assignments)
 Organize your text (introduction, development and conclusion)
 Edit and proof read your text for mechanical errors
Outlining
An outline is a sketch of a long document consisting of title, introduction, development and
conclusion). Each of these sections has its own brief points which are given in point form and not
in continuous prose thus they can be numbered, lettered or the writer can use dashes to introduce
every point in the outline.
An outline is useful to the student/essay writer because:
 It enables him to order and organize points in the outline chronologically.
 It enables him/her to capture all the relevant points
 Enables him/her to delete irrelevant points.
 Introduction
The main purpose of the introduction is to give the reader a clear idea of the essay’s focal point.
It must get the reader’s attention as it is the part when he decides if the essay is worth reading till
the end or not.
The introduction should be written according to the following scheme:
1. General information
2. Attention grabber
3. Information on the topic leading to the thesis statement
4. Thesis statement
a. Comment on the subject of the essay (what you understand by it eg definition,
explanations etc).
b. Introduce the topic by giving a thesis statement (this is a general statement on the
essay/topic).
c. Very briefly summarize the overall theme of your essay indicating the main points to be
made and perhaps the order in which they are to be presented (the scope). This gives the
reader an idea of what to expect and greatly increases comprehension.
Sample introduction
This paper reports on a study conducted in a public secondary school X, in Dar-es-
Salaam Tanzania among school leaders, in particular the principal, teachers and students. The

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study aimed to find out a school improvement (SI) initiative that was once in place in the school.
This paper outlines the tools used for information gathering and provides a synopsis of the
initiative, critically articulating its purpose. Based on class discussions and literature, the paper
critically analyzes the initiative discussing school member’s experiences and roles. In addition,
the paper argues for the effectiveness and/or ineffectiveness of the initiative outlining the
challenges faced and offering recommendations. The paper concludes by a recap on the major
themes for SI that cut across the paper.

 The main body/development

a. Develop your line of argument through several main points.
o Write the sub points.
o Elaborate on the sub points.
b. Support each idea with example and illustrations drawn from books, articles and any
other sources you have used.
c. Group information by giving relevant sub titles
d. Create cohesion in your text
 Conclusion
a. Summarize (recapitulate) the main points
b. Take a stand especially in argumentative writing
c. Give your opinions/suggestions for further action to be taken.

Task: choose any relevant topic from your area of study and prepare an outline

THE ROLE OF DISCUSSION

Discussion - an exchange of views on some topic.
Types of discussion
Formal discussions-(tutorials/seminars)
Informal discussions-(study/discussion groups).
(a.) Tutorials
 Is a teaching learning approach that is more interactive and specific than a lecture.
 It may be conducted as a follow up to a previous lecture.
 Students and lecturers exchange information through class presentations, asking
questions/ seeking clarifications etc.
 Students are in smaller groups
 Tutorials can also be used as an evaluation mode (establish if learning has taken place)
(b). Seminars/conferences/public inaugural lecture/Speech
(a). Students/experts are given topics in advance and they prepare their seminar/ conference
paper which they present orally. (There is a seminar instructor).

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(b). There is then a session for the audience to ask questions, seek clarification and make
comments on the presentation etc.

(c). The presenter revises the seminar/conference paper and submits for examination or
publication eg. in a college journal or professional journal.

Most courses at the tertiary level include tutorials/seminars. However, tutorials/seminars are not
always used to their fullest potential.
Reasons why tutorial/seminars are undervalued
(a). Students are not willing to participate (they are shy, they lack knowledge of the subject area-
most students do not want to do research on their own).
(b). Large classes
(c). Lack of funds-universities are supposed to be research institutions in addition to teaching.
Through research, they generate knowledge that will be used to solve current problems.
(d). Lack of motivation among the academic staff
(e). Heavy workload

SITTING EXAMINATIONS
Examination is a way of measuring how much a student has learned over a given period of time
(the teaching/learning process). The teaching/learning process leads to change in behavior of the
learner i.e at the start of the course, the learner lacks some abilities but at the end of the course,
the learner is expected to have acquired/learned some abilities. However, not all learners show
change in behavior at the end of the teaching/learning period. The question is: What leads to lack
of change in behavior?
Educationists and psychologists have given a number of reasons for lack of change in behavior.
The most emphasized is lack of understanding of strategies for preparing and sitting
examinations.
Strategies for preparing and sitting examinations
A. At the beginning of the course
Preparation starts at the beginning of the course. The activities you should be engaged in at the
beginning of the course are:
Understand:
 The scope of the course. This is done by having a course outline (Importance of course
outline)
 From it, the student understands: the scope of the course
 Gets to know the objectives of the course
 Understands the mode of evaluation and format that the questions will take.
 Gets to know relevant texts for reference
 For psychological preparedness of what the course entails

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  The general expectations that you need to meet eg. take away assignments,
C.A.T’s, exams, pass marks etc.
Essential strategies to prepare for lectures
 Familiarise yourself with the topic before lecture
 Have a positive receptive attitude
 Ignore stress and emotional issues
 Take care of personal comfort
 Be mentally alert
 Find a seat in front of the room
 Have clear goals for the lecture
 Have necessary materials
 Take notes as soon as the lecture starts

