NORTH AMERICA

North America is the northern continent of the Americas, situated in the Earth's
northern hemisphere and in the western hemisphere. It is bordered to the North
by the Arctic Ocean, to the East by the Atlantic Ocean, to the South-East by the
Caribbean Sea, and to the west by the North Pacific Ocean.

North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000

square miles. It is the third-largest continent in area, following Asia and Africa,
and the fourth in population after Asia, Africa, and Europe.

The Physical or Physiographic regions of North America

North America may be divided into at least five major physiographic regions;

1. The Canadian/Laurentian Shield

This is a geologically stable area of rock that occupies most of the
northeastern quadrant, including Greenland.
2. The Appalachian Mountains
The Appalachians are examples of Fold Mountains and are found in the
western part of the continent. They are very old and have been reduced in
terms of height due to severe erosion from running water and glaciers.
3. The Atlantic Coastal Plain
The plain is a belt of lowlands widening to the south that extends from
south New England to Mexico.
4. The Interior Lowlands or the Central Plains
The lowlands extend down the middle of the continent from the Mackenzie
Valley to the Atlantic Coastal Plain, and include the Great Plains on the west
and the agriculturally productive Interior Plains on the east.
5. The North American / Western Cordillera
The cordillera is a complex belt of mountains and plateaus (areas of
highland, usually consisting of relatively flat terrain) and basins ( landforms
sunken or depressed below the surrounding area).

The cordillera extends from Alaska into Mexico and includes two belts;
(i) The Pacific Margin on the west and
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(ii) The Rocky Mountains on the east, separated by a system of plateaus

and basins.

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The Coastal Plain and the main belts of the North American Cordillera continue in
the south in Mexico.

Map of North America showing the Physiographic regions

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DRAINAGE OF NORTH AMERICA
R. Brazos: R. Churchill, R. Colorado, R. Columbia, R. Fraser, R. Mackenzie, R.
Mississippi,
R. Missouri, R. Ohio, R. Rio Grande, R. St. Lawrence, R. Yukon:

The Lakes of North America include;

(i) The Great Lakes;
 L. Huron
 L. Ontario
 L. Michigan
 L. Erie
 L. Superior
(ii) L. Winnipeg
(iii) L. Athabasca
(iv) Great Bear Lake
(v) Great Slave Lake
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(vi) L. Dubawn
(vii) L. Nueltin

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(viii) L. Lyn
(ix) L. Nipigon
(x) L. Reideer
(xi) L. Niamna

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Climate, Vegetation and Natural Regions

North America, because of its vast size has very varied climatic regions. Five major
climatic regions can be identified;

(i) The first being the tropical climate in Southern Mexico,3

(ii) The second, the mild climate with wet winters and virtually rainless
summers of the Pacific zone along the coastal regions from southern
Alaska to southern California.
(iii) The third region includes the western interior of the United States and
much of northern Mexico and is described as mostly mountainous and
desert country.
(iv) The fourth region consists of the eastern two-thirds of the United States
and southern Canada and has a humid climate with obvious seasonal
changes,
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(v) The northern two-thirds of Canada and Alaska, as well as all of

Greenland, which have arctic and sub-arctic climates.

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The Continent is surrounded by oceans and seas. On the west coast is the Pacific
Ocean, the east coast is the Atlantic Ocean, to the south of the United States and
Mexico lies the Gulf of Mexico, in the northern areas near Alaska and the north of
Canada lies the Arctic ocean.

The most notable forests in North America are the taiga or boreal forest, which is
a large expanse of mainly coniferous trees that covers much of central and
southern Canada and Alaska. There is also a large area of redwood forests in
California in the US and tropical forests in Mexico.

NEW YORK
Site and location of New York
Location refers to the description of the surroundings of a place, where its site
means the actual ground occupied by a feature such as a town.

New York is located along the eastern coast of North America between 40 oN and
73oW. It borders the Atlantic Ocean and is sited on several islands. Manhattan
Island is the most important. The other islands include Long Island and Staten
Island.
Some of the Islands of New York
Manhattan Island: This forms the Centre of New York. It is located between the
main land, Staten and Long island. It also has the Hudson River on the western
side and Harlem River on the eastern side. The East river extends from the south
towards the east.
Staten Island: This is located between the main land, Long island to the east and
Manhattan to the North. It is bordered by Newark bay, upper bay and lower bay.
Long Island: This is the biggest island. It extends from Staten Island eastwards into
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the Atlantic Ocean. It’s bordered by the East river to the west and north.
Brooklyn and Queens Islands: These occupy the western part of the Long island.
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 A SKETCH MAP SHOWING NEW YORK CITY

Factors that favoured the development of New York as a port

(Describe the factors that favoured the establishment of New York Port)
New York has developed into a very large and busy port as a result of a variety of
factors. Some of these factors are natural, while others have been a result of
human efforts.
The Physical factors
The presence of a deep-natural harbour: A harbour is an area of
water along the coast where ships can anchor and unload safely. New York
has a harbour with very deep channels, and so large ships, including oil
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tankers, can be safely accommodated. For Example, the channel on the

eastern side of the Hudson River, which is 14 metres deep.
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 Ice-free conditions: New York port experiences ice-free conditions
throughout the year. This enables the port to remain open at all times since
ships can access the harbor at both high tide and low tide.
Therefore, it is used by many transporters who would otherwise use the St.
Lawrence Seaway during its months of freezing. It therefore handles more
business during these months and indeed generally throughout the year.

Shelter from the Atlantic Ocean: This shelter is provided by islands

like Long Island, Staten and Bronx which prevent strong winds from the
Atlantic Ocean from reaching the port directly. They could otherwise have
damaging effects on vessels in the port.
Low tidal range: New York has a low tidal range. The tidal range is
the difference between the highest tide and lowest tides. The difference
between high and low tides is less than 2 meters which does not create a
problem for shipping activities.
The presence of a large hinterland: The port serves the Midwest of
the USA, which is an area very rich in industry. The hinterland is the inland
area served by a port. New York handles such goods as petroleum, textiles,
iron ore and other industrial raw materials, as well as grain.
Deep waters: New York has deep waters which allow large ocean-
going vessels to sail along. These in turn facilitate large amounts of goods
to be handled by the port.
Presence of a Strong basement Rocks: New York has strong rocks.
These formed a very strong basement on which the port facilities were
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established, facilities lie tall buildings.

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 Nature of relief: New York has a gentle and flat relief, which makes
the construction of roads, railways and other infrastructure easier.
Strategic position as an entire port or entre point, to the North
American interior close to the European market, Middle East, and North
Africa.
New York’s location on Hudson Mohawk gap, is one of the most
important inlets to the great lakes region and Canada
Availability of large land for expansion of the port on many islands
like Long, Bronx, etc.
Human factors
Availability of adequate capital, to invest in many huge and tall skyscrapers
such as the United Nations headquarters, Sony building, there are many more
buildings on Manhattan Island that have made this a symbol of attraction
some of which include Empire State building.
Presence of efficient transport system, like railways, air transport, i.e.
airports, there are many bridges connecting the different islands air ports vary
from giant to small e.g. J.F. Kennedy airstrip.
High level technology, to develop the city e.g. to interconnect the islands
with various bridges and tunnels there are also many highways and also known
as flyovers.
Presence of skilled labour, such as architect’s economists, Doctors etc. this
has attracted many investors to come to New York.
Availability of ample energy, in form of hydro Electricity power generated
from St. Lawrence power project and nuclear power plant.
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 The great wave of migrants, this was experienced by the United states in
early.
Fresh water supply, for a huge urban population of New York. This came
from the numerous rivers that flowed from the Appalachian Mountains.
Large population, which provided a good market and provided labour as
well.
The functions of New York City
(Outline the functions of New York)
1. It serves as a financial center, since it has the world’s largest stock
exchange in Wall Street, as well as auction rooms, numerous financial
houses, banks, Insurance firms and commercial agencies.
2. It is the world’s second largest port, after Rotterdam. It handles more than
half of the USA’s imports and exports.
3. It is a residential center accommodating a huge population. As well as
residential estates, these are slum areas where the many poorer people of
the city reside.
4. It is a political center, housing the headquarters of world organizations such
as the United Nation Organization (UNO) and the World Bank.
5. It is a cultural center with many museums, art galleries and libraries, Opera
houses, theaters, and concert halls.
6. It is also an industrial center, with both light and heavy industries. It has
more than 4000 industries making thousands of commodities.
7. It’s an administrative center with headquarters of the New York state and
international agencies such as United Nations.
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 8. It’s a transport center with roads railways and water and air routes
connecting to all parts of USA
Problems facing New York
(Outline the problems faced by New York)
New York as an urban Centre faces big problems, just like many other cities in the
world. Many of the problems arise because of the large population found in the
city.

There is a shortage of adequate and decent accommodation. Many people

migrate to New York in the hope of enjoying the facilities in an urban
centre, but find that they do not have enough money and so end up living
in very poor housing.

The port of New York and the city experiences fog. Fog is very thick mist. It
is a serious problem, because when it occurs road traffic finds it hard to
move owing to the poor visibility, and likewise ships find it difficult to move
safely.
The fact that New York is made up of islands means that it is surrounded
with water. The problem with this is that there is lack of space for
expansion of the city.

Severe Pollution is another problem facing New York City. It happens

because New York has many industries and cars disposing off waste
products, especially gases into the air as well as liquids into the water.
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Pollution means making the environment dangerously impure.

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New York is overpopulated and therefore experiences congestion in terms
of housing as well as traffic. There are very bad traffic jams during rush
hours, from 7.00 am to 10.00 am and from 4.00 to 5.00 pm.

The port experiences congestion, with too many ships wanting to use the
facilities there are many vehicles and this congestion is more during rush
hours.

The city also faces the problem of slums. A slum is a part of the city with
poor living conditions, such as inadequate housing, poor hygiene and many
other problems. These slums are mainly found in Harlem and the Bronx.

The crime rate is quite high. This is partly because of the high number of
unemployed people living in New York. Serious crimes like murder, robbery
and violence take place in some areas.

Unemployment is common in New York. So many people migrate there

with the hope of finding jobs. However not all of them can be successful.
Therefore, many people in the city are unemployed.

Commuting from one place to another presents a problem, because many

people live far away from their work places. This involves a considerable
loss of time each day. It can be difficult to commute from one inland to
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another.

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 Waste disposal is also a problem facing the city of New York. Owing to the
large population and the many industries, masses of waste accumulate and
cause a problem of contamination to the environment, as well as being
difficult to dispose off.
Solutions to the problems facing New York
(Explain the solutions to the problems facing New York city)
Several steps have been taken to overcome these problems and make life in
New York more comfortable.
 For accommodation improvement, some of the slum areas have
been cleared and replaced with housing estates. These are better
organised and provide housing facilities at a cheaper rate to
accommodate low-income earners.
 The problem of space has been handled by expanding vertically. This
involves the construction of very tall buildings called skyscrapers. A
building can have more than 100 floors.
 Pollution and poor waste disposal is checked by instituting laws
requiring industries to treat their waste. The waste is now effectively
handled by government programmes like waste recycling.
 Congestion at the port has been reduced by using containerization.
Here loading and offloading takes only a short time, so ships are not
subject to long delays. Using this method goods are packed in very
large standard containers that are loaded or offloaded, instead of
handling one item at a time, which would take much longer.
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  The high crime rate is tackled by the reinforcement of police and
intelligence organizations.
 Unemployment is still a problem, but efforts are being made to
increase employment opportunities through the construction of
more industries.
 There has been an increase in the number of bridges, subways and
underground tunnels to help ease commuting from one island to
another.
 Tough restrictions to migrants into New York City in order to reduce
on the unemployment and slum development.
 People are being encouraged to use trains instead of their personal
vehicles.
Industrial development in New York
Factors favouring the development of industries in New York
Examine the factors that promoted Industrialisation in New York
1. Availability of reliable power supply, both hydro-electric power and
thermal power from imported petroleum products is used to run machines
and facilitate other industries’ operations.
2. New York provides reliable market, because not only is it densely
populated, but it also has access by sea to the densely populated European
nations and markets. This allows production to continue, since normally the
level of output is determined by demand.
3. Availability of large volumes of water. The city has an abundant supply of
water, since it is situated on the coast. Water is used both as a raw material
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and as a coolant in the various industries in New York.

