Electronic Systems

EUSS

LESSON 3: SIGNAL CONDITIONING

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

1
 Electronic Systems

ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
 Parts of an electronic system

Inputs Output
(Physical

Power converter
(Physical

conditioning
magnitudes) magnitudes)

Actuators
Sensors

Control
Signal

unit

Desired value
(set point)

Process
under
control
2
ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
 Signal Conditioning
▪ Allows the interconnection between sensors and
their processing system.
▪ Adapts the output signals to the input
characteristics of the processing system.

Electrical Signal Electrical

Signal Conditioning Signal

Resistor that varies between Voltage that varies between

200Ω and 210Ω 0V and 10V

Current between Voltage that varies between

223µA and 423µA -500mV and 1,5V
3
ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
 Conditioning techniques
• Input Variable
Variable frequency.
- Ramp wave generator.
- Digital counter.
- Filters.

Variable duty cycle

- Ramp wave generator.
- Digital counter.
- Filters.

Digital waveform. (Absolute position, relative position ).

- Digital systems.
- Counters.
- Optocouplers

4
ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
 Conditioning techniques
• Input Variable.
Variable resistance.
- Large variation (voltage divider)

- Small variation (resistance bridge) RG-

RG+

E N M
VO=K·F
RG+
RG- VMN VO=K·(P1-P2)
Instrumentation
amplifier
Application circuit
Variable current.
- Proportional voltage conversion.

V M
Rs I

Vs=Rs*I
Vo=k*I 5
ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
 Conditioning techniques RL=f(L)

• Input Variable. 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑡 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡

Variable voltage. Ampl. E
- Voltage amplification. R V Conditioning

- Differential voltage amplification.

RG+
RG-
+ E N M
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑡 Ampl. 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡 VO=K·F
- RG+
RG- VMN VO=K·(P1-P2)
Instrumentation
amplifier

Variable capacity or variable inductance

- AC Bridges.
- Voltage output amplitude proportional to the reactance.
- Proportional frequency.
- Proportional duty cycle.

6
 ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
 Electric signals. Classification.
• Electrical magnitude (voltage or current) which value is time dependent.
• A classification depending on its time evolution can be as follows:
12 30
10
20
8
10
value

value
6
0
4
Time invariant Time variant -10
2

-20
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
time (s)
-30
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
time (s)

Continuous Alternating
vC

t t

Non-periodic Periodic

7
ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
 Electric signals. Classification.
15

10
Period
• They can be: 5

value
• Periodic: A value is repeated 0

every period T. The following expression -5

must be satisfied: -10

-15
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
f (t ) = f (t + T ) time (s)

30

20

• Non-periodic: They do not have a 10

value
repetitive pattern. 0

-10

-20

-30
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
time (s) 8
 ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
 Electric signals. Parameters
• Square wave. • Triangular wave.
20V
V
5V
10V

v 0V

t
-10V

•Exponential wave -20V

2.0ms
V(C1:1)
3.0ms
V(R1:2)
4.0ms 5.0ms 6.0ms 7.0ms 8.0ms

Time

v
•Sawtooth wave
95%
86,5% t
−
63,2%
v(t ) = V − (V − v0 )e  vC
v

t
 2 3 4 t 9
t
ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
 Electric signals. Parameters
• Sinusoidal: Mean value
v
VP
t v = Vp ·sin (·t +  )


v
Vm
v = VDC + Vm ·sin (·t +  )
VDC t
Voltage mean value
 T
1
VDC =  v(t ) dt
T T0
10
ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
 Electric signals. Parameters
• Sinusoidal: Root Mean Square (RMS) value

DC value that gives the same mean power value as that

of a periodic signal.