B. Forming study/discussion groups

Study/discussion groups are also another approach to learning in tertiary institutions.
However, they are informal (organized and run by students themselves without the lecturer’s
assistance).This is important because learning in tertiary institutions require sharing of
knowledge through discussion. Discussion can take such forms as
 attempting to answer past paper questions,
 reading and making notes on selected topics,
 taking notes during the discussion sessions.
Reasons for forming discussion groups
 It is an alternative approach to teaching and learning
 A supplement to lectures
 As a means of evaluating learners by lectures
 Is a peer learning strategy
For discussion groups to be successful:
 Everyone must take responsibility for making progress, thus everyone must be willing to
contribute in the discussion.
 Group discussion is successful if group members have same/similar interests for effective
contribution.
 There should be some order/organization. This only comes about if there is a chairman
and secretary. The chairman will take the lead role in directing the discussion. The
secretary will write down key points that members have agreed on. The other members
can access these points after the discussion session is over.
C. During the course
This is the period when students gathers knowledge on the teaching/learning process. Both the
lecturer and the students have different roles to play in this process. The emphasis is on the
activities that the student engages in.

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(i) Listening and note taking
Is another teaching/learning approach. When a student listens effectively, some of the lecture
points are understood. However, the students should take notes on what is not clear for future
reference (revision).
Guidelines on taking notes
There is no one style of taking notes from a lecture. The best style will vary according to the
following:
 The student’s preferences
 The nature of the lecture topic
 The nature of visual aids used
 The lecturer’s style of presentation/delivery.
However, regardless of the preferred style of note taking, there are general principles of note
taking that are emphasized.
 Prepare yourself for lectures by going through previous notes, reading and marking your
own notes on the present topic.

 Listen actively for main points and minor details eg. Steps in an argument, summaries in
exposition etc. These are essential for note taking.
 All notes should have a structure eg.
o Title and sub title
o Introduction
o Development
o Conclusion
 When in doubt, leave blank spaces for confirmation from fellow students, text books,
lecture etc.
 Use abbreviations, short forms etc since notes should be brief; selective
Listening Skills
We have different kinds of listening
Appreciative Listening-Listening for pleasure of enjoyment as when we listen to music,
comedy or entertainment.
Comprehensive listening- Listening to understand the message of a speaker eg attending a
classroom lecture or listening to directions to a friend’s house.
Critical listening-Listening to evaluate a message for purposes of accepting or rejecting it eg
campaign speech of a political candidate or the closing arguments of an attorney in a jury trial.
When listening to speeches you use the last two kinds. Use your mind as well as your ears. When
your mind is not actively involved, you may be hearing but not listening.

How to become a better Listener

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  Take listening seriously. Improve you self awareness by analyzing your shortcomings as
a listener.
 Resist distractions-Physical and mental. Make a conscious effort to pull your mind back
to what the speaker is saying then force your mind there by trying to anticipate what the
speaker is going to say next. You can also review mentally what the speaker has already
said and make sure you understand it.
 Suspend judgment- Unless we listen to people who think exactly as we are, we are going
to hear things with which we disagree. When this happens, we tend to dismiss the
speaker. Hear people out before reaching a final judgment. Try to understand their point
of view, listen to their ideas, examine their evidence, assess their reasoning then make up
your mind.
 Be attentive. Don’t fidget, daydream, or let your eyes wander when a victim is speaking
to you.
 Take time to listen to the full story
 Ask for clarifications or repetitions of statements to understand what a person is saying.
 Take brief notes. This demonstrates professionalism and concern.
 Don’t jump to conclusions, assume you know what the speaker is going to say before it’s
said, or put words in the other person’s mouth.

Barriers to effective Listening and Note taking

The above principles on note taking may not be achieved due to a number of barriers.
a. Factual barriers
The listener may find the topic difficult to follow. This may be as a result of: not having
adequate preparation on the topic due to laziness, lack of reading materials and internet
facilities. The speaker not being effective on his/her lecture delivery (inaudible,
disorganized, lack visual aids, lack of mastery of the topic etc).
b. Semantic barriers
These occur when the terminology used is unfamiliar to the listener.
c. Mental barriers
The attitude of the listeners towards the subject or the topic of the presenter.
d. Physical barriers
These are distracters in the environment eg size of the class, voice projection, equipment
and weather.
e. Reacting to red flag words
Words can provoke a reaction in the listener that wasn't necessarily what the speaker intended.
When that happens the listener won't be able to hear or pay full attention to what the speaker is
saying. Red flag words or expressions trigger an unexpectedly strong association in the listener's
mind, often because of the listener's private beliefs or experiences.

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Red flag words don't always provoke emotional reactions. Sometimes they just cause slight
disagreements or misunderstandings. Whenever a listener finds himself disagreeing or reacting,
he should be on the lookout for red flag words or expression

(ii) Academic problem solving

At tertiary levels of learning, students are tested as lectures go on (C.A.T’s). Therefore, it is
important to understand the steps in solving academic problems.
a. Identifying the nature of the problem. What is it that the assignment requires?
b. Analysing the problem- An academic problems could have various sections/parts or could
be approached from various perspectives eg. giving merits and demerits.
c. Identifying correct steps to follow in solving the problem eg. an experiment, field work,
discussion etc.
d. Collecting relevant materials to be used in solving the problem eg. making notes, getting
equipment for the experiment etc.
e. Planning how to solve the problem i.e making an outline of the solution to the problem
(sections/parts of the problem need to have a plan and the order of presentation of the
solution).
f. Presenting the solution in a conventional manner eg. Essay answers (title, introduction,
development and conclusion).