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4. The densely populated abundance of skilled and semi-skilled labour,
which is also very necessary for industrial development. Plenty of people,
meaning both skilled and unskilled labour, is available to the industry,
thereby promoting high production levels.
5. Adequate capital for industry has been provided by the immigrant traders
and by the government, making it easier to set up many industries and to
put in place industrial activities.
6. Availability of large quantities of raw materials are readily available. Some
of them, like agricultural raw materials and crude oil for refineries, have to
be imported, but they are made available in sufficient quantities to sustain
the industrial functions.
7. Efficient transport facilities in New York, consisting of road, railways and
airports, have encouraged the development of industry, because raw
materials and finished goods are both easily taken to where they are
needed.
8. Ice free conditions which enabled the use of New York port for importation
of raw materials and export of raw materials and export of manufactured
goods throughout the year.
9. Strategic location at the eastern coast enables easy accessibility to raw
materials imported from Africa and Europe such as petroleum, coffee, tea,
rubber and cotton.

QN. Describe the problems faced by the transport sector in New York
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  Traffic congestion, leading to delays in movement from one place to
another.
 High costs involved in construction and maintenance of tunnels and
bridges.
 Insistence of narrow bridges which slow down traffic.
 High transport fares involved especially in air transport.
 Occurrence of dense fog leading to interrupted visibility causing
difficulty in air transport and navigation.
 Transshipment from one ship to another and to land its very costly to
hire loaders.
 Occurrence of accidents leading to loss of property and life.
 Pollution of water, air from vehicles emitting fumes and oil spillage in
water from ferries.
Measures being taken to solve the problems faced by transport sector
in New York.
Qn. Explain the measures being taken to solve the problems faced by
transport sector in New York.
 Time tabling/scheduling of ships and vehicles to avoid congestion.
 Containerization to ease loading and off-loading
 Use of flood lights on ocean going vessels fog lights.
 Use of alternative use of transport i.e. subways roads, railways etc.
to minimize congestion
 Constant dredging to overcome siltation.
 Widening of narrow bridges by creation of modern double carriage
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ways.

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  Establishment of strict laws against pollution e.g. clean air
production act. As according to the global climate change
convection
Effects of transport sector on the environment
Qn. Outline the effects of the transport sector on the environment in New
York.
 Traffic congestion leading to delays in movement from one place
to another.
 Occurrence of accidents leading to loss of property and life.
 Pollution of water air from vehicles emitting fumes and oil spillage
in water from ferries.
 Creation of barren lands where rocks have been excavated to
provide rock aggregates for construction.
 Global warming from vehicle fumes causing an atmospheric
blanket of increasing temperatures.
 Loss of aquatic animals due to oil spillage.
A comparison of New York and the East African cities
Mombasa
Mombasa is a port in Kenya located on the coast along the Indian Ocean and
situated on Mombasa Island. It is a very busy port throughout the year
handling both imports and exports for Uganda, Rwanda and the Democratic
Republic of Congo (DRC) as well as Kenya. The major imports are petroleum,
machinery, textiles and foodstuffs. The petroleum is refined near the harbour
at Mombasa port.
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Similarities between Mombasa and New York as ports

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1. Both are sited on Islands.
2. Both have ice free conditions all year.
3. Both have sheltered harbours
4. Both were founded by foreigners
5. Both have large hinterlands.
6. Both have industries near the harbour.
Differences between Mombasa and New York as ports
New York Mombasa
- Situated in the - Situated in the
Northern hemisphere Southern hemisphere
- Has a temperate - Has tropical climate
climate
Experiences fog Experiences mist
- Free from coral reefs - Has coral reefs in the
harbor

Comparison between Kampala and New York cities

Similarities between Kampala and New York cities
1. Both are leading business cities of their respective countries.
2. Both are important centers of education
3. Both are important financial centers.
4. Both have slum areas.
5. Unemployment is a problem in both cities.
6.
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Differences between Kampala and New York cities

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 Kampala New York
Inland city Coastal city
Has few tall buildings Has many skyscrapers
Has light industries Has both heavy and light
industries
Is a capital city Not a capital city
Situated on hills Situated on islands.
Revision Exercise
1. What problems are faced by:
(a) Kampala?
(b) Mombasa?
2. How are the problems solved?
3. Name the industries found in each of these cities.
4. What are the factors responsible for the development of these towns?

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS RESULTING FROM THE DEVELOPMENT OF NEW

YORK
(Qn. Explain the environmental problems which have resulted from the
development of New York City)

 Pollution of the environment e.g. the port is polluted by oil spills pouring
into the water by industries
 High rates of un employment due to decline in the share of the
employment due to containerization
 Inadequate accommodation due to high rate of immigrants into the city
leading to development of slums.
 Highly interrupted visibility due to high levels of smog ang fog this is also
worsened by the mixing of the cold Labrador currents and the warm gulf
stream has caused accidents.
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 Overcrowding due to many people living in the port area.

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  Easy spread of diseases due to immorality from increased population
concentrated in the port.
 Racial discrimination due to large number of people entering New York
from different parts of the world.
 High crime rates due to the levels of idleness caused by the high levels of
un employment rates.
 High cost of living e.g. food medical care etc.
 Traffic congestion of ships at the port causes delay in the loading and off-
loading at the dock.
 Shortage of land foe expanding of the port.

REGIONS OF DIFFICULTY

CASE STUDY: THE TENNESSEE VALLEY REGION

The Tennessee valley region is a vast region found in Eastern U.S.A covering over
seven states, these include, Tennessee, Kentucky, Virginia, North Carolina,
Alabama, Georgia and Mississippi.

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Sketch map of SE USA showing the states of the Tennessee valley region

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The region is mainly drained by the following rivers: -
(I) River Tennessee
(ii) River Mississippi
(iii) River Ohio
(iv) River Cumberland

This region was originally forested and used to receive high amounts of rainfall;
the early settlers who came to this region were agriculturalists and therefore
quickly cleared the forest area and reclaimed swamps for agriculture and
settlement.
As the population grew, the forested slopes of the Appalachian Mountains were
also cleared.
FACTORS WHICH NECCESITATED THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE TENNESSEE
VALLEY AUTHORIGHTY OR PROBLEMS EXPERIENCED IN THIS REGION INCLUDED

(Qn. Describe the conditions that led to the establishment of the Tennessee
Valley Authority)
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- Severe soil erosion, this resulted into loss of soil fertility and
culminated into low crop yields.
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 - Periodic floods; these were mainly caused by the heavy rains and
erosion of the soil which was all deposited into River Tennessee and
its tributaries in form of silt this led to destruction of farmlands and
other property.

- Diseases; The flooding of River Tennessee, facilitated the

occurrence of various
human diseases such as malaria, bilharzia, river blindness etc. this
is because
the flooded areas became breeding places for mosquitoes.
- Remoteness: - With poor and inefficient transport network, thus, the
flooding of River Tennessee and its tributaries cut off
communication.

- Unemployment: - This came as a result of limited employment

opportunities and due to the fact that some industries had been
submerged in water. Cotton which was processed in this region was
transferred to the Great lakes region to be processed. Hence, leaving
the region with few employment opportunities.
- Famine, due to the fact that there were low crop yeilds, which
resulted into shortage of food and later famine.

- High population growth rate, the area had become over populated
and the available resources could not cater for the population.

- Severe lack of fuel resources, especially due to rapid de-afforestation

in the valley region.

- Poor housing facilities.

NOTE: -
In 1916, the Tennessee Valley Authority (T.V.A) was established. This was a public
organization which was put in place to help rehabilitate the region and bring life
to a meaning.
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Unfortunately, it did not take off, until 1935 when Mr. Franklin Roosevelt was
elected President of U.S.A.

By the time Roosevelt was elected president, this region was the most poorest
and had lagged behind in as far as development is concerned. He therefore
reactivated its operations in order to address the problems of the region.

AIMS OF THE T.V.A

1. To control soil erosion by adopting soil conservation measures.
2. To control periodic flooding of river Tennessee and its tributaries.
3. To improve on the navigation of the river Tennessee and its tributaries
4. To generate hydro- electric power to meet the domestic and industrial
energy requirements.
5. To control pests and diseases especially water borne diseases which had led
to loss of lives.
6. To develop water conservation measures.
7. To encourage development of industries in order to create employment
opportunities.
8. To develop infrastructure such as roads necessary to develop the area

HOW THE T.V.A ACHIEVED ITS AIMS OR STEPS TAKEN TO SOLVE THE PROBLEMS
IN THE T.V.A
a) Setting up of the Tennessee valley authority charged with the management
and development of the project.
b) Existing gullies were blocked by use of bush barriers across the gullies to hold
back the eroded soils.
c) Farmers were encouraged to use better agriculture methods i.e. the use of
contour ploughing, terracing, strip cropping and the growing of various crops on
the lowlands so as to improve on the soil fertility.
d) Use of cover crops to hold the soil and prevent it from erosion e.g. creeping
plants spread rapidly even on poor thin sum-soil while fresh soil re-establishes
itself.

e) Demonstration farms were set up all over the valley to teach farmers, modern
methods of farming and soil conservation. Agricultural mechanization adapted to
hilly conditions were introduced. This improved crop productivity.
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F) Afforestation and re-afforestation. This helped to bind the soil particles
together and absorb the excess water which previously run off rapidly, causing
floods. Over 2 million trees were planted every year. These provided shades and
protection to the soil.

g) Terracing. This enables a hill side to be kept on cultivation if really necessary.

h) Control population growth family planning.

i). Construction of dams, this was done in order to control floods a total of about
50 dams were constituted. This led to the deepening of River Tennessee and
facilities expanded. By 1953, 80% of the homes in the region were electrified,
compared with only 3% at the beginning of the project in 1933.

The major dams constructed included; Wheeler, Norris, Cherokee, Douglas,

Fort Loudoun, Fontana, Hiwassee dam, Watts Bar, Chickamauga, Wilson,
Pickwick, Kentucky, Guntersville etc.

Diagram: Profile of the Tennessee River - The major dams of the TVA

IMPORTANCES OF THE DAMS THAT WERE CONSTRUCTED

1. Mosquito breeding places were destroyed. Water level in dams is also
being regulated to destroy mosquito larvae.
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 2. Opening up of remote areas by construction of infrastructure, these
included railways and roads, to improve transport, schools, research
centers, colleges, hospitals and demonstration farms.

3. The availability of cheap H.E.P and a surplus of a healthy and educated

labor force, led to the establishment of industries e.g. Paper Mill and
Aluminum Rolling Mill, which provided employment to the people.

4. Improved standards of living were achieved because of employment

opportunities. This helped to check poverty.

THE BENEFITS OF THE T.V.A

Qn. Outline the benefits of the T.V.A

1. Dam construction. The dams which were built along the main River
Tennessee, and
tributaries. This led to provision of power and employment
opportunities.
2. Floods were controlled, this was a result of huge reservoirs that held large
volumes of water.
3. Tourism has been boosted by the planted trees which created a good
scenery. They controlled soil erosion.

4. Employment was created in the industries, for example in the aluminum

industry.

5. Soil quality was improved tremendously, increasing crop yields and

farmer’s income, through the establishment of demonstration farms.

6. Soil and agricultural research have been carried out at district level and
farmers are given free advice on how to overcome the problems facing
them.
7. Hydro- electric power was generated where 80% of homes within the
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T.V.R were electrified.

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 8. The Tennessee valley project has become a model for a multi – purpose
river projects in the various river valleys of the world. Each year,
thousands of experts from many countries of the world visit the T.V.R.

9. The T.V.A has led to the inflow of tourists who come and see how a once
devastated region has been rehabilitated. These brought in foreign
exchange.

10. The people’s standards of living were improved through improved

incomes.

PROBLEMS THAT WERE CREATED BY THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE

T.V.A.
i. Displacement of people, who were relocated due to the construction of
dams and the frequent occurrence of floods.

ii. Floods occasionally occurred due to the large volumes of water, these
destroyed the houses, farm lands etc.

iii. Slum development, many slums developed as a result of industrialization,

this was because the industries attracted people to come to the towns to
see for employment.

iv. Pollution of the environment i.e. atmosphere, water etc. by the many
industries.

v. Land lords who used to have very many tenants, were disappointed when
industries were built. These tenants preferred to work as porters in
industries and share their income with nobody as opposed to sharing crops
with land lords.
vi. Loss of scenic beauty due to creation of lakes which affected the tourist
industry.
vii. Displacement of people by lakes which affected the tourist industry.

THE ST. LAWRENCE SEAWAY AND THE GREAT LAKES REGION

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The St. Lawrence Seaway is a sea route which was constructed to accelerate quick
transport of both imports and exports of the great lakes region and the Canadian
prairies.

It stretches for over 3,760 km connecting the great lakes region from Duluth on L.
Superior to the coast and it’s shared by both USA and Canada.

AIMS OF CONSTRUCTING THE SEAWAY

This sea route was constructed mainly to: -
i) To create deep waters to ease navigation purposely to allow large Ocean
going vessels to sail through.
ii) To generate hydroelectric power from the various water falls for
Industries around the area.
iii) To connect the rich interior to the Atlantic coast and other market centers.
iv) To industrialize the region.
v) To improve on navigation between the St. Lawrence River and the great
lakes.
vi) To increase the level of revenue and foreign exchange from the vessels
along the seaway.
Vii To ease transportation of bulky raw materials like iron ore and wheat.
Viii To control floods.