T
1
=  p(t ) dt
4.0V

Mean power: PDC

3.0V

T 0
2.0V

Since
1.0V

v2 Vef2 T
1 v 2 (t )
R T 0 R
-0.0V

p(t ) = then = dt
-1.0V
R
-2.0V
1.0ms 1.2ms 1.4ms 1.6ms 1.8ms 2.0ms 2.2ms 2.4ms 2.6ms 2.8ms 3.0ms
and therefore
V(VIN) V(U1:OUT)

V P Time

T T
1 1 2
V =  v 2 (t ) dt  Vef =
2
ef  v (t ) dt
T 0 T 0
11
ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
 Root Mean Square (RMS) value examples

v VP v VP
VP Vef = VP Vef =
2 3
t t

Sinusoidal Triangular
v
VP Vef = VP

Square 12
ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM).
TON
s io D= ; 0  D  1 Duty cycle
T
TON
1 TON
Vd vo Vo =
T 
0
vo (t )  dt =
T
Vd = D Vd

TON
1
VoRMS =
T 
0
Vd2 dt = Vd  D
ON OFF
vo

Vd

Vo
• The output voltage average and the RMS
t values are controlled by varying the time
io
during which the switch is turned on TON
Vd / Ro
within the time period T.
Io
t
TON TOFF
T
13
ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM).
TON
s io D= ; 0  D  1 Duty cycle
T
TON
1 TON
Vd vo Vo =
T 
0
vo (t )  dt =
T
Vd = D Vd

TON
1
VoRMS =
T 
0
Vd2 dt = Vd  D
ON OFF
vo
1 1
Vd

Normalized RMS value

Normalized mean value

0.8 0.8
Vo
t 0.6 0.6
io
0.4 0.4
Vd / Ro
0.2 0.2

Io
0 0
t 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
TON TOFF Duty cicle d Duty cicle d

T
14
ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
Vdc

 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM).

Vm Vmm
t

motor DT T 0 DT T
I Im
Id Im Rm Lm Im
Idc

Idv Idc t
M(Nm)
Vd Vm M Idv
N (rpm)

• VmAV=D·Vdc
• E=k·=VmAV-Rm·ImAV
• M=k·Im
• High switching frequency( f=1/T) allows current filtering.
• Lm filters current out. Current becomes almost DC.
• Motor rotates in one direction.

15
ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
 H-bridge DC-DC converter: Bipolar PWM
Vdc
+ +

SW1 SW3 SW1 SW3

Vm Vdc

Vm Vm
t
0 DT T 0 DT T

+ - - + 0
Vmm
Vm
DT T 0 DT T
t
Vdc M Vdc M Vmm
Im Im

SW2 SW4 SW2 SW4

- - VmmAV Vm

Vm AV t
Vdc • VmAV=Vd·(2·D-1)
D
• M=k·Im
• High switching frequency
0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1
• Bidirectional power flow
-Vdc • Motor rotates in both directions
16
ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
 Dependent sources
𝑖𝑖𝑛 𝑡 𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡

𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑡 quadripole 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡

can be classified as follows:

α
Op. Amp. Current sensing

FET BJT

17
ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
 Operational Amplifiers
Essential in most conditioning systems
+VCC
+
- vo
-Vee

18
ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
 Operational Amplifier. Ideal model.

Features: +VCC
+
I+ and I- = 0A
- vo
VO = Ad · (V+ - V-)
-Vee
Ad = ∞ V+ VO

Ri = ∞ Ω ε Ad·ε
V-
RO = 0 Ω

Vee ≤ V+, V- and VO ≤ VCC

If it works as an amplifier V+ = V- . Virtual short circuit

19
ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
 Operational amplifier. Comparator.

If V+ > V- → VO= VCC

0V
If V+ < V- → VO= Vee Vr= 0V
Vo 5V/div

+12 V
Vi 2V/div

1/4 LM324

+
_
Vr= 5V
+ V
o
V
r 0V 0V
V
i

-12 V

Vo 5V/div
Vi 2V/div
20
ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
 Operational amplifier. Comparator example.
Exercise 3.1:
Using a comparator, design a light detection system for the LDR GL7528.
The LDR GL7528 gives 10KΩ at 10Lux & 𝛾 = 0,7.
The system has to give 10V when the light is higher than 20Lux and -10V when the
light is lower than 20Lux.