(iii). Critical thinking

Involves determining the meaning and significance of what is observed or expressed, or
concerning a given inference or argument, determining whether there is adequate justification
to accept the conclusion as true.
Ideally universities should produce graduates who are independent minded (critical thinkers).
Psychologists and educationists have suggested the following as qualities of a good critical
thinker:
a. Solve problems as they are. Do not pile assignments and hand them over well beyond
the deadline.
b. They contribute immensely to the learning process by conducting research, reading
and making notes.
c. They invite guest speakers or attend visiting professor’s/scholar’s presentations
(inaugural lectures).
d. They are good listeners. They listen to other people’s contributions/views critically
and extract relevant points from such exchanges.
e. Weighs his/her contributions before making them.
f. Is an effective problem solver.
D. During revision period

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This is the time for final consolidation and organization of the various academic materials
(lecture notes, photocopies, research notes, hand outs, past papers etc).
NB; It is not time for amassing new materials.
This is the time when students are free from attending lectures and concentrate on revision. This
is two weeks before the examination. During this period, students should be engaged in such
activities as:
 Begin by planning her/his use of the time for the whole period
 All the notes should be compressed/summarized (sub titles, main points and minor
points-supporting evidence/point).
 Form an outline, clearly numbered and headed eg definitions, key words and ideas,
theories etc.
 Test yourself and get practice eg. attempt questions from past papers, make up likely
questions and answer them.
 Form a revision discussion group to handle problematic or complex topics
 Take practice by sitting for long hours that would be needed when taking exams

E. The night before the exam

You have prepared well for the exam and on the eve, do the following:
 Check the exam time table to confirm the venue, time of the exam and the paper.
 Organize any necessary equipment
 Review your key summaries briefly
 Have a good rest.

F. The exam day

 Arrive at the exam venue in good time to avoid panicking
 Organize your relevant materials
 The paper
o Read the instructions carefully both general and specific.
o Select questions carefully (research has shown that men go for complex
questions).
o Make outlines for each question.
o Allocate time carefully depending on marks allocated.
o Write concisely, legibly and accurately as you can: Legibility, clarity of
expression and good organization of answers help the examiner.
o Proof read your paper so as to correct the most glaring mistakes/errors.

USING SOURCES OF INFORMATION/LIBRARY USER SKILLS

Introduction

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The main objective of this section is to explore information on how to make effective use of the
library for the purpose of writing good research papers (term papers, projects, proposals etc).
Dangle & Hasman (1963) in Khamadi (1992: ix) have defined a research paper as follows:
 The research paper is a presentation of facts which are:
o Based upon reading and consulting several specific sources.
o Presented according to a standard method of procedure.
o Limited to a relatively narrow phase of a subject.
o Original in selection, evaluation, expression and conclusion.
University of Alberta
"A research paper is exactly that: a paper written to reflect a search that will present information to
support a point of view on a particular topic."-
For a scholar/academician to write a well presented research paper, he/she should know how to
use library sources effectively and conform to a specific format. The format governs the entire
paper from the title to the quotations used in acknowledging material drawn from other sources.

THE LIBRARY AND ITS ORGANIZATION

Why students use the library
 To conduct research
 For extra reading to supplement lectures
 To read daily newspapers and magazines
 To study
 To compile research work
 For internet services
 For inter library loan services
A good library will have a number of sections that store different types of reading materials.
The purpose of this sectioning is to ensure the reader accesses easily the material he/she wants to
read.
Main sections of the library are:
 Call material section
 Reference material section
 Internet section.
These are specifically broke down to:
I. Short-loan section
Stores materials that are on high demand thus such material are lent for a limited period
of time.
II. Long loan section
Stores materials that are not on high demand; lent out for longer periods of time-up to
two weeks.
III. Reference section

COS 100 17
 Stores general readership materials that should only be referred to within the library eg.
dictionaries, maps, encyclopedia, year books.
IV. Periodical section
Stores materials that are published periodically. For example, pamphlets, newspapers,
magazines, journals and professional publications whose content has current information
and is well researched (contribution of articles from professionals in the area).
V. Africana/National collection
Stores publications on research eg commission reports, dissertations, projects etc.
VI. Internet service section
Modern libraries are automated and provide internet service at a fee. You access
materials directly from the internet. However, you must have the website address of the
service providers.

LIBRARY CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS

The library is there to serve its members (readers). The reading materials should be stored
in such a way that readers can retrieve them easily and quickly. Therefore, libraries use
internationally recognized systems for classifying reading materials.
A library classification is a system of coding and organizing library materials (books,
serials, audiovisual materials, computer files, maps, manuscripts, realia) and allocating a call
number to that information resource.
There are two classification systems that are recognized: Dewey decimal classification
and Library of Congress classification.
a. Dewey Decimal Classification
The Dewey Decimal Classification system, sometimes abbreviated DDC, is a method of
categorizing books in a library by subject matter. It is a numerical system using groupings of ten
— i.e. there are ten major classes, each of which has ten divisions, each of which has ten sections
— and books are placed on the shelf in numerical order. The Dewey Decimal system was created
by Melvil Dewey in 1876.
It groups call materials into various branches of knowledge eg. Linguistics, religion, education
etc.
Each of these branches is a signed number eg 001-099; 100-199
000 – Computer science, information, and general works
100 – Philosophy and psychology
200 – Religion
300 – Social sciences
400 – Language
500 – Science
600 – Technology
700 – Arts and recreation