Sketch map of the great lakes region and the St. Lawrence Seaway
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27
THE SHIPPING HAZZARDS BEFORE THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE
CONSTRUCTION OF THE SEAWAY

(Qn. Describe the factors that favoured the construction of the sea way
Explain the problems that were faced before the construction sea way

The construction of the seaway aimed at solving the shipping hazards which made
navigation difficult. These are illustrated as follows: -

1. There was a series of water falls and rapids along the sea route. For
instance, the Lachine rapids and the Niagara Falls.
2. There were a number of thousands of shallow rock/ island especially at the
mouth of L. Ontario which prevented large Ocean-going vessels to sail
through the rivers.
3. The length of R. St. Lawrence contained some shallow waters which would
not allow large Ocean-going vessels to sail in.
4. Flooding during the summer season i.e. As a result of melting snow, this
was due to the rising temperatures.
5. The occurrence of fog especially in spring at the mouth of St. Lawrence
River, was a great menace to shipping in that it hindered visibility.
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6. Fluctuation of water levels.

7. Gradient difference.

28
 8. Freezing of rivers and lakes along the water way. These would be frozen for
over 3-5 months in the winter.

A Sketch map the St. Lawrence River section between Lake Ontario and
Montreal before the construction of the St Lawrence Seaway

OPPOSITION TO THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE SEAWAY

The construction of this sea route was mainly opposed by the US government.
This was because: -
i) The U.S wanted to maintain the profits she was getting through taxation
mainly on the imports and exports which were being handled by her
ports.
ii) There was fear that once the seaway is complete, it would compete with
her eastern coastal ports such as New York, which would lead to her
decline in its importance.
iii) The American Railway Corporation (A.R.C) also had to resist the
construction of the seaway, this was because for a long time this
corporation had remained the only way through which both exports and
imports of the great lakes region were handled.
iv) The seaway as such was looked at as a great competition which would
facilitate the decline of the corporation.
v) Montreal and Buffalo also had to resist the construction of the seaway. This
was because once completed the seaway would facilitate other great
lakes region ports, compete with them in trade which had brought in a
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lot of profits.

29
Note: -
With time the U.S government was convinced to join the venture. It supported
Canada in the construction of this sea route whose work begun in 1954 and
ended in 1958.

The seaway is shared greatly by the two countries. In 1950 the U.S.A finally
accepted to cooperate with Canada in the construction of the Seaway. Plans were
then drawn and in 1954 the great engineering works began.
The U.S.A. finally agreed to cooperate because of the following reasons:

a) By 1950 Canada had accumulated enough capital to start the work on

her own. The U.S.A. realised that if Canada constructed the Seaway alone, she
(Canada) would monopolise the dues/ tolls paid by the shipping Companies i.e.
the U.S.A. wanted to have a share of the business.
b) The U.S.A. also realised that if Canada was in total control of the Seaway,
she (U.S.A.) would also be liable to pay charges for the use of the Seaway.
c) The U.S.A. also realised that the construction of the Seaway would lead
to the development of the iron and steel industries since these they would be
able to obtain iron ore cheaply from the source areas.
d) The U.S.A. also realised that there was need for socio-economic and
political cooperation with her Northern neighbour i.e. for strategic reasons.

HOW THE SHIPPING HAZZARDS WERE REMOVED/ SOLVED

(Qn. Explain how the shipping hazards were removed)

The shipping hazards along the St. Lawrence Seaway were solved in a number of
ways as illustrated above.

1. The 300 km bottle neck was removed/ solved through the widening and
deepening of the river channel to 8.2 meters. This was followed with the
construction of water channels and several locks. At present, 80% of the
Ocean- going vessels are able to sail along the sea – route.
2. The thousand rock/ islands were removed by blasting.
3. The long sault rapids, Lachine rapids and other various series of rapids
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along the river were over come through the construction of locks and the

30
 adoption of a lock system which helps in the level of water e.g. At
Beauharnais, a dam, two locks and a slop channel were constructed.
4. The problem of winter freezing was minimized through the introduction of
ice breakers on the seaway. Ice breakers can manage to sail across the river
even if it is frozen.
5. The problem of water falls along the river, especially the Niagara Falls
between L. Ontario and Erie was over come through water channel
construction e.g. the wetland canal.
6. The sault saint Marie was another shipping route which was constructed in
order to overcome the rapids on the St. Mary’s river. This river connects L.
Superior and L. Huron. This route is, however, restricted by winter freezing.
7. Construction of locks in order to raise the water level.
8. Co-operation between the American and the Canadian governments to
meet the costs.

A Sketch map the St. Lawrence River section between Lake Ontario and
Montreal before the construction of the St Lawrence Seaway

A CROSS SECTION OF THE GREAT LAKES REGION TO MONTREAL 7/1/2018

31
A SKETCH MAP OF ST. LAWRENCE SHOWING MAJOR TOWNS

THE IMPORTANCES OF THE SEAWAY

(Qn. Outline the contribution of the Tennessee valley Authority to the people
of the area.)

1. Provision of the easiest transport systems to the great lakes region and
Canada.
2. There has been a reduction in transport costs concerning both imports and
exports.
3. Mining has been accelerated i.e. the exploitation of various minerals in the
great lakes region, especially coal and iron ore.
4. Urbanisation many towns have developed for instance, Toronto, Buffalo,
Montreal, Quebec etc.
5. Industrialization due to efficient transport of raw materials and finished
goods. This has boosted the incomes of the people.
6. Improvement in agricultural production. For instance, the industrial
workers provide market for agricultural produce.
7. HEP generation, was boosted greatly by the many industries such has
accelerated industrial growth. For instance; HEP generation around the
Niagara Falls.
8. Industrial establishments, has created many employment opportunities to
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the inhabitants of the region. Dams for HEP stations

32
 9. Large Ocean – going freights are now being built along the seaway.
10.The seaway is one of the leading tourist attractions to- day in North
America.

PROBLEMS THAT WERE CREATED BY THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE SEA WAY

(Qn. Outline the problems that were created by the construction of the sea way)

 Barren lands were created by the soil and silt dug out the river
during dredging
 Foreign species of aquatic animals were introduced e.g. the Zebra
mussel and sea lamprey
 Flooding of the new areas around the seaway which required re-
settlement and relocation of people and towns. This was expensive.
 A few villages in Ontario formerly home to over 65,000 people, were
submerged.

THE LOCK SYSTEM

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33
 A SKETCHMAP OF THE GREAT LAKES SHOWING MINERAL LOCATION

Factors that have promoted mining in the Great lakes region

(Qn. Describe the Factors that have promoted mining in the Great lakes region)

1. Presence of highly valuable minerals like coal

2. Favorable government policy that has promoted the
mining activity.
3. Efficient transport system that has promoted
transportation of minerals to processing factories for
example the St. Lawrence sea way.
4. Presence of large quantities of hydroelectric power that
provides power to the factories for the processing
process to go on properly.
5. Advancement in technology that has brought in the
modern machines and skilled people to operate the
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machines in order to produce high quality goods

34
 6. Presence of adequate capital to purchase modern
machinery to mine effectively.

THE CANADIAN PRAIRIES

The Canadian prairies are a temperate grass land found in central North America
covering Canada and U.S.A. they are known for wheat growing. In Canada which
used to be the world’s leading producer of wheat, they cover the provinces of
Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba.

They stretch southwards and into U.S.A, covering the states of Montana, North
Dakota and South Dakota.

In the whole prairies region, Saskatchewan is the leading producer of wheat.

SKETCH MAP OF CANADA SHOWING THE EXTENT OF WHEAT

GROWING AREAS

Relief: - The prairies have almost flat land which gently rises from the East
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towards the west. The land rises in three different levels 1st, 2nd, and 3rd in the
province of Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta respectively.

35
FACTORS THAT FAVOURED THE GROWING OF WHEAT IN THE PRAIRIES

1. Availability of extensive cheap land. Thus, farm sizes are thousands of

hectares.
2. The area is large and undulating landscape which easily permits the
application of mechanization and railway construction.
3. Presence of fertile black chernozems soils that promote wheat cultivation
4. The warm and sunny summer temperatures which help the grains to ripen
and make harvesting easy.
5. Heavy rainfall in the growing season of at least 2000mm.
6. Large quantities of water for irrigation provided by R. Saskatchewan. This
makes areas which lack rainfall suitable for wheat growing.
7. The chinook winds make the winter snow melt to add moisture to the soil
in summer.
8. Efficient transport network mainly by road, rail and water e.g. The Canadian
Pacific Highway.
9. Availability of large sums of capital which facilitated the extensive
mechanization of the farms.
10.Availability of ready market for the Canadian wheat mainly in Europe,
Africa, Asia and in U.S.A.
11.Advancement in Scientific research which has led to the development of
farms.
12. Experienced farmers in wheat growing this led to production of high-quality
wheat.

PROBLEMS FACING CANADIAN WHEAT FARMERS

1. Competition from other wheat growing countries like Pakistan, Argentina,
and China India, led to fluctuation of prices.
2. Pests and diseases led to loss of crops and farmers’ incomes.
3. Hail storms are common especially in the north where they damage the
wheat crop thus the farmers making losses.
4. Over production of wheat leads to fall in world market prices.
5. Monoculture for so long had led to soil exhaustion this also led a decline
wheat production.
6. Winter snow, fog and mist over the navigable water ways hinder
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transportation of the wheat to markets.

7. Early frost damages the winter crops if the temperatures go very low.
36
 SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEMS FACED BY THE WHEAT FARMERS IN THE
CANADIAN
PRAIRIES
 Introduction of dry farming methods like irrigation farming to
supplement the unreliability of rainfall and prolonged droughts on the
Canadian Prairies
 Canadian farmers have been encouraged to practice diversification by
practicing mixed farming and livestock ranching.
 Spraying wheat farms using insecticides and other chemicals to
eradicate other diseases like rust fungus
 Planting of early maturing wheat varieties to overcome the long frost
winter and reduce wheat growing periods.
 Application of fertilizers and green manure and animal dung to restore
soil fertility.
 Crop diversification like introduction of other crops like barly, Oats,
peas, sugar beet, and sunflower to reduce on overdependency on
wheat affected by price fluctuation
 Development of seed varieties that are early maturing, disease
resistant and drought resistant.
 Subsidizing wheat farmers by government to reduce on production
costs.
 Planting trees to act as wind breakers and growing soil cover crops to
protect the soils from erosion
 Mechanization to minimize the labour shortage during the harvesting
season
CHARACTERISTICS OF FARMS IN THE PRAIRIES
1. The farms are extensively large covering thousands of hectares.
2. Due to the large farms, extensive farming is practiced so as to maximize
production.
3. The farms are highly mechanized and the machinery they use include; the
saw seeds, shovels used for cutting wheat and the combine harvesters
which are multi-purpose tractors.
4. Practicing of monoculture.
5. Scientifically managed involving the use of improved seed varieties and
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fertilizers.

37
6. With the increasing surplus of wheat, many farmers have changed to
practicing mixed farming.

IMPORTANCES OF WHEAT FARMING TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF CANADA

 Sauce of revenue to government through taxation for provision of
social services.
 Diversifying the economy to reduce over dependency on
agriculture
 Sauce of food to the people living in the area thus improving on
their health
 Creation of employment opportunities to many people working on
the farms thus improving on their standards of living.
 Sauce of income to many people working on the farms or those
engaged in the farming activities thus improving their way of life.
 Sauce of foreign exchange to the government through export of
agricultural products to other countries.
 Urbanization i.e. many towns have grown because of corn
growing. Towns like Edmonton, Calgary Winnipeg with various
uses like clean water and recreation centers.
 It has led to infrastructural development like roads, for
transportation of agricultural products.
 Provision of market of agricultural products especially the
manufactured ones.
 Sauce of raw of raw materials for agro based industries like food
processing etc. leading to development of industries.
 Wheat farms attract tourists leading to earning of more foreign
exchange.

PRAIRIE FARMER’S CALENDER

(Describe the impact of climate on the farmers activities in the Prairies)

WINTER; this occurs in the months of December, January and February. In

this season the activities carried out include;
 Planting of the crops especially maize or corn
 Repairing machines so that they are ready for the next season.
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 Updating of records this may include balancing books i.e. book

keeping.
38
  Winter holiday begins
SPRING; this occurs in the months of March, April and May in this season
the activities
 Ploughing the land so that its ready for the planting
 Planting the crops

SUMMER; this is experienced in the months of June, July and August

 Spraying crops to kill the pests.
 Weeding the gardens
 Harvesting wheat and other cereal crops.