+12 V
If V+ > V- → VO= VCC
1/4 LM324
If V+ < V- → VO= Vee
+
_
+ V
o
V
r

V
i

-12 V

21
ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
 Operational amplifier. Comparator example.
Potentiometer & (LDR) exercise
Exercise 3.2 :
The following example is used to activate the output signal Vo when the light is
under the level set by the potentiometer.
If we use the same LDR GL7528 as in the previous exercise, what is the range of
light intensity that can be set by the potentiometer?
What is the output voltage range?
Features of GL7528 +12V
Ro = 10KΩ , Lo = 10Lux & 𝛾 = 0,7.
R1
15K
R4

LDR Vcc
U1A

4
R2 V+ 3
+ Vo
15K 1
V- 2
-

11
R5 LM324
R3 5K -Vcc
10K
ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
 Operational Amplifier. Amplification

Inverting Amplifier

R2
Due to the negative feedback
R1

_
v+ = v-
= 0 I R1 = I R 2
+ +
V1 1/4 LM324 Vo
and I −
according to Ohm ' s Law
vi − v− v− − vo
= and because v+ = 0V
R1 R2
GV = −
R2 vi −vo R
=  vo = − 2 vi
R1 R1 R2 R1

Voltage Gain
23
ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
 Operational Amplifier. Amplification

Inverting Amplifier
Vi
R2

R1

_ t
+ +
V1 1/4 LM324 Vo

Vo

R2
GV = − t
R1

24
 ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
 Operational Amplifier. Amplification

Inverting Amplifier
Vi
R2
GV = −
R2

R1 t
R1

_
+ +
V1 1/4 LM324 Vo
Vo

Exercise 3.3 :
For an inverting amplifier with R1=XΩ If R2= 100kΩ
t
What is the voltage gain?

If Vi is a1Hz & 4Vpp triangular signal, draw Vi and Vo.

Op Amp supply voltage: Vcc=10V, -Vcc= -10V

X(kΩ) = 10, 20, 25, 33, 50, 75, 100 & 200

25
ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
 Operational Amplifier. Amplification

Inverting Amplifier
Vi Vo
R2
+Vcc
R1

_
+ +
V1 1/4 LM324 Vo

Limited by ±Vcc

-Vcc

26
ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
 Operational Amplifier. Amplification

Non-Inverting Amplifier

R2 Due to the negative feedback

R1
v+ = v-
_
+
and I − = 0 I R1 = I R 2
+
1/4 LM324 Vo according to Ohm ' s Law
V1
0V − v− v− − vo
= anb because v+ = vi
R1 R2
−vi vi − vo v −v v R v + R1vi vo
=  i = i+ o  2 i =
R2 R1 R2 R1 R2 R2 R1R2 R2
GV = 1 + ( R2 + R1 ) vi vo  R 
R1 =  vo = 1 + 2  vi
R1 R2 R2  R1 

Voltage Gain 27
ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
 Operational Amplifier. Amplification

Non-Inverting Amplifier
Vi Vo
R2
+Vcc
R1

_
+
1/4 LM324 Vo
+

V1

R2
GV = 1 +
R1
-Vcc

28
 ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
 Operational Amplifier. Amplification

Non-Inverting Amplifier
Vi
R2
GV = 1 + R2

R1 t
R1

_
+
Vo
1/4 LM324 Vo
+

V1

Exercise 3.4 : t
For an non-inverting amplifier with R1=XΩ If R2= 100kΩ
What is the voltage gain?

If Vi is a1Hz & 4Vpp triangular signal, draw Vi and Vo.