COS 100 18
800 – Literature
900 – History and geography
The above whole numbers are given decimal numbers that identify each book in that branch.
Therefore, in this system, each book in each branch will have the following numbers to identify
it:
o Class/branch number (whole numbers) eg 958
Book cutter number .M361 (cutter number is a coded representation of the author or
organization's name or the title of the work (also known as the "Main Entry").
o Year of publication, 2012

b. Library of Congress classification

The Library of Congress Classification (LCC) is a classification system that was first developed
in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries to organize and arrange the book collections
of the Library of Congress.
o Groups reading materials (call materials) into various branches of knowledge.
o The system divides all knowledge into twenty-one basic classes, each identified by a
single letter of the alphabet.
o Most of these alphabetical classes are further divided into more specific subclasses,
identified by two-letter, or occasionally three-letter, combinations. For example, class N,
Art, has subclasses NA, Architecture; NB, Sculpture, ND, Painting; as well as several
other subclasses.
o To identify each book in each branch, numerical are added to the class number
o Each book has the following information:
 Class number (letters of the alphabet) ie PE
 Then book number 1175
 Copy number .A3
 Year of publication eg. 2012
Thus PE.1175.A3.2012
o Public universities in Kenya use LCC. Some are automated while others are still using
catalogues.
Sample classification
CLASS A: GENERAL WORKS
AE-Encyclopaedia
AG-Dictionaries and general works

CLASS B- PHILOSOPHY, PSYCHOLOGY RELIGION

B-Philosophy
BF-Psychology
BJ-Ethics
COS 100 19
 BM-Judaism
BP-Islam
BQ-Buddhism
BR-BS- Christianity and the bible.
o A call number is a group of numbers and/or letters put together to
tell you where in the library to find your book. A call number is
located at the bottom of the book on the spine. It helps you to find
your books quicker.

ACCESSING CALL MATERIALS

Library users normally have any of the following information when searching for reading
materials.
o The name of the author
o The title of the material
o The general subject area
Because a reader may have just one of the above three pieces of information, then the library
staff prepares three cards that have the following information:
o The name of the author
o The call number of the book
o The title of the book
o Publication details
o The subject area
Depending on which information is emphasized, then we have 3 cards: subject card, title card
and author card. (Visit the library and find out the content of the cards)
For ease of accessing the above information on cards, the library staff stores these cards in
catalogues thus: subject catalogue, title catalogue and author catalogue.
A catalogue is an itemized list. It is an accumulative listing of the books and other materials
in the library with descriptive information about each of them.
NB: Once the reader has the call number of the book he/she wants then he can move to the
correct shelf and try to locate the materials he wants. If the material is not available, then go back
to the catalogue or computer and search for other relevant materials.
Steps in accessing call materials
o Check for the call number in the correct catalogue/computer.
o Write down the call number.
o Trace the correct shelf using the class number. Eg PE….
o If not there:
 Check along the shelves-left and right

COS 100 20
  Check on the trolleys and reading tables.
 Check in the short loan section
 Reserve the book by filling in the reservation from the issue counter i.e. title,
author, call number etc

PREVIEWING TEXTS, QUOTING/CITING TEXTS AND REFERENCING

When writing research papers and reports, dissertations etc scholars/researchers are
expected to borrow (quote) quite heavily from the works of experts
One of the conventions of good academic/scholarly writing is therefore quoting/referencing from
other texts (published and unpublished).
Other reasons of good academic/scholarly writing are:
 Clarity of information (message/meaning)
 Being exhaustive
 Relevant to the topic
 Being grammatical (syntax and mechanics of writing)
 Good organization (structuring the text-Introduction, development and conclusion).

Purpose of quoting
 To provide evidence for your assertions/support your views (point of view) in the text
 Makes your views and the whole text more convincing (shows that you have written a
reasoned paper)
 Academic writing is different from compositions where the writer’s views are not
supported.
NB: Not just any quote will give ideal evidence that your examiners/readers will like. Therefore,
you have to be selective in quoting from various sources (Journals, pamphlets, newspapers etc)

Types of quotes
There are two types of quotes
Paraphrase (indirect quote)
Direct quote

Paraphrase
The researcher uses his/her own words to express the quoted text/information.
A paraphrase is the same as reported speech. Therefore, the words are not enclosed in quotation
marks. Uses expressions such as says, said, asserts, believes….
Eg
Direct quote

COS 100 21
The researcher uses the actual words from the source he/she is quoting from. These words are
enclosed in quotation marks, separation of the quoted words by a comma, says, say, assert etc
without using ..that. Eg.
There are two types of direct quote:
 Short quote-In text/infused in the text.
 Long quote
Long quote
Sometimes, the researcher needs to quote a fairly long text, eg more that two lines from a
given text. In such a case, it is considered clumsy to have the quoted information within your
text. The convention used is to have space and write quoted information (without quotation
marks) in block style so that this quoted information stands out prominently from the text. Thus
long quote is a blocked style, separated from text.
NB: Both in short and long quotations, if the researcher does not want to quote every word of
a sentence, he/she leaves out (omits) the words he does not need by putting three dots in the
space left. However, if the words you would like to leave out come at the end of sentence
then you must put four dots, the last dot is the full stop.