AUTUMN; This is experienced in the months of

 Fertilizer application to boost the growth of crops
 Marketing last seasons wheat that may have been left un sold.
 Participating in the farm exhibition shows especially in August.
METHODS OF FARMING PRACTISED ON THE CANADIAN PRAIRIES
1. Extensive farming: - This is the growing of a crop on the large scale to
maximize production.
2. Irrigation farming: - the artificial application of water to the crop especially
in areas which do not receive adequate rainfall e.g. the drier south – west.
3. Mixed farming: - integration of crop farming with livestock keeping. Other
crops grown include, corn, barley, oats, sunflower, Soya – beans etc. and
animals kept mainly include cattle and pigs. This method has been possible
due to:-
i) Fodder crops are grown which act as animal feeds.
ii) The constant use of fertilizers and manure to enrich the soil.

A SKETCH MAP SHOWING TYPES OF FARMING IN THE PRAIRES

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39
WHEAT EXPORT ROUTES
1. East ward route/ Eastern route through the twin ports of Author and
William on Lake Superior. From here the wheat goes through the St.
Lawrence sea way to Montreal and New York. Wheat through this port can
go to Africa Europe and South America, this route cannot be used during
winter because it freezes. However, it’s the cheapest route, it’s direct.
ADVATANGES OF USING THE EASTERN ROUTE
 It is cheaper to use because water transport is cheap
 The route is ice free for most of the year (about eight months)
 The route has higher accessibility to larger markets of Europe, Asia,
and Africa.
 There is a short distance covered to reach the market
 There are many port facilities along this route.

Disadvantages of the eastern route

 The eastern route freezes for about three to four months in a year.

2. The western route through Seattle, Vancouver and Prince Rupert. Here
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wheat is transported by rail line along The Canadian Pacific Highway to the

40
 western port. This wheat goes to china, Japan, and other Asian countries. It
is ice free throughout the year.

Disadvantages of using the western route/ factors that limit the use of
the western route
 Crossing the steep slopes of the Rocky Mountains makes it difficult
 The route is too long to use for reaching foreign markets
 There is along rail distance to be covered to reach the coast which
makes it expensive
 The route cannot be used throughout the year because of snow
cover.

3. The northward route through church hill in Canada via the Atlantic Ocean
and Hudson Bay to Britain and Western Europe. It is affected by the winter
season. The Hudson Bay freezes for half of
the year

Factors that limit the use of the northern route

 The Hudson Bay is frozen for most of the months in the year.
 Along stretch is covered on land from Regina to church hill port this
makes it expensive to transport wheat from inland to the final
destination.
 There are few ports and port handling facilities along this route
causing congestion at the port.

SKETCH MAP SHOWING WHEAT EXPORT ROUTES (leave half a page

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41
 COTTON GROWING IN THE SOUTH
The cotton belt is a cotton growing region found in the south of U.S.A, located
between 65o – 125oW and between 18o – 65oN.

There are two cotton belts, thus: -

(a) The Old Cotton Belt: (original cotton growing area):

This is located in the South – east covering over 11 states. It begins from
the Mississippi flood plains through the coastal plains bordering the Atlantic
Ocean. The states include,

(i) Texas
(ii) Louisiana
(iii) Oklahoma
(iv) Alabama
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(v) Tennessee
(vi) Georgia

42
 (vii) Mississippi
(viii) Arkansas
(ix) North Carolina
(x) South Carolina
(xi) Missouri

FACTORS THAT FAVOURED COTTON GROWING IN THE OLD COTTON BELT

1. The occurrence of Heavy annual rainfall of between 500 – 1000mm, most

of which falling in the first 160 days.
2. Presence of Hot summers with warm temperatures ranging between 21 –
27oC, relative humidity good for ripening and a dry harvesting period.
3. Existence of Abundant sunshine during flowering, with 200 frost free days
and when the products are ripening. This is because rainfall is likely to make
the products rot.
4. Presence of Well drained fertile soils these were mainly enriched by
depositions of rivers Tennessee and Mississippi and the aluminum washed
from the Appalachian Mountains.
5. The availability of large pieces of land for growing the crop on large scale
thus plantation faming.
6. Availability of cheap abundant skilled and semi-skilled labour provided by
the slaves (negroes)
7. The discovery of the cotton ginning machine for the farmers. This was
mainly used in the procession of the cotton fiber.
8. Availability of reliable market especially from Western Europe.

FACTORS THAT LED TO THE DECLINE IN COTTON PRODUCTION IN THE OLD

COTTON BELT

1. Soil exhaustion. This was a result of monoculture which ultimately lowered

crop yields. This further led to the following problems;
(a) Pests and disease control became a problem.
(b) Price fluctuations due to lack of alternative crop.
(c) In events of calamity, like floods, drought e.t.c all the wealth of the
farmers was destroyed.
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43
 2. Soil erosion and loss of soil fertility due to the poor soil cover provided by
the crop. Erosion was also a result of constant flooding from rivers
Tennessee and Mississippi and there tributaries especially during the
periods of high rainfall on the Appalachian Mountains.
3. The warm and humid climate encouraged the multiplication of pests like
the cotton ball weevil.
4. New crops were introduced so as to revitalize (renew) the exhausted soils.
This reduced the average of land under cotton.
5. The low prices and incomes earned from the cotton discouraged the
farmers and many abandoned it.
6. The cotton fields in some areas were replaced with pasture to feed the
cattle introduced on the farms.
7. Agricultural workers reduced in number as many looked for better paying
jobs in emerging industries of the north.
8. Hurricanes. (strong stormy winds from the coast). These were a big
problem because they led to the following: -
(a) Caused too much rainfall associated with thunder storm leading to
floods. This led to the displacement of people.
(b) They were a menace to shipping.
(c) They led to loss of both life and property.
(d) Destruction of the crops.
9. The hilly nature of the land limited the application of mechanization.
10.The abolition of slavery led to limited labour force for cotton growing.
11.The previous cotton growing areas were planted with forests to control soil
erosion.
12.Fodder crops were introduced to support beef, dairy cattle and poultry.
13.Competition from synthetic fibres threatened cotton farmers.
14.The introduction of new crops like soya beans to improve soil fertility,
limiting land for cotton.

CHANGES THAT TOOK PLACE IN THE OLD COTTON BELT

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1. Cotton is no longer a single important crop in the cotton belt. Other crops
have been introduced like wheat, soya beans etc.

44
 2. Mixed farming has been introduced so as to diversify the agricultural
sector. The cattle are for beef and milk. Thus, land has been divided up as
follows;
- Land for pasture for animals.
- Land for raring of the animals.
NB: - Wasted crops are used as feeder crops and livestock manure is used to
enrich the soil.
3. Planting of forests to reduce soil erosion.
4. Many industries have been established to offer better employment
opportunities to the people.
5. Introduction of crop rotation as a solution to monoculture.
The growing of different crops on the same piece of land yearly such that
crops follow a definite pattern/ cycle planned to restore or maintain soil
fertility.

REASONS FOR THE SHIFT OF THE COTTON BELT FROM THE SOUTH EAST TO
SOUTH WEST

1. The Soil became exhausted due to monoculture.

2. It was found out that cotton yields and fiber quality are both improved if
the cotton was grown in drier areas with aid of irrigation where necessary.
Thus, the South West had a hotter, drier climate and could give good yields.
3. The drier climate in the South West inhibits the spread of the ball weevil
which had destroyed the cotton crop in the South East.
4. The relief in the New cotton belt was generally flatter than in the South
East. Large farms could be developed with wide use of machinery.
5. Presence of light fertile soils in the West (New cotton belt) which were easy
to cultivate attracted many farmers.
6. The New cotton belt has an advantage of full-scale use of machinery,
because it was relatively flat.
7. The warm humid conditions in the South East (Old Cotton Belt) encouraged
the rapid growth of weeds and the cost of their removal was great while
the South West (New Cotton Belt) has little weed growth.
8. High Technology such irrigation farming from Rivers Sacramento and San
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Joaquin, would ensure production throughout the year.

9. Decline in cotton growing in south

45
A SKETCH MAP SHOWING EREAS EXPERIENCING SOIL EROSION IN THE SOUTH

THE PROBLEMS OF THE FARMERS

2. Pests and diseases which destroy the cotton crop.

3. Soil exhaustion due to over cultivation and monoculture practices.
4. Price fluctuations discourage the farmers.
5. Prolonged droughts led to low harvests.
6. Soil erosion
7. Hurricanes these have led to destruction of crops and caused losses to the
farmers.
8. Competition from the producing countries like Egypt, Sudan and the East
African region.
9. High expenses / costs of irrigating, fertilizing the soil and controlling weeds
making cotton growing very expensive.
10.Lack of skilled and semi-skilled man power during the weeding and
harvesting of the crop.
11.Poor transport networks. Due to constant floods in South East, roads were
destroyed and became almost impossible. Cotton transportation was quite
expensive and this greatly affected the pricing and demand of the crop in
general.
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46
 12.Lack of motivation. Farmers who were tenants got very little out of their
productions. A large proportion of their earnings were taken by the land
lords who were the owners of everything.

THE FARMERS CALENDA IN THE COTTON BELT

1. From March – April, farmers are mainly engaged in the planting of cotton.
2. April –August there’s thinning and spraying of the crop. (Growing season).
3. August to February. Farmers mainly engage in the picking of cotton growing
season.
4. Cattle are also grazed on remains of the crop.

Month Rainfall Temperature(oC) Work done in the fields

(mm)
March 105 10 Ploughing next season’s cotton
fields
April 110 16 Planting cotton
May 105 19 Planting legumes especially
soya beans
June 95 23 Harvesting wheat planted last
year
July 100 26 Weeding/ spreading weed
August 80 29 Killing chemicals (herbicides)
September 75 23 Cotton is harvested
October 70 11 Legumes are harvested
December 85 6 Winter wheat is planted
January 90 4 Repairing machines, validating
record
February 90 6 Books, planning not season’s
work, purchasing seeds
herbicides
November 70 11 Application of fertilizers to
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fields

47
COMPARISION IN THE METHODS OF COTTON GROWING IN U.S.A AND UGANDA

UGANDA USA

1. Grown on small scale 1. Grown on large scale.

2. Use of manual labour and less
machines used.
3. Depend on natural weather
conditions
4. Lack of the application of the
scientific methods.
5. Has low crop yields.
2. Highly mechanized.
3. It’s grown under irrigation.
4. Scientific methods are highly
applied.
5. High crop yields.

MINING AND INDUSTRY IN THE SOUTH

Minerals
The south has a variety of minerals the most common ones include;
Coal, petroleum, and Phosphates.

Industries found in the south include;

-Textiles industries
- Pharmaceuticals
- Petroleum Refineries
- Chemical industries
- Iron and steel industries.

A SKETCH MAP SHOWING MINERALS AND INDUSTRIAL CENTRES IN THE SOUTH

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48
 BRITISH COLUMBIA

British Columbia is a province located along the western coast. She is bordered by
the Yuken territory to the North, the province of Albert to the East Washington to
the South, the Pacific Ocean to the West and Alaska to the South East.

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SKETCH MAP OF BRITISH COLUMBIA (half a page)

49
Size and position: - British Columbia I located approximately between 48 N – 60 N
and 115 W to 138 W. She covers a total land area of 939,000km2.

Relief: - British Columbia is a very mountainous province with very high steeps.
Her relief is mainly divided up in three major divisions;
(i) The coastal ranges: - These are young folded mountains
which lie on south western part of the province. Some of
the coastal ranges have been drowned due to a rise in sea
level forming islands e.g. Vancouver Island.
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Formation of Fold Mountains

50
 Fold Mountains are formed as a result of compressional forces acting on a
layer of young sedimentary rocks. The compressional forces cause the
young sedimentary rocks to develop anticlines and synclines. The
anticlines form the folded mountains.

(ii) The Rockies: - These are mountain ranges on the Eastern

part of the province of British Columbia. They are young
folded and faulted mountains which form the highest
region of the province.

(iii) The Plateau: - This region lies between the coastal ranges
and the Rockies. It forms the lowest part of the province.
It is dissected by a number of river valleys like Columbia
and River Fraser.

Climate: - This refers to the average weather atmospheric conditions recorded

over a period of time. British Columbia receives rainfall almost throughout the
year but especially between October – April. This is mainly because of the
following;

When moist air from the sea encounters a relief barrier, (like the mountains), it is
forced to rise up the mountain and in the processes it cools.