Op Amp supply voltage: Vcc=10V, -Vcc= -10V

X(kΩ) = 10, 20, 25, 33, 50, 75, 100 & 200
29
ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
 Operational Amplifier. Amplification. (summarizing)

Inverting Amplifier Non-Inverting Amplifier

R2
R2

R1
R1
_ _
+ + _ +
+
V1 1/4 LM324 Vo
1/4 LM324 Vo +
1/4 LM324 Vo
+ V1
V1

Voltage follower
R2 R2 GV = 1
GV = − GV = 1 +
R1 R1 Zin  
Z in  R1 Z in   Allows conditioning
non-negligible quasi-ideal sensors with high Zout
30
ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
 Operational amplifier. Amplificator example.
Shunt exercise
Exercise 3.5 :
The following circuit measures the current of the motor M.
As the In+ doesn’t sink any current, all the current flows through the motor and the
Shunt resistor.
If we use a Shunt resistor of 1mΩ, what is the V+ voltage range if the motor current
can vary between 0A – 30A ?
Determine the voltage gain of the circuit if the desired output scale is 0.1V/A.
What is the value of R1 to achieve the desired gain?
R1 R2

15K

2 -
1 Vo
Vo
M V+ 3
M
+

DC MOTOR RShunt LM324

VM 0.001
ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
 Operational Amplifier. Amplification.

AC Inverting amplifier (sinusoidal alternating current )

Z2

Z1

_
+ +
V1 1/4 LM324 Vo

1
−j
X C2 2 fC2 C Z2
GV = − =− =− 1 General case GV = −
X C1 1 C2 Z1
−j
2 fC1
32
ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
 Operational Amplifier. Amplification.

Summing Inverting Amplifier

V1
RF
R1
V1 V2
_
R2
V2
+ Vo
Vo

 RF RF 
VO = −  V1 + V2 
 R1 R2 

33
ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
 Operational Amplifier. Amplification.
- RF
+
Summing Inverting Amplifier. + R1 -
Demo: V1

𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 → 𝑣+ = 𝑣−
_
+ R2 - +
𝑣+ = 0𝑉 → 𝑣− = 0𝑉 V2
Vo
𝑖𝑅1 + 𝑖𝑅2 + 𝑖𝑅𝐹 = 0𝐴
𝑣𝑅1 𝑣𝑅2 𝑣𝑅𝐹
+ + = 0𝐴
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅𝐹
𝑣1 − 𝑣− 𝑣2 − 𝑣− 𝑣𝑜 − 𝑣−
+ + = 0𝐴
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅𝐹
𝑣1 𝑣2 𝑣𝑜
+ + = 0𝐴
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅𝐹
𝑣1 𝑣2 −𝑣𝑜  RF
+ = RF 
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅𝐹 VO = −  V1 + V2 
𝑣1 𝑣2  R1 R2 
𝑣𝑜 = −𝑅𝐹 +
𝑅1 𝑅2 34
ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
 Operational Amplifier. Amplification.

Differential amplifier

R2
VB
R1
_
VA
+ VO
VB VA
R1
R2

Vo
R
VO = (VB − VA )· 2
R1

35
ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
 Operational Amplifier. Amplification.
R2

Differential amplifier. R1
Demo using superposition principle 1/2:
_
VA
+ VO
VB
𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 → 𝑣+ = 𝑣− R1
𝑖+ = 0𝐴; 𝑖− = 0𝐴 R2
𝑉𝐵 𝑉𝐵
𝑣+ = · 𝑅2 → 𝑣− = ·𝑅
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 2
𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑉𝑜 ቚ 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑣𝐵 = 0𝑉
𝑣𝐴
R2
𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙.
R1
𝑅2 VA
_
𝑉𝑜 ቚ = − 𝑣𝐴 0𝑉 VO
𝑅1
+
𝑣𝐴 VB
R1
R2

36
ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
 Operational Amplifier. Amplification.
R2