How to acknowledge quoted/cited text

There are three ways of documenting quoted sources
1) Using footnotes
2) Using end notes
3) The Harvard system of quoting and referencing
1. Footnotes
A footnote is a notation at the bottom of the page in a printed document. Footnotes are usually
presented in smaller print than the dominant text .
In this approach, you place a raised number as a superscript immediately after the last word
of the quoted material (paragraph or direct quote), then at the bottom of the page, you give
full details of the source (s) of your quotation i.e
 The number allocated the quote in a raised initial position
 The names of the authors
 The title of the book
 The publishing information
 The page reference
 Any comments on the quote.
A footnote can also be raised to give more information about the issue at hand eg. definition etc.

COS 100 22
Eg. Example in text:
An interesting reference was made to the picking of corn on the Sabbath.8
Example of Footnote citation, long form:
8
Matthew 12:1-8.

2. End notes
Just like foot notes, in this approach, you place a raised number or a superscript
immediately after the last word of the quoted material, then at the end of the text, you give full
details of the sources. Eg
Page #
Endnotes
1 James Jacoby, “Do You Fear the Dark?” Highlights, Spring 1990,

89-91.
2 Ruth Higgins, “Why We Do Things For Luck.” Socialite, January

1989, 34-35.
The main difference between Footnotes and Endnotes is that Footnotes are placed numerically at the
foot of the very same page where direct references are made, while Endnotes are placed numerically at
the end of the essay on a separate page entitled Endnotes or Notes.
There are a number of Latin abbreviations that are used with footnotes and end notes. They are
discussed below:
(a). ibid
Used to mean in the same place. Used when reference is made to the same work and these
references follow each other without any other intervening references even though separated by
several pages of normal writing.

(b). Loc cit

Latin for: In the Place Mentioned
It is a footnote or endnote term used to repeat the title and page number for a given author. Used
when reference is made to the identical passage previously quoted when reference to other works
have intervened. In such cases, the author’s name in loc. Cit. is all that the foot note contains.
Eg
 9. Cleassen, A. (1994). English Language Teaching Methods. Nairobi: Dixadis Resources, p. 25
 10. Loc. cit.

In the above example, the loc. cit. in reference #10 refers to reference #9 in its entirety, including page number. Note
that loc. cit. is capitalized in this instance.
Example 2:
 9. Cleassen, A. (1994). English Language Teaching Methods. Nairobi: Dixadis Resources, p. 25
 10. Curtis, A., & Park, M. (1994). A guide to teaching English. Nairobi: Jomo Kenyatta Foundation, p. 55
 11. Cleassen, loc. cit.

(c). Op. cit

COS 100 23
It is the term used to provide an endnote or footnote citation to refer the reader to an earlier
citation by the same author. Eg
9. Cleassen, A. (1994). English Language Teaching Methods. Nairobi: Dixadis Resources, p. 25
10. Curtis, A., & Park, M. (1994). A guide to teaching English. Nairobi: Jomo Kenyatta Foundation, p. 55
11. Cleassen, op. cit., p. 5
(d). Use of (sic)
Latin word written after the word or expression that you have copied (quoted) from somewhere
to show that you know that the phrase or word is wrongly spelled or wrong in some other way. It
indicates that the preceding text has been reproduced verbatim from the source as to avoid the
mis-attribution of textual irregularities to transcription errors by the quoter or reprinter. For
example, John said, “ ………………………………

(e). et. al.

Means “and others.” It is commonly used when you don’t want to name all the people or things
in a list, and works in roughly the same way as. Eg In quoting, you can have Ceasar, Baker and
Robinson (2000) say s….In subsequent references in text, you mention Ceasar et. al. (2000) says.
However, ensure that all the sir names and initials of the other names are mentioned fully in
references.

3. The Harvard System of Referencing

This is a modern system of referencing. The foot note/end note referencing technique is
becoming more and more unpopular. Both writers and publishers are increasingly adopting what
is called ‘the Harvard system.’
In this system, instead of foot notes/end notes number in your text, you write immediately after
the author’s name, the year of publication and if necessary the page number, which is separated
by the year of publication by a colon. Eg. Claessen (2000: 25) and then proceed to write what
you are talking about.
We can also show that the quoted material comes from more than one page eg. According
to Claessen, (2000: 25-35). Whereas a bibliography at the end of your work is optional when you
use foot notes and end notes to show your sources, it is a must when you use the Harvard system
of referencing.

ACKNOWLEDGING SOURCES/COMPILING A BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bibliography has several meanings. However, the most common sense in which it is used is “the
list of books, articles, dissertations etc that have been used by somebody writing an academic
paper.” Thus a bibliography is written at the end of the text.
Reasons for writing a bibliography
 To avoid plagiarism
 For the reader’s confirmation
 For future reference
COS 100 24
Principles for compiling bibliography
 A law/rule that something is based on
 The principles and rules have been agreed upon and therefore are followed strictly when
doing something (governed by these principles).
(a) Entries in a bibliography
 All entries in a bibliography are written in alphabetical order of the author’s/editor’s sur
names.
 An entry refers to all the identification information on a book, journal etc. (i.e names of
the author, title of the material, publication details-publisher, place of publication and
year of publication).
 Sir name refers to the last name of the author
 The position of each entry is determined by the author’s /editor’s surname
(b) Name of the author (s)/editors
 Each entry starts with the surname of the author/editor
 All the other names of the author/editor are given as initials
(c) The title of the material
 The title is normally highlighted by underlining or typing it in italics
 All meaning words in a title start with a capital letter irrespective of their position in the
title. The functional words start small letters except at the beginning of a title.
(d) Publication details
 These refer to the name of the publisher, the place of publication and the year of
publication.