This cooling causes condensation of vapour into water droplets which are seen as
a cloud. As the droplets get bigger, they fall as rain/ on the slopes that are in the
way of the winds. When these winds cross to the Eastern side of the mountains,
they are forced to descend down the hill.
Illustration
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51
NOTE: -
The province of British Columbia experiences three climatic divisions: -
(a) The cool temperate climate in the coastal region of Vancouver. Here, the
Westerly winds all year bring much rain.
(b) Semi-arid cool temperate climate in deep interior valleys especially in the
South valleys are in the rain shadow.
(c) Mountain climate of cold and wet experienced in the Rockies.

Population: - (refers to number of people within a given area)

British Columbia has a population about 1,900,000 people.

Because of the physical structure/ setup, British Columbia is sparsely populated.

Thus, the nature of her physical setup (landscape) does not favour human
settlement.

The Altitude (height above sea level), has contributed to the low population. This
is because areas with a high altitude are not usually inhibited because of their
cold conditions e.g.: -

In East Africa, areas with an altitude of 3000m A.B.S are in habited compared to
those which are 2000 A.B.S.L

Population density: - This refers to the number of persons per every square unit.
(km2).

PD = Population
Area = persons/ km2
Thus,
1,900,000
939,000 = 2 persons/ km2
NB: - Because of her low population and a big total land area, British Columbia
has a low population density.
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52
Land divisions in British Columbia

British Columbia covers a total land area of 939,000km2. These are divided up as
follows: -
i) The mountain regions occupy over 56% thus,

56
/100 x 939,00 = 525,840km2

ii) Forested areas occupy over 39% thus,

39
/100 x 939,000 = 366,210km2

iii) Land for cultivation occupy 1% thus,

1
/100 x 939,000 = 9390km2

iv) Other possible land for cultivation 4% thus

4
/100 x 939,000 = 37,560km2
Exercise
Draw a pie chart to illustrate how land used/ divided up in the British Columbia
Procedure:
1. Convert the area in km into degrees.
2. Draw a circle and make a radius from the north.
3. Measure the degrees calculated. Measure from the biggest degree to the
smallest clock wise.
4. Give each measured angle a simple shade different from the other
5. Flame the graph (circle)
6. Give your graph a title and a key

Formulae: -
Area of a particular aspect
x 360
Total land area

i) Mountains
525,840
939,000 x 360 = 201.6o
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ii) Forests
53
 366,210
939,000 x 360 = 140.4o

iii) Land for cultivation

9390
939,000 x 360 = 3.6o

iv) Other possible land for cultivation

37,560
939,000 x 360 = 14.4o

THE EXPLOITATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES

The development of any region or country depends on the utilization or
exploitation of her available natural resources.

A resource is anything that man utilizes to produce or obtain his needs.

A natural resource is anything that man can exploit in its natural form in order to
satisfy his needs. Natural resources of a country range from physical to human
resources in character.
A resource is anything that enables man to produce or obtain any of his needs.
While a natural resource is anything that man utilizes in its natural form to meet
or obtain his needs.

British Columbia is endowed with a number of natural resources. These include

the following;
i) Climate (i.e. rainfall patterns, temperatures, humidity, sunshine etc.)
ii) Soils (this supports man in a number of ways; Farming, Settlement,
Recreational facilities)
iii) Vegetation
iv) Animals (including those in water)
v) Minerals
vi) Water (on surface & within the ground)
vii) Landscape (considering its scenery)
viii) Man
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Forestry in British Columbia

54
The term forestry refers to the management of the living community of both
plants and animals in which the plants dominate.

Two- thirds of British Columbia are forested, with lumbering as the most
important activity related to forests. This is because it has a rugged forested
landscape and the province is sparsely populated.
Types of forests in British Columbia
British Columbia has two major types of forests, the coniferous (soft wood) and
the tropical (hard wood) forests. The coniferous forests are the most valuable or
important.
A SKETCH MAP OF BRITISH COLUMBIA SHOWING AREAS WITH FORESTS

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Characteristics of forests

55
 1. They are ever green throughout the year.
2. The trees occur in pure stands i.e. a single species of trees can occur over a
very large area.
3. The trees are tall, straight and slander.
4. The trees have small needle shaped leaves.
5. The trees grow fairly apart forming a moderate density.
6. There’s little or no under growth.
7. They contain soft wood.
8. They have small branches.

Exercise

Distinguish between the coniferous forests and the tropical deciduous forests.
Tree species (types)
1. Douglas fir
2. Balsam fir
3. Western hemlock
4. Western red cedar
5. Spruce

Note: -
The most valuable species of tree in British Columbia is the Douglas fir, which is
very tall and lives to a great age. Trees which are 600 years old are occasionally
found.

The Douglas fir is one of the hardest soft woods and is extremely strong.

FACTORS THAT HAVE FAVOURED THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE FORESTRY

INDUSTRY OR EXPLOITATION OF FORESTS IN BRITSH COLUMBIA

(Qn. Describe the factors that have favoured the development of the forestry
industry or exploitation of forests in British Columbia)

1. Presence of a rugged mountain landscape because of this; other land uses

such as agriculture are left under forests.
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2. Presence of the cool temperate climate with heavy rainfall and high
humidity has facilitated the easy growth of trees.

56
 3. Presence of thin soils which do not support other forms of land use hence
being used for forest growth.
4. The presence of fast flowing rivers that help to generate hydroelectricity.
power which run the saw mills and transport logs to the saw mills.
5. Availability of a low population density in British Columbia, a factor that has
left a very big land area for forests to grow without any external
interference.
6. Presence of a favourable Canadian government policy on forestry which
encourages people to invest in the industry.
7. Availability of a cheap skilled and semi-skilled labour force in the forestry
industry.
8. The Presence of advanced technology in forest protection e.g. Telescopic
observers, water bombers (use of aeroplanes) control towers and use of
persuasive posters persuading people to protect forests against any fire
outbreak.
9. The availability of the adequate capital resources.
10.Availability of a ready market for the forest products both within and
outside British Columbia. This is due to the availability of different valuable
species e.g. most wood products are exported to countries like USA, Japan,
United Kingdom and the rest of the world. These are exploited through the
ports of Alberni, Vancouver and Prince Rupert.
11.Advancement and development of technology relevant for the exploitation
of the forest resources.
12.The location of most forests close to the western coast, which makes it easy
to transport the forest products.

LUMBERING
Lumbering refers to the process of preparing wood and timber for the
processional making of products out of it.

It’s the most important activity in the British Columbia and its handled by trained
workers who are highly specialized. Thus, each group of workers performs
specialized functions and they do their job as a team.
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Stages involved in lumbering

57
2. Surveying: A survey is carried out in the forests specially to know the trees
which have matured. Trees which are ready for cutting are marked by
crewmen.

3. Felling: - This is the cutting down of mature trees. It is done by fellers who
work in pairs using power driven chain saws. They wear brightly coloured
garments for easy recognition in case of any accidents and put on head
helmets for protection.

4. Bucking: - This is the cutting of trees into sizeable logs. Trees are normally
very tall and are bucked into 12m logs for easy loading and transportations.
The people who do this work are called buckers.

5. Collection of logs: - After the trees are bucked, the logs are then dragged or
yarded to a central place for loading on trucks. They use automobile steel
spars. The people who do this work are called choker men.
6. Transportation: - After the attachment of logs on the waiting trucks,
different modes of transport are used to transport the logs to the booming
grounds e.g. road and water transport is used.
7. The booming grounds: - These are centers of collection were all logs are
collected before finally transporting them to the different mills. Here, logs
are sorted out according to;

(i) Size
(ii) Quality
(iii) Specie

After sorting them out, each log is then sent to the mill which will
manufacture the most valuable product from it e.g.;
(b) High grade logs of Douglas fir go to the plywood factory.
(c) Medium grade Douglas fir, western hemlock and balsam fir go to the
saw mill.
(d) Mature cedar logs are fed to the shingle mills, which produce wooden
tiles for roofs.
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(e) Other low-grade logs and waste wood from other mills, go to the pulp
and paper mills.

58
REASONS WHY WOOD PROCESSING INDUSTRIES ARE FOUND AT THE COAST
1. Most of the forests are located along the western part of the country. This
minimizes the costs and difficulties in transporting the bulky logs.
2. Some of the logs are transported by water. The rivers flow westwards to
the sea or ocean. The logs are thus, floated directly to the saw mills at the
coast.
3. Availability of large amounts of water need in the processing of wood.
4. The products tend to be bulky and therefore located at the coast where
population density is high, thus ensuring a ready market.
5. The dense population found along the coast provides labour to work in the
wood processing industries.
6. The availability of cheap and abundant hydroelectric power which is used in
the saw mills.
7. The relatively flat landscape at the coast gives ample space for industrial
development.

PROBLEMS FACING THE FORESTRY INDUSTRY IN BRITISH COLUMBIA

(Qn. Outline the problems facing the forestry industry in British Columbia)
1. Fire out breaks: - This is one of the biggest problems in British Columbia
which is mainly caused by failure to put off picnic fire and as a result of
careless cigarette smokers who throw their cigarette ends in the forests.
2. Over exploitation: - In recent years there has been over exploitation of the
forests leading to their depletion.
3. The relief: - The mountainous nature of British Columbia makes transport
difficult. In other words, the rugged terrain restricts easy mobility.
4. Cold winters: - These are very cold seasons covered by snow making
lumbering very difficult in higher places.
5. Labour shortages: - This is due to the fact that the population is low and
sparse. Thus, the higher the population, the more available labour is.
6. Accidents: - These can often be caused during felling and may lead to
death.
7. Pests and diseases: - These normally destroy trees.
8. Some species take long to mature.
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SOLUTIONS TO THE ABOVE-MENTIONED PROBLEMS

59
 1. Fire
(a) Fire guards are employed who watch from control sources above the
trees for any fire outbreak.
(b) There are always regular patrols made to detect and report any fire
out breaks.
(c) Use of water bombers. These are special aero planes used to put out
fire by spraying or sprinkling water over the forests.
(d) Use of persuasive posters. These remind people to be more careful
with fire while in forests. Others may restrict people from smoking in
the forests e.g.
(e) Forests have been patched for easy movement during the patrols
and when putting off/ out fire when it out breaks.

2. Over exploitation: - Forest conservation measures such as afforestation are

carried out to avoid forest depletion.
3. Relief: - Chain wheeled trucks are being used to move easily both up and
down the steep slopes.
4. Cold winters: - Areas in higher and cooler altitudes are logged in summer
when the roads are free from snow. This is termed as “log high”. During
winter, logging is caused out in low altitude areas where the roads can be
kept open. This is called “log low”.
5. Labour shortage: - This is basically solved through mechanizing their
operations.
6. Accidents: - Workers are dressed in brightly coloured clothing, head
helmets and they always check their positions before felling.
7. Forest conservation measures such as afforestation are carried out to avoid
forest depletion.
8. Spraying the forests with chemicals to combat pests and diseases.
9. Introduction of quick fast maturing tree species. 7/1/2018

GENERAL IMPORTANCES OF THE FOREST RESOURCES

60
 1. The forest products form the major exports by value, earning the country
valuable foreign exchange. Thus, it adds to the natural income of Canada.
2. They provide employment opportunities to people who work in the forestry
industry.
3. They are a source of raw materials for industries e.g. the paper and pulp
industry.
4. Forests also protect the land against soil erosion from direct falling rains.
5. Trees are reserved in the water catchments areas to protect water
resources especially those which are under ground.
6. Forests are natural habitats for millions of small as well as large animals and
bird species.
7. Forests have provided a beautiful scenery thereby attracting tourists. These
bring in foreign exchange.
8. Forests are sources of valuable medicine.
9. Forests improve the climate of the surrounding areas through a process
known as evapotranspiration thus, releasing too much water vapour into
the atmosphere.
10.Forests are very important areas for scientific studies e.g. zoology (study of
animals) and botany (study of plants), for both animals and plants are
found in forests.
11.Forests provide posts and poles for building purposes.
12.Forests have led to the development of social infrastructures particular
transport routes and power generation plants.

THE EXPLOITATION OF WATER RESOURCES IN BRITISH COLUMBIA

Water as a natural resource in British Columbia, has been exploited in different
ways for different purposes.

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A SKETCH MAP OF BRITSH COLUMBIA SHOWING RIVERS AND PORTS

61
Fishing grounds in British Columbia are divided into two categories: -

(a) Fresh water fishing grounds: - These are mainly rivers and lakes which are
referred to as the fresh water fishing grounds.
(b) Marine fishing grounds: - These are mainly large water bodies. The type
of fishing is referred to as marine fishing. For the sake of British Columbia,
it’s concentrated in the Pacific Ocean especially along the coast and
contributes the largest catch.
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Classifications of fish in British Columbia

62
Fish in British Columbia is classified/ categorized four types; Pelagic, Dermasal,
Anadromous, Crustaceous.

(b) PELAGIC FISH: - This type of fish live and breed in the sea (usually at a
depth of about) very near to the surface. They move together in a
collection commonly called schools.