Differential amplifier. R1
Demo using superposition principle 2/2:
_
VA
+ VO
VB
𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑉𝑜 ቚ 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑣𝐴 = 0𝑉 R1
𝑣𝐵
R2
𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙.
𝑉𝐵
𝑣+ = ·𝑅
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 2
𝑅2 R2
𝑉𝑜 ቚ = + 1 𝑣+
𝑣𝐵 𝑅1 R1
_
VA
𝑅2 + 𝑅1 𝑉𝐵 𝑣+ + VO
𝑉𝑜 ቚ = ·𝑅 VB
𝑣𝐵 𝑅1 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 2 R1
𝑅2 R2
𝑉𝑜 ቚ = ·𝑣
𝑣𝐵 𝑅1 𝐵
Therefore:
𝑅2 𝑅2 R
𝑣𝑜 = 𝑉𝑜 ቚ + 𝑉𝑜 ቚ =− 𝑣𝐴 + ·𝑣 VO = (VB − VA )· 2
𝑣𝐴 𝑣𝐵 𝑅1 𝑅1 𝐵 R1
37
ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
 Operational amplifier. mix example.
Thermometer using RTD
Exercise 3.6 :
The following circuit is a thermometer. It can measure a high range of temperatures
(-200ºC - +200ºC).
•RT = 100Ω Platinum.
•Vo = -2V when -200ºC - +2V when +200ºC
Design the following parameters to work properly: R1, R2 & Vref.
What is the minimum power supply for this system?
Rx 5K RT

t
Vx
5V
- R1
Va
+ Rf 39K

R2
Vb
-
V ref Vo
+ Vo
ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
 Operational amplifier.
Instrumentation Amplifier with 3 Op. Amp.
+ R3 R4
VIN-
_
R2
_
R1 R2
+
VOUT
R3 R4
_
+
VIN+

Features:
 2 R2  R4
VOut = (VIN+ − VIN− )·1 + ·
•Ri = ∞ Ω
 R1  R3
•Rejects common mode signals
•R1 sets gain.
•Gain can be high value 39
ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
 Operational amplifier.
Instrumentation Amplifier with 3 Op. Amp.

+ R3 R4 VIN+
VIN-
_
R2
_
VIN-
R1 R2
+
VOUT
R3 R4
_
+ Vout
VIN+

 2 R2  R4
VOut = (VIN+ − VIN− )·1 + ·
 R1  R3
40
ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
 Instrumentation Amplifier. INA118 device

Features:

•Ri = ∞ Ω
• Signal common mode
rejection

• With RG it can be
adjusted the voltage
gain.

•The voltage gain can

be high

VOut = (VIN+ − VIN− )·G

41
ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
 Instrumentation Amplifier: Applications

42
ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
 Instrumentation Amplifier: Applications

43
ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
 Instrumentation Amplifier. LOAD CELL Example

Resistive: Weighing Scale

Exercise 3.7 :
Design a Scale with the previous LOAD CELL & Instrumentation Amplifier (INA118).
The output must drive 5V when a 100Kg Load is on the Scale & 0V if none.

INA118
ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
 Types of major industrial sensors
1. Resistive: Strain gauge application LOAD CELL (Model 614)

Rated capacity-R.C. 100 kg

Rated output-R.O. 2.0 mV/V
Maximum safe central overload 150 % of R.C.
Ultimate central overload 300 % of R.C.
Excitation, recommended 10 Vdc or Vac rms
Excitation, maximum 15 Vdc or Vac rms
Input impedance 415±15 Ohms
Output impedance 350±3 Ohms

RG+
RG-
E N M
VO=K·F
RG+
RG- VMN VO=K·(P1-P2)
Instrumentation
amplifier

In this example E = 10V, VMN = 20mV @ 100Kg

ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS Rated capacity-R.C.
Rated output-R.O.
100 kg
2.0 mV/V
Maximum safe central overload 150 % of R.C.
 Instrumentation Amplifier. LOAD CELL Example
Ultimate central overload 300 % of R.C.
Excitation, recommended 10 Vdc or Vac rms
Excitation, maximum 15 Vdc or Vac rms
Resistive: Weighing Scale Input impedance 415±15 Ohms
Exercise 3.7 : Output impedance 350±3 Ohms
Design a Scale with the previous LOAD CELL & Instrumentation Amplifier (INA118).
The output must drive 5V when a 100Kg Load is on the Scale & 0V if none.