(e) Punctuation of entries

 The following are key punctuations in entries:

o Full stop
o Comma
o Quotation marks
o Colon
o Semi colon
o Capital and small letters
NB: These punctuation marks are used in various places in an entry eg
Curtis, A., & Park, M. (1994). A guide to teaching English. Nairobi: Jomo Kenyatta
Foundation, p. 55

Bibliography are not numbered or lettered because the position of each entry is determined by
the author’s surnames (s) which are written in alphabetical order.
Bibliographic entries
COS 100 25
1. Single author eg. Richards, J. C. (1994). Reflective teaching in the Second Language
Classrooms. New York: Cambridge University Press.
2. Single author with more than one entry: differentiate years by latest year; same year use
letters to make a distinction eg. 1990a, 1990b etc
Co-authors-include initials of the second authors his surname
3. More than two authors
Surnames of the author’s, the initials of the other names and then the publication details eg.
Wiersman, W., & Jurs, S. G. (2005). Research Methods in Education (8th ed.). New York:
Pearson.
4. Chapter in a book
o Who controls the entry? Authors of the chapter.
o Title of the chapter enclosed in quotation marks.
o Then you introduce editor by preposition and put in bracket. The main title is underlined
and the page(s) indicated.
o This is followed by publication details eg.
Jones, A., & Mercer, N. (1993). Theories of learning and information technology. In P.
Scrimshaw (Ed.), Language, classrooms and computers, (pp. 11-26). London: Routledge.
5. Article in a journal
o The writer of an article
o Title of the article
o Introduce the title
Eg. Knight, B. (1992). Assessing speaking: a workshop for teacher development. ELT Journal,
46 (3), 292-302. Cambridge: Oxford University Press
Issue (46)
Volume (3)
Page no. 292-302
City of publication: Cambridge and Publisher: Oxford University Press
6. Unpublished book
Roy-Campbell, Z. M. (1992). Power of pedagogy: Choosing the Medium of Instruction in
Tanzania. Unpublished Ph. D. Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Madison.
7. Edition
Given after the title eg. Woods, P. (2006). Successful writing for qualitative researchers. (2nd
ed.). New York: Routledge.
8. Newspapers and similar publications
Such publications are identified by their registered company names, the place where they are
published and the date of publication and the page or pages where the quoted material occurs eg.
Daily Nation, Nairobi, Saturday October 9, 2010: 2-3
Examples for class discussion

COS 100 26
PREVIEWING TEXTS
Having quality quotes comes about when the researcher previews reading materials before he/she
makes them. Previewing the reading materials involves judging the worthiness of the material we
are quoting from (not a question of splashing your essay/term paper with any quotation). The
quotations must be the best to illustrate your point of view effectively.
BOOK PREVIEW
Incase you have a paper to write and then visit the library to discover that there are many titles
on you topic, you need to preview the texts to establish which sources will help you produce a
good paper.
Previewing materials is based on the following:
 Front matter
 Comments from the author/editor (if available)
 Statements of such things as aim, scope and methodology which are found in the
preface/forward.
 Relevance and comprehensiveness of the work as shown in its table of contents.
 Others are back of the book, publication details (publisher, year etc)
 Back matter
 Appendix-refers to that part which contains information that is relevant to the
topic but does not appear in the actual text eg questionnaire, large maps,
diagrams, questions and answers.
 Index of subjects-refers to that part which shows the place with titles, sub titles
used in the text and their corresponding page numbers.
 Bibliography-Refers to a list of references/reading materials that an author used in
writing his/her text.
 Glossary-Refers to a list of explanations of technical words and scientific terms
that are used in a text.
 The blurb-refers to the back page that has information on the author, what the book is
about and other people’s comments on the worth of the book. May contain:
 The author’s educational background
 His/her experience in the area through earlier publications.
 Comments from experts on the publications.
 The book itself
 Impressions of the book’s quality (logic, style, depth, visual aids etc) are
important.
 Visual aids enhance the material hence lend a clear understanding of the book
 Generally consider the general layout of the text and its organization: titles, sub
titles, chronology of information, exhaustiveness etc.
READING AND NOTE MAKING SKILLS

COS 100 27
This is intensive reading where the reader is reading for understanding. It involves extraction of
information through note making. Note making is an important skill as it leads to:
 Independent research and study-The learner is able to research on given topics hence
independent learning (learning is a complex system that requires the input of the learner
for independent study).
 Preparing presentations-Presentations, whether tutorials, conferences, seminars,
lessons/lectures, public addresses etc require that the speaker /presenter:
o Reads/make notes relevant to his/her topic
o Compresses these notes so that they are brief and to the point (note making and
summary writing)
o Organizes these notes into main and minor points (outlining the presentation.
 Report writing-Every professional in one way or another will write reports. A report is
not a composition lacking supporting data or evidence.
Written reports are documents which present focused, salient content to a specific
audience. Supporting data or evidence comes from reading and note making thus every
professional needs to learn how to collect relevant information for writing reports.
 Examples of reports:
o Students reports eg. term papers, dissertations, projects.
o Research papers eg. conference/seminar papers, articles.
o Commission reports-terms of reference.
o Annual reports-compiling annual reports