Species which fall in this category include,

Herrings
Mackerels
Sardines
Tuna

Pelagic fish are caught using Gill nets and purse – seining methods, because
they live near the surface.

Gill Net Methods, Fishing vessels called drifters are used to carry the Gill
Nets to places where fish are known to collect.

The Gill Nets are then stretched in water by use of floaters on their tops
and weights balance the nets. Fish are caught by their gills in the nets.
When fish are

Purse-seining methods, this method is also used in catching Pelagic fish

fairly large fishing vessels carry nets which are fitted with floaters on their
top and weight at their bottom.

The net which is lowered in the water is pulled in a circular shape/ form/
way so as to close the circular bottom of the net in which the fish are
directed.

The ropes used are then drawn to a stationary boat/ vessel, forcing the fish
into the center of the net. By closing the bottom with a draw string, the fish
are prevented from escaping beneath the net.
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Fishermen then pull the nets into their fishing vessels and remove the fish
from the nets by hands.

63
(c) DEMERSAL FISH: - This type live and breed at a depth of about 200m.
species include,
- Halibut
- Cod
- Haddock

This class of fish is caught using the trashing method. Thus, a boat/ vessel
called a trawler.

The net used is called a trawl net which is usually cone shaped, whose
mouth is kept open.

The mouth has floats at the top and weights at the bottom. The net is made
stronger when fish are caught. It’s then dragged along the sea floor by the
trawler.

(d) ANADROMOUS FISH: - These lived deep in ocean waters, but breed in fresh
waters. Species include, the SALMON, which is the most important specie
of British Columbia.
It matures between 5 – 7 years. At this age it stops feeding and swims up
stream to breed in the coastal rivers. They are caught mainly using traps.
It’s easy for the fish to enter, but difficult for it to get out.

(e) CRUSTACEOUS FISH: -These are not actually fish, but sea animals with
external skeletons. They are sometimes referred to as shell fish. They
include,

- Oysters
- Crabs
- Lobsters
- Prawns

These are caught using traps and marine divers. Traps are made of baskets
with openings which only allow fish to enter but not to come out of it.
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Inside the fish trap, placed bait which attracts fish.

64
FACTORS THAT HAVE FAVOURED THE DEVELOPMENT OF FISHING IN BRITISH
COLUMBIA
1. Presence of warm and cold ocean currents meet creating ideal conditions
of the growth of planktons which fish feeds on.
2. Abundance of fish species which are of commercial importance.
3. British Columbia is blessed with good natural harbor along her coast. This
encourages the landing of boats and ships (fishing vessels).
4. Availability of timber for making the fishing vessels. Some timber is also
used for smoking fish.
5. Presence of settlements near the coast, hence the availability of labour to
work in the fishing industry.
6. The availability of developed of the modern methods of catching fish such
as purse-seining and trawling which enable large amounts/ quantities of
fish to be caught.
7. Presence of adequate capital, thereby bringing in expensive fishing
equipment’s of high technology. These include, use of refrigerated vessels.
8. Availability of Efficient transport network connecting the fishing grounds to
market centers, so that fish is easily disposed off because it’s perishable.
9. Availability of Improved modern preservation facilities so that fish can be
stored for longer periods. Methods of preservation include, freezing,
canning, refrigeration and smoking.
10.Presence of modern fish conservation methods, this is a process of keeping
fish such that they are not depleted from fishing grounds.

Conservation has mainly been through;

(i) Fish farming
(ii) Hatching of fish in special ponds called hatcheries. This young fish is
then put in water to mature.
(iii) Total ban thus when it’s noticed that a particular type of fish is getting
depleted from a particular fishing ground, they stop fishing there.
(iv) Restricting the size of nets.

11.The existence of a large market both internally and externally e.g. the
external market is maintained by the high demand for certain species like
the Salmon.
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12.Long experience in fishing.

13.The coasts are ice free. So, fishing can take place all the year through.

65
 14.Government policy through putting in place ideal conditions aimed at
promoting fishing.

PROBLEMS AFFECTING THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE FISHING INDUSTRY

1. There’s danger of catching more fish than they can replace themselves
naturally. Thus, leading to extinction of some species. This has been due to;
- Lack of proper restrictions.
- Introduction of bigger and stronger ships for fishing.
- Better fishing equipment like refrigerated ships etc.

2. Pollution of the coastal waters by damping industrial wastes into the water.
These wastes contain poisonous chemicals which do not only kill fish or
render them unfit for human consumption, but also make fish migrate from
their good natural habitat to unfavourable areas. Such areas may be
unfavourable because they may lack adequate food for the fish, unsuitable
breeding places etc.
3. Seasonally: - this dictate to fishermen in that at certain periods particular
fishing grounds may be well blessed with fish, but this same fishing ground
may have few fish at another period.
4. Limited home market due to low population.
5. Competition from other fishing countries like Norway and Japan.
6. The international restrictions which do not allow fishing beyond 200 miles
from the coast.
7. Shortage of skilled labour due to the small population and due to the fact
that most people are employed in the forestry industry.
8. Tidal changes affect fishing. At low and high tides water levels are changed
affecting different types of fish.

Possible solutions to the above problems

1. Industrial wastes should be treated and properly disposed in order to
control pollution.
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66
 2. Fish farming has been introduced in British Columbia. There are special
ponds which serve as hatcheries. Once hatched, the young fish called fry
are then placed in rivers, lakes and oceans to mature.
3. Fishing can also be controlled through licensing fishermen.
4. International agreement controls have been imposed on the fishing
seasons and volume of fish caught in a season e.g. Salmon was exposed to
the danger of extinction. So, USA and Canada formed a commission in
1930, for its control. This commission is called the International Pacific
Salmon Fisheries.
5. Imposing total bans e.g. in Canada they imposed a ban on catching whales.
6. Exploitation of fish to neighbouring states and countries.
7. Mechanization to solve the shortage of labour.

The importance of the fishing industry to Canada

1. A lot of Foreign exchange is earned when British Columbia exports fish and
fish products.
2. The fishing industry provides many employment opportunities (fishermen,
mongers, industries, transporting).
3. The fishing industry provides a lot of income to the local people like the
fishermen.
4. Fish is a source of food which is rich in proteins and helps to improve on
people’s diet.
5. Fishing has stimulated the growth of many industries and urban centers
along the coast.
6. Because of the high incomes obtained from the industry, the people’s
standards of living have greatly improved.
7. The industry is a source of government income, industries bring in a lot of
revenue through taxes imposed.
8. The industry is a source of raw material to the fish processing many
industries e.g. at Vancouver.
9. It facilitates improvement in international relationships between the
producing countries and the consuming countries.
10.It can be used as a means to diversify the economy from dependence on
forestry.
11.It facilitates the development of important infrastructures e.g. roads,
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training institutions, markets for fish etc.

12.From fish other valuable commodities can be processed e.g.

67
 (i) Fertilizers
(ii) Animal feeds
(iii) Cooking oil
(iv) Cosmetics

AGRICULTURE IN BRITISH COLUMBIA

Only 1% of British Columbia is used for crop growing which is about ……….km2.
Other land available for agricultural activities is only 4% about ……. km2
Main types of agriculture

1. Arable farming especially the growing of fruits such as plums, apples,

peaches on fertile valley soils which are sheltered and have warm sunny
summers.
2. Dairy and mixed farming near towns in better watered and more fertile
valleys and coastal low lands especially in South West Vancouver.
3. Ranching: - beef cattle and sheep are reared on large ranches on the
grasses of the dry interior plateau and sheltered valleys.

Why agriculture is of less importance

1. Most of the landscape is mountainous and rugged. Thus, hindering
agricultural activities.
2. Most of the landscape is covered by glaciers and temperatures are too low
to favour agriculture.
3. The interior plateau has insufficient rainfall and it necessitates irrigation.
4. British Columbia is generally covered by the infertile soils which discourage
agriculture.
5. British Columbia has a low population, hence the demand for agricultural
products being low.
6. Most of the land is covered by forests making forestry the most important
activity.
7. Poorly developed transport routes making many areas being remote and
cut off.
8. Frequent occurrences of frost which prevents crops from maturing and
bearing fruits.
9. Most people are employed in lumbering, fishing and mining.
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The barren Rocky Mountains and glaciers

68
These cover 56% of the total land area of British Columbia. However, these can be
utilized in any of these ways;
(a) Their scenery beauty attracts tourists who bring in foreign exchange to the
country.
(b) The rocky areas contain minerals. Mining is therefore a vital economic
activity. The most important minerals are;
(i) lead (silver and zinc)
(ii) natural gas and oil

(c) The areas are important sources of rivers which can be used to generate
hydroelectric power.
(d) Quarrying of stones for building purposes and road constructions.
(e) Conservation of wildlife.
(f) The areas are also good for winter sports.

The ports of British Columbia

British Columbia mainly use the ports of Prince Rupert and Vancouver. However,
port Vancouver is the most important and leading port. It’s growth has been due
to;

(b) The presence of deep waters.

(c) The presence of a natural harbour
(d) A well sheltered habour.
(e) The development of fishing activities which have always kept it busy.
(f) The availability of forests clearly giving rise to the ship building industry.
(g) Availability of hydroelectric power.
(h) Well-developed transport routes by roads, water, railway and air.
(i) Development of industries such as timber based industries, fish canning
and metal smelting.

Problems facing Vancouver as a port

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69
 1. It’s location on the Pacific coast makes it far from the major consumer
centers like Europe.
2. It handles large quantities of goods which often leads to congestion.
3. Poor visibility due to fog which affects transport.
4. The port is poorly connected to the hinter land because of the rugged
terrain. There’s only use of river and railway, hence poor links with in the
interior.

REVISION QUESIONS

i) Suggest ways in which barren Rocky Mountains and glaciers can

be utilized by man.
ii) Explain why agriculture is not an important activity in British
Columbia.
iii) Give reasons why pulp and paper industries have developed more
around Vancouver than in other places.
iv) Explain the problems facing Vancouver as a port.

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CALIFONIA

70
 THE DEVELOPMENT OF A SEMI-ARID AREA
California is found in south western part of U.S.A, it is located between 35 0-420N
and1150-1230W. California is bordered by the Pacific Ocean to the west, Oregon
State to the North, Nevada to the East and Mexico is the South. (Map).

A SKETCH MAP OF CALIFONIA SHOWING PHYSICALNREGIONS OF CALIFONIA

RELIEF; The relief of California varies greatly from highlands in the east and west
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to a broad and flat central valley in the center. The relief of California can be
divided into three broad divisions.
71
 a) The coastal ranges.
These consist of a parallel chain of fold, Mountains rising form the
Pacific Ocean towards the East.
b) The Sierra Nevada mountains.
These are found in the eastern part of the country running from
North to south. The Sierra Nevada Mountains Merge with the coastal
range south of Bakers field.
c) The central valley. This is a broad area which lies between the Coast
Ranges and the sierra-Nevada Mountains, the valley floor is generally flat covered
with deposited Material mainly made up of silt and gravel.

CLIMATE; California has a contrasting climate. Heavy rainfall is received on the

slopes of the coastal ranges and Sierra Nevada Mountains, the central valley
receives Mediterranean climate i.e. Mild winters and hot summers, while
southern California receives desert climate with warm winters and hot summers.
VEGETATION: The vegetation of California varies from forests on the mountains
slopes, grassland in the lower slopes and complete desert vegetation in the south.
SOILS: California has a variety of soils; the central valley has deep rich fertile
alluvial soils resulting from the deposition of silt while on mountains slopes thin
soils exist due to high rates of erosion.

DRAINAGE: California is drained by two large rivers namely river Sacrament in the
north and San-Joaquin in the south. The San Joaquin valley has fertile soils and
twice as much irrigable land as the Sacramento valley and yet the San Joaquin
River carries only half as much water as the Sacramento River.

POPULATION: The population of California is mainly centered in urban area

especially in the cities such as Los Angeles and San-Francisco. The rural areas are
sparsely populated.

AGRICULTURE IN CALIFORNIA
Agriculture is the growing of crops and the keeping of animals. In
California agriculture
Is mainly carried out in the central valley.
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MARKET GARDENING

72
 This type of farming is mainly practiced in urban centers it is also called
truck farming

Main characteristics of Californian agriculture (Market Gardening)

1. It is mainly irrigation farming. Water is being pumped from dams across
rivers by means of canals and aqueducts.
2. It is highly specialized involving the growing of fruits and vegetables for
sale.
3. Products have high demand especially in the urban centers.
4. It is mainly mechanized. i.e. there is high use of machinery in the gardens.
5. The crops are intensively cultivated on small pieces of land with very high
productivity.
6. Crops produced are sold while still fresh.
7. A lot of capital is used in market gardening.
8. Fertilizers and manure are applied to improve on soil fertility.