INA118
ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
 Operational amplifier.
Integrator

1
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = − 𝑅 𝐶 ‫ 𝑡𝑑 𝑛𝑖𝑉 ׬‬+ 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡(0)

differentiator

𝑑𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −𝑅𝐶 ·
𝑑𝑡

48
ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
 Operational amplifier. Comparator.
Hysteresis comparator
+Vcc Vo
TL071
_ Vin
Vin
+ V+
VO
VT+
R1
t
R2
VT-

-Vcc
features:
• positive feedback & symmetric power supply.
• VO only can be VCC or –VCC
• V+ is constant if VO also is constant V ·R
V+ = O 2
• If Vin > V+ VO = -VCC R1 + R2
• If Vin < V+ VO = +VCC 49
ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
 Operational amplifier. Comparator.
Hysteresis comparator
Vo

TL071
_
+
Vin
VO
R1 Vin
VT- VT+
R2

features:
• positive feedback & symmetric power supply.
• VO only can be VCC or -VCC
• V+ is constant if VO also is constant V ·R
V+ = O 2
• If Vin > V+ VO = -VCC R1 + R2
• If Vin < V+ VO = +VCC 50
ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
 Operational Amplifiers. Generators
VC (t ) = VC (  ) − (VC (  ) − VC (0) )·e
t
−

Astable multivibrator
20V

RF VO
10V
TL071
_
C
+ VC
VO 0V
R1

R2 -10V

-20V
2.0ms 3.0ms 4.0ms 5.0ms 6.0ms 7.0ms 8.0ms
V(R3:2) V(R1:2)
Time

 2·R2  1
T = 2·RF ·C·ln 1 +  f =
 R1  T
51
ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
 Operational amplifier. Comparator.
Hysteresis comparator
+Vcc Vo
TL071
_
+
VO V+
R1 VT+

R2 t
Vin
VT-
Vin

-Vcc
How it works:
• positive feedback & symmetric power supply
• V- = 0V. VO ·R2 + Vin ·R1
• If V+ > 0V then VO = +VCC V+ =
• If V+ < 0V then VO = -VCC R1 + R2
53
ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
 Operational amplifier. Comparator.
Hysteresis comparator
Vo
TL071
_
+
VO
R1
Vin
R2 VT- VT+

Vin

How it works:
• positive feedback & symmetric power supply
• V- = 0V. VO ·R2 + Vin ·R1
• If V+ > 0V then VO = +VCC V+ =
• If V+ < 0V then VO = -VCC R1 + R2
54
ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
 Operational Amplifiers. Generators

Triangular signal generator

20V
C1

VEE
11 100n
2 V-
TL074/301/TI VEE
- R3 10k 11 10V
1 6 V-
TL074/301/TI
0 OUT -
3 V 7
+ 4 OUT
U1A V+ 5 V
VCC + 4
U1B V+ 0V
R1 0 VCC

15k R2

-10V
10k

1
Vc =
C  iC dt  vC  C = I C  t -20V
2.0ms
V(C1:1)
3.0ms
V(R1:2)
4.0ms 5.0ms

Time
6.0ms 7.0ms 8.0ms

V V
due to iC = CC or EE VCC C·R ·R
R3 R3 VPic = R2 T = 4· 3 2
R1 R1
55
ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
 Operational Amplifiers. Non-ideal model

Op Amp Non-ideal model

Features:
_
I+ and I- = IB (Input bias current, nA or pA) IIB- _
+
VO = Ad · (V+ - V-) Vio
If V+ = V- -> VO Must be 0V, but isn’t due to
+ +

IIB+
an Input offset voltage Vio (mV or µV)
Ad reaches a value between 105 & 107
Ri = reaches a value between 105Ω & 108Ω
RO = reaches a value between 10 & 300Ω
Output voltage swing,
Vee < V+, V- and VO < VCC
Only rail-to-rail op amps reaches Power supply.

56