Main reading and note-making skills

o Scanning and skimming-
Skimming involves searching for the main ideas by reading the first and last paragraphs,
noting other organizational cues, such as summaries, used by the author.
Scanning involves running your eyes down the page looking for specific facts or key words
and phrases- to look over quickly.
o Reading techniques (SQ3R reading technique)
o Information extraction (critical reading)
 Distinguishing main from minor points in text
 Summarizing information
 Understanding the organization of the text (the structure of the text)
 Non-linear texts (graphical representation of information)
Construction, interpretation and use of pie charts, bar graphs and line graphs
A pie chart (or a circle graph) is a circular chart divided into sectors, illustrating proportion eg draw a pie
chart and explain that it must be in degrees etc
NB: Make reference to section C1 on non linear representation

COS 100 28
Bar graph
A bar chart or bar graph is a chart with rectangular bars with lengths proportional to the values that
they represent. The bars can also be plotted horizontally.

Eg.

Example of a bar chart, with 'Country' as the discrete data set.

Line graph

Example 3: The table below shows Sam's weight in kilograms for 5 months.

Sam's Weight
Weight in
Month
kg
January 49
February 54
March 61
April 69
May 73

The data from the table above has been summarized in the line
graph below.

COS 100 29
TESTING READING SKILLS
Reading skills questions
(a) Recall of information from a text
Note making questions. Summary questions that test on principles of summary writing.
(b) Inference and implications
Critical and analytical skills where some information is implied in a text i.e following up an
argument and then making conclusions eg quotations on the attitude of the writer, questions on
opinions of the reader etc.
(c) The organization/structure of the text
o Questions on main and minor points (topic sentence)
o Questions on meaning of words, phrases, expressions, as used in the passage (contextual
analysis)

o Questions on text cohesion/cohesive devices (discourse markers) and their functions in

the text.

COS 100 30
(d) Non linear (graphical presentation)
Drawing non linear texts eg line graphs, bar graphs, pie charts, tables etc
Interpretation of non linear texts eg inferring information from non linear texts eg. writing
general/summary statement.

THE STRUCTURE OF A TEXT

Reading for understanding and note-making can only be possible if the reader understands the
structure/organization of the text. The question is: What are the constituents of a text?
Words-phrases-clauses/simple sentences-complex sentences-paragraphs.
To understand a paragraph, the reader has to understand the following:
The main idea in a paragraph (what is the message), supporting details and discourse markers.
Each paragraph has an idea that the writer wants the reader to understand. This main idea is
normally a one sentence statement –definition of sentence by
a) Structure
o Simple-same as a clause
o Compound-Simple sentences joined by a conjunction
o Complex sentence-More than two simple sentences and normally independent and
dependent clause
b) Function
o Statements-subject + Verb
o Questions-Invert subject and verb
o Commands-Verbless
o Exclamations
TOPIC SENTENCE
Is the main idea in a paragraph which is normally put in a one sentence statement called the topic
sentence. The topic sentence can be located in the following positions in a paragraph.
a) Initial position
This is the case where the writer starts the paragraph with a topic sentence.
b) Final position
This is the case where the writer ends the paragraph with a topic sentence (main/central idea of
the paragraph).This is called specific to general
c) Middle position
This is the case where the writer neither starts with the topic sentence nor ends with it; the topic
sentence takes the middle position. The writer doesn’t want to start with a general statement,
neither does he want to end with a general statement, he/she puts it in a middle position.
It is however, a very rare case in ordinary writing.
SUPPORTING SENTENCES
All other sentences in a paragraph support the idea expressed in a topic sentence. A good
paragraph should have details that support /qualify the main idea(topic sentence) clearly.
COS 100 31
The supporting sentences can be one or several depending on the way the writer wants to
communicate his message. Whether one or several, they function in a particular way. They play
the following roles:
 Explain (make meaning clear)-define, give facts (expository).
 Clarify-The supporting sentences are used to give examples/illustrations so that the
assertion in the topic sentence is clarified (expository texts).
 Justify-The supporting sentences are used to give evidence/reasons that support views
raised in the topic sentence. This is more common I argument texts. The evidence can be
statistical, testimonial or reasons.
Transitions
In a well written paragraph, the reader can follow the writer’s thoughts. Sentences follow one
another naturally and logically.
Discourse markers in a text
A paragraph is not just a collection of sentences that are not linked together. The words/phrases
used to link sentences in a paragraph are called discourse markers/cohesive devises as opposite
to conjunctions which are used to join simple sentences to form compound/complex sentences.
Types of discourse markers
There are two types of discourse marker:
 Sentence connectors
 .Reference items
Sentence connectors
There are several sentence connectors which have different roles and functions in a text. The
following are examples:
(a) Sentence connectors of order
They are used when the writer is enumerating a number of points. Therefore, they are useful
when making notes, the reader knows through these connectors how many points have been
raised eg firstly, secondly etc
(b) Sentence connectors of addition
Also used when the writer is enumerating a number of points/reason eg and, moreover, in
addition, also etc.
(c) Sentence connectors of contrast
They are used especially in argument writing where the writer is giving both points for or against
the topic. Eg nevertheless, however, yet, but, on the other hand etc
(d) Sentence connectors of reason
Also used especially in argument writing where the writer is giving evidence/reasons for a
particular line of argument eg because, as a result, consequently etc.
(e) Connectors of frequency
They are used in texts where the writer wants to be specific on occurrence of some events or
things eg rarely, often, frequently, seldom etc