FARMING IN THE CENTRAL VALLEY

The central valley of California receives250-500mm of rainfall per annum this is
not enough for most crops. Farms are large and intensively farmed giving rise to
high yields.
Factors that favor Market gardening in the central valley
1. Availability of fertile alluvial soils deposited from the mountain region.
2. The presence of a gently sloping relief made irrigation and mechanization
possible.
3. Availability of vast quantities of water for irrigation from river Sacramento
and San Joaquin.
4. Availability favorable climate with mild warm wet winters encouraged the
growth of crops.
5. Availability of ready market from the industrial cities of Los Angeles and San
Francesco, and also from other states of America.
6. Availability of efficient transport system by roads, canals, air and railways
mainly used for transporting the agricultural Products to the markets.
7. Availability of adequate capital from the federal government for setting up
irrigation projects.
8. Availability of skilled labour used in the growing of fruits.
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9. Presence of underground water from wells helps provide water for

irrigation even during the dry season.

73
10. Presence of High levels of technology used in the construction of dams,
canals and aqueducts to provide water for irrigation.

Contribution of market gardening to the people of California

1. Source of food to the people like fruits and vegetables.
2. Source of foreign exchange through exportation of market gardening
products.
3. Source or raw materials to the agro based industries.
4. Market gardening has provided employment to the people of California.
5. It is a source of market for industrial products especially industries
producing agricultural machinery.
6. It has promoted the development of infrastructure like roads, canals and
power plants.
7. It has promoted international relationship with countries that buy market
gardening products.
8. Market gardening has led to the improvement of the standards of living of
farmers though increased incomes.

Crops grown
1. Fruits: Fruit growing is one of the important successful activities in the
irrigated lands in California, the large fruit farms in California are referred
to as fruit ranches. The major fruits grown include lemons, grapes, oranges,
plums, strawberries, prunes, avocados and melons. The major areas include
Bakersfield, Sonoma valley, San Joaquin valley and Sacramento valley.
2. Vegetables: The vegetables grown include tomatoes, carrots, onions and
cabbages. The growing of fruits and vegetables for sale is termed market
gardening. Vegetables are mainly grown in the Central, Imperial and Salinas
valleys.
3. Cereals: The cereals grown include rice, wheat and maize.
4. Fiber crops: Cotton is one of the most important fiber crops it is mainly
grown in southern California.
5. Fodder crops: These are grown for livestock feeding e.g. hay and alfalfa.

N.B. Truck farming involves the intensive production of vegetables fruits and
flowers and the distribution of the crops is done by road and rail over long
distances.
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WATER TRANSFER SHCEME IN CALIFORNIA

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Due to continuous and serious problems of aridity water transfer scheme was
established charged with transferring water from the north to the south which
was more arid.
In order to achieve the above objectives, dams there constructed to hold the
water in the reservoirs among the dams built were Shasta dam, Hoover dam,
imperial dam, Friant dam etc. The outstanding canals constructed to transfer the
water from the reservoirs to the farmland include, Delta Mendota canal, imperial
canal and the all-American canal. Channels aqueducts were also constructed in
order to help in the distribution of water from the canals.

Main Dams in California

1. Shasta dam: this stores water and control floods on river
Sacremento.it is also used to generate HEP.
2. Keswick dam: The main purpose of dam is to regulate the flow of
river Sacramento and provide water for irrigation.
3. Friant dam: This was constructed to store and supply water for
irrigation.

Irrigated areas in south California

1. The Imperial Valley. The hoover and imperial dams were constructed
on river Colorado to store water for irrigation in southern California.
The “all American canal” carries water from R. Colorado at the
imperial dam to the Imperial Valley. The crops grown in this region
include: - lettuce, cabbages, tomatoes, cotton and alfalfa as a fodder
crop. The total area under irrigation is 320,000 ha.
2. The Coachella valley: the Coachella canal carries water from the “all
American canal” to the Coachella valley. The crops grown include,
palms, vegetables etc. the total area under irrigation is 21,000
hectares.

Problems faced by farmers in the central valley.

1. Low rainfall which has resulted into shortage of water in the central valley.
2. The arid climate has led to high evaporation rates which have resulted into soil
becoming saline. Besides the rivers have become less powerful at the mouth,
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therefore sea water is penetrating the land making the soils at the river
movement salty.
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 3. High costs of building dams, canals and aqueducts.
4. Pests and diseases like curly leaf and short hole destroy the plants.
5. Silting of reservoirs and canals making maintenance costs high.
6. Depletion of water from rivers, some water in some rivers has been used up so
that the rivers have remained dry valleys.
7. Rapid multiplication of weeds in the hot irrigated lands which compete with the
crops.
8. Competition with organically cultivated crops and other market gardening
countries and states.
9. Frost that affects the crops leading to poor yields.
10. Price fluctuation in the world market.
Possible solutions
1. Irrigation of land using water from river Sacramento and river San Joaquin.
2. Use of pesticides/ insecticides for control of pests and diseases.
3. Labour shortage is being solved by mechanizing agriculture.
4. Use of intensive farming to solve the problem of shortage of land. Besides the high
returns from
intensive farming offsets the high costs of irrigation.
5. Dredging of canals and reservoirs to solve the problem of silting.
6. Organization of farmer into cooperatives to enable them get the farm input an
loans.
7. Application of better storage facilities. E.g. cold rooms, refrigerated trucks etc.
8. Use of glass houses to control temperature and avoid salivation.

Problems associated with irrigation in the central valley.

1. It has encouraged the spread of water borne diseases such as bilharzia in the
central valley and
Mojave Desert.
2. Irrigation has caused salinity of soils due to excessive evaporation.
3. It has led to increased siltation of river Sacramento and Sanjaoquin. This has
affected aquatic life.
4. Soil exhaustion because of overuse of soil this led to a decline in production of the
central valley.
5. The use of farm chemicals, fertilizers and pesticides has led to pollution on rivers
Sacramento and San Joaquin creating health problems.
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6. Irrigation has encouraged the spread of water weeds such as rhizomes in the
Central valley.

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7. Fluctuation of water levels along river Sacramento and San Joaquin during the
dry season leading to crop failure resulting into low yields.
8. High costs of maintaining and running the irrigation projects especially the
dredging of canals to remove the silt.

INDUSTRY IN CALIFORNIA
A wide range of industries exist in California these include: oil refining, ship
building, automobile, electrical, food processing, textile etc. The main
industrial centers in California are:
1. San Francisco. The industries in this town include: food processing,
textile, iron and steel, electrical, film making, ship building, automobile,
oil refining, Chemical and production of aircraft.
2. Los Angeles. The main industries in this city include: food processing,
aircraft manufacture, automobile, tourism, film making, agricultural
machinery, oil refining, ship building, iron and steel, chemical, electrical
and textile.
3. San Diego. This is located in the south west of California. The main
industries found in this town include: air craft engineering, food
processing, ship building, oil refining, electrical, automobile, aircraft
manufacture and chemical.

Factors that have favoured industrial growth in California

1. Availability of large volumes of HEP from rivers Sacramento which is used for
running the industries.
2. Availability of a large market for industrial products both in USA and other parts
of the country.
3. Presence of adequate supplies of raw materials especially from the agricultural
sector used in the food processing industries and oil used in the chemical
industry.
4. Existence of efficient transport network in form of electrified railway network,
roads and air for transportation of raw materials and final products.
5. Availability of adequate capital from the United States government and foreign
investors to inject in the various industries.
6. Existence of high levels of technology and research has facilitated industrial
development.
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7. Presence of political stability in California has provided a suitable climate and

confidence to investors in the industrial sector of California.

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8. Existence of a wide variety of scenery including deserts, mountains, glaciers and
forests has promoted the development of both the film and the tourist industry.
9. Availability of skilled labour from the local people and foreigners in form of
engineers has led to the development of industries.

10. Availability of reliable supply of water from river Colorado and Sacramento used
for cleaning and cooling machines.

Contribution of the industrial sector to the development of California

1. The industrial sector provides employment to hundreds of thousands of
Americans and migrant workers who are employed in the various industries like
the ship building, oil refining, film and car manufacture.
2. The industrial sector has led to the development of infrastructure like airports,
roads, electrified railway, bridges and power stations.
3. Industrial sector is a source of foreign exchange from the export of industrial
products like planes, computers, movies etc.
4. The industrial sector has led to the development of towns and ports like San
Francisco and Los Angeles.
5. Industrial development has promoted diversification of the economy thus
reducing reliance of agriculture, tourism and international trade.
6. It has led to improvement in the standard of living through earning sizable
incomes.
7. Industrialisation has promoted international relationships with other states in
USA Africa and
Europe.
8. Industrial development has promoted self-sufficiency thus reducing reliance on
foreign products hence reducing foreign exchange outflow.
9. It is a source of tax revenue which is used for providing social services.
10. It has led to the acquisition of skills by the people employed in industries like the
oil refineries,
air craft industry and the food processing industries.

Problems resulting from industrial development in California

1. Air and water pollution due to industrial smoke and waste leading to the problem
of diseases.
2. Traffic congestion leading to delays in the transportation of industrial raw
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materials and finished products.

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3. High costs of living due to high rates of Urbanisation, this has resulted to low
standards of living.
4. Inadequate water supply due to the increased population.
5. Industrialisation has led to overcrowding in the region.

Effects of industry on environment in California

1. Source of employment opportunities to the local population that has improved
their standard
of living.
2. Source of income to the income to the local people through wages improving
their standards
of living.
3. Generation of foreign exchange to the government through taxation and
exportation of
industrial products to the other countries to provide social services.
4. Promoted international relationships between Egypt and Britain, Japan, and the
European
countries.
5. Provision of market for agricultural and mining sectors that improve standards
if living of the
local people.
6. Development of infrastructures such as roads, railways, schools, entertainment
centers, etc.
7. Development of urban centers like industrial centers e.g. Alexandria, Cairo, Port
Said, etc.
8. Led to diversification of the economy to reduce over dependency on one
sector like irrigation
farming.
9. It has led to educational research for students and researchers to promote
development of
various sectors of the economy.

THE FILM INDUSTRY IN CALIFORNIA

The film industry is one of is most development industries in California.
California has developed film industry because of the following factors.
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1. The mild climate encourages outdoor activities all year round. Besides, the arid
climate of
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 southern California provides plenty of sunshine for clear pictures.
2. Presence of a beautiful scenery ranging From Mountains, to plain, forests and
desert.
3. Availability of adequate capital to inject in the development of the file industry.
4. Availability of market for films within and outside California.
5. Political stability of California has attracted investment In the film industry.
6. Presence of a well-developed transport and communication network has
enabled easy movement to and from the filming sites.
7. Availability of skilled labour to direct and act movies

Qsn: Explain the importance of the tourist industry to the people of California

1. It has led to the protection of the environment that is flora and fauna for future
generation
2. It has led to the development of infrastructure like roads, railway, hospital, and
museums.
3. Urbanisation has led to growth of towns in order to bring closer to the people
social services.
4. promotion of international relations leading to more trading opportunities.
5. Led to advertisement of local industries to the outside world leading to expansion
of foreign market.
6. Provided an alternative use of wastelands making it productive through tourism
industry.
7. Source of foreign exchange to government to develop other sectors of the
economy.
8. Created employment opportunities leading to better standards of living.
9. Has created market for agricultural and industrial commodities.

QSN: Suggest ways /measures being taken to promote the tourist industry in
California

1. Control pollution of air water and land areas rich in tourism.

2. Maintain security of life and property.
3. Intensify on local and international advertisement of the tourism industry.
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4. Diversification of tourist attractions.

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5. Increasing accessibility of remote areas by cable cars, building tunnels,
modification of highways.
6. joint ventures with neighboring countries like Canada to develop tourist sites in
the Rockies where there are trans- boundary tourist attractions.
7. Promoting foreign relations with other countries to widen market.
8. Training of labour to improve on the standards of services to the tourists.

NEW ENGLAND
to the six states of the north eastern United States namely, Maine, New
Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut. The region
is bordered in the west by New York states, in the north by Canada, in the west by
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the Atlantic Ocean, and in the South by long island sound.

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 A SKETCH MAP OF NEW ENGLAND SHOWING STATES AND TOWNS

Factors that led to the decline of traditional industries in New England or factors
that led to shifting of industries from old to new industrial regions

Qn: Describe the factors that led to the decline of traditional industries in New
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England

82
1. Exhaustion of raw materials e.g. forests used in the ship building and the
saw mill industry were depleted.

2. Industrial owners moved elsewhere to search for better conditions and

higher profits.

3. Competition from other industries producing similar goods.

4. High wage rate demanded by workers discouraged industrialists.

5. The industrial buildings had become too old and therefore had to be
abandoned.

6. The industrial machinery used was outdated and less efficient.

7. Shortage of cotton as a raw material for industries in the old industrial belt.

8. There was need to move closer to new markets after the shift of new
England gravity in terms of markets and population.

9. Search for new sources of energy e.g. H.E.P after depletion of coal and oil in
the old industrial region.

10. high costs of transport most of the raw materials in old industrial region
were imported and this was quite expensive.

11. impact of industrial revolution in western Europe affected the sector.

12. In human working conditions in the old mills e.g. low wages which were not
attractive to workers therefore they moved to new industries in search for
better paying jobs

Today New England has new industries these are light industries using light
raw materials, and light power to produce light goods but of high economic
value e.g. cameras, microscopes, books, watches, refrigerators, jewelry,
and electronic equipment.
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A MAP OF NEW ENGLAND SHOWING INDUSTRIAL CENTRES AND MAJOR TOWNS
IN NEW ENGLAND.

Major Industrial centers

1. Boston; This is found in Massachusetts, the city has industries producing

electronics, computers, office machinery, communications equipment,
printing and publishing, textiles, ship building etc.
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2. New Bedford; This is also found in Massachusetts; the major industries
include electric

equipment, foot wear, textile and food processing.

3. Hartford; This is found in Connecticut and industries include aerospace

equipment,

industrial machinery, and firearms.

4. Holyoke; This is found in Massachusetts the industries found in this town

include those

manufacturing textiles, paper, printed materials, electrical machinery,

metal and

chemicals.

5. Burlington; This is found in Vermont the major products manufactured

include

electronic equipment, steel and wood items, pharmaceuticals and

textiles.

Types of Industries

 Printing and publishing

 Textile
 Chemical Industries
 Ship building industry

Factors that favored the development of new industries in New England

Qn: Describe the factors that favored the development of new industries in New
England
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1. The need to have new industries as old industries were being phased out.

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2. Availability of modern Hydroelectric power stations which provided ample
power for use in industries.

3. Availability of reliable domestic and foreign market which supported large

industrial establishment.

4. Availability of large pieces of land for establishment of industries.

5. Presence of highly skilled labor force to work in industries.

6. Availability of high-quality production of goods with high value that

favourable compete with goods from other manufacturers.

7. Presence of better working conditions amongst workers and surrounding

communities.

8. Availability of adequate capital to invest in industrial development.

9. Availability of a well-developed transport system of road, rail, water and air

that facilitates movement of goods and raw materials.

Problems faced by industries in New England

Qn: Outline the problems faced by industries in New England

1. High labour costs due to shortage of labour force.

2. Competition for raw materials since industries are many.

3. Competition for market with other producers.

4. Congestion in the industrial cities creating a problem of difficulty in moving

the raw materials to industries and final products to markets...

5. Shortage of raw materials for use by industries has limited production.

6. The Appalachian Mountains create transport problems.

7. Hash weather conditions which discouraged workers from coming to work

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in New England this reduced and quantity produced.

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8. Changing demand patterns in the textile industry and cotton as a fiber was
rivaled by synthesis like rayon and nylon. This brought down production of
cotton.

9. Rising wages due too high labour demands unionized workers demands as
high as U$1000.

10. Conservatism of the workers and employers and lack of flexibility

11. Farms were operating under capacity, therefore not making profits.

How industries adapted to changes

 By diversifying to new products

 Changing machinery
 Retraining labour.
 Shifting to new areas.

Steps being taken to solve the above problems

1. Relocation of industries to reduce congestion.

2. Relocation of industries to where labour costs are cheaper.

3. Introduction of raw material saving technology to overcome shortage of

raw materials.

4. Market research has been carried out to increase the market for industrial
products.

5. Use of capital-intensive techniques of production to solve the problem of

labour shortage.

Benefits of industrial development New England

1. Generation of employment opportunities to thousands of people thus

improving thus standards of living.
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2. Generation of foreign exchange form industrial exports which has enabled
the development of the industrial sector.

3. Development of a skilled labour force which is require to run the operating

the machines in order to produce the goods.

4. Improved living conditions of the workers due to high incomes.

5. Development of infrastructure e.g. roads, railways and power stations

which has been used to collect flowers to different places.

6. Growth of urban center e.g. Boston Which provide modern social services.

7. Development of research institutions this has promoted new discoveries.

8. Generation of revenue to government through taxes imposed on industries.

Environmental problems resulting from the establishment of industries in new

England.

 Pollution of water and air through disposal of industrial wastes and

emissions of toxic fumes in the air.
 Increased accidents due poor visibility in the great lakes
 Traffic congestion at the ports during loading and offloading of this
leads to delays at the locks
 Removal of top soil by mining of minerals leading to decline in soil
production.
 Decline of the water table due to massive excavation of minerals for
industrial use as raw materials this led to a decline in water surface
flow.
 Displacement of people to create space for industrial expansion and
farm lands.
 Shortage of land for agriculture due to increase in expansion of
industries and related infrastructure.
 It has led to urbanization and its related problems like development
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of slums unemployment.

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  Deforestation due to urgent need for more the land for the
establishment of industries. This led to exposure of the soils
especially in highland areas resulting into mass wasting.
AGRICULTURE IN NEW ENGLAND

From colonial times until the early 19th century, agriculture was the principle
economic activity in New England. Today the proportion of the labour force
engaged in agriculture has dropped drastically though the sector plays an
important role in the economy. Dairy farming and growing of crops like tobacco,
fruits, potatoes and vegetables takes place. Fruits and vegetables are mainly
grown in Rhode Island, potatoes are grown in Maine, and tobacco is mainly grown
in Connecticut, while dairy farming is mainly carried out in Vermont and New
Hampshire.

Factors which have favoured agricultural activities in New England

1. Presence of well drained fertile soils which have encouraged the growing of
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crops.

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2. Availability of ample rainfall received by the region for growing the crops.

3. presence of warm summers favouring the ripening and harvesting of crops.

4. Availability of skilled labour to work in the gardens.

5. Availability of a large market base within USA and other countries in Europe
has made agriculture profitable. i.e. earning the region more revenue.

6. Availability of adequate capital from the private investors to set up modern

farms e.g. Application of fertilizers to enrich the soils and establishment of
green houses.

7. Presence of high level of technology e.g. use of greenhouses this has

ensured high quality production.

8. Availability of Intensive research carried out has yielded fast growing and
resistant crop breeds.

9. Presence of favourable government policy of supporting the agricultural

sector through incentives and financial support to farmers.

10. The availability of a gently sloping topography that supports mechanization.

11. Presence of Industrialised urban centers encourage transfer of knowledge

and technology and introduction of new agricultural inputs.

Contribution of the agricultural sector to the development of New England

1. The agricultural sector is a source of food for the population.

2. It is a source of raw materials for ago based industries e.g. tobacco and
fruits.

3. The agricultural sector is a source of employment to a number of people

who earn income.
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4. It has diversified the economy of New England. This has reduced
dependency on other economic activities like tourism, fishing and
manufacturing.

5. The agricultural sector has provided incomes to the people thus improving
their standards of living.

6. Exports of agricultural products from New England have earned foreign

exchange.

7. The agricultural sector is a source of revenue through taxing famers and

associated traders.

8. It has stimulated the development of infrastructure like roads and railways.

9. The agricultural sector has led to the development of towns and urban
centers having industries dealing in processing agricultural commodities.

10. It provides market for industrial output such as fertilizers, machinery, etc.

Problems faced by farmers in New England

1. Poor soils e.g. rocky soils make much of Maine and New Hampshire
unsuitable for agriculture.

2. Short growing seasons as a bigger part of the year is affected by winter

which limits the growing season for crops.

3. Fluctuation in the market prices of the products hence affecting the

incomes farmers.

4. Presence of hardwood forest which are difficult to clear this makes

cultivation expensive.

5. Rugged mountainous relief consisting of Appalachian and other mountains

limits mechanization.
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6. Pests and diseases which destroy the crops and thus reduce on farmers’
income.

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7. Agriculture is capital intensive and requires a lot of capital.

9. Pollution of soils reduces on its productivity and eventually affecting the

output of the farmer.

10. Shortage of skilled and semi-skilled labour to work on the farms due to
better paying jobs in industry and services sectors

Steps taken to improve agriculture in New England

1. Soil conservation through mulching, contour ploughing and mulching to

overcome soil erosion.

2. Application of fertilizers to improve soil fertility.

3. Undertaking research for better yields and market.

4. Introduction of scientific methods of production e.g. use of green houses.

5. Improvement in efficiency of transport through better roads and railway

systems.

6. improved storage and preservation methods.

7. Diversify agriculture with crops that may be canned or frozen, such as peas
and broccoli to reduce the effects of price fluctuations.

8. Mechanization to solve the problem of labour shortage.

New Agricultural changes that have taken place in New England

 Agricultural revolution through technology advances were purposeful

selective breeding of livestock began in the early 1700, the spreading
of the lime on soils on farm lands in the 1700
 Mechanical improvement in the traditional wooden plough began in
the mid 1600 with small points fastened
 Invention of a seed drill by an English man Jethro Tull. In the 1700. A
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horse driven cultivator grain and grass cutter rakes and corn Sheller’s.

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  Adoption of science and technology for industrial purposes in
Agriculture which resulted in Agro-bussines of the mid-20 th century.
 In the 17th and 18th centuries a systematic study to control pests was
made, before this handpicking and spraying were used to control
pests
 In the 19th century poisons of various kinds were developed to be
used in sprays to control pests. Biological control was also adopted
e.g. use of predator insects
 Improvement in transport positively affected agriculture. Roads,
canals, railways, all enabled farmers to move their crops to market
centers.
 Food preservation during transit was greatly improved as a result of
rail/ ship and refrigeration developments in the late 2oth century.
 Specialisation in dairying making cheese and butter etc.
 The coming of the green revolution which involved
(I) selective breeding of traditional crops for high yields.
(II) Intensive cultivation methods adapted to the climate
(III) Worldwide shortage of petroleum in the mid-1970s’, which affected
he production of nitrogen fertilizers which was essential for
production of new varieties.

URBANISATION IN NEW ENGLAND

The modern urban centers of New England are Rhode Island Worcester
Massachusetts, Bridgeport, Newhaven, Connecticut, Manchester and Hampshire.

Factors that have favored/influenced the development of towns in New England

region.
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QSN: Describe the factors that have influenced the development of towns in
New England

 Availability of a developed of education sector in New England with the

oldest and renowned learning institutions of higher education and research
institutions in North America.
 Availability of Increasing number of immigrants from western Europe, the
Caribbean states and African who settled permanently in the major cities.
 The expansion of urban centers in the neighborhood of New York city had
become an important economic influence especially over states like
Connecticut due to industrialization
 The growth and development of industries both old and new also
attributed to the growth of urban centers accelerated growth of cities like
Boston.
 Presence of raw materials such as agricultural raw materials or mineral
resources.
 Presence of economic activities such as trade and commerce attract
settlement in the area.
 Availability of social services like health facilities, banking institutions,
sanitation, Education and others.
 Accessibility by road rail or rail e.g. this area has ports like Boston,
Newhaven, Stamford and Portsmouth.

Functions of cities (a case study of Boston City)

QSN: Explain the functions of Boston city

Boston city was founded on the Shawmut peninsula by puritan settlers from
England, below are the functions of Boston.
 Boston is the regional capital of New England states, this is the economic
and cultural anchor of greater Boston.
 Financial services are offered by Boston in institutions like banking and
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insurances. e.g. Bank of America and Massachusetts mutual life insurance

founded in 1851.

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 It is a technological innovation center i.e. research center, producing
computer software and other electronic products.
 It is a biotechnology center with education centers and institutions.
Massachusetts general hospital.
 Cultural center there many historical cites this has made Boston a
destination of tourists to this area, e.g. Veronica Robles cultural center.
 Hub of transport system for New England i.e. it performs the transport
function this helps to connect the country to other regions. It has a network
of express highways that enter the city from the north. Airports to exist e.g.
Logan International Airport.
 Printing and publishing function i.e., industrial function. Boston is the
leading book publisher in the USA. This started way back the 1639 when
the first printing press was brought to this region. This was made by
Stephen Daye on 25th September 1639.
 Education function Boston boosts of the oldest educational institutions in
the USA, e.g. Harvard University started in 1636 which is the oldest
University in the united states and it has the biggest library in the united
states and Boston Latin school the oldest high school in the Unites States.
 Boston is an important administrative center for the region. Several
national administrative offices and regional offices are located in Boston
e.g. US social security Administration.
 Boston city is a leisure center; it has modern theaters with modern facilities
for entertainment e.g. Broadway-entertainment center, Union Oyster
House and Jacob Wirth are the oldest Opera Houses in the United States.

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