COS 100 32
REFERENCE ITEMS
Communication in a text runs both back and forward ie there is information that was earlier
mentioned in a text that the writer has to refer to later on.
Reference items refer back (anaphoric) to information that has already been mentioned in the
text.
Types of reference items
 Pronouns
 Demonstrators
Pronouns
 Words used in place of nouns thus refer back to nouns already used in the text. Eg first
person-Person pronouns-You, second person-You their person pronoun-He/She, they, It
etc
 Reflexive pronouns eg itself, himself
 Relative pronouns eg whose, that, which etc
Pronouns can be classified into those in the subject position and those in the object position
(sentence structure).
Demonstratives
They are generally referred to as pointing words ie they point to particular things or people hence
are used to refer back to such
Eg singular this, that plural-these (near) those (far)
Readability measures
Readability is the concept of whole complex relationships between the reader and the written
text. Many factors come into play during reading: eg
 Reading speed
 Eye movement
 Legibility of the text/organization of the text.
 Linguistic background of the reader (language use)
 Lack of visual aids/over use of visual aids
The Language used
The medium of instruction and of print/publication is English. There may be difficulties in text
comprehension associated with language use and vocabulary eg meaning of words, phrases and
expressions, technical terms etc. the language problem is more pronounced in science text books
as the writers use technical terms. The following are major causes of difficulty in understanding
science text books.
 Difficulty with technical terms- there is difficulty with names and laws stated in
complicated terminology. In a study using tape transcriptions of conversations with
students, the researcher says the students said: “Chemistry is easy to understand if the
teacher does not use big words”.

COS 100 33
  Difficulty arising from science teachers’ registers and vocabulary and codes-Teachers of
science employ a register of vocabulary and codes that are not easy for students to
understand. In a way students are not sufficiently skilled at handling abstract concepts.
The subject matter/content
The level of readers should be indicated eg elementary/introductory, intermediate level and
advanced level. Some texts are too advanced for the intended readers, uneven in difficulty and
lacking progression from introduction to development.

The lay out of the text

This also creates difficulty in the reader’s comprehension of a text. One should consider the
following in the layout:
 Use of subtitles-Related information in a text should be under a relevant sub title. These
are useful steps towards a clear understanding of texts.
 Use of visual aids/non linear texts-These play an important role in the reader’s
comprehension of texts as there is a link between text illustrations and readability.
The following are important in analysis of non linear texts
 The key
 The scale
 Plotting of data and representation of the text
 Inference/interpretation
 General statements made about the text
 The title-Should be concise, brief, clear and relevant t the given title.
CRITICAL READING AND NOTE MAKING
 Reading techniques SQ3R
 Note making
 Summary writing

Reading techniques
Research has been done on text readability (what makes a text easy or difficult to read) and as a
result, a number of reading techniques have been proposed.
SQ3R
S-Survey
Reading for understanding and information extraction requires that readers should survey the
text. Surveying is a critical reading technique. Before the reader reds the text critically, he/she
should have a glimpse by doing the following:
 Read and understand the title
 Read and understand the introductory paragraph which normally functions as follows:
 Explains/makes clear the topic
 Gives the scope of the text

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  Identify and read all the sub titles (if any)-These direct the reader on particular
information.
Q-Question
After surveying the text, the next step is to question the text. Psychologists and educationists
have established that the human mind works well when faced with questions. Questioning is
done in the following ways:
 Check on the section of appendix and check if the author has any questions.
 Set your own questions on the text based on surveying the text 9setting objectives of
reading the text)
 Convert all sub titles into questions.
R-Read
This refers to critical reading and the reader is expected to do the following:
 Understand the information
 The reader writes down the information that needs recalling. Does this through note
taking.
 The reader indicates the information that needs further discussion, reading, research etc
Characteristics of notes
 Structure-Give your notes a good structure (title, sub title, main and minor points etc)
 Be brief/concise-Ex tract only key points and then give supporting evidence.
 Be selective-Select only relevant points to your purpose.
 Format of your notes-Since notes are very brief, they are written in point form
(numbering, lettering, use of dashes etc). The formatting should however be clear so that
we have a clear distinction between main and minor points.
R-Recite/Recall
A reader tests him/herself on what he/she has read. This is based on examination skills.
You test yourself on how much information you can recall. It can be done through:
 Answering questions set on the text
 Answering your own questions.
R-Review
This technique requires that the reader repeats the whole technique (SQ3R) so as to find out what
could have gone wrong thus leading to lack of understanding of the text (if at all) or going
through to deepen understanding.

Summary writing
 The goal of writing a summary of an article, a chapter, or a book is to offer as
accurately as possible the full sense of the original, but in a more condensed form. A
summary restates the author’s main point, purpose, intent, and supporting details i n
your own words.

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  The process of summarizing enables you to better grasp the original, and the result
shows the reader that you understand it as well. In addition, the knowledge gained
allows you to better analyze and critique the original.
Characteristics of a good summary
Refer Summary writing Retrieved Monday November 1, 2010 from
 http://www.sdc.uwo.ca/writing/handouts/Summary%20Writing.pdf

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